Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Purdue Extension United States Department of Agriculture

AY-328 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Ed Heckman Contributors Purdue Extension Educator, Retired Susannah Hinds USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Northwest Indiana Grazing Land Specialist Keith Johnson Purdue Extension Forage Crops Specialist Jerry Perkins USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Northeast Indiana Grazing Land Specialist Victor Shelton USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Southwest Indiana Grazing Land Specialist/Agronomist Robert Zupancic USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Southeast Indiana Grazing Land Specialist

All photos in this guide courtesy of the contributors.

Reference to products in this publication is not intended to be an endorsement to the exclusion of others that may be similar. Persons using such products assume responsibility for their use in accordance with current directions of the manufacturer.

The USDA-Natural Resouces Conservation Service’s Grazing Lands Conservation Initiative (GLCI) is a nationwide collaborative process of individuals and organizations working together to maintain and improve the management, productivity, and health of the nation's privately owned grazing land. For more information, visit www.in.nrcs.usda. gov/programs/GLCI/glcihomepage.html

2 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Getting Started 4 Table of Chapter 1: Improving Pasture by Management ...... 5 Chapter 2: Would Your Pasture Make the Grade?...... 8 Contents Physical Components of a Grazing System 13 Chapter 3: Laying Out Your Paddocks ...... 13 Chapter 4: Providing Water to Your Livestock ...... 15 Chapter 5: Planning Your Fencing...... 17 Chapter 6: Maintaining Fertile Soils...... 21 Chapter 7: Determining the Right Forage Species to Grow...... 26 Grazing Management Considerations 30 Chapter 8: Determining Length of Stay in Paddocks ...... 30 Chapter 9: Using Stockpiled Perennial Forages to Your Advantage ...... 36 Chapter 10: A Plan for Streamside Grazing ...... 37 Chapter 11: The Question of Woodland Grazing ...... 39 Chapter 12: Livestock Grazing Behavior ...... 41 Chapter 13: Potential Forage-Induced Animal Disorders ...... 42 Indiana Graziers’ Experiences 44 Chapter 14: One Acre Pasture Provides Forage for Boer Goats ...... 44 Chapter 15: Multi-Species Grazing Offers Greater Efficiency and Diversity...... 45 Chapter 16: Low Inputs Help Sheep Farm Do More than Survive...... 47 Chapter 17: Longtime Beef Cattle Graziers Embrace Changes...... 48 Chapter 18: The Dairy Perspective of Management-Intensive Grazing ...... 49 Glossary of Terms 51 Additional Reading and Information 57

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Getting Started Welcome to management-intensive grazing. This manual will help improve your understanding of basic grazing concepts. The information here should be applicable to any Hoosier grazier of any livestock species. Grazing systems management is a combination of art and science. You will have to master the art as it relates to your farm, but this manual will get you started on the science. The first section, “Getting Started,” outlines the basics of grazing systems management. It includes chapters on why you should consider grazing systems management and how to assess your pasture’s performance. The second section, “Physical Components of a Grazing System,” discusses the main elements that go into any grazing management system. This includes laying out paddocks, providing adequate water, establishing fencing, ensuring soil fertility, and selecting the right forage for your operation. Section three, “Grazing Management Considerations,” examines other issues you’ll encounter in your grazing system. This includes chapters on determining how long to keep livestock in each paddock, stockpiling forages, streamside and woodland grazing, grazing behavior, and potential forage-induced disorders. The fourth section shares the experiences of Indiana graziers who have implemented grazing systems management. Written by producers who have implemented and managed these systems, these accounts explain how and why they feel their rotational grazing system has been successful. The last two sections of this manual are a glossary of basic terms and a list of additional resources. Happy reading and happy grazing.

4 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Rotational systems can allow pastures to Improving Pasture u rest and regrow, distribute manure more Chapter 1 by Management evenly, and increase forage production. Traditionally, livestock producers However, the costs for establishing such have focused more attention on their a system (water distribution and fenc- animals than on the forages the animals ing) are higher than for a continuous eat. However, successful pasture-based grazing system. production systems rely on producers Management-Intensive Grazing who understand the connection between livestock and forages, and main- Management-intensive grazing is taining a healthy balance between the a system that divides large fields into two. Mismanage the forage crop, and smaller paddocks. In this system, your livestock may develop nutrition animals are moved frequently at high stocking rates. Management-intensive Rotational systems can allow deficiencies. Mismanage the livestock, pastures to rest and regrow, systems can provide the highest forage and your pasture may not produce the distribute manure more evenly, and quality and quantity of forage your graz- production and use per acre, control increase forage production. ing livestock need, nor will the pasture weeds and brush naturally, provide the be environmentally sustainable. most even manure distribution, give more forage options, and allow pad- One way to keep livestock and forages docks to rest and regrow completely. in balance is to think of ourselves as for- However, such systems require careful age farmers; we raise the forages and the monitoring and greater startup costs for livestock harvest it for us. This change water distribution and fencing. in thinking requires that we spend more time on forage management than we This manual focuses on rotational and may have done in the past. management-intensive grazing systems. The most important aspect of such sys- Types of Grazing Systems tems is an understanding of rest. There are almost as many ways to Give the Forages a Rest and Your graze as there are graziers. But there are three basic kinds of grazing practices Forages Will Take Care of You you should understand. Like all plants, forages undergo Continuous Grazing photosynthesis to store energy and grow. Photosynthesis, of course, cannot Continuous grazing is a system in occur without energy from the sun. The which livestock graze in a single large vegetative parts of a plant (primarily area for an entire season. This may be the leaves and stems) capture that solar simple for the grazier in terms of costs energy and convert it into digestible and labor. In the long run, however, material. The greater the surface area continuous grazing has many draw- of the leaves, the more energy they can backs, including lower forage quality capture, which results in more digest- and yield, lower stocking rate, overgraz- ible material for the livestock as well as ing, and uneven manure distribution. greater survivability for the plant. Rotational Grazing Because perennial grasses and le- Rotational grazing is a system that gumes can recover from mowing and uses more than one pasture. In such grazing quickly, they are extremely a system, livestock are moved from valuable for forage and soil protection. one pasture to another based on their But removing too many leaves through feed requirements and forage growth. overgrazing retards forage production and reduces the plant’s root system. For 5 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

that reason, the more residual forage paddocks so that each one can be prop- that is left in a paddock, the quicker the erly rested before the livestock graze in paddock will produce new growth and them again. be ready to graze the next time. Better Forage Means If allowed to do so, livestock will eat Better Nutrition forages down to the ground. When that happens (and it frequently does in Managing your paddocks provides continuous grazing systems), the forages many benefits. One of the most im- cannot capture as much solar energy, so portant is an improvement in livestock they must draw upon their root reserves nutrition. Managing your forages allows just to survive. Generally, root growth you to produce a higher quality and is unaffected when up to 50 percent of quantity of feed than you would be able the plant is grazed. But if animals graze to produce on the same acreage under 60 to 90 percent of the leaves, then root continuous grazing. That’s because growth drops by 50 to 100 percent. managed paddocks allow you to keep Overgrazing will slow new growth, and the forage growing and vegetative. plants may die, especially if there are Vegetative forage is higher in available other stresses present. Even if the forage protein, energy, and essential nutrients survives, it will be less vigorous and than forage that has to draw on root healthy because stress has weakened the reserves just to survive. Vegetative for- roots. age is also better than fully mature grass, Root growth is very important. Not because grasses tend to build up thicker only do roots deliver essential moisture cell walls once they mature, mean- and nutrients to the leaves, perennial ing there are fewer nutrients available plants store food in their roots, stolons, for the livestock. You want to keep the corms, and rhizomes after seasonal forage in this growing state as long as growth. Forages draw on these reserves possible. to survive dormancy, to make the first Rotating livestock into paddocks with new growth the next spring, and to start vegetative forage means better nutri- new growth after green leaves and stems tion, and that means improved animal are closely grazed or mown. performance and more profit. If livestock continually graze in just Better Management one pasture, animals are free to graze whatever and wherever they like. That’s Requires Fewer Inputs why it’s important to have more than Animal health and profitability go one paddock in your pasture man- hand in hand. Another benefit of management system to allow time for the aged grazing is the ability to extend the forages to rest and regrow before being grazing season with less labor. Let the grazed again. As the livestock feed in animals do as much work for themselves one paddock, the other paddocks are as possible. Why carry all that feed to resting, giving time for the plants to them? They have four legs and are mo- grow, build new root reserves, and bile. They often go some places that we maintain vigor. don’t even want to travel, especially on foot and impossible with some equip- The number of paddocks you have in ment. But more importantly, if they are your pasture, of course, will depend on working, then most likely, you are not. If many factors and your particular goals. they are grazing, you are spending much But in the end, you want to have enough less money to feed them. 6 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Not only do you have to work less, Better Management Makes you’ll spend less on fuel. If a wheel is Livestock (and Producers) turning, then you’re spending money. So, the less a tire has to turn by hauling More Sociable hay around on a tractor, the better. Most Managed grazing provides social people see increased profitability as they benefits to livestock and producers alike. extend the grazing season and start cut- The social needs of livestock are very ting back on the amount of hay they are important. Social stress can affect pro- feeding. ductivity and performance, so the way we handle animals affects everything Better Management from their disposition to the quality of Improves the Environment the meat. Animals quickly get used to If you’re not burning fuel, you’re not being moved and know that the next just saving money, you’re not emitting stop is going to be a paddock with better exhaust. Managed grazing also offers forage. a number of environmental benefits, Many graziers testify that changing to including: a grazing system would have been worth • Less rain runoff because of better it just for the change in the way animals water-soil infiltration. behave and react. They say things like, “They are not the same cows,” and “I • Better water quality because growing can move them within a couple minutes forages trap sediment and nutrients. without a bucket and without help.” • Improved animal waste distribution There are also social benefits for pro- because waste is more evenly spread ducers. The public typically perceives a over several paddocks. good grazing system to be more aes- • Less erosion because dense, thick, thetically and environmentally pleasing. vigorous forages reduce runoff. Consumers like to know that the products they are buying, especially when Better Management they are coming straight from you, Improves Livestock Health are being produced by a more holistic Livestock have evolved to graze for- method. Many producers are cashing in ages and stand on sod. Therefore, they on this perspective and marketing their are happiest and healthiest on lush, products as “grass fed.” productive pastures. The direct benefits But there is still more to it than that. of improved forage grazing management Grazing management seems to offer to include: consumers a more wholesome, family- • Reduced foot and hoof problems. friendly operation with a more laidback, slower-paced lifestyle that many wish • Increased calving percentage. they could experience. • Reduced parasite problems. So, why should you divide up your • Reduced incidences of displaced pasture? abomasums. To take better control of your forages, • Reduced somatic cell counts and your livestock, and your farm. instances of mastitis. • Reduced fly problems.

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u Would Your Pasture ate a current pasture’s productivity and Chapter 2 the stability of its plant community, soil, Make the Grade? and water resources. The scoring sheet In well-managed pastures, produc- should also help you identify weaknesses tivity is optimized for both the plants and alternatives to improve pasture and the animals (which could include management. livestock and wildlife). Furthermore, Each indicator is given a score of one well-managed pastures should not nega- to five, according to what is seen in the tively affect soil, water, and air quality. field. Each condition ranges from very Poor plant growth, high weed popula- poor to excellent. Each is also given a tions, soil erosion, increased runoff, weighted value according to its impor- poor animal performance, and impaired tance. The indicators included on the Dense forage stands indicate water quality are all signs that indicate sheet are described below. proper grazing and results in high problems within a pasture. Desirable Plants forage intake and high sunlight Before you begin any grazing manage- interception. ment program, it’s important to get a The desirable plants indicator mea- good, objective assessment of how your sures the percentage of plants in a pastures measure up. One method of pasture (by weight) that livestock will evaluating pasture management is to eat and meet their nutritional needs. A use a pasture condition score sheet. You desirable species is readily consumed, can use the sheets on pages 11 and 12 persistent, and provides high yielding, to give your pasture’s an overall “grade.” quality forage for most of the growing In addition to an initial assessment, it season. Undesirable species (such as is usually a good idea to keep track of woody invaders, noxious weeds, and your pastures’ health by completing a toxic plants) typically are not eaten by score sheet every year. Pasture condi- livestock, cause undesirable side effects, tion is useful to help you decide when or are likely to crowd out more desirable to move livestock or plan other manage- species. You want to estimate visually ment actions. It also indicates improve- the proportion of the desirable species ments that are most likely to improve present by weight and score accordingly. your pastures’ condition and livestock’s Remember, the percentage is by weight. performance. Just because there is a lot of short bluegrass in an orchardgrass stand does not While you can evaluate your own mean the short bluegrass is 50 percent pastures, it is usually a good idea to find of the stand — by weight, it is probably someone else to do it and allow them only 20 percent or less. to be honest with you. Chances are, you will be less objective with your own Live Plant Cover pastures than someone who doesn’t see The live plant cover indicator mea- the same things you do every day. Also, sures the percentage of the soil surface when you walk or drive over the same that is covered by plants. This is an ground day after day, you sometimes important factor for pasture produc- overlook or just stop noticing little tion, as well as soil and water protection. changes. Dense stands indicate proper grazing, The pasture condition scoring sheet high animal intake, and high sunlight at the end of this chapter involves the interception. Plant cover also highly in- visual evaluation of 10 indicators. The fluences water runoff and water infiltra- purpose of the scoring sheet is to evalu- tion, which can be especially important during dry years. 8 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Plant Diversity Percent Legume The plant diversity indicator measures The percent legume indicator is im- the number of different forage plants portant because legumes are a source of that are well represented in the pasture. nitrogen critical for pastures. Legumes Each species should make up at least also improve the forage quality of a pas- 20 percent of the sward. Ideally, you ture mix, especially protein content and want to see at least three species and dry matter consumption when they are include at least two functional groups. at least 20 percent of the stand. Thirty Functional groups include cool-season percent is a good legume goal. Some grasses, legumes, warm-season grasses, legumes can cause bloat, so consider us- and annual forages. ing nonbloating legumes when appro- Plant Residue priate (see table on pages 28 and 29 for nonbolating legumes). The plant residue indicator measures the amount of plant material in vari- Uniformity of Use ous states of decay. Residue, of course, The uniformity of use indicator re- provides additional surface cover and cords observed animal grazing patterns. organic matter to the soil; however, too Grazing is considered uniform when all much residue reduces the feed value of species (including desirable and inter- the forages consumed and animal in- mediate ones) are grazed to a similar take, and can inhibit new plant growth. height. Grazing is considered uneven if Residue left over winter, however, can you observe “clump syndrome,” or when be very beneficial in the early spring to some plants are eaten to the ground help balance out the grazing animals’ and others are in full seed head. You rumens while they are consuming high- can usually correct uneven grazing by protein, highly digestible, high-moisture increasing the stocking density, using forages. smaller paddocks, and maintaining Plant Vigor shorter grazing periods. The plant vigor indicator measures Livestock Concentration Areas how many of the desired forage species The livestock concentration areas are healthy and growing at their poten- indicator accounts for places in pastures tial. Plant color, size, rate of regrowth, where livestock return frequently and and productivity all help determine vig- linger to be near water, feed, minerals, or. Fertility is very important for good shelter, or just to be in shade. Typically, plant vigor and should be adequate well-worn trails lead to these preferred but not excessive. Close, frequent, or areas. Depending on their locations, continuous grazing, such as the shaved these trails can direct sediment, nutri- lawn mower look, often causes loss of ents, and bacteria toward nearby water vigor, reducing yields and ground cover. bodies. Low plant vigor makes weed problems Soil Compaction more likely. Occasionally, the climate or soil is not appropriate for the species The soil compaction indicator ac- being grown, such as perennial ryegrass counts for water infiltration rates and on a droughty soil. Weather, insects, and runoff. The lack of water infiltration disease can also influence plant vigor. decreases water availability in the soil for plant growth, potentially lowering production or sometimes survivability. Instead, water runs off, increasing chan- 9 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

nel erosion downstream, and carries contaminants such as nutrients from the Find out more site, reducing water quality. Compac- For more information, tion can be detected in the field using a see, Guide to Pasture soil probe, metal rod, or knife. As these Condition Scoring by tools are pushed into the soil, com- Dennis Cosgrove, Dan pacted soil layers interrupt their ease of penetration. Compare in-field resistance Undersander, and James to penetration with areas such as the Cropper, www.glti.nrcs. fence lines where animals are not able to usda.gov/technical/ graze. publications/ Erosion A PDF version of The erosion indicator measures the the pasture condition amount of soil loss in a pasture. Sheet scoring sheet on pages and rill erosion increase as ground cover 11 and 12 is available decreases. Erosion also occurs along at www.in.nrcs.usda. streambanks, and in areas of high-water gov/technical. concentration, resulting in gullies. Fre- quency of use, livestock traffic patterns, and the attractiveness of some sites to livestock (including sunning, dust- ing, travel lanes, watering, and rubbing areas) can heighten erosion problems if left unchecked.

10 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Pasture Condition Score Sheet Standard for Midwest Cool-Season Grass/Legume Mixed Pastures 30- to 45-Inch Rainfall Zone Cooperator: Date:

Evaluator: Pasture Number:

Evaluate the site and rate each indicator based on your observations. Write that number in the Points column, then multiply by the Weight, and enter that number in the Weighted Points (Wtd. Pts.) column. Scores for each indicator may range from 1 to 5. Add the indicator scores to determine overall Score pasture condition score. If an indicator does not apply, enter a 5.

Wtd. Indicator 1 Point 2 Points 3 Points 4 Points 5 Points Points Weight Pts.

Desirable species 40- Desirable forage Desirable species Desirable species 20- 60% of stand. Un- species 60-80% of Desirable species <20% of stand. An- 40% of stand. Mostly desirable broadleaf stand. Remainder exceed 80% of plant Percent Desirable Plants nual weeds and/or weedy annuals and/ weeds and annual mostly intermedi- community with 0.1 10% of overall score woody invasives are or woody invasives weedy grasses invad- ates and a few the remainder being dominant. present and expand- ing. Some woody undesirables are scattered intermedi- ing. Shade is a factor. species invading. present. ates.

Canopy >90%. Canopy=70-80%. Canopy=80-90%. Forages are Live Plant Cover Canopy <50%. Canopy=50-70%. Most forages are Spot grazed so maintained in leafy (live stems and green Photosynthetic area Photosynthetic area grazed close, with there is some loss condition for best leaf cover of all species at is very low. Very little is low. Runoff is fast little leaf area to of photosynthetic photosynthetic 0.15 adjusted 3-4 inches tall) plant cover to slow or due to low plant intercept sunlight. potential. Runoff activity. Stands are 15% of overall score stop runoff. cover. Runoff is moderate is low due to good very thick stand due to moderate plant cover. with slow or no plant cover. runoff flows.

Three forage More than one domi- One dominant forage Two to five forage species from Three to four forage nant forage species species (>75% of species from one one functional species with at from one functional DM wt.). Or, more dominant functional group (each 20% least one being a Plant Diversity group with differing than five forage group (>75% of DM DM wt.). None legume (each 20% (evaluate as a complete growth habitats (>75% species (all <20%) wt.). At least one avoided. Or, one of DM wt. and total 0.1 system) of DM wt.). Not from one dominant avoided by livestock forage species >75% of DM wt.). 10% of overall score evenly grazed, poorly functional group, not permitting presence each from two Well intermixed, distributed. (e.g., evenly grazed, poorly of mature seed functional groups, compatible growth jointed grasses and distributed. stalks. Species in both supply 25- habit, and compa- nonjointed grasses). patches. 50% of DM wt. rable palatability.

Ground cover=10- Ground cover <1% Ground cover=1-10% 20% Ground cover=20- Ground cover=30- No identifiable residue 1-10% is covered 10-20% is covered 30% 70% Plant Residue is present on soil sur- with dead leaves or with dead leaves or 20-30% is covered 30-70% is covered 0.05 5% of overall score face. Or, heavy thatch stems. Or, thatch is stems. Or, there is with dead leaves with dead leaves is evident (>1 inch). 0.5-1 inch thick. slight thatch buildup or stems, no or stems, no thatch (<0.5 inch). thatch present. buildup.

Rapid recovery There is no recovery Recovery after graz- after grazing. More after grazing. More ing takes 2 or more Recovery after Recovery after than 80% of crop than 80% of plants are weeks longer than grazing takes 1 week grazing takes 1 to plants are healthy pale yellow or brown, normal, 50-80% of longer than normal, 2 days longer than green. No signs of permanently wilted, plants have yellowish urine/dung patches normal; 50-80 % insect or disease or lost due to insects green leaves, there are dark green in of crop plants are damage. No leaf Plant Vigor or disease. Yields are is major insect or contrast to rest of healthy green. wilting. Yields are 0.15 15% of overall score regularly more than disease yield loss, plants, there is mi- There is minor at site potential for 30% below site poten- or plants are wilted nor insect or disease insect or disease the species adapted tial; or there is lodged, most of day. Pro- loss, or midday plant damage. No plants to the site’s soil and dark green overly lush ductivity is very low, wilting. Yields are are wilting. Yields climate. Desirable forage, often avoided 20-30% below site regularly 10-20% are near site plants competi- by grazers. potential. below site potential. potential. tive with invading species.

Legumes are <10% Legumes are <10% by by weight or, 40-60% Percent Legume Legumes are 10-19% Legumes are 20- Legumes are 30- weight or >60% bloat- spreading legume 0.05 5% of overall score by weight. 29% by weight. 60% by weight. ing legumes. with grass loss oc- curring.

No more than 10% No more than 30-50 No more than 20-30 of the pasture spot >50% of the pasture % of the pasture spot % of the pasture No more than grazed. 90% of the spot grazed. Mo- grazed either in a spot grazed either 10-20 % of the pasture falls within Uniformity of Use saic pattern found mosaic pattern or in a mosaic pattern pasture spot the minimum 0.05 5% of overall score throughout pasture or obvious portion is or obvious portion grazed. Urine and and maximum identifiable areas of not frequented. Urine is not frequented. dung patches are grazing heights for pasture avoided. and dung patches are Urine and dung avoided. cool-season grass/ avoided. patches are avoided. legume mixtures (3–8 inches). 11 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Wtd. Indicator 1 Point 2 Points 3 Points 4 Points 5 Points Points Weight Pts. Some livestock trails and one or No untreated live- Livestock concentra- Cover >10% of the two small con- stock concentration tion areas and trails pasture or concen- Isolated livestock centration areas areas in the pasture Livestock Concentration cover 5-10% of trated areas convey concentrated areas cover <5% of the — e.g., gravel pads Areas pasture, most close 0.1 contaminated runoff and trails cover pasture. Buffer around waterers, 10% of overall score to water channels, directly into water 5-10% of area. areas are between possibly at gates, no and drain into them channels. concentrated evidence of trails in unbuffered. areas and water pasture. channels.

Soil resistant to Hard to push survey Survey flag pushes Soil Compaction Unable to push survey survey flag at one Survey flag enters flag past compacted easily into ground (probe moist soil compar- flag into soil. Infiltra- or more depths soil easily except layers. Infiltration except for rocks. ing the treatment unit to tion capacity and within soil depth. at rocks. There are capacity is lowered Soil is friable, and an ungrazed area — i.e., surface runoff severely Infiltration capacity scattered signs of and surface runoff earthworm and 0.1 fencerow — and estimate affected by heavy lowered and surface livestock trails and increased due to large dung beetle activity compaction when soil is compaction. Excessive runoff increased due hoof prints, con- areas of bare ground should be evident, moist) livestock traffic killing to plant cover loss fined to lanes or and dense compac- especially around 10% of overall score plants over wide areas. and soil compaction small, wet areas. tion layer at surface. manure piles. by livestock hooves.

Erosion is active Most erosion is Most erosion is No current forma- No evidence of throughout pasture; confined to steepest confined to heavy tion of rills. There current or past rills are 3-8 inches terrain of unit; use areas, especially is some evidence formation of sheet deep at close intervals well-defined rills are in loafing areas, of past rill forma- flow or rills. Erosion and/or grazing 0.5-3 inches deep at concentration areas, tion, but they are (if present, rate streambank terracettes are close intervals and/or and water sites; rills grassed. Scattered and gully erosion using close-spaced with grazing terracettes are 0.5-3 inches debris dams of 0.15 national erosion categories) some slope slippage. are present. Trails deep. Debris fans are litter are occasion- 15% of overall score Active gullies are are evident causing found at downslope ally present. present caused by concentrated flows. edge. Livestock trail- livestock trailing. ing is evident. Soil pedestalling is apparent.

Overall Pasture Condition Individual Overall Pasture Score Indicator Score Management Change Suggested Condition Score = 100

45 to 50 5 No changes in management needed at this time. 35 to 45 4 Minor changes would enhance resources. Do most beneficial first. 25 to 35 3 Improvements would benefit productivity and/or environment. 15 to 25 2 Needs immediate management changes; a high return is likely. 10 to 15 1 Major effort required in time, management, and expense.

Comments/Notes

Definitions soil pedestal: A relatively slender column of soil capped by a rock or less erosive soil. It’s produced by undercutting as a result of water or wind. terracette: A small, irregular, step-like formation on steep hill- slopes, which are formed by creep or the erosion of surface soils by livestock trampling. 12 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension Physical Components of a Grazing System

When it comes to spending money, a careful consideration of the expected financial returns from any investment is crucial to farm profitability. Always evaluate the expected returns from any investment opportunity. With grazing management, there are four major investment categories: fencing, water distribution, lime and fertilizer, and seed selection. Each category is unique in its payback potential, and each category is unique to the needs of every individual farm and grazier. The first chapter in this section discusses the basics of paddock layout. The remaining chapters focus on each of the investment categories, offering you practical information you can use to assess investment values.

streams, laying out the paddocks can be u Laying Out Your Paddocks very challenging. Piping in water will Chapter 3 probably make layout easier and more Rotational grazing and management- reliable in quantity and quality. intensive grazing systems depend on paddocks: smaller, fenced-in units Match Paddocks to Landscape within a larger pasture. Paddocks de- The next consideration is topography. crease the amount of area that animals It is important that animals be able to can roam and give previously grazed see the water. That can be much more forage in other paddocks more time to difficult in hilly areas than it is in flat rest and regrow. fields. By constructing paddocks to Laying out a paddock system can be match the different topographies in your as simple as dividing an existing field field (hillsides versus flat areas), you will in two, or as complex as systematically have more consistent grazing. dividing a field into multiple paddocks, For example, if a paddock contains complete with travel lanes to get animals both bottomland and hillsides, then back and forth to working areas, distant the two landscapes are typically grazed paddocks, or the milk parlor. However, differently because of their differences there are a few basics to consider as you in topography, fertility, water availabil- think about laying out your paddocks, ity, and so on. You certainly would not Construct paddocks to match the including water, topography, soil types, want to mix a flat creek bottom with a different topographies in your fields shape, and frequency of animal move- very steep hill if you are grazing cows, (hillsides versus flat areas) and to ment. because the cows would prefer grazing make the watering locations visible throughout the whole paddock. Water Must Be Close and Visible the lowland (which they would tend to overgraze) and avoid the high ground Water location is of primary (which they would undergraze). If you importance in rotational or graze sheep or goats in the same situa- management-intensive grazing systems. tion, then they will probably prefer the Water should always be close (so slopes and not the lower, potentially animals don’t have to walk far to get wetter ground. Thus, it is almost always it) and visible (so animals will drink better to split paddocks based on topog- individually rather than as a group). raphy and soil type. It is optimal to have water within 400 to 500 feet for dairy cows and 800 feet Understand Soil for beef cattle. If you will be using Productivity, Drainage natural water sources, such as ponds or Topographical variations are directly 13 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

related to changes in soils and pro- regarding paddock layout is the size, ductivity. Lighter or sandier soils can based on how often you want to move provide more desirable areas to sacrifice the animals. This depends on the num- during rain events, but they produce less ber of days the forage in each paddock annual growth. Heavier soils, or soils will need to rest after being grazed and, that tend to stay wet, can often provide of course, the amount of dry matter ample grazing during droughty periods, available (plants) and forage needs of but may require restricted access during the animals present. In general, you wetter periods. should move animals from one paddock Rule of Thumb Of course, matching forages that are to another at least twice per week. Any Square paddocks can be best adapted to your soil conditions, is less frequently and animals will tend to grazed more evenly and of the utmost importance. Ideally, each regraze certain areas and weaken the efficiently than rectangular or paddock should have similar soil types plants. Frequent rotation is beneficial pie-shaped paddocks. Keep and forages. Whenever possible, you because it can increase the percentage of pastures as near to square as should seed specific forages in unique the available forage actually consumed possible to help reduce fencing areas, such as frequently flooded or (grazing efficiency). costs and use land better. extremely droughty areas, then manage The table below provides suggested Long, thin paddocks tend to these areas as separate paddocks. ranges for optimal grazing periods. encourage livestock to graze These recommendations are based on Keep Paddocks average forage production. nearest to water, minerals, or as Square as Possible shade, and animals tend to Other Considerations avoid grazing in the far end. Water sources, topography, soil types, Other paddock layout considerations A square paddock that’s 210 and natural barriers can sometimes are tied to specific needs. For example, feet on each side requires 840 restrict a paddock’s shape. Whenever possible, however, the first choice lanes are important when you need to linear feet of fence (44,100 should be to make your paddocks as move animals regularly to a milking or square feet). A paddock that square as possible; the second choice working area. When setting up lanes, has the same square footage would be to make rectangular paddocks be sure to adjust locations to avoid but that’s twice as long on one with a maximum side to end ratio of climbing hills to help minimize erosion side (420 feet) requires 1,050 3:1; and the choice of last resort would problems. linear feet of fence. be a pie-shaped paddock. The paddock Putting all these factors together shape may also need to be varied based will enable you to set up a system of 210 feet on the type of livestock. For example, paddocks that not only provides your

horses, llamas, alpacas, and emus prefer forage plants with the environment longer, more rectangular paddocks. they need for maximum growth and persistence, it also helps maximize the 210 feet Move Animals Twice or productive potential of the livestock by More per Week offering forage that is higher in quantity The last decision you’ll need to make and quality.

105 feet The table below provides suggested ranges for optimal grazing periods. 420 feet These recommendations are based on average forage production. Time Spent in a Paddock Before Livestock Operation Moving to Next Paddock Cow/Calf 3-7 days Stocker 1-3 days Dairy 1/2-1 day Ewe/Lamb 2-5 days Feeder Lamb 1-3 days Horse 5-7 days 14 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Providing Water u Chapter 4 to Your Livestock Water is the most important ingredi- easy to find the best location. But in real ent in any living creature’s diet. We can life, more goes into that decision. survive for weeks without food, but only For example, it makes economic sense days without water. Plentiful water in to locate water so it can service mul- the paddock is essential for good animal tiple paddocks (whenever possible). In performance and grazing efficiency. general, you should always try to locate When establishing your paddocks and water so that it will be visible to animals determining your water needs, there from any location within the paddock. are four major considerations: distance That way, you’ll be able to use a smaller animals have to travel to water, loca- tank since animals will tend to come to tion of water, size of water tank, and the drink individually if they have shorter amount of water to be delivered to the distances to walk rather than make paddock. drinking a social event if they have to Keep Water Close walk farther. Tank size depends on the amount Studies show that providing easy of water you have available. A tank Keep the Water Fresh should refill faster than your animals access to water improves animal per- Tank size is primarily about the can drink it. formance. For example, providing quality and quantity of water you can adequate, high-quality, accessible water provide. Of course, you want to have a for mother and calf has been shown to sufficient quantity of water so that your increase the weaning weight of calves by water tank refills faster than animals can more than 50 pounds. Logic tells us that drink it. But you should also size your restricting the availability of the cheap- tank so that the water turns over every Rule of Thumb est component of the grazing system one or two hours to ensure it is cool and To calculate optimum water just does not make economic sense. fresh. The longer water sits in a tank, the tank size, use this formula: Distance from water is an important warmer and more stale it becomes. This number of animals factor. The table below shows the far- makes it less desirable to the animals x thest distances grazing animals should and, ultimately, they have to drink it to have to travel within a given paddock benefit from it. gallons per animal per day to get water. Making sure that animals Assuming your water tank has proper ÷ have access to water within these dis- visibility within the paddock and that 24 hours tances maximizes animal performance you have a full-flow tank valve to = and ensures even grazing in the pad- provide rapid refill, an easy formula for dock. When water is farther than these optimum tank size calculating the optimum tank size is: distances, animals tend to focus more of (in gallons) their energies acquiring water and less number of animals x gallons per on their main purpose of harvesting for- animal per day ÷ 24 hours = optimum age and producing meat or milk. When tank size (in gallons). establishing your paddocks, keep these There are other considerations when distances to water in mind. it comes to tank size, including the Make Water Visible Water Should Be No Grazing Animal The next major consideration when Farther Than putting adequate water in the paddock Lactating Dairy and Goats 400-500 feet is finding a suitable location. If all pad- All Other Ruminants 800 feet docks were flat and square, it would be 15 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Livestock Watering Systems, Energy Source, Costs, and Capability Estimated Cost (2007 Dollars) Energy System Water Supply Capability Watering Additional Information Source Initial Pump System and System Pump Existing well Electric or Ground Depends on Already in $700+ Very reliable. Low cost. fuel water, etc. well and pump Place Suitable for intensive size grazing. Gravity fed Gravity Spring, Depends on N/A $700+ Low cost. Airlock (change in drainage tile, water source problems are possible. elevation) cistern, pond Requires elevation survey. Overflow management at water source and/or tank may be required. Can restrict tank location and placement. Nose pump Livestock Shallow water 20-30 head, 23- $350 $400 Foot valve must be kept (mechanical) sources foot lift or 126- clean. Suitable for small foot distance herds. Low cost and maintenance. Must keep livestock within 600 feet of nose pump or you may limit water intake. Only one animal at a time can drink. Hydraulic ram pump Falling water Stream, 10-30 foot lift $300- $1,000 $1,000+ Requires waterfall spring per 1-foot fall or a good slope. depending on Detailed installation model. requirements. Continuous pumping system. Overflow management at pump and tank. Sling pump Flowing River, lake 800-4,000 $1,000- $1,700+ Requires sufficient water water (or gallons/day, $1,700 speed. Continuous wind) 26-82 foot lift pumping system. (water powered Overflow management models) at tank. Solar-powered pump Sun Any Depends on $1,500 + $2,200+ Requires technical skills design for installation and maintenance. Requires energy storage (battery or reservoir). Wind-powered pump, air- Wind Pond, shallow 20-foot lift or $1,100+ $1,800+ Requires some skills activated well, etc. over a 980 foot for installation. distance Requires water storage. Continuous pumping system. Overflow management at tank or reservoir. Mobile (on wheels) water tank Electric or Any Depends on $0+ $1,100+ Labor intensive. Suitable fuel tank capacity or about for intensive grazing. $0.01/gal Requires good water source for timely fill up, and a tractor or truck for delivery. Gas- or battery-powered pump Fuel or Any Depends on $200- $900 $900+ Labor intensive. batteries model Requires water storage. Requires good water source for fill up. Not always practical.

16 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension amount of watering space and size of 200-pound ewes are 1 AU and should the water line. Watering space at the receive 30 gallons of water per day. A Coarse Ag Lime (2"-4") tank is especially important if your 1,500-pound cow is 1.5 animal units and No. 2 or 53 animals have to walk more than 1,200 should receive 45 gallons of water per crushed stone (6") feet to get to it. The greater the distance day. animals must travel, the greater the Geotextile fabric over There are many paddocks that can soil surface likelihood that the whole herd will come pose challenges for a variety of factors, as a group. That means you will need to such as the distance from the water Heavy Use Area Protection (HUAP) provide more drinking space to ensure source. Even when a situation is less that all animals get a drink before they constructions like this can help than ideal, an economical and practical reduce erosion and other problems head back to pasture. solution can generally be found. Con- around permanent water sites. The water supply line’s size plays an tracting an experienced planner can important role in determining how provide long-term satisfaction with the quickly the tank can refill. The smaller outcome and increase profitability. the line, the longer it takes for a tank to refill. In other words, the smaller your Provide Erosion Protection Find out more for Watering Sites water line, the larger the tank you will For details about probably need. To help avoid the problems associated designing a geotextile/ with bare soils around permanent wa- Provide 30 Gallons gravel pad, see Purdue tering sites, producers should consider per Animal Unit using geotextile fabric with rock or con- Extension publication The exact amount of water each ani- crete. Geotextile fabrics are porous, so AED-45, Using All- mal needs is determined by its physical water and moisture pass through them Weather Geotextile Lanes characteristics (type, size, lactation/ while the rock is held in place. Recom- and Pads. gestation stage, and metabolism rate) as mendations are for 6 inches of coarse, To order, visit the Purdue well as environmental conditions (tem- crushed limestone (typically Number 2 Extension Education perature, humidity, wind, and forage or Number 53 stone) topped with 2 to Store at www.ces.purdue. moisture). The standard rule in Indiana 3 inches of a finer material like ag lime. edu/new is to provide 30 gallons of water per The area protected by geotextile fabric day per animal unit (AU). One AU is and gravel or concrete should extend a 1,000 pounds of live animal weight. For minimum of 8 feet from water troughs, example, two 500-pound heifers or five tanks, and other equipment.

u Planning Your Fencing The rest of this chapter looks at Chapter 5 common external and internal fencing Fences are a very important part of options, as well as special considerations any grazing system. In most grazing sys- for electric fencing. tems, you’ll need to consider both external (or perimeter) fencing and internal External Fences (or divisional) fencing. External fences Make Good Neighbors keep your livestock from wandering off The old saying, “Good fences make your property — and help keep other good neighbors” holds true in grazing, animals out. Internal fences keep live- since it is wise to keep your livestock stock confined to a specific area, such as where they are supposed to be. a paddock within a larger pasture. These fences are key to good pasture manage- That’s where external (or perimeter) ment because they allow you to control fences come in. Since external fences External fences must be sound where your livestock graze, giving time must keep your livestock within the enough to effectively keep your for forage in other paddocks to rest and boundaries of your property, they need livestock on your property. regrow. to be sound enough to effectively retain 17 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

your livestock. The Indiana state fence Woven Wire law describes such a fence as “a straight Woven wire easily controls most board and wire fence, a straight wire types of livestock with little effort, and fence, a straight board fence, or a picket high-tensile versions are also available. fence four (4) feet high . . . sufficiently Woven wire is usually more expensive tight and strong enough to hold cattle, than high-tensile wire and is much more hogs, mules, and sheep.” difficult to repair if damaged. Woven Find out more Having sound perimeter fences that wire fences can be topped with barbed For more information will hold back your livestock won’t just wire or one or two strands of electrified about fence laws, see help you sleep better at night, they are high-tensile wire. Purdue Extension the law. Although many different kinds Wood posts are usually the best op- Publication EC-657, of fences are allowed, Indiana law makes tion for woven wire fences, although Indiana Farm Fence it clear that external fences must be tight steel “T” posts can be used for part of Laws, www.ces.purdue. and strong enough to hold livestock. the line posts. edu/extmedia/EC/ So while you have certainly seen Barbed Wire EC-657.pdf one-wire external fences with 3/8-inch steel rod posts, such fences are not re- Barbed wire is an old fencing standby. ally physical barriers, but psychological But if you have ever had to tear down an barriers. For both practical and legal old barbed wire fence and try and roll reasons, such perimeter fences are inef- it up to dispose of or move it, then you fective. know why many producers don’t like it. Like high-tensile wire, barbed wire fenc- When it comes to selecting fencing es are made of four to six wires attached materials and construction, you need to posts. They can also be mixed with to consider the livestock you want to other types of fencing. Do not electrify control. barbed wire because it can be a hazard High-Tensile Wire for children and young livestock. Barbed High-tensile wire is probably the wire fencing is usually inexpensive and Rule of Thumb most versatile perimeter fence material. versatile. It is best when it is mixed with Line posts for interior Typically, high-tensile wire is extremely other types of fencing. For example, a fences may be placed up to flexible (making it useful for turns and strand of barbed wire near the ground 50 feet apart on flat terrain. on land with major elevation changes) can help reduce predatory animals from and easy to repair (usually only requir- digging underneath it. ing the replacement of a few staples and Barbed wire is very versatile and can retightening). Fences made with such be used with several different types of materials are made from any number posts, wood and steel “T” posts being of wires stretched horizontally and at- most common. tached to posts. The wires are spaced according to the livestock you wish to Internal Fences control. A minimum of two to three Aid Paddock Management wires should be electrified to help con- Good internal (or divisional) fences trol the livestock. can be a great help for managing Wood or heavy fiberglass posts are paddocks. The goal of an internal fence the best option with high-tensile wire. is to keep livestock in the paddock If the fence is electrified, steel posts can where you want them to graze and drain voltage, shorts are more likely, and out of the other paddocks you want to they may not stay in place in areas with rest. Internal fences can be simple or abrupt elevation changes (especially as rugged as your best external fence. dips). 18 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Your decision should be based on the Temporary fencing allows you to livestock you have and how much make frequent changes in forage al- control you want. You also want to location based on animal needs, which decide whether internal fences need to is particularly important with growing be permanent or temporary. animals and dairy operations. Because Permanent Internal Fences you can quickly take down temporary fencing, it also can make haying or clip- Permanent internal fences are typi- ping easier because you can work on a cally made from the same materials as single large area instead of several small external fences, but don’t necessarily paddocks. Rule of Thumb need to be as rugged. For example, a For one-wire fences, place single strand of high-tensile wire at a The type of temporary fencing you the wire so it is 2/3 the height of 30 inches will probably be all use also varies according to the livestock shoulder height of the you need for most cows and will keep you want to control. For example, for the majority of the calves in place. Plac- most cattle and horses, a single strand of grazing animal. ing a second wire at about 18 inches will poly-wire or poly-tape works quite well. do a good job of controlling calves. You This type of fence can be installed and can use wood or fiberglass posts as far as moved quickly with a reel for the wire 50 feet apart on reasonably flat ground. and quality step-in posts. To control smaller ruminants, you can For dairy operations in particular, use more wires and posts. In general, temporary fencing is an extremely however, reduced wire fences should be important asset for providing breaks for electrified to be effective. the milking herd. Breaks are important As with external fences, woven wire to ensure efficient pasture use and aid offers more small ruminant control. A in grazing the paddock evenly while shorter high-tensile woven wire fence reducing waste and labor. (28, 32, or 36 inches tall) with one or Electrified netting is a great tool for two strands of electrified wire on top controlling small ruminants and for is an excellent internal fence option for training calves to poly-wire. Most elec- smaller animals. trified netting comes in sections of 75 to Regardless of the material you use, 160 feet. These fences take a little more all permanent internal fences must be labor to move, but are very effective at placed so they can be used long-term. In deterring livestock and predators. some circumstances, these permanent Only use a low impedance-type internal fences can double as laneway energizer with poly-wire and tape; solid- fences that help direct and move live- state energizers will melt the plastic. stock across large areas, providing access to multiple paddocks along the way. Electric Fences These are especially handy for moving Require Extra Attention and managing individual animals. Electric fencing, of course, involves Temporary Internal Fences additional equipment and installation considerations. One of those consider- As the name suggests, use temporary ations is what kind of energizer to use. fencing where you only want a fence To understand your energizer needs, it’s for a very short period and need a lot of important to know a few basic electrical flexibility. Temporary fencing is great for terms: wattage, voltage, and amperage. subdividing larger permanent paddocks into smaller units and for strip grazing. Watts are the basic unit of measurement of electric power. The higher the 19 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

number of watts, the greater the amount Set Up Your Energizer Correctly of energy you use. Wattage is to electri- When it comes to energizers, the most cally powered devices as horsepower important thing is to set it up properly. is to engines. A joule also is a unit of That includes using the correct wire, measurement for electricity that is equal grounding everything, and installing to the amount of energy required to protective devices. produce one watt for one second. Never use household wiring on your A rule of thumb with electric fenc- electric fence — it is usually rated for ing: use one joule per mile of electrified only 600 volts and you will have 4,000 or fence wire. So if you have five miles of more running through your fence. Al- Rule of Thumb electric wire, use a five-joule energizer. ways use double insulated high-tensile A volt is a unit that measures the po- wire made especially for the purpose. For energizers, figure on tential energy or pressure. In a way, volt- Running an electrical wire through needing one joule per mile age is similar to measuring the amount a schedule 40 PVC pipe or conduit of electrified fence wire. So, of pressure in a water line — the higher provides extra protection where heavy five miles of electric wire will the pressure, the faster water can pass traffic is expected. need a 5-joule energizer. through. In an electric fence, this is For an electric fence system to work the amount of energy that is flowing properly, it must be grounded. Make through the wire at any given moment. sure to ground the energizer correctly Voltage is important to get the electric according to the manufacturer’s instruc- shock through the animal’s hair. The tions. If the manufacturer says you thicker the hair or wool, the higher the need to use three rods, then use three voltage you’ll need. rods. The grounding system should be An amp measures the amount of en- directed out toward the center of the ergy you pull from the line. Amperage, energized system. Keep everything in not voltage, causes the greatest amount the grounding system of the same mate- of discomfort. Energy will keep flow- rial (that is, use all copper, or all brass, ing through a closed circuit, so circuit or all steel). Rods should be about 1/2 to breakers and fuses are used to prevent 3/4 inch in diameter and 6 to 8 feet long. excessive energy flow and to keep the Connecting wire should be 9-gauge. Rule of Thumb fence from heating up and melting or Burying rods, clamps, and wires For electric fencing, 4,000 causing other damage. underground will help ensure good soil to 6,000 volts is generally When determining which energizer to contact, but more important, it will help adequate for cattle and install, remember that there is no really keep the system from being damaged horses. Sheep and goats will good way to compare one brand of en- by livestock and equipment. Remember, probably require 6,000 to ergizer to another. Low impedance en- the grounding system should be head- 8,000 volts, especially when ergizers deliver large amounts of energy ing out toward the center of the pasture training them to the fences. with very little resistance and are prob- system, not installed inside a building. ably the best buys. These low impedance The grounding system needs moisture energizers are high amperage and high to work correctly. The grounding sys- voltage, and deliver an extremely short, tem is probably better described as an 0.0003-second shock. The “shock” is a “earth return” and acts as the energizer’s lot more powerful with the high amper- antenna. Spend the money on a good age than older energizers, and the short duration shocks animals and people but releases them more quickly.

20 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

energizer and grounding system because switches near the energizer and at new without it, the rest of the fence will have fence breaks are handy because they’ll a hard time doing its job. allow you to switch off sections of fence Be sure to protect your energizer as needed for repairs, to locate shorts, or investment by installing a lightning to reduce unused electrical load. Cut-off switches are handy because arrestor and surge protector. Cut-off they allow you to turn off sections of the fence for repairs and to locate shorts.

mendations either under apply or over Maintaining Fertile Soils u apply nutrients. The effort you take to Chapter 6 Like any crop, forages require suf- sample soils properly, interpret the test ficient soil nutrients to grow and thrive. results carefully, and apply the recom- To make sure your pasture is healthy mended nutrients intelligently, will pay and productive you need to know the big dividends. nutrients in your soil and whether they are sufficient for growing the desired When you send your soil to a lab, be forages. Soil nutrient deficiencies are a sure to request, at a minimum, that the leading cause of seedling failures and results show: poor yields, so it is in your interest to • Soil pH (a measure of soil acidity). test your soil. This chapter examines the • Buffer pH. importance of soil testing, shows you Soil nutrient deficiencies are a leading • Phosphorus (P) and potassium how to accurately sample soils, and pro- cause of seedling failures and poor vides recommendations for lime, nitro- (K) levels. yields, so it is in your best interest gen (N) phosphorus (P), and potassium • Organic matter. to test your soil regularly and apply (K) for grass or grass-legume pastures amendments accordingly. • based on soil test results. Cation exchange capacity (CEC). You may also want to consider Get Your Soil Tested requesting the soil’s magnesium (Mg) Soil tests will determine precisely how levels because low Mg levels may induce much lime and fertilizer your soil needs. grass tetany. Such precision affects your bottom line. Find a Soil Guess and apply too little, and yields Collect Good Samples Testing Lab will suffer; guess and apply too much, An accurate soil test begins with good Purdue Agronomy and you not only have an unnecessary samples. To take soil samples for test- expense, you can also cause unintended ing, you will need a sampling tube, an Extension maintains an plant growth, animal health, or envi- auger or spade, and a clean plastic pail. online list of certified soil ronmental problems. Soil test at least six Obtain soil sample containers and field laboratories in Indiana at months before seeding pastures. For es- and cropping information sheets from a www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/ tablished pastures, test soils every three commercial soil testing service. You will soiltest.html to four years to determine the need for use the field and cropping information additional lime and fertilizer. sheets to show the areas where you took Find a good, reputable soil testing the samples, and to indicate the field’s laboratory and follow their recommen- past cropping and fertility practices. In dations. You should never tolerate over- general, you should take soil samples the simplified fertilizer recommendations same time each year. Sampling from late like, “Apply 300 pounds of a blended spring to late summer usually provides 12-12-12 fertilizer” because such recom- a more accurate K soil-value assessment. 21 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

For the best sampling results: In the table on page 23, the liming 1. Divide the pasture into areas (10 rates for maintaining established acres maximum) that are uniform in pastures are about half of what’s soil color and texture, and that have recommended for pasture establishment, similar land use and management because established pastures aren’t tilled histories. Producers who have pas- before limestone is applied. tures subdivided into paddocks may Most limestone recommendations consider sampling soil from each are based on a 9-inch plowing depth. If paddock (provided the soil types, you have mineral soils and the soil pH Rule of Thumb and use and management histories is more than 6.0 on established grass Animals excrete at within the paddock are similar). pastures or more than 6.6 on grass- least 85 percent of the 2. Sample each area separately by draw- legume pastures, you do not need to phosphorus (P) and 50 ing 15 random soil cores. In estab- apply limestone. The SMP buffer pH (or percent of the potassium lished pastures, draw the cores from “lime index,” as it is commonly called in soil test reports), measures how readily (K) they consume. The 2 to 3 inches deep. For new pastures a soil’s pH will change after a limestone goal of effective grazing to be seeded, draw cores to the depth application. Highly buffered soils (that management is to distribute of tillage (6-8 inches). is, soils with a high cation exchange these nutrients from 3. Do not sample within 200 feet of a capacity, or CEC) have lower lime index manure evenly throughout gravel road, along field borders or values and require more limestone than the pasture. other distinctly different areas, such soils with a low CEC. as sandy ridges, eroded spots, or areas where hay or silage have been If the soil test results recommend a fed. You can, however, sample these limestone application and indicate that areas separately if you want soil test soil Mg is less than 150 pounds per acre, information about them. consider applying dolomitic limestone because it contains up to 22.6 percent 4. If the soil cores are wet, let them dry magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). Apply- on clean paper. Once dry, place the ing dolomitic limestone may help you 15 random cores from each area in a resolve two issues at once: low soil pH plastic pail and mix them thoroughly. and Mg levels. Put each sample in a separate mail- ing container with the appropriate Fertilizing information, and send them accord- Rate of Application ing to the soil testing laboratory’s The nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), instructions. and potassium (K) fertilizer rates shown Liming to Adjust Soil pH in the tables on page 24 depend on Proper soil pH is a basic requirement yield goals. P and K rates are lower for for optimum plant growth. If soil test established pastures than they are for results indicate that your soil is acidic establishing or reestablishing pastures, (low pH), adding limestone will be because on established pastures grazing recommended. Preferably, limestone animals leave urine and feces that are should be applied six to 12 months be- high in these nutrients. Some estimates fore seeding to ensure sufficient time to indicate that as much as 85 percent of lower soil acidity (i.e., raise the pH). If the P and 50 percent of the K in con- the soil test recommends 5 or more tons sumed forage is recycled in the manure. of limestone per acre, apply half of the One of the inherent advantages rotation- limestone before the primary tillage and al stocking has over continuous stocking the other half before a secondary tillage. is that feces and urine are more evenly 22 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Recommended Agricultural Limestone Application Rates for Grass and Grass-Legume Pastures1 Mineral Soils (less than 20 percent organic matter) Soil pH <6.0 Soil pH <6.6 Grass Only Grass-Legume For Renovation/Maintenance Buffer pH (lime index) Tons of Limestone/Acre Needed > 70 0 1 68-70 1 1 67 1 2 66 2 2 < 66 3 4 For Establishment/Reestablishment Tons of Limestone/Acre Needed > 70 1 2 69-70 2 2 68 2 3 67 3 4 66 4 5 65 6 8 < 65 7 8

1These recommendations are based on certain assumptions about previous limestone applications, tillage depth, and limestone quality. Adjust rates for the following: 1. If limestone was applied within the last year, subtract the amount applied in the previous application from the amount recommended here. 2. The establishment/reestablishment rates are based on a 9-inch tillage depth. Adjust rates by 10 percent for every inch of difference in tillage depth (decrease rate by 10 percent for an 8-inch depth, increase by 10 percent for a 10-inch depth). Do not adjust rates by more than 30 percent (three inches). 3. Rates are based on 25 to 30 percent of the limestone passing through a 60-mesh sieve. If your liming product’s fineness differs, check with your Purdue Extension Educator, crop consultant, or fertilizer representative for the appropriate adjusted rate at that level of fineness. 4. If you need to apply more than 5 tons per acre, a split application is recommended. Broadcast the first half and plow it down. Broadcast the second half and incorporate with a secondary tillage. 5. You may substitute 2 cubic yards of marl containing at least 70 percent calcium carbonate equivalent for 1 ton of standard agricultural ground limestone. distributed on the pasture surface. This of N per acre at seeding may benefit a better manure distribution, means P grass-legume stand being established and K are also distributed more evenly, on light colored soils with less than 3 which helps maintain soil fertility and percent organic matter, and on coarse- Rule of Thumb forage health — and that saves money. textured (sandy) soils. For establishing Test soils every three The N recommendation table on page a grass-only pasture, apply 50 pounds to four years. Test 24 recommends per-acre N rates for es- of N per acre prior to the last tillage on systematically based on tablished grass pastures at various yield mineral soils. planned management units, levels. Realistic pasture yield goals are 2 The P and K table on page 24 recom- paddocks, or soil types. tons of dry matter per acre for Kentucky mends significantly higher K rates for bluegrass and 4 tons of dry matter per grass-legume than grass-only pastures acre for tall-growing, cool-season grass since grasses are much more competi- species, such as orchardgrass or tall tive than legumes for available K. fescue. Established pastures with more Timing of Application than 30 percent legumes require no additional N. Application timing is just as critical as rate when it comes to N fertilization of Nitrogen can be important to pasture perennial grass pastures. The best way establishment. For instance, 15 pounds to fertilize cool-season grasses is to ap- 23 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Nitrogen (N) Recommendations for Grass-Only Pasture and Grass-Only Hay Production1 Recommendation When Per-Acre Yield (Dry Matter Basis) Is: 2 tons 4 tons 6 tons Crop Use Pounds N/Acre Grass Pasture 55 100 150 Grass Hay 75 140 210 1 These recommendations are adjusted to credit the value of livestock waste based on 10 pounds of N recycled per ton of forage dry matter produced. Source: Purdue Extension publication ID-167-W, Maximizing the Value of Pasture for Horses, www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/forages/publications/ID-167.htm

Phosphorus (as P2O5) and Potassium (as K2O) Recommendations for Grass-Only and Grass-Legume Pasture Renovation/Maintenance and Establishment/Reestablishment1 Grass-Only Pasture Grass-Legume Pasture Soil Test Range Recommendation When Per Acre Yield (Dry Recommendation When Per Acre Yield Matter Basis) Is: (Dry Matter Basis) Is: Exchangeable Soil Test 2 tons 4 tons 6 tons 4 tons 6 tons 8 tons Bray P1 K Level P205 K2O P205 K2O P205 K2O P205 K2O P205 K2O P205 K2O Pounds/Acre2 Pounds/Acre Pounds/Acre Renovation/Maintenance Levels 0-10 0-80 Very low 80 60 100 120 120 180 100 240 120 360 140 480 11-20 81-150 Low 40 10 40 20 40 30 40 120 40 180 40 260 21-30 151-210 Medium 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 70 10 120 10 200 31-50 211-300 High 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 0 140 51+ 301+ Very high 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 Establishment/Reestablishment Levels 0-10 0-80 Very low 80 60 100 120 120 180 100 240 120 360 140 480 11-20 81-150 Low 60 50 80 100 100 150 80 200 100 300 120 420 21-30 151-210 Medium 30 40 50 80 70 120 50 150 70 240 90 360 31-50 211-300 High 20 30 40 50 60 90 30 80 50 180 70 300 51+ 301+ Very high 0 0 20 0 20 0 20 0 40 120 50 240 1 The renovation/maintenance recommendations are adjusted to credit the value of livestock waste based on 85 percent of the P and 50 percent of the K being recycled in the forage dry matter. No adjustments are made when the soil test is very low. 2 1 part per million = 2 pound per acre Source: Purdue Extension publication ID-167-W, Maximizing the Value of Pasture for Horses, www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/forages/publications/ID-167.htm

24 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

ply half of the recommended N in very volatilization loss if you make appli- early spring (mid- to late March), then cations when the soil is moist or just a quarter of the recommendation in before a rain. Some urea products also late spring, then the final quarter of the are formulated to have less volatilization recommendation in late August or early loss. Ammonium sulfate contains readily September. This approach improves available N, but creates more soil acidity cool-season grass summer production than other N fertilizers. when the moisture received is average or above average, and will result in greater Understanding late summer and early fall growth that the Fertilizer Analysis can be stockpiled for use in late fall and You need to know how to read a fertil- early winter. The approach also keeps izer analysis to understand your fertilizer you from making mid- or late season needs. That begins by knowing what the applications, which could be a problem three numbers in a fertilizer analysis under drought conditions. mean. For example, you may see some- An alternative fertilization method is thing like “18-46-0.” The first number to apply two-thirds of the recommended is the percentage of N, the second is the N in very early spring, then the remain- percentage of P205, and the third is the ing third in late August or early Septem- percentage of K20. ber. If you can only make one N applica- Or simply, the numbers in an analysis tion each year, then make a broadcast are: percent N-percent P2O5-percent K2O. application in the very early spring. P and K rate recommendations (like For warm-season grasses, apply N those in the tables above) are based on when the grass breaks winter dormancy, oxide formulations (P2O5 and K2O), typically in the latter half of April. while the N rates are on an elemental Apply P and K annually according to basis. It’s important to remember that the yield goal and pasture type. Typically, actual application rates of fertilizers vary late summer is the best time to apply K. according to the fertilizer’s elemental analysis; no fertilizer is 100 percent N, Do not apply K fertilizer in the late P O or K O. For example, elemental N winter or early spring. K is generally 2 5 2 varies widely according to product, P2O5 not yield limiting until early summer (phosphate) contains about 44 percent and can have higher uptake by roots in elemental P. K2O usually contains about the spring than is necessary for plant 83 percent elemental K. growth. Knowing how to interpret the analysis To reduce the risk of exposing animals and rates will help you accurately to fertilizer, remove livestock from the communicate your fertilization needs. pasture or paddocks to be fertilized Misunderstandings can result in costly until they receive a significant rainfall misapplications. For example, you may that will “melt” the fertilizer particles know you need to apply 200 pounds of into the soil. potash (K2O) per acre, but an applicator Source of N may only apply 200 pounds of muriate of For grasses, especially under dry soil potash, which is 0-0-60, or 60 percent K O. Consequently, the applicator would conditions, ammonium nitrate is the 2 preferred N source because it is less have applied only 120 pounds of K2O per likely to volatilize to N gas. However, acre, not the 200 pounds per acre called you can effectively use urea without for in the recommendation. 25 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Determining the Right after you have managed the base pas- u Chapter 7 ture successfully for a period. If you do Forage Species to Grow add warm-season grasses, be sure their Selecting the appropriate forage for forage quality is not a limiting factor. your pasture is an important decision. Warm-season grasses are best managed There is a wide range of forage species separately from any cool-season forages. available, and each has its own particu- Cool-season grasses grow best in the lar characteristics, making it more or spring and fall when temperatures are less suitable for your intended purpose. cool, while warm-season grasses grow You must consider many factors when best when temperatures are warm. To selecting forage species. One of the first make management easier, you should things to consider is the need to match not mix cool-season and warm-season the forage species to your soil’s char- grasses together. Instead, sow them in In Indiana, pastures are usually acteristics (drainage, fertility, and pH). separate paddocks. As a rule-of-thumb, composed of perennial cool-season County soil survey books are resources your warm-season grass pasture acreage grasses and legumes. that describe a particular soil’s limita- should not exceed 25 percent of the total tions for agricultural production, which system. can be helpful information, especially The graph below provides a gen- if the land hasn’t been farmed before. eral comparison of growth during the You’ll also need to decide how you will growing season for cool-season grasses, use your crop and how much time you warm-season grasses, and legumes. want to devote to management. All these factors will help to decide if you Mixed Stands vs. Pure Stands should plant perennials or annuals, and Before you select a particular peren- whether the selected forage will be a nial crop, you need to weigh the benefits pure stand or a mixture of adapted and and drawbacks of pure stands and mixed complementary grasses and legumes. Find Soil stands, then determine which is best Perennial Forages: for you. Surveys Your Pasture’s Backbone Pure Stand Advantages Find USDA-NRCS On the majority of your long-term Pure stands of cool-season grasses published soil surveys pastures, you should seed perennial or legumes have a few advantages over by state at http://soils. crops, including cool-season grasses, mixed stands of cool-season grasses and usda.gov/survey/printed_ legumes, and warm-season grasses. legumes. Pure stands: surveys or In Indiana, the base pasture is usually • Ease the amount of management http://websoilsurvey.nrcs. composed of perennial cool-season you’ll need to practice in order to usda.gov/app grasses and legumes. You should only keep all species within the mixture consider adding a perennial warm- competitive. season grass component to your pasture

Spring Summer Fall 26 Source: FFR Cooperative Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Example of a Seed Mixture’s Weight Compared to Potential Stand Species Hypothetical Seed Mix Number of Seeds per Potential % of Stand Name Seeds per Pound % of Seed (by weight) Pound of Mix Alfalfa 227,000 40.0 90,800 22 Red Clover 272,400 29.3 79,750 19 Timothy 1,164,510 14.3 167,100 41 Orchardgrass 429,000 9.4 40,410 10 Alsike Clover 681,000 4.8 32,410 8 Other Crops 0.3 Inert Matter 1.7 Weed Seed 0.2 Total 100 410,470 100

• Increase the number of herbicides • Improve livestock performance. A you can use. Weed control options are grass-legume mixture can improve more limited in mixed pastures. animal gain and breeding perfor- • Improve forage quality. Pure legume mance over a pure grass stand, stands are usually higher in forage especially when the grass is tall fescue quality than pure grass stands or infected with the endophytic fungus. mixed stands. Mixed stands also can reduce animal problems associated with grass tetany Mixed Stand Advantages or bloat. Mixed stands of cool-season grasses • Can help reduce the summer slump and legumes have a number of advan- of grass-only pastures if you add Rule of Thumb tages over pure stands. Mixed stands: drought-tolerant legumes, such as Warm-season grass pasture • Eliminate or lower the need for nitro- alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil, or red clover. acreage should not exceed 25 percent of the total gen fertilizer. Pure grass stands need In any well-managed pasture, peren- nitrogen, but legumes in a mixed pas- nial grasses will last indefinitely. But pe- pasture acreage. ture generally should provide enough rennial legumes in mixed stands tend to nitrogen for grass growth when they need reseeding more often than grasses. compose at least 30 percent of the Consider renovating pastures when stand. the legume contribution is less than 30 • Lengthen a pasture’s lifespan because percent of the dry matter yield. grasses typically remain even after the Avoid Prepackaged Mixes legumes are reduced. Generally, prepackaged mixes of many • Reduce "heaving" damage to legumes. grass and legume seeds offer no advan- Heaving is caused by late winter and tage. These prepackaged mixes do not early spring freeze-thaws that raise allow you to match the best grass and legume plants from the soil surface. legume species to the soil types on the Grasses hold legume plants in place farm. So, over time, just two or three better than pure legume stands. forage species in the prepackaged mix • Reduce soil erosion on steep slopes. will survive because of your soil type, Grasses have a more massive root grazing management, or fertilization system and are better for soil conser- program. Such a small number of forage vation purposes than pure legume species in the established stand is far stands. less than the six or more species of seeds from the original mix. What’s more, the 27 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Soil and Other Considerations for Selected Forages Soil Soil pH Drainage1 Species Comments (Minimum Adequate Level)

Cool-Season Grass Perennials Kentucky Bluegrass 5.8-6.5 SPD Excellent quality, low yield, drought intolerant. Use late-maturing varieties when legumes are a component of a mixture. Orchardgrass 5.5-8.2 SPD Select varieties with disease resistance. Do not seed near natural wetlands. Use low-alkaloid varieties. Graze Reed Canarygrass 5.8-8.2 VPD immature stages for best animal performance and to stop seed escape to natural wetlands. Excellent quality, drought intolerant, quick establishment. There are canopy Ryegrass 5.6-6.2 SPD growth differences among varieties (compact or tall). Annual ryegrass is actually a weak perennial. Do not graze regrowth too quickly or the stand can be depleted. Less Smooth Bromegrass 5.8-6.5 SPD productive at mid-season compared to tall fescue or orchardgrass. Use low-endophyte or friendly endophyte varieties only. Drought tolerant, Tall Fescue 5.4-6.2 SPD stockpiles well. Compared to other cool-season grasses, timothy is late to mature and there Timothy 5.4-6.2 SPD is less production after first use. Winter hardy but not long-lived. Warm-Season Grass Perennials

Big Bluestem 5.4-6.2 MWD Not a good choice for lactating dairy. Nicknamed the “ice cream grass.” Soak seed in water and chill before Eastern Gamagrass 5.5-6.5 SPD seeding. Indiangrass 5.4-6.2 MWD Not a good choice for lactating dairy. Earlier to mature compared to big bluestem or indiangrass. Less proportion Switchgrass 5.4-8.2 SPD of vegetative to seed head tillers compared to big bluestem, eastern gamagrass or indiangrass. Not a good choice for lactating dairy. Annual Grasses Strip crop pasture. Allow livestock that do not require high forage quality to Corn 6.0-6.5 MWD graze residues following grain harvest. Excellent double crop alternative. Lower palatability than pearl millet, Foxtail Millet >5.5 MWD sudangrass, or sorghum x sudangrass. Does not have prussic acid. Regrowth slower than sudangrass or sorghum x sudangrass. Excellent Pearl Millet 6.2-6.8 MWD double crop alternative. Does not have prussic acid. Brown midrib hybrids are available. Prussic acid content is a concern. Sorghum x Sudangrass 6.0-6.5 MWD Higher yielding than sudangrass. Excellent double crop alternative. Good for fall or spring grazing. A good grass to include with turnip. Does Spring Oat 6.0-6.5 MWD not overwinter. Prussic acid content is a concern. Excellent double crop alternative. Brown Sudangrass 6.0-6.5 MWD midrib sudangrass hybrid is available. Winter Rye 5.8-6.2 SPD Winter annual. Late fall to early spring pasture. Very winter hardy. Winter annual. Late fall to early spring pasture. A manmade cross between Winter Triticale 5.8-6.2 SPD wheat and rye. Winter annual. Late fall to early spring pasture. Can also produce a cash Winter Wheat 6.0-6.5 SPD grain crop, provided livestock do not graze the elongating seed head. Legume Perennials Has potential to cause bloat. Potato leafhopper-resistant varieties are Alfalfa 6.6-7.2 WD available. Acts as a biennial. Can cause photosensitivity, so do not include in pastures Alsike Clover 6.0-6.5 PD used by horses. Do not overgraze. Complements Kentucky bluegrass. Low seedling vigor. Birdsfoot Trefoil 6.0-6.8 SPD Does not cause bloat. Excellent pasture renovation crop. Weak perennial. Can cause bloat. Can Red Clover 6.2-6.8 SPD cause slobbers in horses, especially during warm and humid conditions. Medium red clover is preferable to mammoth red clover. 28 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Soil and Other Considerations for Selected Forages (continued) Soil Soil pH 1 Species Drainage Comments (Minimum Adequate Level) Commonly called ladino clover, although several different subspecies exist. Low yielding. Apt to cause bloat if it is a major pasture component. Excellent White Clover 6.0-6.5 PD pasture renovation crop. Can cause slobbers in horses, especially during warm and humid conditions. Legume Annuals Late summer pasture or hay. Must reseed itself annually to persist. Striate Annual Lespedeza 5.5-6.2 SPD and Korean are types of annual lespedeza. Forbs Not a grass or legume. The leaf:bulb ratio varies distinctly among varieties. Turnip 5.3-6.8 WD Very high quality. Frost tolerant, but not freeze proof. Excellent double crop alternative. 1 VPD = very poorly drained PD = poorly drained SPD = somewhat poorly drained MWD = moderately well drained WD = well drained varieties in these mixes are often older autotoxicity concerns or to convert less Find out more varieties that may not have the same desirable forages (such as endophytic- For more information re- advantages as newer releases. fungus infected tall fescue) to improved garding agronomic practices forages. These mixes can also be a source of refer to Purdue Extension confusion when the percentage of each Many annual crops grow best in publication AY-263, Produc- forage species’ seed is listed by weight. particular seasons of the year, so you ing Emergency or Supplemen- Seed sizes vary among species. The must consider carefully when you tal Forage for Livestock, www. table on page 27 provides an example of should use annual crops. Remember, agry.purdue.edu/ext/for- this problem. Let’s say you have a seed annual crops must be found, purchased, ages/publications/ay263.htm bag that contains the seed percentages and seeded in a timely fashion each or AY-324-W, Managing described in the table. The timothy, for year. There also is a risk that your stand Alfalfa Autotoxicity, www.ces. example, contributes only 14.3 percent can be variable from year-to-year. purdue.edu/extmedia/AY/ of the package’s total weight, but could If a double crop system can reduce AY-324-W.pdf. contribute up to 41 percent of the total your feed expenditures or provide You can find additional stand. Seed size should influence the benefits to the soil, then you should identification and crop use pounds of each forage seed ordered make double cropping part of your information on the following when mixtures are developed. farming enterprise. Remember, there Web sites: may be years when purchasing hay will Annual Forages Can http://plants.usda.gov Improve Efficiency be a cheaper, less risky venture than seeding double crop forages. www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/ Indiana and, more generally, the forages Midwest have distinct seasons that Specific double crop systems that http://forages.oregonstate.edu create unique double crop opportunities warrant consideration include: that can help you improve your grazing • Small grains (wheat, barley, and oat) system’s efficiency over perennial forages harvested as grain and immediately alone. For example, when used properly, followed with a summer-annual grass annual crops can provide quick growing or forage turnip. emergency or supplemental feed or • A perennial hay crop harvested for extend the grazing season. Annual crops the last time in spring followed by can also be rotational crops between a summer-annual grass or forage alfalfa seedings, helping to reduce turnip. 29 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

• Corn silage harvest before early Sep- Selecting Forages tember followed by spring oat, forage Proper soil pH and drainage are turnip, a winter annual-small grain, or critical considerations when selecting annual ryegrass. forages to meet your livestock’s needs. • Soybean as an oilseed (grain) har- The table on pages 28 and 29 shows the vested in very late summer or early minimum levels of soil pH and drainage autumn followed by a winter-annual many forage crops need. Remember, you small grain or annual ryegrass. can increase soil pH by applying agricul- • Corn residues grazed immediately tural limestone and you may be able to after corn grain harvest. One could improve soil drainage economically with argue that this is not a true double tiling. The comments in the table should crop system, but rather a more intense help you narrow your options to the use of the corn crop. strongest candidates. The table does not list all of the forages adapted to Indiana, but it does offer the best possibilities. Grazing Management Considerations After carefully considering all the physical components The third and fourth chapters discuss the need to protect required for rotational grazing, it is time to turn your environmentally sensitive areas, such as streams and attention to management considerations to make it all woodlands. work properly with your livestock and landscape. The fifth chapter discusses the importance of maximizing The first chapter in this section will help you determine the grazing behavior of the livestock species you will be the size of your paddocks and how long your livestock grazing. should remain in each one. The last chapter in this section examines selected plants The second chapter provides advice on stockpiling that could affect the health or safety of your livestock. forages in the fall to increase your grazing season and reduce the costs of feeding hay.

Determining Length of Stay tall and exit when it is 4 inches, there are u Chapter 8 4 inches of usable forage. If the animals in Paddocks graze 60 percent of the available forage One of the most frequently asked and the forage is producing 250 pounds questions about rotational and of dry matter per inch per acre, the management-intensive grazing systems animals have 600 pounds of dry matter is, “How short should the pasture per acre available to them. be grazed?” Or, put another way, A 1,000-pound cow consuming 3 “How long may animals remain in a percent of her body weight in pounds of paddock?” dry matter per day requires 30 pounds The answers to such questions per day. Divide the 600 pounds that are depend on several factors, but the two available from the above calculation Stocking rates are typically measured major factors are the amount of forage by 30 pounds, and the acre of pasture in animal unit months (AUM), or the available at any given time and the has 20 cow-days available. So, 20 cows amount of forage needed per 1,000 stocking rate. could graze this acre for a day or 10 pounds of animal per month. As cows could stay for two days. Equations stocking density increases, the time To estimate the length of stay in a that can be spent grazing a paddock paddock, you need to consider certain to figure paddock size and livestock- decreases. variables. For example, if animals enter specific calculations are at the end of the paddock when the forage is 8 inches this chapter. 30 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Another consideration is the amount of forage that a calf consumes as the grazing season continues. Twenty-five calves may need 150 pounds or more of dry matter per day. As a summer slump in forage production develops, the “length of stay” could increase by half a day per paddock. If you have an eight-paddock system, then seven paddocks are resting. If you multiply the number of resting paddocks (seven) by this extra half-day, then you have an extra 3.5 days of rest per rotation for each paddock; a 16- The meristems (buds) shown on this alfalfa plant are paddock system would result in 7.5 days essential for regrowth. If the developing meristems of extra rest. are grazed too quickly, the stand will decline. Graziers face the dilemma of knowing how short they can graze or mow the most species elongate and push upward pastures and still obtain maximum to produce a seed stalk. When that productivity during an extended happens, the growing point is elevated period. The problem is compounded and in a vulnerable position. When by varying climate conditions, growth you remove the growing point by habits of different plants, and livestock grazing or mowing, the plant responds preferences for different plants. Plant by producing new leaves from its base growth also is affected by the time of and starts over as if it were spring. But the year and stage of the plant when starting over causes an additional drain harvested. on the root reserves and can weaken the If you allow animals to stay in a plant. paddock for more than four days, Smaller paddocks and less time in they will “regraze” some areas and each reduce the likelihood of paddocks allow others to continue growing and with areas of tall and short growth. maturing. As a result, the paddock ends up with areas of very short forage, which Maintain a Balance will need a longer time to recover and As you begin an improved grazing regrow. The longer rest period will affect management program, keep both the length of rotation, plus such areas plant growth and animal performance tend to be populated with unimproved in mind. Balancing plant and animal white clover or bluegrass because they requirements is difficult, but necessary, can tolerate frequent, close grazing. In for increased efficiency and profit. the less grazed areas of the paddock, Generally, plants are favored when they there will be tall, mature (hence, less are harvested at maturity. However, the desirable) forage. forage quality is low at maturity and All plants have growing points animal performance suffers. If plants are where new cells develop. In grasses, harvested when they have active growth the growing points are just above and they are high in quality, animal the last complete joint of each stem. performance will be optimal. The Early in the season, growing points challenge for the grazier is to achieve are located at the bases of the plants. the optimum balance between plant and As the season progresses, the joints of animal requirements. 31 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Plants can be grazed quite short in continue capturing solar energy, which in the spring but more leaf surface must turn, lets them recover and grow without be left as the season progresses so that drawing on their root reserves. the plant can continue to build a strong root system. The better the root system, Make Your Calculations the better the plant can tolerate heat Graziers may want to estimate the and drought stresses. Plants also recover number of animals that can be assigned Rules of Thumb much faster if a large amount of leaf sur- to a given area or they may want to • When grazing a paddock, face remains to reactivate the produc- estimate the number of days a group of take half and leave half. tion phase. Furthermore, fresh growth is livestock could graze an area. • Leave 3 or 4 inches of the most palatable to livestock, so it just The equations on the next page are cool-season grasses after makes sense to graze the best and leave followed with examples using the grazing. the rest to speed recovery. following assumptions: • Leave 6 to 8 inches of In individual paddocks, it’s still good • You have 4 inches of available forage. to follow the “take half and leave half” warm-season grasses. • You have a forage that yields 300 rule. That means you should move pounds of dry matter per inch per acre. animals into a paddock and let them eat about half the grass height and leave the • You have a two-acre paddock. other half. For most cool-season for- • Your animals have a 60 percent grazing ages, a healthy height to leave behind is efficiency. typically 3 to 4 inches. For most warm- • You have 12 steers that weigh 900 season grasses, a healthy residual is typi- pounds each. cally 6 to 8 inches. Refer to page 35 for • Your animals will consume 2.5 percent the specifics of each forage. Grass plants of their body weight per day. left at this height retain a sufficient amount of vegetation to allow them to • You have a five-day rotation in each paddock

Strip grazing annuals greatly increases forage utilization and efficiency. 32 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

How Many Animals per Paddock? Use the following equation to determine the optimum number of animals you can graze in a paddock:

available pounds of forage paddock grazing inches of x dry matter per x x acres efficiency number of forage acre/inch animals per = daily forage dry paddock days animal matter intake x x in the weight (as percentage of paddock body weight) For example (using the assumptions above):

number of 4 x 300 x 2 x 0.6 animals per = = 12.8 paddock 900 x 0.025 x 5

So, you can graze: • Approximately 13 animals in the two-acre paddock for five days. or • 32 animals in the two-acre paddock for two days.

How Many Days in A Paddock? Use the following equation to determine the optimum number of days you can graze animals in a paddock:

available x pounds of forage x acres x grazing inches of per inch/acre (dry efficiency days of stay in = forage matter) a paddock animal x daily forage dry x number weight matter intake (as of percentage of body animals weight)

For example (using the assumptions above):

days of stay in 4 x 300 x 2 x 0.6 = = 5.3 a paddock 900 x 0.025 x 12

So, your 12 steers could remain in that paddock for about five days.

How Many Paddocks? Use the following equation to determine the optimum number paddocks you should have in your pasture:

number of days of rest = + 1 paddocks days of grazing

So, if you plan to graze each paddock for five days and rest each paddock for 30 days:

number of 30 = + 1 = 7 paddocks 5

So, you would need seven paddocks. 33 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Daily Forage Dry Matter Intake Grazing Efficiency (as percentage of body weight) System % Efficiency Livestock Intake Continuous 40 Dry Cow 2-2.5% 4 paddocks 45 Lactating Beef Cow 3-4% 8 paddocks 60 Lactating Dairy Cow 3-4% + grain 12 paddocks 65 Stocker 2.5-3.5% 24 paddocks 75 Horse 2-3% + grain Sheep and Goat 3.5-4%

Estimated Dry Matter Yield (pounds per acre per inch with 75-90% forage cover) Forage Pounds per Acre per Inch Tall fescue + legume 200-300 Tall fescue + nitrogen 250-350 Kentucky bluegrass 250-400 Red clover or alfalfa 200-250 Orchardgrass + legume 250-300 Cool-season grass mix 200-300 Native warm-season grass 100-200

Lactating beef cows need to consume 3 percent to 4 percent of their body weight in forage dry matter each day.

34 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Grazing and Hay Harvest Guide for Some Commonly Grown Forages in Indiana

Height Approximate Date to Begin Height Height to When to to Start Height for Rest for Winter Protection to Start Remove Rest Period Cut for Hay, Forage Species Grazing Overwintering Grazing Livestock (days) Silage, or Regrowth (inches) (inches) (inches) Balage1 (Northern (Southern (inches) Areas) Areas)

Kentucky Bluegrass 4-6 4-5 2-3 14-30 Boot 3 N/A N/A

Orchardgrass, Tall Spring: 14 Boot, Fescue, Perennial 6-8 6-8 3-4 peak 3-4 3 3 Ryegrass, Other Non- Summer: regrowth jointed Grasses 30-45 Smooth Brome, Spring: 14 Timothy, Reed Boot, peak Sept. 20- 8 8 4 5-6 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 Canary, Other Jointed Summer: regrowth Oct. 20 Grasses 30-45 Late bud to Sept. 20- Alfalfa 12 8-10 3-4 24-32 6 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 early bloom Oct. 20

¼ bloom to Sept. 20- Birdsfoot Trefoil 10-12 10-12 5-6 24-45 5 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 full bloom Oct. 20 Early to ½ Sept. 20- White Clover 6-10 8-10 2 24-32 4 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 bloom Oct. 20 Red and Alsike Early to ½ Sept. 20- 10-12 8-10 3-4 24-45 5 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 Clovers bloom Oct. 20

Sudangrass 18-20 18 8-10 14-30 Boot N/A N/A N/A

Sorghum-Sudangrass 24-30 24 8-10 14-30 Boot N/A N/A N/A Hybrid Pearl Millet 18-20 18 4-6 14-30 Boot N/A N/A N/A

Japanese Millet 12-18 12-18 4-6 14-30 Boot N/A N/A N/A

Small Grains 8-10 8 2-3 N/A Early head N/A N/A N/A

Switchgrass, Big Boot to early Sept. 20- 12-18 12-18 84 21-45 8-12 Sept. 1-Oct. 12 Bluestem, Indiangrass head Oct. 202

Little Bluestem, Boot to early Sept. 20- 12-14 12-14 6-84,5 21-45 6-10 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 Sideoats Grama head Oct. 20 Fall: Brassicas 12 4-6 14-45 N/A N/A N/A N/A 12-14

Annual Lespedeza 6-8 6-8 3-4 14-30 Early bloom 6 N/A N/A

N/A = Not Applicable 1 Boot: most heads in upper leaf sheath, but prior to emergence. Early Head: tips emerging on no more than 10% of stems. Medium Head: about 50% of the heads emerged or emerging. Full Head: most heads fully emerged but prior to flowering. 2 Protection from fall grazing is recommended. Perennial warm-season grasses can have limited grazing after killing frost, when applicable. 3 No restrictions with fescue, orchardgrass, and ryegrass. 4 Leave 8 to 10 inches of stubble at end of season until after killing frost. 5 4 inches above the lowest node is the best indicator. 6 Allow to set seed during season.

35 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

u Chapter 9 Using Stockpiled Perennial beneficial, and will certainly boost yields if rainfall is above average. Such areas Forages to Your Advantage also could be grazed a little harder after Fall and winter grazing is a great way dormancy in order to help open up the to reduce winter feed costs. Whenever sward to enhance legume content the you can extend the grazing season, that’s next spring. money in your pocket. When the sward contains less than 15 Stockpiling forage for the winter percent legumes, then you should apply allows you to extend the grazing season. 40 to 60 pounds of actual nitrogen per The practice of stockpiling involves acre to boost yield and increase quality. growing forage in late summer and early Such areas should be grazed until less fall for grazing in the winter. Instead of than two inches of residual growth re- Livestock typically will graze through harvesting this forage for hay, you allow mains, then overseeded with an adapted snow at least eyeball deep. They’ll it to stand in the field for your livestock legume in late winter. Be careful not to often turn down ‘good’ hay for to harvest later, after it has entered overgraze the pasture. Your objective is stockpiled forage. dormancy. Stockpiling, then, typically to set the grass back a bit, not destroy it. refers to fall growth. Overdoing it can lead to excessive white The basic concept behind stock- clover (where there is a seed bank in the piling is: soil), or a weedy pasture. 1. Graze or harvest a paddock in Alfalfa can also boost fall grass growth late summer. and provide a fair amount of nitrogen, 2. Take that paddock out of rotation. but it is not normally paired up with the most ideal cool-season stockpile grass, 3. Apply nitrogen fertilizer to that tall fescue. When alfalfa is a component paddock for greater yield. of stockpiled forage, remember that 4. Allow livestock to graze in that pad- alfalfa will not tolerate being grazed un- dock after the end of the growing der wet conditions because of potential season, thereby extending the season. crown damage, and that residual grass Apply Fertilizer to Boost Growth cover reduces heaving of alfalfa plants. Tall fescue, with or without the endo- Toward the end of the summer and phytic fungus, can potentially stockpile into the fall cool-season grasses begin better than any other perennial forage growing quite well again. If August rain adapted to Indiana. Tall fescue also can is plentiful, applying nitrogen fertilizer maintain its nutritional value through- in mid-August to early September can out the winter. increase the forage’s dry matter yield, crude protein content, and digestibility. Fall-grown tall fescue can average 13 to 18 percent crude protein (depending The percentage and types of legumes on how much nitrogen was available in the sward will influence how much to the stand) and can maintain good nitrogen you should apply to the stock- nutritional value through the winter. piled forage. When the sward contains Tall fescue seldom drops below 11 30 percent or more of legumes, do not percent crude protein and 62 percent apply additional nitrogen to the stock- digestibility, even as late as early March. piled forage. Those levels still make it better feed When the sward contains 15 to 30 than some hay. Still, it is always a good percent legumes, then applying 30 to idea to test forages to make sure they 40 pounds of actual nitrogen per acre is 36 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension are meeting your livestock’s nutritional By allocating a small area for a short requirements. period of time, the animals do not waste as much forage by trampling. Getting the Most from Stockpiling Step-in posts, electrified poly-wire, and Defer grazing (stockpile) at least one a reel make strip-grazing a very easy acre of pasture per 1,000 pounds of practice. Strip-grazing is the practice live weight. Here are some tips to make of temporarily fencing off allotments of stockpiling more efficient: forages for use as feed for a particular 1. Graze or hay the paddocks to be time period. With careful observation stockpiled in early to mid-August to when moving the fence to make initiate new, vegetative growth. additional allocations, you can make future allocations of stockpiled forage. 2. Apply 0 to 60 pounds of actual nitrogen Start grazing near the water source (depending on the legume stand) in and work away from it. Back-grazing mid-August to early September. or back-fencing is not a concern; just 3. Let the stockpiled area grow and rotate move forward until that particular field/ through the rest of the paddocks or paddock is consumed, then move to the other areas as long as possible. next. 4. Graze the stockpiled area after it is Snow is not a problem; livestock will dormant to protect carbohydrate graze through snow at least eyeball reserves. deep. Animals will turn down “good” 5. Preferably, strip-graze stockpiled forage hay in preference to stockpiled forage. by allocating 2 to 3 days worth of forage at a time.

and runoff), plus you can harvest a fair A Plan for u amount of forage with grazing livestock Chapter 10 Streamside Grazing while both feeding them and helping There are some who say livestock maintain the area. should be permanently fenced away You should install fencing far enough from all streams and water bodies, but away from the creek (about 25 to 30 there is another approach. Livestock feet), so you can use equipment there can be working tools that, when used if necessary. Leave larger areas on properly, can benefit the streamside the ends, as needed, for equipment ecosystem. turnarounds. Flash Grazing is the Key The streamside can be subdivided into You probably still should fence off areas that provide no more than two creeks, but streamsides can still be days’ worth of grazing. Of course, this Flash grazing riparian areas is an grazed periodically using a practice depends on the number of animals in effective management tool to keep banks stabilized. In this practice, called flash grazing. Flash grazing, or the herd. After livestock graze, rest these livestock are concentrated in a small removing forage from an area with a areas for at least 30 days before grazing area for a short time (usually less than precise number of animals, can offer the them again. two days) when banks are dry and best of both worlds: you can maintain Do not allow livestock to graze these compaction and erosion are less likely. more vegetation in the area by keeping streamside areas during wet periods animals away most of the time (which when excessive compaction or erosion helps slow streambank degradation problems can occur. 37 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

The fencing you set up near a stream high in coliforms. So, while livestock can be very simple, particularly for may not be the source of the bacteria, a cattle operation. A single strand of they can stir it up. high-tensile wire about 30 inches off the The researchers learned that high ground on wood posts is easy to main- bacterial concentrations are often tain and is less likely to be taken out by found at cattle access points where flooding water. Depending on the ter- actual disturbance of the streambed rain, you can space posts up to 50 feet material occurs. These concentrations apart with no problems. decreased rapidly over time after the Protect the Water disturbance stopped. However, sites that have solid or constructed rock bottoms If livestock are watering directly from were significantly lower in bacteria the stream or creek, then water quality concentrations. is a concern not only downstream, but for the livestock, too. Several Clean drinking water can be obtained studies have shown that clean water is from streams when we build crossings important to cattle performance. Cattle and access areas. If natural rock perform up to 20 percent better when crossings do not exist, then the next best they drink clean water. thing is to build one. If you build one with number 2 stone, it is large enough Researchers in Minnesota and Canada to be uncomfortable underfoot, so actually found that cattle commonly livestock are not tempted to lounge in access, drink, or cross watercourses the water, but livestock will still use the without voiding. So, what’s the big crossing or access site. In some larger problem with cattle in the stream? streams, you may need larger rock or Thinking beyond the major problems concrete to keep rock in place. Crossings concentrated livestock might pose, sometimes need a permit before livestock typically use streams for building. loafing and drinking. The researchers found that most problems with water An alternative is to only allow live- quality arise from animals walking or stock to flash graze the streamsides. You standing in the water and stirring up can provide water to the surrounding sediment. That sediment is often very paddocks by pumping from the stream or alternative water sources. Managed carefully, flash grazing streamsides can improve water quality, reduce valuable grazing land loss, help increase value to wildlife, reduce bank erosion, and, over time, increase the public perception that most Indiana livestock producers are trying to do a good job of protecting streamsides and water quality.

Rather than allow livestock to wade into creeks, you can pump water from the stream into a tank.

38 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

The Question of u Chapter 11 Woodland Grazing

Historical Perspectives which could easily affect two or more When European pioneers first came generations of landowners. Livestock to Indiana, the state was primarily vast can also destroy the humus layer, or woodlands with some prairies and sa- thin organic layer (floor), protecting the vannahs. If they wanted to start farming other woodland soil, which can lead to and raising crops, they had little choice excess erosion and compaction. than to start clearing ground. The pio- Woodland lots are often on steeper neers used livestock as labor to help pull sites that can include steep ravines and remove the trees and stumps, and to already very prone to erosion. Livestock Cows make poor woods and woods help keep the area from growing back to accelerate the erosion process. If left in trees. Over the years, ground that made make poor cows. Decide what your the woods for any extended time, live- woodland lot is best suited for— the best cropland for row-crops pretty stock will make a real mess, especially if timber or pasture — and manage much stayed cropland. Land that was there is water involved. They’ll also de- for only one. too steep or prone to excessive erosion stroy any aesthetic value, and that could went back to trees. No matter where you take a decade or more to replace. So, find it, if it is woodland, there is prob- grazing causes more long-term erosion ably a reason why it is in trees. damage to your land than any short- That is a long introduction for the term advantages you could gain for your question this chapter answers: Should livestock. you graze woodlands, or not? Woodland grazing can have negative Some of the Pros effects on your livestock. Under heavy canopy, there is very little true forage Graziers may offer several reasons that would make good grazing. In fact, why their livestock are in the woods; it often takes 15 or more acres of wood- truffle hunting is not one of the better land to equal the food value of just one ones. Woodlands certainly have some acre of open pasture. desirable attributes. For example, woods can provide some shade on really hot Livestock are also quite susceptible days, they often have some water avail- to poisonous plants common to wood- able, they have some browse that live- lands, including white snakeroot, black stock will eat and might benefit from, cherry, and up to 50 other toxic plants. they can provide an alternative place to Areas with deep ravines, very steep run livestock while you’re resting open areas, wet areas, or streams should be pasture, they can provide some shelter managed solely for woodlands or wild- during the winter, and grazing is an easy life because such areas are extremely way to remove some unwanted wood- challenging places to find newborns. land vegetation. Livestock also cause long-term dam- And a Lot of Cons age to harvestable timber by causing dark, ugly rings to appear in harvested Now, some reasons for why you lumber. That’s because livestock often shouldn’t allow livestock to graze in injure a tree’s bark, creating points of woodlands. entry for organisms that reduce tim- Livestock can and will remove small ber quality. Because of the likelihood trees and understory, thus removing fu- of staining or decay in the butt logs ture generations of possible timber trees (usually the most valuable portion of a 39 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

tree), timber buyers discount the price Keeping Shady Places on timber from woods that have been in the Pasture grazed. Soil compaction by livestock also affect the trees’ feeder roots, which If shade is one of the main reasons are in the upper few inches of the soil, you keep livestock in woodlands, you making it difficult for the tree to absorb have alternatives. Canopy is one of needed nutrients and water, which can the biggest issues. If the woods have reduce growth, cause crown dieback, more than 30 percent canopy cover, and make the tree more susceptible to which is very common, then it is diseases and insects. almost impossible to grow, maintain, and sustain vegetative cover not only So, do we graze woodlands or not? for livestock consumption, but also for Pick One or the Other erosion control. As the canopy’s density grows, the harder it gets to maintain any First, you really need think about permanent vegetative soil cover. If you what you want from this ground. Do want pastures with trees, then you must you want to manage it for timber, or do have less than 30 percent canopy cover. you want it for pasture? Which is it best Such a pasture should look more like a suited for? People have certainly tried to savannah than a woodland or pasture. do both and it rarely works. These few trees can provide sufficient After you decide, you will have more shade even during the dog days of things to do. If you are going to manage summer. the acreage for woodland and timber Another alternative for shade in the production, then get the livestock out. pasture is to plant some trees in specific Well-managed woodland has the poten- areas, or to allow livestock to graze along tial to create more income in a lifetime the edges of the woods. Small corners than pasture or row-crops on compa- and edges can provide adequate shade. rable soils and slopes. A trained forester They also limit damage and provide can help you make the transition to an some winter protection while keeping improved woodlot. the woodland protected. You’ll make If you are going to manage the land more money with livestock along the for pasture, then you need to get it into edge of the woods than you will with the right condition so you will not nega- livestock in the woods. As one Ohio tively affect water and other resources, grazier once said, “Cows make poor and actually provide something of value woods and woods make poor cows.” for your livestock. Whatever you decide, you should plan to end up with a property that you and the next generation can be proud of. Keep on grazing; just perhaps not in the woods!

40 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

u Livestock Grazing Behavior ficient than ruminant digestion. Horses Chapter 12 To understand how and why a grazing are modified monogastrics. They have a system is successful, you should under- cecum, or fermentation organ, between stand why animals graze the way they the small and large intestine that further do. Each animal species, of course, has processes forages and improves nutrient a unique set of physical attributes (nose, absorption. teeth, digestive system, etc), grazing be- For ruminants, the process of chewing haviors, and vegetative preferences. This their cud takes time. That’s why you will chapter covers the basics of livestock frequently see cattle or goats standing digestive systems, physical attributes, in the field but not grazing. Most cows, and grazing preferences. for example, spend eight hours a day Ruminants and Monogastrics grazing, while horses graze up to 18 Each grazing animal species has Grazing animals can be separated into hours. Horses can only consume about 2 unique physical attributes, grazing two main groups based on their diges- to 2.5 percent of their body weight each behaviors, and vegetative preferences. This makes some species more tive systems: ruminants and monogas- day, while cattle can consume 3.5 to 4 compatible together than others. trics. percent of their body weight. This difference can be attributed to the digestive Ruminants (cattle, sheep, and goats) system’s forage storage capacity. Because have four “stomachs,” each playing a horses cannot store as much forage, they specific role in digestion. One of these must consume small courses more often stomachs, the rumen, is essentially a than cattle. storage vat that begins fermenting the mass of forage consumed. Ruminants Big Mouths and Nimble Lips then regurgitate the cud, or solid mate- Mouth structure also affects grazing rial from the rumen, and chew it again behavior. Cattle have broad mouths, and to break it down into smaller pieces. because of the location of their eyes, Those pieces move on to the other three they do not see exactly what they are “stomachs” for final digestion and ab- biting. They use their tongues to grab sorption of nutrients. swaths of grass. Sheep and goats, on It is important that ruminants keep the other hand, have small mouths and enough fiber or roughage in their split nimble lips so they can select single systems to maintain a “mat” on the leaves. Because of their mouthparts and rumen to aid in nutrient absorption. If selectivity, goats and sheep typically food passes through their digestive tract “out-graze” cattle for the better forage. too fast (like it can in the early spring Horses have broad mouths as well as when forage is high in nitrogen — nimble lips. They also have top and crude protein — and moisture) they will bottom teeth that allow them to crop not reap all the potential benefits. Some forage very close to the ground. roughage is needed at this time to help Goats tend to graze from the tops of balance this out. Residual forages that plants down, while cattle typically start were maintained from the previous year at the bottom. So, cattle and horses do help to keep this in balance. not make complementary grazers but Monogastrics (horses and pigs) have cattle and goats do. a more linear digestive system than Forage selection also varies among ruminants. In monogastrics the “hind species. Generally, cattle prefer grasses gut” of the intestines absorbs most of and legumes, sheep prefer grass then the nutrients, which is much less ef- browse, goats select browse first, 41 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

and horses seek out new growth of stage, lactation, forage availability, grasses and forbs. Especially with time of year, and many other factors small ruminants, the young learn a lot affect livestock forage selection. Overall about what to eat and not to eat from forage intake is mainly determined by their mothers. Ewes that learn to eat fairly complex interactions. Digestive particular weeds or plants typically feedback by the ruminant leads to teach their lambs to do the same. preferences and aversions to particular Remember, these are broad plants helping the livestock select plants assumptions. Animal breed, growth that provide them needed nutrition.

Potential Forage-Induced Fescue Toxicosis u Chapter 13 Animal Disorders1 Symptoms: Reproductive problems, “poor doers,” lameness, dry gangrene, Many forages adapted to Indiana can fever, and death. cause livestock disorders if the environment and management are conducive. Forage Species: Tall fescue infected A list of common livestock disorders with nonfriendly endophyte fungus. caused by forages appears below, de- Animals Affected: Horses, cattle, and scribing the symptoms, the forage spe- other ruminants on pasture or fed cies that cause the disorder, when the fescue hay. disorder typically occurs, the animals affected, and how to prevent or treat the Prevention/Treatment: Clip pas- disorder. You should acquaint yourself ture to keep fescue vegetative. Move with these disorders and be alert for any animals to non-fescue pastures during symptoms in your herd or flock. breeding season and late pregnancy. Test pastures for presence of the Bloat fungus. Include other forages in the Symptoms: Distended left side of pasture, especially legumes. Pastures that are predominantly white rumen. clover can be a cause of bloat. Grass Tetany Forage Species: Most, but not all, Pastures that are predominantly white legumes. (Hypomagnesemia) clover can be a cause of bloat. When: When animals are turned out Symptoms: Reduced appetite, dull on lush, legume pastures. appearance, staggering gaits, in- Animals Affected: Ruminants. creased nervousness, frequent urina- Prevention/Treatment: Maintain tion and defecation, and muscular pastures with at least 50 percent tremors, followed by collapse, pad- grasses or give animals access to an dling of feet, and death. 1 Sources: Forages Volume 1: An Intro- anti-bloating agent. Feed hay before Forage Species: Cool-season grasses. duction to Grassland Agriculture (2003, Robert F. Barnes, C. Jerry Nelson, turnout. Turn out midday to dry for- When: Spring. Michael Collins and Kenneth J. Moore); age. Use nonbloating legumes, such as Animals Affected: Ruminants, partic- and Purdue Extension publication WS-9, birdsfoot trefoil. ularly older females in early lactation. Indiana Plants Poisonous to Livestock and Pets (www.vet.purdue.edu/depts/addl/ Prevention/Treatment: Provide toxic/cover1.htm). magnesium daily to at-risk animals. Include legumes in the forage consumed. Apply dolomitic lime if soil magnesium and pH are low. 42 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension Nitrate Poisoning and rotational grazing. Treat immedi- Symptoms: Staggering, rapid pulse, ately with sodium nitrite and sodium frequent urination, and labored thiosulfate. breathing, followed by collapse, coma, and death. Selenium Deficiency Forage Species: Sudangrass, sorghum, (White Muscle Disease) corn, and small grains fed as silage, Symptoms: Young die suddenly or are hay, greenchop, or pasture. born dead. White muscle disease in When: This is especially a problem calves and lambs. during droughts or in areas with Forage species: Any forage deficient excessive manure or nitrogen in selenium. applications. When: Anytime. Animals Affected: Any that are fed Animals Affected: Calves and lambs. high N forages; can also harm humans if they inhale gasses produced during Prevention/Treatment: Supplement ensiling. with selenium. Prevention/Treatment: Check crop Slobbers nitrate (NO3) levels before feeding. Symptoms: Animals slobber exces- Levels higher than 3,400 to 4,500 μg sively. N/g dry matter basis are considered potentially dangerous and should be Forage Species: Red or white clover mixed with safer feed for animal use. infected with black patch disease. Prussic Acid Poisoning When: Anytime, particularly when conditions are warm and humid. Symptoms: Staggering, labored breathing, spasms, foaming at the Animals Affected: Any. mouth, lying prostrate, thrashing Prevention/Treatment: Remove about, and death. animals from areas with red or white Forage Species: Sudangrass (less con- clovers. Store hay for more than a year cern), forage sorghum, and sorghum- to reduce the cause of slobbers. sudangrass. Sweetclover Poisoning When: After freeze damage or during Symptoms: Bruising, prolonged or severe drought; after high N applica- spontaneous bleeding, hemorrhaging, tions when the soil is deficient in P pale mucus membranes, increased re- and K; and after consuming immature spiratory rates, rapid and weak pulses, forage or tillers. Concern is greatest and death. when feeding forage as pasture. Forage Species: White sweetclover Animals Affected: Cattle and sheep and yellow sweetclover. are more susceptible than swine. When: Wet, humid weather during Prevention/Treatment: Use forage hay curing. prior to freezing and do not graze Animals Affected: Animals fed moldy when crop height is less than two feet. sweetclover hay, mainly cattle. Ensile or hay instead of using damaged crop as pasture. Graze after a freeze Prevention/Treatment: Avoid feed- only when forage is totally killed and ing moldy sweetclover hay. Affected after five or six days have passed. Feed animals may benefit from a blood ground cereal grain prior to turnout or plasma transfusion or vitamin K to pasture. Use heavy stocking rates injections. 43 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

Indiana Graziers’ Experiences

Among Indiana’s many resources are innovative livestock producers. The following pages draw on that resource, giving you an opportunity to learn from these Indiana forage farmers and their operations. While all these graziers might tell you that there is nothing special about their operations, one thing makes these operations (and many others like them) really stand out: they love what they are doing and are happy with their operations, although each will tell you they are working to improve something. That’s progressive producers and graziers doing their best!

u Chapter 14 One Acre Pasture Provides Forage for Boer Goats had been up to 18 breeding does and Cassandra and Lyle Vondran, found that to be too many for the acre- Allen County age we had. We currently try to kid in the fall and winter to catch some of the My husband and I have been raising 4-H markets, but we have contemplated Boer goats since 2000, and our main kidding in the spring when the spring interest is in raising and showing breed- flush of grass is at peak production. ing stock. We have a very small piece of property with about one acre of pasture We do still supplement the goats with and decided that we wanted to make the grain even while they are on pasture. We most efficient use of our pasture, so we do not feed hay during the times when The graziers’ goals are to minimize started looking into rotational grazing. the pasture supply is ample, but do feed the amount of grain that is fed to their hay in the winter. We began using large, livestock and to maximize the amount It is the perfect fit for us. We are con- round bales this past year, and that has forage their livestock eat. stantly changing how and what we do saved the time and expense of feeding to make the system work for the forage, small, square bales. Feeding round bales the livestock, and us. keeps a constant supply of hay in front We worked with a grazing special- of them. We have begun to monitor the ist to help give us a start. We began by amount of grain that is fed. Our goal is reseeding our pasture field in the fall of to minimize the amount of grain that 2002 with a mix of fescues, ryegrasses, we feed and to feed as much forage as chicory, and clover. We installed a possible. temporary lane that enabled us to divide We have used different types of tem- our one-acre pasture into six paddocks. porary fence to subdivide paddocks. For the watering system, we laid plastic First, we tried electro-netting and found water lines on top of the ground instead that to be too cumbersome to move and of trenching it, in case we wanted to maintain a charge. We are now using move it somewhere else. We have plans two strands of the electric rope and to trench it this year now that we have a twine. We do sometimes have a goat go better idea of how it will work for us in through the fence, but since it is inte- our situation. rior fence, they are still within the main We currently have 12 breeding does pasture. Most of the time, the goat gets and two young, replacement does. We out because the food source is low in 44 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

the paddock it is in or, for one reason or graze the paddocks down to the point another, the fence is not hot anymore. that when they come back through, seed I have heard the saying that if it does heads have not formed. Goats do like to not hold water, it will not hold a goat! eat the seed heads. What’s more, it ap- However, we have found that if the food pears that once seed heads have formed, source is good where they are and the they no longer like to eat the rest of the fence is hot, the goats probably won’t plant either. This has caused problems go anywhere you do not want them to later in the season for us. We are still go. Our animals are accustomed to the determining what the best approach is fence, so when new goats come to the to clean up what the goats do not eat. herd, the more experienced goats help We have considered getting a calf to do teach the new ones the system. That is some multi-species grazing since cattle not to say that the new ones do not test and goats graze differently. Ideally, we the electric fence, but when they do, the like the pasture to rest at least 18 days whole herd does not freak out and go before grazing it again. We are also running back to the barn. As far as the starting to watch for parasitism and the kids, they learn mostly from their moth- effect on the herd as well as individuals. ers, but they also learn from their own Raising and breeding Boer goats has experiences. become a passion for us in the few short The amount of time the goats spend years that we have owned them. One in each paddock varies based on the of our goals is to continue to learn new amount of available forage. During the things about rotational grazing and ap- spring flush, we ideally would move the ply them to our livestock operation. goats through quickly enough to evenly

Multi-Species Grazing the cattle can be removed after the fast u Chapter 15 Offers Greater Efficiency growth in the spring and late sum- and Diversity mer. This will allow a surplus of forage Gary Weilbaker, DeKalb County for flushing and stockpiling in the fall. When grazing sheep and cattle, sheep Mixed species grazing not only in- will graze closer to cattle dung pats than creases utilization of the forage sward, cattle will. In addition, on hilly farms but through synergism, this manage- cattle prefer to graze the bottoms and ment practice actually results in a shady slopes; sheep prefer the hillsides. greater output than was possible from the same live weight of any one species. When setting up a multi-species grazing system, we needed to consider sev- My primary experience has been with eral factors. We installed five-wire, elec- grazing ewe-lambs/stocker steers. Sheep Grazing management keeps both tric, high-tensile perimeter and paddock forages and animals highly productive. have smaller mouths and will graze fencing powered by a 16-joule energizer. When cattle and sheep grazing are more selectively and eat more browse It is important to have an extra power- managed well, the paddock will look and weeds. Cattle have larger mouths ful energizer that can withstand some like you mowed it 4 to 6 inches high. and consume the vegetative stems and drawdown and still keep in livestock. seed heads that will be rejected by the One-inch plastic water lines were buried much more selective sheep. Stocker and run to each paddock with quick cattle work well with ewe-lambs because coupler risers to plug the hoses into. It is 45 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

important to maintain water tanks that move the animals, we call them by yell- are relocated after each rotation to keep ing, “come boss.” After a few moves, the the manure spread out within the pad- cattle will catch on. The sheep require dock. If entry gates are located on the more time, but eventually they will also corners of paddocks, then the animals respond to the call. Moving is a key time will move easier. Good fertility and soil to watch for problem animals and evalu- pH will help ensure a good, high yield- ate animal productivity. ing forage sward. Foot rot, intestinal worms, pink eye, Grazing management is required to and bloat are the biggest animal health keep the forage and animals highly pro- issues we face. Sheep require worming ductive. When cattle and sheep grazing every 30 days in the summer with late are managed well, the paddock will look July being the worst time. Cattle are like you mowed it 4 to 6 inches high. wormed in the spring, June, and August. This is accomplished through match- The cattle are vaccinated for pink eye, ing paddock size and number of head and the sheep are vaccinated for foot versus grazing period. A ratio of five rot. Oxytetracycline is mixed with their stocker steers and 10 ewes per acre is a free choice mineral in order to minimize good starting point. In order to thor- foot rot and pink eye problems. Bloat is oughly evaluate when to move the ani- a big problem with high legume content mals, you must view the whole paddock forages that are grazed when wet. We daily. Three to four days seems to work never rotate animals to a new paddock well, with four being the maximum. if the forage is wet due to either rain or Otherwise, the animals will graze the dew. If we must move the animals when regrowth and weaken the stand. In the it is wet, we use a special paddock that spring, we usually leave a few paddocks is grass only. In addition, we feed bloat to make hay on so we have enough blocks free choice. Sheep must have animals to keep ahead of the remain- their feet trimmed every 6 months to ing paddock’s spring flush of growth. If prevent foot rot problems. Summer flies some paddock forage ends up mature, can be a problem, but we have found then it should be clipped. that by rotating several paddocks away Moving the animals between pad- that the flies can’t follow the animals. docks is an important job and can be Otherwise, pour-on insecticides can be accomplished efficiently by training used on the cattle. the animals to your call. Every time we Multi-species grazing allows you to manage your grazing operation more efficiently, diversify, and carry more animals than otherwise would be possible. Any size operation can benefit, and sound grazing management com- bined with a good attitude can help you achieve your objectives.

46 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Low Inputs Help Sheep u Chapter 16 Farm Do More than Survive Bill MacKenzie, St. Joseph County For our particular operation, it is far mown down to about 6 inches and al- more efficient and less costly to use the lowed to regrow. The only fertilizer used limited acreage for pasture than any- on the pastures is what the sheep leave thing else. We raise a breed of hair sheep behind, which, I may add, is being de- that can thrive solely on pasture dur- posited right where it’s needed. Since all ing the growing season. By the end of the animals are housed in barns during lambing time there are usually close to the winter, the manure is usually spread 200 head on the property, which con- on one particular area when the barns sists of only 17 acres of pasture. Most of are cleaned out in the spring. This area The entire grazing area has a woven the lambs are registered purebred and is allowed to rest for that season. wire fence perimeter with a central are sold for breeding stock. We keep electric fence wire running the length Our operation is somewhat special- our own breeding animals, replacement of the property. ized because we are raising a breed that stock, and usually close to half of the was specifically developed to thrive on yearly lambs to fatten for meat. If we “slim pickings.” My theory regarding were unable to graze, the cost of pur- our pasture is that it seems pointless to chased feed would be so great that we try and modify the native soil in order would be unable to run anywhere near to sustain a particular plant species. The a profit. livestock use what forage is available to The pastured acreage is pretty much them. They are able to sustain them- a sandy loam soil that had been on a selves in excellent condition and pro- corn-soybean rotation for years. When duce a high-quality end product. we first started some 11years ago, we In effect, it seems we have struck a tried various pasture mixes. Since that somewhat successful combination in time, the only seeding that’s been done that the pastures we have are perhaps is to repair bare spots, usually with not the most nutritious, but the live- orchardgrass. In addition to this spot stock not only use what is there, they are seeding, it seems that many species of able to sustain themselves in excellent other grasses are beginning to establish condition and produce a high-quality (or return), which the sheep readily end product, be that meat or breeding accept. The whole grazing area has a wo- stock. ven wire fence perimeter with a central electric fence wire running the length of To quote an old saying, “One has to the property. Hooking poly-wire to the cut the suit to fit the cloth.” Without live electric fence created paddocks. This grazing, we would be unable to survive gives us great flexibility as we can make financially. paddocks as big or as small as required. The length of time that animals stay in any given paddock depends on the growth rate of the pasture. Any taller growth left in the grazed paddock is

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u Longtime Beef Cattle grazing meetings, we were convinced by Chapter 17 the results: fewer weeds and more grass! Graziers Embrace Changes This started a rotational grazing system Larry and Marlene James, for 40 cows. Perry County The next step came as we witnessed Our cattle herd began in 1976 on a our cattle numbers growing. We added 20-acre plot of ground. Those first five permanent interior divisional fences heifers that rotated between two fields and used temporary tape with step-in of pasture, have grown to 48 spring posts to create smaller paddocks for calving cows, 45 fall calving cows, and spring. Now we knew where the water two bulls. lines needed to be and were able to bury This 30-year period with our cows the aboveground lines. This created Containing cows in smaller lots a watering system in the 120 acres of resulted in fewer weeds and more has taught us a lot, and from experience we’ll tell you, change is good. rented ground with 12 outlets. We also grass. found it necessary to fence the herd Early in our journey, we were able to out of the woods to keep them in the rent 120 acres adjoining our farm. That grazing areas we designated. Through allowed us to increase our herd to about all of these changes, there were obvious 25 cows, but there were major water increases in our weaning weights and problems. At the time, our goal was conception rates. Our numbers had now to still rotate the pasture in half with increased to approximately 60 cows, and summertime water in the woods. A big we decided to split the herd into spring glitch was that the herd spent a majority and fall calving groups. of their time at the water, not grazing! We were told, and we found it very The original farm gave access to a true, it is best to dry lot the cows during 1.25-acre lake. That helped, but it was a very droughty August to give the grass a long distance for the cattle to walk. a chance to grow back for fall graz- The 120 acres was rough and the cattle ing; not overgrazing during this period only grazed on the good fields close to provided us a bountiful fall forage yield the water. In the areas where we wanted to graze than those who didn’t stop them to graze, they would not stay long grazing. Within the past year, we have enough to consume much before head- used annual grasses to extend the grazing back to water. That was not as much ing season. The cool-season grass hits a an issue in the early spring when tender big slump in the hot summer months, so grass was ample, but as temperatures we use sudangrass to give the grass pad- increased, they quickly stopped walking docks a little extra time to rest. This re- very far. ally helped to extend our grazing season A pumping plant was installed in the later into the fall. lake in the early ’90s with five outlets on Running out of forage one spring our 20 acres. Two of the outlets bor- forced us to try something new with a dered the 120 acres of rented ground. hay field that, in the end, dramatically We divided our 20 acres into five pad- improved the regrowth and quality of docks and quickly saw some pasture im- our grass in that field. This was late in provement. We then decided to try put- the spring and the grass had grown to ting water lines on top of the ground to a stage not quite ready to cut. We were the 120 acres, dividing that pasture into forced by running out of forage to strip four fields. After containing the cows graze small portions of a hay field. The in smaller lots and attending several field had been sectioned off by tape 48 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

in approximately 10-foot strips. The grasses for the fall herd in the summer cattle grazed the new grass every day. is greater than when we first began at After mowing the remaining half of the this farm. field for hay, we were able to watch the Through the years, we have learned quality of the grass grow back in the the grazing system must be flexible and coming weeks. The grazed part of the everyone’s cattle needs are different. For hay field had far fewer weeds and higher us, moisture levels, summer heat, and quality grass. length of growing season are all vari- We picked up another farm to rent ables that can dramatically change how where the fields had not been used for well our herd eats. We like our manage- livestock for about 20 years — it had ment style simple. A rule of thumb for been part orchard, part row-crops. The us: when we see the laces of our boots fall calving cows needed less nutritional through the grass, it is time to move into value forage during the summer. The another paddock. And you can bet the new farm was a good fit for our needs. cows will tell us when to move. Once The first thing we accomplished was the cows are familiar with the routine of developing a water system, perimeter the system, they will tell you more than fence, and an interior fence. By manag- you think if you just watch them. Water ing the cattle in the rotational grazing and fresh grass are the key components system, the pastures are improving to keeping the herd content, healthy, through the seasons. The quality of the and growing.

The Dairy Perspective of This has created the opportunity to not u Chapter 18 Management-Intensive only provide diversity in the forages that can be made available, but also pro- Grazing vide for the feed needs during adverse Bob and Debbie Eash, weather (hot, droughty, wet, flooded, LaGrange County overwintering, etc.) without signifi- A dairyman’s purpose in grazing cantly affecting soil quality. We have is not much different than any other experienced that the key to this is the producer’s, except that we generally successful matching of the forages to the do it more intensively. The reason for soils on which they are to be grown. this is that our species of harvester is One of our challenges is to time forage more likely to be affected by subtle feed harvesting (whether by animals or me- changes than most other animal types chanical means) to maximize both the Matching the forages to the soils on which they are grown helps ensure and you notice the results quickly in the feed quality at the time of that harvest, successful grazing. bulk tank. As a result, we are inclined to and to stage its regrowth for the next give the herd more frequent breaks in expected feed need. In our case, we have order to provide a more consistent qual- an area that floods each spring that has ity of feed. These breaks can often be as been seeded to reed canarygrass. This frequent as two to four times a day, and makes excellent feed during droughty almost never less frequent than once periods while withstanding flooding a day. from storm events. The challenge is that On our particular farm, the land (as is it needs to be harvested on a different common in most of northeast Indiana) rotation schedule than either the high- consists of many different soil types. energy or deep-rooted forages, mak- 49 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

ing for more intensive management. • Adequate, fresh, cool water that’s Maybe that is why they call this process, within 400 to 500 feet and visible from “management-intensive grazing.” anywhere is a must for each paddock. By using a small acreage in annuals, it • More animals grazing smaller pad- is possible to provide for those extreme docks for shorter periods give you times when nothing else is available. higher grazing efficiency and more This also applies to before and after the even grazing, plus the paddocks re- normal growing season. It is during quire less clipping. these times that not only can produc- • Grazing could make veterinarians and tion be maintained (or the loss de- foot trimmers obsolete. creased), but also the high cost of using stored feed can be eliminated, or at least • Milking cows this way is a whole lot minimized. more fun for both you and the cows; just watch them. Some food for thought: • Manure generated during the feeding of the stored feed should ideally be applied to the area from which the stored feed was grown (preferably by the animals during feeding, or mechanically). • Nitrogen loss is greater than for any other element and must be replaced the most.

50 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

alternate stocking broadcast The practice of repeated grazing and The practice of applying seed or fertil- Glossary resting of forage using two paddocks in izer on the surface of the soil. Tillage of Terms1 succession. may be used to incorporate the material. animal unit (AU) Seeding rates typically double with this type of application. A measurement equal to 1,000 pounds of live animal weight. bunchgrass animal unit month (AUM) A growth habit of grasses (for example, orchardgrass), so-called because of The amount of forage required to feed their bunched appearance. one animal unit for a month (30 days). 1 The terms in this glossary come carrying capacity from Terminology for Grazing Lands annual and Grazing Animals (Forage and The maximum stocking rate possible A plant that completes its life cycle Grassland Terminology Committee, that will achieve a target level of animal 1991) and the authors. and dies in one year or less. performance and that will maintain or aspect improve the vegetation or other resourc- A position facing, or commanding, a es. This may change from year to year. given direction; exposure. cool-season plant available forage Plants that experience the major part The portion of forage, expressed as of their growth during the early spring dry matter of forage per unit of land and fall. area, that is accessible for consumption by a specified kind, class, sex, size, continuous grazing A grazing practice in which livestock age, and physiological status of grazing are permitted to graze designated areas animal. for an entire calendar year. Also called, back fence yearlong grazing. The practice of using a temporary fence to keep livestock from grazing the continuous stocking A method of grazing livestock on a last paddock they occupied. specific unit of land where animals have bloat unrestricted and uninterrupted access A livestock disorder resulting from throughout the time period when graz- an accumulation of gas in the rumen or ing is allowed. intestines caused by the fermentation of green forages. creep grazing The practice of allowing juvenile biennial animals to graze areas that their dams A plant that lives for two years, cannot access at the same time. producing vegetative growth in the first year, blooming and fruiting in the cropland Land devoted to producing cultivated second year, then dying. crops. Crop residues (usually corn boot stage stubble) from such land may be used for A grass plant growth stage that occurs grazing. just before the seed head emerges from the leaf sheath. deferred grazing The practice of deferring grazing in a brassicas nonsystematic rotation with other land A group of erect, tall, branched plants units. of the mustard family that includes many edible plants, including turnips. 51 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

dry matter forage crop Amount of forage (usually expressed Cultivated plants or plant parts as weight) once its moisture content has produced to be grazed by livestock or been subtracted. harvested for use by animals. endophyte frost seed An organism that lives in another The practice of establishing heavy organism, usually a parasite — for ex- seeded forage species (typically clovers) ample, endophytic fungi in tall fescue. by broadcasting seed during the late energizer winter when soils are frost heaving. A device that supplies electrical en- germination ergy to fences. It can be solar charged or The stage at which plants begin to electric. grow or develop; sprout. feed gpm Mechanically harvested nutritional Gallons per minute — a measure of material fed to livestock. the production or delivery of a watering flash graze system. The practice of quickly removing a grass tetany portion of forage from an area with A livestock disorder that can occur grazing animals in a very short period in cattle on lush pastures that have soils of time from sensitive or fragile areas, that are generally low in phosphorus such as streamsides. but high in potassium and nitrogen. follow-the-leader grazing This combination inhibits magnesium uptake. A grazing method using two or more groups of animals to graze sequentially grazable forest on the same land (or, one group grazes Forestland that produces, at least peri- the land first, followed by the next). odically, sufficient understory vegetation Usually, each group has different nutri- for grazing and normally has less than tional requirements. This practice is also 30 percent canopy cover. called, first-last grazing. grazing cycle forb The time between the beginning of Any herbaceous broadleaf plant that is one grazing period and the beginning of not a grass and is not grass-like. the next grazing period in the same pad- forage dock. Each grazing cycle includes one grazing period and one rest period. Material found, harvested, and consumed by livestock themselves that grazing land fulfills their nutritional needs. Any vegetated land that is or can be forage allowance grazed by animals. The relationship between the weight grazing method of forage dry matter per unit area and A defined procedure or technique the number of animal units or forage of grazing management designed to intake units at any one point in time; achieve a specific objective(s). a forage-to-animal relationship. The grazing period inverse of grazing pressure. The time that grazing livestock occupy a specified land area.

52 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension grazing pressure herbivore The closeness to which a pasture is Any of a diverse group of animals grazed. It is a measure of the relation- with special adaptations for eating ship between the stocking rate (animals plants. per acre) and available forage (pounds high-tensile of forage per acre). Grazing pressure is A type of highly conductive wire that high if the stocking rate is high and/or is usually galvanized and is used for the available forage is low. Grazing pres- constructing fences. sure is low if the available forage is high and/or the stocking rate is low. inoculant A seed or soil additive (especially for grazing season legumes) that contains nitrogen-fixing The period when grazing can nor- bacteria that facilitate nitrogen fixation mally be practiced each year or portion in the subsequent crop. See: rhizobium. of the year. In Indiana, this is typically April to November. intake The amount of food eaten. grazing stick An elaborate ruler that helps graziers intensive grazing management measure and calculate available forage, A grazing management practice that stocking rates, grazing days, and other attempts to increase production, utiliza- factors. tion per unit area, or production per animal through a relative increase in grazing system stocking rates, forage utilization, labor, A defined, integrated combination of resources, or capital. Not synonymous animal, plant, soil, and other environ- with rotational grazing. mental components and the grazing methods by which the system is man- internode aged to achieve specific results or goals. The portion of a plant’s stem between two nodes. green up The period of initial growth in plants legumes following a dormant period. Generally, A widely distributed family of plants, this is considered “spring green up,” but including peas, beans, alfalfa, and there is also “fall green up.” clovers, capable of fixing nitrogen and generally highly nutritious. hard seed A live seed that needs to be scarified ligule or otherwise treated to break dormancy. The part of a grass plant located at the junction of the leaf sheath and blade. haylage Can be a membrane, ring of hairs, or A product that is the result of ensiling absent. forage with about 45 percent moisture in the absence of oxygen. macronutrient Plant nutrients needed in relatively heaving high amounts by plants. Macronutrients The process in which plant roots are refer to nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), raised or lifted out of the soil, especially potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magne- a problem with alfalfa. Generally caused sium (Mg), and sulfur (S). by repeated soil freezing and thawing. herbage The biomass of herbaceous plants, generally aboveground but including edible roots and tubers. 53 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

management-intensive grazing paddock A grazing system management strat- A relatively small subdivision of a egy that provides control of the grazing pasture generally fenced (permanently animal, emphasizing intensive manage- or temporarily) and used to control ment of several small paddocks rather livestock grazing. than intensive grazing of large pastures. palatability microclimate The degree to which feed is agree- The climate of a small area that differs able to an animal’s taste; is savory and from the region’s general climate, gener- acceptable. ally due to environmental differences, pasture such as aspect, soil water availability, or A grazing management unit, enclosed wind exposure. and separated from other areas by micronutrient fences or other barriers, that’s devoted Plant nutrients needed in relatively to producing forage for harvest, primar- small amounts by plants. Usually refers ily by grazing. to boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), pastureland iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), Land devoted to the production of cobalt (Co), and zinc (Zn). indigenous or introduced forage for mixed grazing harvest primarily by grazing. The practice of grazing two or more perennial animal species on the same land unit Plants that have life cycles of three within the same grazing season (not years or more. necessarily at the same time). pH mob grazing A scale (0-14) that measures the soil’s The practice of allowing a relatively acidity (<7) or alkalinity (>7). Neutral large number of animals to graze an soils have a pH of 7. area at a high stocking density for a short period. PLS Abbreviation for pure live seed. Seed node purity and germination are expressed The solid construction in the stem of as percentages. PLS can be calculated a grass plant. by the formula: PLS = % purity X nonselective grazing % germination. The process by which grazing animals poly-wire use forage so that all forage species A temporary fence made of polyeth- and/or all plants within a paddock are ylene and stainless steel conductive wire grazed. filaments that comes in twine, tape, and nose pump rope. An animal-operated watering device prescribed burn capable of lifting water 20 feet or pulling The process of burning grazing land it 200 feet. Animals must be at least 200 to address problems that have been pounds to operate it. identified and that can be totally or par- overseed tially addressed with a particular kind The practice of enhancing an existing of burn. pasture by introducing additional species into the stand. 54 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

prussic acid poisoning rhizobium A forage-induced animal disorder that A rod-shaped nitrogen-fixing bacte- interferes with the oxygen-transferring rium that forms nodules on the roots of ability of red blood cells, causing the legumes. See: inoculant. animal to suffocate. It is most commonly rhizomatous caused by johnsongrass, sorghum, A means by which grasses grow by sudangrass, sorghum-sudangrass, and producing rhizomes that form a sod. wild cherry following a stress period. Symptoms include excessive salivation, rhizome rapid breathing, and muscle spasms and An underground plant stem; root- can occur within 10 to 15 minutes of stock, usually rooting at the nodes and consumption. becoming upturned at the apex. purity riparian area The percentage of the desired species The areas adjacent to streams or water of seed in a quantity of seed that may bodies and the areas that may affect or include other species, weed seed, or be affected by them. foreign matter. rotational grazing put-and-take stocking The grazing systems management The practice of using variable num- practice of moving livestock from one bers of animals during a grazing period pasture or paddock to another to pro- or grazing season. The number of ani- vide rest periods for recovery of grazed mals is periodically adjusted to maintain plants following a grazing event. desired sward management criteria, rotational stocking such as a desired quantity of forage, de- A grazing method that involves gree of defoliation, or grazing pressure. regularly recurring periods of grazing renovation followed by regularly recurring rest pe- The act of dramatically converting an riods among two or more paddocks in a existing pasture to a completely different grazing management unit. species composition. ruminant residue A suborder of even-toed, cud-chew- Forage remaining on the land as a ing, hooved animals that have a stomach consequence of harvest (whether by with four complete cavities (for exam- animals or mechanical means). ple, cattle, sheep, deer, bison, elk). rest rust The practice of leaving an area of Parasitic fungi that live on the tissue grazingland ungrazed and unharvested of higher plants, or the plant disease for a specific period. That period could caused by such fungi. be a year, a growing season, or a speci- seasonal grazing fied period prescribed by a particular The practice of restricting animal management practice. grazing to one or more specific seasons rest period of the year. The time (usually expressed as a num- seed head ber of days) an area remains ungrazed. The fruiting portion of plants.

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set stocking surfactant The practice of allowing a fixed A surface-active agent often used with number of animals to graze on a fixed herbicide to assist in achieving fuller number of acres for a fixed amount of coverage on the plant’s surface. time, usually the grazing season. sward sodformer A population of herbaceous plants, Plants that can provide a dense sod. characterized by a relatively short habit These plants are generally rhizomatous, of growth and relatively continuous stoloniferous, or both. ground cover including both above- soil tilth ground and belowground parts. The soil’s general suitability to support taproot plant growth, specifically, root growth. The main descending root of a plant. It is the physical condition of the soil trifoliolate as related to ease of tillage, fitness of A plant having three leaflets or leaf- seedbed, and suitability for seedling like processes. emergence and root penetration. ungrazed step-in post Grazingland that is not grazed by A short post used with temporary animals; or plants or plant parts that are fences that is relatively easy to install not grazed by animals. and remove. vegetative stocking density In plants, the nonreproductive parts The relationship between the number (including the leaves and stems). of animals and the specified unit of land being grazed at any one point in time. variable stocking The practice of allowing a variable stocking rate number of animals on a fixed area of The relationship between the number land during the time when grazing is of animals and the grazing management allowed. unit utilized over a specified time. warm-season plants stockpiling Plants that experience the major part The practice of saving a portion of the of their growth in late spring through forage produced in one time period to summer, and are usually dormant dur- be used at a later predetermined time. ing fall, winter, and early spring. strip grazing winterkill The practice of confining animals to Any plant injury that occurs during an area to be grazed for a relatively short the winter. period and where the paddock size is varied to allow access to a specified area. stolons In plants, the horizontal stem that grows aboveground and roots at the nodes.

56 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Published Soil Surveys for Greener Pastures on Additional Indiana (by County) Your Side of the Fence USDA Natural Resources Bill Murphy Reading and Conservation Service This book explains why and how to Information Soil survey books have maps that use management-intensive grazing, delineate the soils throughout a county. and shows a way to increase your They also provide information that can farm’s profitability and reduce its labor Books, Extension be used to determine the proper uses demand while properly and responsibly and limitations of different soil types. caring for the land and the plants and Publications, and Hard copies are available from your animals that live on it. Available from Pamphlets local NRCS Service Center. Electronic Arriba Publishing (www.arriba.se/ versions are available at http://soils. english), 212 Middle Rd., Colchester, usda.gov/survey/printed_surveys/state. VT 05446, (800) 639-4178. asp?state=Indiana&abbr=IN or http:// websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app. Management-Intensive Grazing Jim Gerrish Forage Field Guide This book provides simple explana- Purdue Extension publication ID-317 tions to walk graziers step-by-step from This pocket guide provides informa- the person who invented the phrase, tion on forage establishment, mainte- “management-intensive grazing.” nance, pest management, harvest, and Available from Green Park Press, more. It is available from the Purdue PO Box 9607, Jackson, MS 39286-9607, Extension Education Store (www.ces. (800) 748-9808. purdue.edu/new) or the Purdue Agri- cultural Communication Media Distri- Missouri Electric Fencing for bution Center at (888) EXT-INFO. Serious Graziers Grass Productivity Missouri Natural Resources Conservation Service André Voison This is an excellent publication that This is a textbook of scientific in- discusses everything from selecting the formation concerning every aspect of proper fence energizer to management “where the cow and grass troubleshooting electric fence problems. meet.” It is available from Island Press The information in this publication is (www.islandpress.org) or by calling the based upon the experiences of NRCS Distribution Center at (800) 621-2736. personnel and graziers, but is not Grass: The Stockman’s Crop intended to be an installation manual. Available from the Missouri NRCS State Harland Dietz Office at (573) 876-0900 or This publication gives an in-depth www.mo.nrcs.usda.gov/news/news/ explanation of grass root growth and the MO%20NRCS%20Electric%20Fencing_ need for managing pastures to main- low.pdf. tain adequate root growth. Available from Sunshine Unlimited, Inc., Box 71, Missouri Watering Systems for Lindsborg, KS 67456. Serious Graziers Missouri Natural Resources Conservation Service This publication discusses options for providing water to livestock. It is full of 57 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328

color photos and diagrams that illus- Water Systems for trate different ways to provide adequate Grazing Livestock amounts of quality water to livestock in all sorts of landscape settings. Available Ben Bartlett, DVM from the Missouri NRCS State Office at This publication provides how-tos (573) 876-0900 or www.mo.nrcs.usda. for setting up a watering system, ex- gov/news/images/Watering%20Sys- plains the role water plays in livestock temslow.pdf. production, and helps determine the requirements for various water systems. Selection of Alternative Available from Ben Bartlett, Dairy and Livestock Watering Systems Livestock Extension, Michigan State R. T. Burns, and M. J. Buschermohle University Extension, E3774 University Drive Box 168, Chatham, MI 49816, This publication is an excellent re- (906) 439-5880. source on learning how to get livestock water to areas without electricity or Weed Control Guide where typical systems will not work. for Ohio and Indiana Available from University of Tennessee Extension Service (www.utextension. Purdue Extension publication WS- utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1641. 16-W, Ohio State University Extension pdf) or contact Marketing and Commu- bulletin 789; Mark M. Loux and Jeff nications Services at (865) 974-7141. M. Stachler, Ohio State University; William G. Johnson, Glenn R.W. Nice, Understanding Grass Growth: and Thomas T. Bauman, The Key to Profitable Livestock Purdue University Production This publication provides an up-to- date review of all the pesticide options Steven Waller, Lowell Moser, Patrick for controlling weeds in pastures and Reece, and George Gates hay fields. Available online at www. This publication explains the basics btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/WS/WS-16/ of plant biology to improve the success WS-16.pdf. Books may be ordered of livestock grazing enterprises. Avail- from Ohio State University Extension able from Trabon Printing Co., Inc., 430 by calling (614) 292-1607. East Bannister Road, Kansas City, MO 64131, (816) 361-6279.

Internet Materials Hoos-Your Grazing Network Indiana Natural Resources and Newsletter Conservation Service www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/forages/ www.in.nrcs.usda.gov rotational/hoos-your_grazing/ A resource for soil and water conser- hoos-your.html vation in pasture systems, and informa- This Internet newsletter provides tion about cost-share programs avail- breaking news and topics for Indiana able to livestock producers to improve graziers. pastures and hay fields.

58 Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana AY-328 Purdue Extension

Indiana NRCS Conservation Purdue University Practice Standards, Electronic Forage Information Field Office Technical Guide www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/forages/ http://efotg.nrcs.usda.gov/ index.html efotg_locator.aspx?map=IN This site contains up-to-date for- A resource for determining proper age, pasture, and hayland information grazing management, watering systems, produced by Purdue University along pasture/hayland reseeding, and more. with links to Indiana and National As- sociations devoted to grazing or forage Indiana Plants Poisonous to production. Livestock and Pets Safe and Effective Electric Fences www.vet.purdue.edu/depts/addl/toxic/ www.egr.msu.edu/age/ cover1.htm extension_outreach/efence.pdf This Purdue Extension publication is This Michigan State University Exten- an excellent resource for understanding sion and Michigan Agricultural Electric plants that can have negative effects on Council brochure (bulletin E-2706) livestock production. describes how electric fences work and The Maryland Small how to properly install the major com- Ruminant Page ponents. www.sheepandgoat.com Samuel Roberts Noble This Maryland Cooperative Extension Foundation Service site contains original documents www.noble.org and images, and a comprehensive list of This foundation provides research and links pertaining to small ruminants. education to assist livestock producers National Sustainable in improving pasture management and Agriculture Information Service livestock production. The site is full of research on rotational grazing, im- www.attra.org proved forages, livestock care, and links This site provides information and to the leading Web sites dealing with technical assistance to farmers, ranch- these issues. ers, Extension agents, educators, and others involved in sustainable agricul- USDA Plants Database ture in the United States. http://plants.usda.gov Purdue University Extension This site is a good resource for plant identification with excellent pictures. www.ces.purdue.edu An excellent resource for publications about pasture management and livestock production.

59 Purdue Extension

United States Department of Agriculture Management-Intensive Grazing in Indiana

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or a part of an individual's income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA's TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

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