Pasture, Rangeland and Grazing Management by Lee Rinehart NCAT Agriculture Specialist © 2006 NCAT Updated Nov

Home , Grazing, Pasture, Rangeland Management

Pasture, Rangeland and ATTRA Grazing Management A Publication of ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service • 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org

By Lee Rinehart In a time of high-cost inputs, pasture-based livestock production systems can naturally maintain soil NCAT Program and plant integrity while growing healthy ruminants. This publication profiles the general types of Specialist pastures and rangelands and offers information about management and expected yields. Weed man- © 2006 NCAT agement strategies are also discussed and tips are offered to rehabilitate depleted land. Issues in graz- Updated Nov. 2008 ing management, such as paddock development, plant selection, drought and plant toxicosis, are also discussed. Resources and references are also presented. Contents Introduction ...... 1 Temperate pasture ...... 2 Rangeland ...... 2 Managing soil and forage resources ...... 3 Intake, sward density and grazing period ...... 5 Legumes and soil fertility ...... 5 Stocking rate ...... 5 Ecological weed management in pastures ...... 6 Multispecies grazing ...... 7 Pasture renovation and establishment ...... 8 Rotational grazing and paddock size ...... 10 Photo by Lee Rinehart, NCAT Overgrazing ...... 12 Plant species and Sheep on native range in southwestern Montana. systems for extending the grazing season ...... 12 Introduction with the use of high-grain rations. Grain- Prescribed grazing fed ruminants typically require treatment on rangeland ...... 13 Pasture is the basis of any livestock opera- for maladies such as acidosis, mastitis and Developing a grazing tion that purports to be truly sustainable. It respiratory disease due to the fact that their management plan on is especially important as the livestock sec- rangeland ...... 14 immune systems have been seriously com- tor continues to experience extraordinarily Managing for drought .. 15 promised. A singular focus on productivity high fuel and other input costs. Pasture- Plant toxicity ...... 16 often causes more problems than a systems based production systems offer farmers and Summary ...... 18 approach. A well-planned and managed ranchers the ability to let the ruminant’s References ...... 18 pasture-based operation can maintain rea- environment and immune system work Further Resources ...... 19 sonable production, reduce input costs and together, thereby gaining an acceptable achieve a positive economic return, given a ATTRA—National Sustainable level of production while naturally main- Agriculture Information Service well-conceived marketing plan. is managed by the National Cen- taining the integrity of the ecological con- ter for Appropriate Technology nections between ruminants, the soil and Much of the grazing land in the United (NCAT) and is funded under a grant from the United States the pasture plants. Ruminants on pasture States can be used more efficiently for live- Department of Agriculture’s Rural experience fewer health problems due par- stock grazing. For instance, U.S. Depart- Business-Cooperative Service. Visit the NCAT Web site (www. tially to reduced stress, whereas ruminants ment of Agriculture Agricultural Research ncat.org/sarc_current. that are subjected to confinement have their Service scientists have utilized wheat pas- php) for more information on our sustainable digestive physiology running at top speed ture and old world bluestem perennial agriculture projects. grass pastures, such as those that occupy the presence of high-yielding plant species large sections in the Southern Great Plains, such as bromegrass and alfalfa. Temperate and stocked them with double the number pastures will on average yield anywhere of cattle they normally would when using from 2,000 pounds of dry matter per acre intensively managed grazing techniques. per year to more than 12,000 pounds per Even on the arid rangelands of the west- acre depending on the species, soil type, ern United States, increased stock density growing season, grazing management and coupled with decreased time on a pasture other environmental factors. has been successful in increasing livestock enterprise productivity while improving the Rangeland condition of the rangeland. According to the Society for Range Man- The ecological processes that occur on tem- agement, rangelands are a type of land on perate pastures and on arid rangelands are which the natural vegetation is dominated basically the same, but occur much slower by grasses, forbs and shrubs and the land on rangelands due mainly to temperature is managed as a natural ecosystem (SRM). and moisture differences. The following In North America, rangelands include the section is an attempt to clarify the nature of grasslands of the Great Plains stretching both types of pasture ecology. from Texas to Canada, from the prairie states of the Dakotas and Nebraska to the annual Temperate pasture grasslands of California and forestlands and wetlands throughout North America. Temperate pastures are typically very Included in this definition are arid shrub- productive. They are characterized by lands throughout the western United States, well-developed soils, medium to high pre- the arctic tundra, and mountain mead- cipitation and moderate to rapid nutri- ows and deserts throughout the Southwest. ent cycling. They can be dominated by Rangeland can also encompass pastures of warm- or cool-season plants and occupy introduced grasses, such as crested wheat- niches from Maine to Florida, from Texas grass, that are managed as rangelands. to Minnesota and from Southern Califor- Arid rangelands, which typify much of Ari- nia to the Pacific Northwest coastal regions zona, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, of Washington and Oregon. Many irrigated Idaho, Montana, Oregon, California and riverine pastures in the desert and Inter- Washington, can yield anywhere from 200 mountain West also resemble temperate Temperate pasture can to 1,500 pounds or more of dry matter per be highly productive pastures due to deep soils, adequate mois- acre per year. with proper grazing ture from irrigation or high water tables and management. Rangelands are typically characterized by low precipitation, shallow soils and slow nutrient cycling. They are usually dominated by grasses, forbs and shrubs efficient at water and nutrient utilization, so practices that are appropriate to temperate pastures, such as fertilization and plowing, are often inappropriate on rangelands. Regardless, rangelands can be very productive, providing sustainable income for ranch communities while protecting valuable natural resources through appropriate grazing strategies. Specific strategies for sustainable rangeland management are covered below in the sections Prescribed grazing on rangeland and Developing a grazing Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS. management plan on rangeland.

Page 2 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management greater germination of seeds and encouraging regeneration of pasture swards. Rotational grazing is a proven method of increasing the effi- ciency of pasture systems. Intensively managed rotational grazing systems have the potential of maintaining pastures in a vegetative state for most of the growing season in many regions of the country. Coupled with the use of Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS. stockpiled pasture and stored forage, the possibility of year- Native rangelands are more fragile than temperate pastures, and often round forage finishing of live- Related ATTRA require different approaches to management for sustainable production. Publications stock becomes more feasible in more parts of the country. Assessing the Pasture Managing soil and In addition, intensively managed grazing Soil Resource forage resources systems make it possible to feed livestock Dairy Resource List: Fertile soil is the foundation of sustain- without concentrating wastes in manure pits Organic and Pasture- able production. Soil macro-organisms and and lagoons, thereby maintaining nutrients Based microorganisms are the external diges- within the pasture ecosystem and preventing Managed Grazing in tive system that processes organic matter, them from becoming pollutants. Riparian Areas delivering a smorgasbord of minerals, vita- An intensively managed pasture system is Multispecies Grazing mins and other nutrients to the crop at a appropriate for maximizing gain per acre metered pace. This contrasts the conven- Nutrient Cycling in and maintaining soil and pasture stand Pastures tional approach of flooding crops with a health. But to take advantage of the ben- limited number of soluble fertilizer nutri- eficial qualities of an intensively managed Pastures: Sustainable ents, leading to luxury consumption, imbal- pasture system, a grazier should pay careful Management anced plant nutrition and a susceptibility to attention to grass stubble height after graz- Pastures: Going disease and attack by insect pests. ing. A grazier should be aware of the direct Organic Pasture systems are maintained through correlation between after-grazing stubble Paddock Design, grazing and animal impact on the land, heights and pasture health. Fencing, and Water which accomplish the following: Livestock should be turned onto cool-sea- Systems for Controlled Grazing • nutrient cycling through feces and son grass pastures such as orchardgrass, urine; wheatgrasses, timothy, fescues and more Rotational Grazing when the grass is from 8 to 12 inches tall, • timely defoliation and removal and removed when the stubble height is of plant material that encourages from 3 to 4 inches tall. Cool-season grasses regrowth; have the ability to regrow relatively quickly • root death through leaf removal, after grazing, given enough time and soil resulting in underground organic moisture. Cool-season grasses can regrow matter accumulation and nutrient through tillering (new shoot growth from cycling; the crown) or through sprouting new plants • increased water-holding capacity by way of underground rhizomes, depend- through accumulation of soil organic ing on the species. matter; and Native warm-season grasses such as big • hoof action that breaks soil surface bluestem, switchgrass and Indiangrass and compacts soil, thereby allowing should not be grazed too short, as heavy www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3 defoliation can seriously reduce the grass’s ability to persist over time. Warm-season Clip and weigh method grasses will not take the kind of defoliation Construct a 2-square-foot quadrant frame that cool-season grasses can without caus- from PVC or copper pipe. Each straight edge ing harm to the pasture. It is also advis- should measure 17 inches. Randomly throw able to leave from 6 to 8 inches of stubble the frame on the ground and clip all the plants inside the hoop at ground level. Place the after grazing during the growing season for clipped forage into a paper sack and repeat native warm-season grasses. The extra leaf the procedure at least nine more times, plac- area is needed for the plant to photosynthe- ing samples in separate paper bags. size plant sugars and prepare for later win- 1. To determine percent dry matter, weigh ter dormancy. A grazing system that leaves one sample in grams (453.6 grams per a 12-inch stubble at frost is appropriate for pound, 28.47 grams per ounce), and place these grasses (Conservation Commission of in a microwave for two minutes on a high the State of Missouri, 1984). setting. Weigh the sample in grams and repeat until no change in weight occurs. Graze warm-season annual grasses such as Place a small dish of water in the microwave sorghum-sudan just before heading when to prevent damage. the plants are 2 feet tall. Livestock should 2. Calculate the dry matter percentage of the be removed when these grasses have from 4 sample by dividing the dry weight by the to 6 inches of stubble. Take care when graz- fresh weight and multiplying by 100. ing sorghum-sudan and related grasses, as prussic acid poisoning can be a problem if 3. Multiply the percent dry matter by the fresh weights of the remaining samples. grazed too early. See Plant toxicity below for more detailed information. 4. Average the weights of all samples and multiply the dry matter weight in grams by 50 Grazing can begin when grass is shorter to get pounds per acre. on warm-season bermudagrass, bahaigrass and buffalograss pastures because these 5. Remember to adjust this figure for allowable use. If you wish to use only half the grasses have a more prostrate growth pat- forage in the pasture, multiply the result by tern and can generally handle heavier defo- 0.50 to get pounds per acre for grazing. liation. From 2 to 3 inches of stubble on these grasses is not too short. For this measure in Iowa and Missouri, each Cool-season grass yields range from 4 to 6.5 inch of forage height equals 263 pounds per tons per acre, and warm-season pastures acre of dry matter and has been verified by can typically yield from 2.5 to 4 tons per numerous clip and weigh field studies. This acre. In addition, pastures with grasses and measure should be calibrated for local con- legumes grown together typically yield from ditions by clip and weigh method to obtain 10 to 15 percent more forage than monocul- accuracy. ture pastures. Producers should determine A good rough estimate is 300 pounds of dry the annual pasture productivity, as this will matter per acre per inch on a ruler. This provide a baseline of information to make measure is likely to have from 50 to 80 per- management decisions. cent accuracy depending on if you have calibrated your measurement procedure. Jim Determining forage yield Gerrish’s values range from 150 pounds per Forage yield can be determined with a pas- acre per inch in a fair stand to 600 pounds ture ruler or a rising plate meter. A pasture per acre per inch in an excellent stand ruler is just that: a ruler calibrated in inches as determined by clipping and weighing placed on end at ground level, with forage numerous quadrants and comparing them to height measured in inches. A rising plate sward heights (Gerrish, 2004). The vast dif- meter measures density as well as height. ferences in the above estimates reflect dif- A 20-inch by 20-inch plate weighing 2.6 ferences in pasture types. For example, ber- pounds is dropped on a rule at waist height. mudagrass will most likely be different from

Page 4 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management bromegrass when measuring stand density Table 1. Animal intake by species with a ruler or rising plate meter. Intake (% Intake in of body Consideration must be given to forage qual- Species pounds per weight) per day ity and the species of livestock grazing day the pasture. The higher the forage quality (vegetative, growing grass and clover), Mature cattle 2 to 3 20 to 30 the greater the intake. Please refer to the Sheep 2.5 to 3.5 5 to 10 accompanying box for information on ani- Goats 4 to 5 3 to 5 mal intake by species. Understanding how much an animal will eat each day can assist Legumes and soil fertility producers in estimating forage demand. Legumes like clover, alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil, sainfoin and vetch have the ability to Intake, sward density and convert atmospheric nitrogen to the plant- grazing period available form of nitrogen through the sym- biotic work of rhizobium bacteria, which Forage intake is directly related to the den- occur naturally in a healthy soil. In a natural sity of the pasture sward. Ruminants can ecosystem, legumes can fix nitrogen at rates n animal’s take only a limited number of bites per ranging from 25 to 75 pounds of nitrogen minute while grazing, and cattle in partic- intake per acre per year. In cropping systems, the decreases ular will only graze for about eight hours amount is several hundred pounds (Linde- A the longer it remains per day. It is important to ensure that each mann and Glover, 2003). For well-managed bite taken by the grazing animal is the larg- diverse pastures, supplemental nitrogen fer- in a given paddock. est bite possible. Cattle graze by wrapping tilization can be eliminated altogether. For their tongue around and ripping up forage. pastures under high-density grazing sys- Large bites of forage are therefore ensured tems, from 70 to 85 percent of the nitro- by maintaining dense pastures. gen taken in by the animals is returned and Dense pastures are pastures with actively cycled back to the soil in the form of feces growing and tillering forage plants. Tiller- and urine. A diverse pasture with a signif- ing occurs in grasses that are grazed or icant legume component that is managed mowed while vegetative, resulting in the intensively with heavy stocking and frequent activation of basal growing points and the moves has the potential to become a stable, initiation and growth of new stems and closed system. leaves. Tillering results in a plant covering more basal area, therefore helping make a Stocking rate pasture denser. Determining the initial stocking rate for a given pasture is relatively simple, but not The length of the grazing period, or time in necessarily easy. It is simple because the a paddock, also has a direct effect on pas- calculations are relatively straightforward. ture intake. An animal’s intake decreases It is not easy because you must familiar- the longer it remains in a given paddock. ize yourself with basic forage growth princi- This happens due to plant disappearance ples and apply those principles to what you as plants are grazed and cattle search for observe on your own pasture. their next bite. The decrease in crude protein content begins roughly two days after There are several key issues to consider the animals have been turned into the pad- when thinking about how many animals a dock. Jim Gerrish has shown that as an pasture will support. Consideration must animal remains in a paddock, intake and be given to forage production potential; uti- liveweight gains decrease (2004). It is for lization patterns by livestock; the nutrient this reason that most dairy graziers move content of the forage and forage growth pat- high-producing cattle to new paddocks after terns; the plant species that comprise the each milking. pasture; species diversity of the pasture www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5 plant community; and seasonal variations behave in very different ways because of in temperature and moisture. differences in soil type and depth; indige- nous or local plant cover; cropping systems; Stocking rate can be determined using the and temperature and water availability, not following formula: to mention field cropping history. By devel- pasture size X pasture yield per acre oping a cropping system or perennial pas- Number of animals = ture that utilizes nature’s own defenses and daily intake X average animal weight X days of grazing achieves ecological balance, a sustainable, pest-limited crop can be grown. The formula is completed with the following: 1. pasture size in acres Do you really have a 2. pasture yield in pounds per acres of dry weed problem? matter Many plants that are considered pasture weeds are highly palatable and nutri- 3. daily intake as a percent of body weight tious during the vegetative stage. Take, for (2 to 3 percent for cattle, see Table 1 for instance, dandelion and plantain. Both are other species) plentiful in many pastures, and producers 4. average animal weight in pounds for the can spend thousands of dollars spraying grazing herd them with herbicides. They are, however, valuable plants that occupy different root 5. length of the grazing season in days zones and deliver nutrients from different Example: Determine the number of soil depths. They are also very nutritious 1,000-pound cows a 50-acre pasture and palatable when young. These and many will support for 100 days, given a pas- other so-called weeds can be a valuable ture yield of 3,000 pounds of dry matter contribution to sustainable pastures. Even per acre. our so-called noxious weeds like knapweed and kochia can be grazed by sheep, goats 50 acres X 3,000 pounds per acre and cattle with skilled management. Number of animals = 0.02 X 1,000 pounds X 100 days Weeds are often a result of soil disturbance and human interference in nature. Weeds Number of animals = 75 are plants that occupy space that humans do not want them to occupy, and farmers For very high-quality pasture, the intake rate have many very good reasons for not want- used in the calculation could be increased ing weeds to occupy certain spaces. Some to 3 percent for cows. The intake rate may are non-native, invasive plants that have also be increased to account for forage that the capacity to crowd out or compromise is trampled or otherwise wasted. If the cal- the health of other plants and animals. culations are for sheep or goats, the daily Those types of weeds may need concerted intake and the average animal weight would control strategies. In agriculture we have be different. See Table 1 for values. become very accustomed to taking reac- More information on stocking rate is covered tive measures such as pesticide application below in the section entitled Rotational or mechanical approaches such as cultiva- grazing and paddock size. tion in order to eliminate unwanted plants and establish a favorable environment for the kinds of plants we choose to be there. Ecological weed But if we can look at crop production and management in pastures pasture as systems and begin to understand Agricultural systems are very complex bio- how plants, animals and humans interact on logical systems that operate in a particular a given landscape, weeds will become much ecological balance. Each region of the coun- less of a problem. By managing croplands try, indeed each watershed and field, might and pastures according to natural principles,

Page 6 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management we can significantly reduce weed problems. can even favor grass over legume growth, so For more information see ATTRA’s Prin- pay careful attention to the legume compo- ciples of Sustainable Weed Management nent of intensively grazed paddocks. Reseed for Croplands. annual legumes by frost-seeding, feeding seed to cattle, broadcasting in the fall or Techniques for dealing with allowing legumes to go to seed to maintain problem weeds in pastures legumes in these systems. See the section Pasture renovation and establishment Keeping weeds out of a pasture is much for more information. easier than trying to get rid of a bad infestation. Some management practices for keep- Most of all, know your pastures. Make it ing pastures weed-free include: a point to understand soil types and how they change with the aspect and slope of • terminate low-producing, weedy fields; the land. Obtain some reference guides that will assist you in identifying the plants • rotate perennial pastures with on your farm or ranch. Your Cooperative annuals; Extension Service is a great place to find these. The more you know about what your • integrate a high-density rotational any plants grazing system; pastures will produce, the better position considered • know your pastures; and you will be in to make appropriate management decisions. pasture • consider multispecies grazing. M weeds are highly Remember the principal concerns in man- The aforementioned methods, used singly or aging unwanted pasture plants are: palatable and nutri- in combination, can easily be incorporated tious during the into a pasture management system, setting • encouraging forage growth over vegetative stage. up a situation in which weeds find it hard weed growth through selection of to get ground. When pasture stands such appropriate livestock species and as alfalfa get too old, they often begin to proper timing of grazing; decline and allow other plants to take over. • ensuring adequate soil fertility through Many times the grass component of the field nutrient cycling, species diversity and will increase as alfalfa decreases, but in inclusion of legumes; and instances of low fertility or drought, weeds can take advantage of the open niche and • rotating non-erodible fields, espe- become established. In these cases, termi- cially monoculture perennial fields, nating and reseeding the fields is sometimes to break weed cycles. recommended. Some producers refer to this Perennial pastures on non-erodible land as farming the pasture. For some pastures can be rotated with cereals, summer annu- that are terminated, you might consider als or even vegetables to interrupt weeds, planting to winter wheat or oats and winter diseases and problem insects. peas for a season. These are valuable forage crops and they help to break pest cycles while building soil. Multispecies grazing Multispecies grazing refers to the practice High-density grazing systems also diminish of utilizing different livestock species to: weed invasion by reducing grazing selectivity. As an animal is forced to consume • diversify farm income; all the plants in a given area, no one plant • utilize pastures of different ecologi- is favored. This gives grass an advantage. cal types on the farm; Grass, because of the lowered position of its growing point when vegetative, tolerates leaf • manipulate the plant community removal better than broadleaf plants, which to meet the production goals of the often elevate their growing points much ear- farm; and lier in the season. Very intensive systems • interrupt parasite life cycles. www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 7 Figure 1. Plant preferences for grazing livestock successfully used to control kudzu, English ivy, scotchbroom, Chinese tallowtree, juni- 80 per and mesquite in many parts of the coun- 70 try. Small ruminants can also add value to a 60 farm by providing meat and milk products 50 cattle to growing ethnic groups that seek these 40 sheep traditional foods. Refer to the ATTRA pub- 30 goats lication Multispecies Grazing for more

percent intake 20 information. 10 Using small ruminants on cattle operations 0 will necessitate a change in farm and ranch grass forbs shrubs infrastructure. Fencing, lambing sheds and secure paddocks in areas with predators Cattle, sheep and goats evolved eating dif- such as wolves, coyotes or bears are often ferent plant types. Cattle typically consume, necessary, but costs can add up and drain in order of preference, grasses, forbs and profitability. shrubs. Sheep will consume, also in order of preference, forbs, grasses and shrubs and Other methods of maintaining small rumi- goats will seek shrubs, forbs and grasses. nants on ranches include employing a com- petent herder who will ensure the sheep or Sheep have been effectively utilized on goats graze the necessary places and plac- Western native ranges to control invasive ing guardian animals such as guard dogs, species such as spotted knapweed, leafy donkeys or llamas with the livestock for spurge and yellow starthistle. Cattle that predator control. are grazing in conventional rotations often remain on Western ranges for weeks at a For more information see ATTRA’s Preda- time during the summer and are moved tor Control for Sustainable and Organic when a set stubble height of key grass spe- Livestock Production. Small ruminants cies like bluebunch wheatgrass or rough are excellent additions to diversified farms fescue is attained. and ranches because they have the ability to remove weed problems by shifting plant When cattle, being primarily grass eaters, succession towards a more complex, bal- remain in a pasture for long periods of time, anced stage. they tend to exhibit grazing selectivity and choose vegetative grasses and young forbs Pasture renovation and over knapweed and other noxious weeds. Ranchers who have allowed a band of 800 establishment or more sheep to graze for several days When is it appropriate to renovate pas- before or immediately after the cattle have tures? Renovation often isn’t necessary. seen significant knapweed usage by the Many farmers and ranchers have noticed sheep, with moderate grass utilization. See increased productivity and decreased weed Figure 1 for a comparison of plant prefer- problems merely by working out a high-den- ences for grazing livestock. sity rotational grazing system. Pastures are very resilient and, when maintained in the Applying pressure with diversified live- vegetative stage for most of the grazing sea- stock to knapweed, other forbs and grasses son, ecologically appropriate grasses and in equal amounts will increase range bio- forbs often begin to dominate where weeds diversity significantly over time. Sheep can and other unpalatable plants once prolifer- be used as an alternative enterprise by tak- ated. This happens due to the ecological ing value from wool, lambs or by contract principle called succession. grazing on other parcels to control noxious weeds. Goats have a similar utility in Nature tends toward the stability that comes areas with shrub infestation and have been with species complexity. Complex systems

Page 8 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management occupy all available space both above and amendments with rock powders. Plant and below ground, and therefore utilize materials should be adapted to the native nutrients and water more efﬁciently. Com- soil pH and water-holding characteristics; plex systems are more resilient from year annual precipitation; temperature; seasonal- to year, as some species will thrive during ity; and grazing system. This is a good time wet times and others will proliferate during to incorporate rock phosphate and adjust dryer times. Simple systems, on the other the soil pH by adding lime according to soil hand, are less resilient and are prone to dis- test recommendations. ease and insect attack due to the absence of diversity. In simple systems, one or two species prevail and there are fewer niches for beneﬁcial organisms to occupy. Sim- ple systems also exploit only a single soil layer, and therefore many soil nutrients will remain isolated from the system.

Ecological succession and grazing management

In nature, ecosystems evolve from simplicity to complexity. Consider a field that is plowed and abandoned. Usually the first plants to show up are annual grasses and forbs, followed by perennial forbs and grasses. As the years prog- ress, the grasses begin to occupy more of the Photo courtesy of USDA NRCS. space and some shrubs will establish. If left alone and provided adequate precipitation, No-till grass seeders ensure proper seed placement and result in better germination. the shrubs will dominate. Trees will show up next, and woodland will appear at the height Proper seedbed preparation is very impor- of succession. Managed grazing can hold tant for establishing a productive pasture. succession to perennial forbs and grasses by There are essentially three ways to plant maintaining the pasture in the vegetative, or pasture grasses and legumes: planting into growing, stage. a prepared seedbed, no-till planting into the stubble of a prior crop or interseeding For those fields that have been cropped into an existing stand. with annuals for the past several decades, Seed-to-soil contact is of extreme impor- renovation and reseeding might be appro- tance when planting by any method. The priate, especially if high-yielding dairy cattle seed must remain in contact with moist soil or growing lambs graze them. What follows for the first month after germination or the eed-to-soil is a short discussion on pasture renovation. seedling will whither. There are various contact is For more information on field renovation methods for achieving seed-to-soil contact of extreme and reseeding, including budgets for pas- S while planting. Drilling with a grass drill ture establishment on a per-acre basis, see importance when is the most effective, as it allows for bet- ATTRA’s Converting Cropland to Peren- planting by any ter control of seed placement. Many times nial Grassland. packer wheels follow the drill to firm the method. seedbed and ensure seed-to-soil contact. Pasture establishment Broadcasting seed can be effective for some Establishing a new pasture is a time-consum- species, especially if the soil is packed after ing and expensive process. Careful atten- planting. Pulling a roller or dragging a har- tion should be paid to proper plant material row behind a tractor or four-wheeler is an selection; soil tilth and seedbed prepara- effective tool to increase the germination of tion; soil fertility and the addition of com- broadcast plantings, especially for ryegrass post or manures; green manure plow-down; and clover seeds. Other grass seeds such www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 9 as timothy, orchardgrass and most warm- timing and the intensity. This means con- season native grasses do not establish well trolling the number of animals and how by broadcasting and should be drilled. Be long they are in a pasture. careful not to plant too deep or the seeds Rotational grazing systems take full advan- might not germinate. Follow local Coopera- tage of the benefits of nutrient cycling as tive Extension Service recommendations for well as the ecological balance that comes seeding rate and depth. from the relationships between pastures and Another method of planting new pastures is grazing animals. High-density stocking for frost seeding. Frost seeding works well in short periods helps build soil organic mat- areas that experience a freeze-thaw pattern ter and develops highly productive, dense, in the spring before green-up. Broadcast resilient pastures. For more information see seeds after snowmelt and allow the natural ATTRA’s Rotational Grazing and Pad- freeze-thaw action that occurs each day to dock Design, Fencing and Water Sys- work the seed into the ground. If the tim- tems for Controlled Grazing. ing is right, this can be an effective way to A rotational grazing management plan need achieve seed-to-soil contact and incorpo- not be complex. It merely has to direct the rate legumes into a grass pasture. For the grazing animal to eat when and where you humid areas of the South or drier areas of want them to in order to keep the plants in the West, fall-seeding of legumes is more their growing, or vegetative, stage. Rota- appropriate so that seeds can establish dur- tional grazing allows for more effective for- ing the winter rainy season. age utilization by increasing herd size on smaller paddocks for a shorter time, thereby Rotational grazing and decreasing grazing selectivity and giving the paddock size farmer more control of what and when the livestock eat. The basic principles of rota- If given a choice, livestock will only eat the tional grazing management include: highest-quality, most palatable plants in a pasture. In order to ensure that plant bio- • proper timing of grazing correspond- Paddocks divided by diversity is maintained in the pasture, it is ing to plant physiological stage; a single electric wire necessary to set up a grazing management • proper intensity of grazing, or dura- increase options for system to better control livestock grazing. tion on the pasture; managing pasture The elements of grazing to control are the throughout the grazing • residue or plant height after grazing; season. and • duration of rest. Allow the pasture plants to get to sufficient height prior to turning the cattle onto the pasture. By waiting until the grass is from 8 to 12 inches high, depending on species, the roots have become well developed and the plants can handle defoliation. Grazing intensity, or duration, can be taken care of by designing a suitable rotational grazing system. Rotational grazing, as the name implies, involves moving the cattle peri- odically from pasture to pasture or paddock to paddock. For instance, a good rule of thumb is to split a pasture into 10 or more paddocks with electric wire or electric tape and stock each paddock heavily Photo by Linda Coffey, NCAT, taken at Nichols Dairy, Westphalia, KS. for a short amount of time. See Table 2 for

Page 10 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management determining the number of paddocks and Table 2. Rest periods for selected plants paddock size. By doing this you are forcing Cool weather Hot weather the animals to eat all that’s there, including Species (Days) weedy plants they might otherwise not eat. Cool-season grasses 14 35-50 However, before the animals eat the plants to the ground, move them to the next pas- Warm-season grasses 35-40 21 ture. This takes into account the third prin- Legumes 21-28 21-28 ciple. It’s important to leave several inches Blanchet et al. ,2003 of grass to allow adequate leaf area for sub- to move according to forage height rather sequent regrowth. than by the number of days on pasture. Depending on the species, you will need to Grasses need from 15 to 50 days of rest leave from 2 to 6 inches of plant stubble at between grazing events to allow adequate moving time. An 11-paddock rotational graz- regrowth, depending on season, moisture ing system that allows animals to graze each and plant type. The accompanying chart pasture for three days will give each pad- shows typical rest times for various pasture dock 30 days of rest. These ﬁgures are for plants, realizing that water and moisture planning purposes, and it is recommended will have a large effect on plant regrowth.

Calculating paddock size and number Two questions that will immediately come up for someone contemplating a rotational grazing system are: • How many paddocks should I have? • How big should the paddocks be? The University of Minnesota Extension gives details for calculating paddock numbers in their Grazing Systems Planning Guide (Blanchet et al., 2003). See the Further resources section for more information. Essentially, answers to these two questions can be easily acquired by utilizing the following formulas: To calculate the number of paddocks needed, use the following formula: Paddock number = Rest period (days) Grazing period (days) + number of animal groups Example: Paddock number = 30 days 2 days + 1 animal group = 16 paddocks Then, to calculate the size of each paddock in acres, use this formula: Paddock size = Daily herd forage requirement (pounds) X grazing period (days) available forage per acre (pounds) Example: Considering that growing steers will generally consume around 2.5 percent of their body weight, we will estimate the intake of 100 700-pound steers to be 17.5 pounds per animal per day, times 100 animals equals 1,750 pounds daily herd forage requirement. If the animals will be in each paddock for two days, and the available forage in the paddock is 2,000 pounds per acre, then, Paddock size = 1,750 pounds X 2 days/ 2,000 pounds per acre = 1.75 acres Therefore, for a herd of 100 700-pound steers and grass availability of 2,000 pounds per acre, you would need 16 paddocks of 1.75 acres each, allowing for two days of grazing in each paddock before moving the herd to the next paddock. It is very important to realize, however, that 2,000 pounds per acre is not the total productivity of the paddock, but reflects only the amount of forage the animals will be allowed to consume. A dense orchardgrass-timothy pasture in good condition can produce approxi- mately 400 pounds of forage for each inch of plant height. So if you plan to begin grazing when the grass is 10 inches tall, and move the cattle when the grass is 5 inches tall, you should only calculate the 5-inch difference in height in your paddock size calculations. In our example, 400 pounds per inch times 5 inches equals 2,000 pounds per acre of available forage. The figures and interpretations in this example are highly variable, and your situation will likely be different from this or any other grazing plan. This example is intended to familiarize producers with the basics of developing a rotational grazing system. www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 11 Overgrazing January in the Deep South, and early spring for parts farther north. Ryegrass establishes Overgrazing occurs when the grazing pres- well when broadcasted into perennial sod, sure exceeds the carrying capacity of the but small grains typically establish better pasture. This condition is not really a func- when drilled into sod. tion of how many animals are on a pasture, but how long they remain there. In graz- Brassicas can be spring or summer planted ing management, time is the most impor- into corn or other annual crops to provide tant factor to consider in establishing a late summer or fall forage for livestock. grazing system for sustained forage produc- These crops produce as much as 12,000 tion. Continuous grazing allows livestock to pounds per acre and are well suited to strip- selectively graze the most palatable plants grazing. over and over. The problem with this isn’t Warm-season annuals like pearl millet, necessarily in the selective grazing activity, corn and sorghum-sudan are highly nutri- but in the fact that the grazed plant does tious and provide quality forage during the not get the time to regrow before it is grazed summer when cool-season pastures such as again. New growth is more palatable and orchardgrass, fescue and bromegrass slow contains more nutrients than older growth, ivide down. Summer annuals fit nicely in rota- so animals will come back for a second and pastures tional grazing systems. Careful attention to third bite as long as they are in the pas- drought-stressed plants is warranted as these into enough D ture, resulting in the most palatable forages are susceptible to excessive nitrate accumu- paddocks to ensure being killed out. lation, prussic acid accumulation or a com- that all plants Divide pastures into enough paddocks to bination of the two and subsequent livestock have ample time to ensure that all plants have ample time to re- poisoning. Contact your local Cooperative regrow after grazing. grow after grazing. In addition, for pastures Extension Service office for information on with adequate water during the growing testing for these compounds. season, a very high stock density encour- Other species that can be used success- ages animals to graze the pasture more fully to extend the grazing season are Aus- uniformly than if the pasture was lightly trian winter pea and forage soybeans. Win- stocked. In this situation the so-called ter pea, a cool-season legume, is often used weedy species are being grazed at the same as a cover crop in cereal rotations. Spring intensity as the so-called good species. grazing of winter pea allows ranchers to rest more sensitive pastures and graze them Plant species and when the soil is drier and the vegetation systems for extending the better established. Forage soybeans like- wise have a place in summer cropping sys- grazing season tems where farmers are rotating crops such Species used to extend the grazing season as corn or grain sorghum with legumes to include cool-season annual grasses such as build soil organic matter. Grazing these ryegrass and cereal grains; forage brassi- crops for several months before plowing cas such as kale, rape and turnips; warm- down the green plants is an added bonus to season annual grasses such as sorghum- building soil organic matter and tilth. sudan hybrids, pearl millet and corn; and Annual forage crops can be an excel- legumes such as Austrian winter pea (cool- lent addition to a farm since they extend season) and forage soybeans (warm-season). the grazing season several weeks or even These annual crops can be incorporated in months. However, annual cropping systems a perennial pasture by several methods. often come with environmental costs such as Annual ryegrass and cereal grains such as erosion, loss of organic matter and destruc- oats, wheat and rye can be overseeded into tion of soil structure, most notably when warm-season pastures in the fall. These pas- soils are heavily tilled. Consider rotating tures will be ready to graze in December to annual crops to different fields each year

Page 12 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management to minimize environmental impacts such as Table 3. Forage species for stockpiling water or wind erosion. In the North and West In the South and East Stockpiling forages Altai Wildrye Bermudagrass Stockpiling is defined as letting forage grow Orchardgrass Tall Fescue during summer and deferring grazing to the Reed Canarygrass Reed Canarygrass fall or winter. This is an effective way of providing winter forage in some areas and Timothy can reduce the need for harvested forage. If Alfalfa it reduces hay use at all, significant savings can be realized. This system works well for regions where weathering is less likely to early winter when spring-calving cows are reduce the nutritional quality and palatabil- in mid pregnancy. Stockpiled grazing can ity of the hay. be followed with meadow feeding of high- For more information on grazing season quality alfalfa hay prior to calving. extension call ATTRA at 1-800-346-9140. Stockpiling has been shown to work well given appropriate pasture management Prescribed grazing and efficient allocation of dormant pasture on rangeland during the winter. Many grass species will maintain a relatively high nutrient content Prescribed grazing can be thought of as a and palatability for several months after process of developing a grazing system that dormancy begins. Two extra months of seeks to integrate the economic and ecologi- grazing can significantly reduce the costs cal realities that ranchers are faced with on associated with producing and feeding hay. the Western range. The USDA defines pre- In some cases, producers have been able to scribed grazing as “the controlled harvest utilize stockpiled forage and eliminate the of vegetation with grazing or browsing ani- need for hay feeding completely. This usu- mals, managed with the intent to achieve a ally works better in climates where the dor- specified objective” (USDA, 1997). mant grass can be preserved longer under Management objectives addressed by pre- adequate snow cover or because of reduced scribed grazing include: microbial decomposition caused by low tem- peratures and limited moisture. • Improve or maintain the health and vigor of selected plants and main- Stockpiled forages can be fed by either tain a stable and desired plant limit-feeding (allowing only so many hours community; of grazing per day) or by strip-grazing with a movable electric wire or tape. Another • Provide or maintain food, cover and option for feeding stockpiled forages is to shelter for animals of concern; swath them with a hay mower and then • Improve or maintain animal health rake them into windrows. Cattle can graze and productivity; directly off the windrow during the winter • Maintain or improve water quality by using an electric wire or electric tape to and quantity; and ration hay on a daily basis. This is similar to strip-grazing in that the wire is moved • Reduce accelerated soil erosion and each day to expose a predetermined amount maintain or improve soil condition of forage for grazing. This method, while for susceptibility of the resource still relying on a tractor to cut and windrow (USDA, 1997). the hay, reduces the amount of fuel, materi- A very crucial aspect of a prescribed graz- als and hay equipment needed for bale-and ing regime is the development of a workable feed-hay by eliminating the baling process and ecologically appropriate grazing man- altogether. This method works best in dryer agement plan. www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 13 Developing a grazing following grazing. It will also allow you to rotate grazing on a seasonal basis. Deter- management plan on mine how much forage is available in each rangeland grazing unit and map it out. Note key spe- Designing an effective grazing plan isn’t cies, percent cover, water availability, facil- as daunting as it seems. Mostly it is apply- ities and other aspects important to you. ing observation to management, observing Remember that livestock should always be some more and then adjusting as needed. within a two-hour walk from water. This will There are five steps in developing a grazing help you to determine grazing unit size for plan. They are: large parcels. 1) Create an inventory Develop a grazing schedule 2) Define goals This will be a graphic illustration of your 3) Determine grazing units plans for grazing each unit during the grazing season. Develop the schedule based on 4) Develop a grazing schedule your total animal units and available ani- 5) Develop a monitoring and evaluation mal unit months in each unit. If you have emember plan (Montana DNRC, 1999) a 100-acre pasture with two animal unit that live- months per acre, you have 200 animal unit R stock should Create an inventory months of forage available. At 50-percent always be within a allowable use, cut it in half to 100 animal This is for gathering baseline information two-hour walk unit months. This means you have enough to allow you to make appropriate decisions forage available to feed 100 animals for from water. about land and pasture use. Obtain soil one month. Or, said another way, 50 ani- maps from your Natural Resources Con- mal units for two months, 33 for three servation Service office and mark appropri- months and so on. For more detailed infor- ate land forms, soil types and fences and mation on calculating animal unit months, paddocks. Find out what plants are in each see the Montana Grazingland Animal Unit pasture and evaluate the pastures based on Month Estimator located at www.mt.nrcs. a condition score. Utilize features such as usda.gov/technical/ecs/range/technotes/ key species, percent canopy cover, amount rangetechnoteMT32.html of bare ground, presence of noxious weeds, annual forage production in pounds per Important concepts here are duration of acre and amount of residue to determine grazing and time for regrowth. Some range pasture condition and productivity. ecologists and managers believe that grazing intensity is also important, and it is. A Define goals plant needs to have green leaves left after grazing for photosynthesis and subsequent Make a list of what you want to accomplish. regrowth. However, others feel that graz- This will be a list of your expectations and ing severity isn’t as important as regrowth will guide you in making plans and deci- time. Whichever you choose, it is impor- sions. Do you want to improve the economic tant to remember to allow plenty of time for value of the ranch? Maintain wildlife habi- adequate regrowth before the animal gets tat? Improve water quality and quantity? to bite a plant a second time. Take a look at Reduce noxious weeds? Also consider avail- the native plants on an upland range site if able acreage and the amount of time you you have the opportunity. Some, like blue- have to put into this project. bunch wheatgrass and little bluestem, are large-statured and can handle several bites Determine grazing units from an animal in one grazing event. Some, Divide the pastures into units that you can like Sandburg bluegrass, Idaho fescue and rotate animals through. This will allow you black grama, are smaller and one bite is all to rest pastures and allow for regrowth it takes to reduce the plant to stubble.

Page 14 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management Cattle especially tend to graze severely, so Dealing with the dry years is a real challenge don’t get too caught up in how much they to livestock operations that rely on water to take off. Strive for 50-percent use and allow grow the plants and recharge the aquifers for regrowth. For some sites on dry ranges, and streams that feed the animals. Having a this will mean one grazing event per year. drought plan is a very important component For areas with more moisture, you might of a well-thought-out farm or ranch manage- be able to return every 15 to 30 days for ment plan. another grazing event. A drought-management option that deserves serious consideration is for a producer to Develop a monitoring maintain livestock numbers at 75 percent of and evaluation plan carrying capacity for normal years and uti- This is the most neglected part of range lize the extra forage in wet years for high- management, and the most important. A value animals such as stockers (Ruechel, good monitoring system will allow you to 2006). In dry years the pastures will be check how your management decisions are better able to accommodate current live- working on the ground. It will allow you to stock numbers. Another option is to slow determine, for instance, if a particular graz- down rotations during dry years, thereby ing plan is having the desired effect over allowing more paddock or pasture rest time. time. A monitoring plan will often involve This option can be effective especially when a few important evaluation criteria, such as the herd is split between different pastures plant species composition, percent cover to minimize the impact on drought-stressed and frequency of species. By comparing plants. these measurements over time, you can If you must de-stock during drought, con- start to see trends and can alter and adjust sider which animals should be the ﬁrst to your grazing system in order to arrive at go. Do you have low-producing females? Do your goals. you have older calves that can be sold as stockers? Whichever you do, be sure not to A rangeland monitor- Recordkeeping is a very important part of ing photo of a transect in pasture monitoring. In addition to recording de-stock too late. Pasture that is overstocked southwestern Montana. the aforementioned physical measurements, and drought-stressed is hard to repair, Photo points such as this keep track of when livestock enter and leave whereas a cow herd can be bought when help range managers rains return. evaluate changes in veg- a pasture; what materials or chemicals are etation due to grazing used; revegetation or weed control treat- management. ments; and observations on cattle health while in the pasture. This information will be extremely useful in reﬁning your grazing plans. To obtain more detailed information on rangeland monitoring contact ATTRA at 1- 800-346-9140.

Managing for drought Drought is a natural ecosystem process. The concept of an average or normal precipitation or temperature is a fabrication that humans use to try to understand complex systems and attempt to predict behav- iors and outcomes. Whether in a humid zone or an arid environment, a producer will experience relative wet and dry years. Photo by Lee Rinehart, NCAT www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 15 Plant toxicity • feeding one-third of the daily dry Graziers must pay careful attention to the matter requirement as long-stem negative health effects that certain plants grass hay before grazing lush pas- can cause in livestock. Plant toxicosis tures that contain greater than 50 occurs either through the ingestion of poi- percent alfalfa or clovers; sonous plants or forage plants that contain • planting a non-bloating legume like toxic substances due to environmental or Cicer milkvetch, sainfoin or birds- physiological conditions. Plant poisoning foot trefoil; and from water hemlock, nightshade or astraga- • feeding an anti-foaming agent, usu- lus can be significantly reduced by proper ally composed of fats, oils or syn- grazing management. These poisonous thetic surfactants. plants contain resins, alkaloids and organic acids that render them unpalatable. If the Organic producers should make sure that pasture contains enough good forage, there they do not feed prohibited materials. Any is little reason for the animals to select bad- treatments they use or plan to use must tasting plants. Contact your local Coopera- be listed in their organic system plan and tive Extension Service office for information approved by the organic certifier before on poisonous plants in your area. use.

Your local Cooperative Extension Service office Grass tetany Contact your local Cooperative Extension Service office for information Grass tetany is caused by low blood levels of on poisonous plants, forage nitrate testing and locally adapted forages. magnesium (Mg). When succulent cool-sea- The USDA maintains an online database of local Cooperative Extension son grasses are grazed early in the spring, Service offices on its Web site at www.csrees.usda.gov/Extension/index. the condition can have a rapid onset. Symp- html. You will also find the phone number for your Cooperative Exten- toms include lack of coordination, stagger- sion Service office in the county government section of your telephone ing and eventually death. Grass tetany is directory. prevented by: • delaying spring grazing; The following section illustrates some of the more common and economically important • feeding a legume hay with spring environmentally or physiologically caused grass pastures since legumes are disorders. higher in magnesium than grasses; • providing a mineral supplement; Bloat and Livestock can bloat when they consume veg- • grazing early spring pastures with etative legume pastures such as clovers and less tetany-prone animal such as alfalfa. Bloat is a condition manifested by steers, heifers and cows with older the distention of the rumen, noticed as a calves, since pre- and post-partum severe protrusion on the animal’s left side cows are most susceptible to grass caused by fermentation gasses that are not tetany. able to escape. Legumes are high in protein and the more immature the plant, Prussic acid the higher the concentration of proteins it Prussic acid, or hydrocyanic acid, is a toxin contains. These proteins are very rapidly that occurs in annual grasses such as John- digestible and produce gas very quickly, songrass, sorghum and sorghum-sudan faster than the animal can expel. Control is hybrids. When these grasses are stressed accomplished one of four ways: due to drought or frost, prussic acid lev- • ensuring the legume component is els accumulate and, if grazed by livestock, less than 50 percent of the pasture will cause salivation, labored breathing stand composition; and muscle spasms. Death can occur very

Page 16 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management quickly after consumption. Prussic acid most commonly affected plants are annual does not persist like nitrates do. Forage grasses such as the cereal grains including that has been ensiled or harvested as hay oats, wheat and barley; warm-season annual and dried to a less than 20-percent mois- grasses such as sorghum, pearl millet and ture content is safe for consumption. Prus- corn; and broadleaf plants such as pigweed, sic acid poisoning can be prevented by: thistles, goldenrod and lambsquarters. In contrast to prussic acid, nitrate toxicity in • testing for prussic acid if conditions forage does not decrease with time. Nitrate are right; poisoning can be prevented by: • avoiding grazing for a week after the end of a drought since young plant • testing of suspected plant tissue tissue after a drought-ending rain prior to feeding; will be high in prussic acid; • harvesting or grazing suspected for- • avoiding grazing for a week after a ages several days to a week after the killing frost; end of a drought; • considering pearl millet as a warm- • beginning harvest or grazing of sus- season annual forage since pearl pected forages in the afternoon after xcess millet does not produce prussic the plants have had several hours of acid; and sunlight since this helps the plants nitrates can metabolize nitrates; • avoiding turning hungry livestock Ebe deadly into a suspect pasture. • chopping forage and diluting with to livestock and the clean hay; and Testing for prussic acid requires timely most commonly delivery to the lab, as cyanide levels decline • minimizing nitrogen fertilization. affected plants are after the plant is harvested. Refrigerate but Contact your local Cooperative Extension annual grasses. do not freeze samples if you cannot get them Service office for information on forage to the lab right away. If mailing samples to nitrate testing. the lab, mail them on a Monday to reduce shipping time. Fescue toxicosis Contact your local Cooperative Extension Another important condition to consider in Service office for information on forage the South and Midwest is fescue toxicosis, prussic acid testing. which is caused by fungi growing symbioti- cally with the plant. Three distinct ailments can occur when livestock consume infected Nitrates tall fescue. Fescue foot results in fever, loss All plants contain nitrates, which are the of weight, rough hair coat and loss of hooves precursor to plant proteins. Excess nitrates or tail switch. Bovine fat necrosis is a syn- will accumulate in the lower stems of some drome characterized by hard fat deposits in plants when plants are stressed. This can the abdominal cavity. Summer slump is evi- occur during a drought, heavy rain or long denced by fever, reduced weight gain, intol- period of cloudy weather. In effect, nitrate erance to heat, nervousness and reduced accumulation occurs when photosynthe- conception. Fescue toxicosis can be reduced sis slows down. During this time the plant by: may not be metabolizing nitrates, but it will • seeding of legumes to dilute fescue still be taking nitrates from the soil. The intake; result is a backlog of poisonous nitrates in the plant stems. Concentrations of 1.5 per- • early close grazing of fescue to cent or more in plant tissue can be toxic reduce seed development; to livestock, and concentrations of less than • restricting nitrogen fertilization 0.25 percent are considered safe. Excess to the summer when warm-season nitrates can be deadly to livestock, and the grasses are actively growing; and www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 17 • replanting with endophyte-free seed Acknowledgement or another grass species such as Special thanks to Melvin George, a range- orchardgrass. land management specialist with Univer- Southern Forages, a book listed in the sity of California Cooperative Extension, for Further resources section, has an excel- providing technical review and input to this lent entry on fescue toxicity in its Common publication. Forage-Livestock Disorders chapter. Summary References Blanchet, K., H. Moechnig, and J. DeJong- When a livestock farmer relies on pasture Hughes. 2003. Grazing Systems Planning or rangeland to supply the protein and energy requirements of livestock, it benefits Guide. St. Paul: University of Minnesota the farm, the watershed and the community Extension Service. in significant ways. The management prac- Conservation Commission of the State tices that foster a more sustainable agricul- of Missouri. 1984. Native Warm-Season ture system are founded on a management Grasses for Missouri Stockmen. philosophy that values health in people, animals, plants and soil. Gerrish, J. 2004. Management-intensive Grazing: The Grassroots of Grass Farming. Pasture-based animal agriculture promotes Ridgeland, MS: Green Park Press. environmental stewardship and community development through certain key manage- Lindemann, W.C. and C.R. Glover. 2003. ment practices, including limiting the use of Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes, Guide A- off-farm inputs such as diesel, fertilizer and 129. Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State purchased feed; and toxic substances such University Extension. as pesticides. Soil conservation practices, such as limited tillage and use of peren- Montana DNRC. 1999. Best Management nial pastures, store carbon in the soil while Practices for Grazing in Montana. Hel- building soil organic matter. ena, MT: Montana Department of Natural Resources. The biological diversity of the pasture is enhanced through grazing management, Ruechel, J. 2006. Grass-Fed Cattle: How especially through planned grazing systems to Produce and Market Natural Beef. that provide adequate rest and regrowth. North Adams, Mass.: Storey Publishing. Conserving water and energy resources SRM. No Date. Rangeland Resources of through irrigation monitoring; solar and North America. Lakewood, CO: Society for wind technologies; and biofuel development can enhance farm sustainability. The selec- Range Management. Article accessed at tion of adapted plant and animal genetics to www.rangelands.org/publications_ local conditions can enhance the health and brochures.shtml. resilience of the whole farm community. USDA. 1997. Conservation Practice Stan- Marketing food to local communities tends dard, Prescribed Grazing, Code 528A. to reduce the distance food travels from USDA Natural Resources Conservation farm to plate and provisions the community Service. www.aces.edu/department/ with better, fresher food. Local processing aawm/al528a.pdf#search=’prescribed plants add value to local animal products %20grazing’ while providing employment and economic development.

Page 18 ATTRA Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management Further Resources they play in maintaining the integrity of ecological systems. Published by Timber Press in Port- ATTRA publications land, Ore. Assessing the Pasture Soil Resource Grazing Systems Planning Guide Dairy Resource List: Organic and Pasture-Based Kevin Blanchet, University of Minnesota Extension Managed Grazing in Riparian Areas Service Multispecies Grazing Howard Moechnig, Natural Resources Conservation Nutrient Cycling in Pastures Pastures: Sustainable Management Service Pastures: Going Organic Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources, Paddock Design, Fencing, and Water Systems for Con- Jodi DeJong-Hughes, University of Minnesota Exten- trolled Grazing sion Service Rotational Grazing University of Minnesota Extension Service Distribu- tion Center Grazing behavior and livestock handling 405 Coffey Hall Foraging Behavior: Managing to Survive in 1420 Eckles Ave. a World of Change; Behavioral Principles for St. Paul, MN 55108-6068 Human, Animal, Vegetation, and Ecosystem Man- [email protected] agement www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/ Fred Provenza, PhD livestocksystems/DI7606.html Utah State University Delineates the components of a grazing system www.behave.net/products/booklet.html by taking the farmer through the grazing management planning process. Stockmanship: Improving rangeland health through appropriate livestock handling Management-intensive Grazing: The Grassroots Steve Cote of Grassfarming Order from the Natural Resources Conservation Ser- Jim Gerrish, Green Park Publishing vice and the Butte Soil and Water Conservation District This book can be obtained through The Stockman P.O. Box 819 Grassfarmer’s Bookshelf at 1-800-748-9808. 125 S. Water St. The industry standard for growing and manag- Arco, ID 83213 ing pastures for sustained livestock production. (208) 527-8557 www.grandin.com/behaviour/principles/Steve- Pastures for profit: A guide to rotational grazing Cote.book.html Cooperative Extension Publications 45 N. Charter St. Grazing systems: Planning and management Madison, WI 53715 A Guide for Planning, Analyzing, and Balancing http://learningstore.uwex.edu/pdf/A3529.pdf Forage Supplies with Livestock Demand Grazing ecology and setting up a rotational Lacey, J., E. Williams, J. Rolleri, and C. Marlow. grazing system. 1994. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University Pasture for Dairy Cattle: Challenges and Oppor- Extension. http://animalrangeextension.montana.edu/Arti- tunities cles/Forage/grazing/guide_planning.pdf Donna M. Amaral-Phillips, Roger W. Hemken, Jimmy C. Henning, and Larry W. Turner. University of Ken- Grazing management: an ecological perspective tucky Cooperative Extension. Rodney K. Heitschmidt and Jerry W. Stuth www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/asc/asc151/asc151.pdf http://cnrit.tamu.edu/rlem/textbook/textbook- fr.html Southern Forages According to its foreword, this book was written Donald M Ball; C S Hoveland; Garry Lacefield to help resource managers broaden their per- Altanta, Ga.: Potash & Phosphate Institute: Foundation spective relative to management of grazing ani- for Agronomic Research, 1991. Fourth Edition 2007. mals and heighten their awareness of the role http://ppi-store.stores.yahoo.net/soutfor.html www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 19 The book Southern Forages was first introduced Organizations in 1991 and has since gained wide recognition Holistic Management International as a practical and reliable source of information 1010 Tijeras Ave. NW on modern forage crop management. Albuquerque, NM 87102 (505) 842-5252 Selecting forages [email protected] Fertility Pastures www.holisticmanagement.org/ Newman Turner HMI is a goal-oriented, decision-making system Faber and Faber, 24 Russell Square, London for ecological management of resources, people Classic text on herbal lays, soil health and prof- and capital. itable livestock production on pasture. Rangelands West Out of print. Used bookstores and interlibrary Western Rangelands Partnership, Agriculture Network loan might yield good results obtaining this Information Center, worthwhile book. University of Arizona http://rangelandswest.org/ Forage Information System Web-based educational tools and information to http://forages.oregonstate.edu/index.cfm assist resource managers improve rangelands A comprehensive Web site for forage-related top- and maintain sustainability. ics, including publications, educational oppor- tunities and professional resources. Maintained Quivira Coalition by Oregon State University. 1413 Second Street, Suite 1 Santa Fe, NM 87505 Intermountain Planting Guide (505) 820-2544 USDA Agricultural research Service, Utah State Uni- www.quiviracoalition.org/index.html versity, Logan, Utah Publications on ecological resource manage- Order from USU Extension Publications ment including range management, grazing, (435) 797-2251 road construction, monitoring and managing http://extension.usu.edu/cooperative/publications/ resources at the urban-rural interface.

Pasture, Rangeland and Grazing Management By Lee Rinehart NCAT Agriculture Specialist © 2006 NCAT Updated Nov. 2008 Holly Michels, Editor Amy Smith and Robyn Metzger, Production This publication is available on the Web at: www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/past_range_graze.html or www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/past_range_graze.pdf IP306 Slot 301 Version 121108

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