Available online at http://www.ifgdg.org
Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, February 2018
ISSN 1997-342X (Online), ISSN 1991-8631 (Print)
Review Paper http://ajol.info/index.php/ijbcs http://indexmedicus.afro.who.int
Socio-demographic and economic characteristics, crop-livestock production systems and issues for rearing improvement: A review
Daniel Bignon Maxime HOUNDJO1, Sébastien ADJOLOHOUN1*, Basile GBENOU1, Aliou SAIDOU2, Léonard AHOTON2, Marcel HOUINATO1, Soumanou SEIBOU TOLEBA1 and Brice Augustin SINSIN3
1Département de Production Animale, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi, 03 BP 2819 Jéricho, Cotonou, Benin. 2Département de Production Végétale, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi, 03 BP 2819 Jéricho, Cotonou, Benin. 3Département de l’Aménagement et Gestion des Ressources Naturelles, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi, 03 BP 2819 Jéricho, Cotonou, Benin. *Corresponding author; E-mail : [email protected]; Tél: (+229) 97 89 88 51
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews some characteristics of crop-livestock production systems in Benin with a special focus on the issues for enhance pasture production and nutritive value which in turn will increase animal productivity. Benin is located in the Gulf of Guinea of the Atlantic Ocean in West Africa and covers 114,763 km2. The population estimated in 2017 is 10,900,000 inhabitants with an annual population growth rate of 3.5%. The country is primarily an agro-based economy, characterized by subsistence agricultural production that employs more than 70%. The climate ranges from the bimodal rainfall equatorial type in the south to the tropical unimodal monsoon type in the north. The climatic limiting factor for plant growth is rainfall which is generally tending to diminish with increasing variation between years. There are two main soil types in Benin (ferruginous and ferralitic). Based on a national livestock survey in 2016 the national herd is estimated to be 2 339 000 cattle (Bos taurus or B. indicus), 915 000 sheep (Ovis aries), 1 836 000 goat (Capra hircus), 466 000 swine (Sus scrofa), 2 000 equines (Equus caballus), 800 donkeys (E. asinus), 20 camels (Camelus dromedarius) and 20 000 000 poultry (mainly Numida meleagris). The growth of the ruminant livestock improvement has been impeded by several constraints such as low feed supply in quantity and quality, low crop-livestock integration, low level of management practices, lack of improved breeding stock, disease, inadequate stock water, poor marketing and lack of capital. Zootechnical performances of animals are very low. In this context, the introduction of legume forage would be a sustainable way as it can enhance pasture production and nutritive value which in turn will increase animal productivity. © 2018 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Benin, agriculture, livestock, feed, grassland.
INTRODUCTION livestock rearing. Agriculture is a major In Benin, agriculture is characterized source of income providing employment and by the traditional predominance of a mixed livelihoods for rural families. It is also the farming system of crop production and backbone in rural areas, providing a source of
© 2018 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. 3097-IJBCS DOI : https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v12i1.41 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018 employment and the ultimate livelihood for change both in the type and the amount of 70% of the population of rural people and feed available to the livestock keepers. contributing 40% to National Gross Product This paper gives a review of the 1) (INSAE, 2015). socio and economic characteristics of Benin, In the country, land cropping is 2) its climatic conditions and ecological practised by small-farmers according to the zones, 3) summarize agriculture and livestock traditional method of slash-and-burn production systems and 4) propose actions to cultivation. Crop productions are commonly rehabilitate grass-land areas. severely limited by a shortage of inputs, recurrent droughts and limited soil fertility BENIN LOCATION (Adjolohoun, 2008). The evolution of this Benin is the name which replaced the form of agriculture is classic in West Africa, former colonial Republic of Dahomey after as well as in other developing countries. It the Revolution of October 26, 1972. Located leads to an increase of cultivated lands to the in the Gulf of Guinea of the Atlantic Ocean, it detriment of the fallowed areas and the natural lies within latitude 6o 20‟ N and 12o30‟ N and savannah's (Koura, 2015). The fields are 1o E and 4o E with an altitude varying from 0 cropped for 3 to 4 years and, afterwards, the to 600 m. The country extends on 700 km land is left in a weed fallow with many from the north to the south and on 125 km unpalatable species for livestock (Adjolohoun, from the East to the West on the coastline of 2008). In this form of land use system, crop the country. It is a landlocked country in the and livestock production are weakly south of West Africa which borders Niger and interlinked (Koura, 2015). In the other hand, Burkina Faso republics to the north, Atlantic during 2016, Benin animal sector is around Ocean to the south, republic of Nigeria to the 5.09 million ruminants, 0.466 million swine east and republic of Togo to the west (Figures and 20 million poultry which is expected to 1 and 2). The country covers 114,763 km2, the grow at a rate of between 2.20 and 2.78% for capital is Porto-Novo and the official cattle and small ruminants respectively and language is French. 4.44% for swine (DSA, 2017). Livestock production system is based SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC on feeding grazing resources which is mainly CHARACTERISTICS composed of annual foraging on natural According to the most recent census pasture and forest lands. Substantial amount (INSAE, 2008) the population estimated in of feeds are also derived increasingly from 2017 will be 10,900,000 inhabitants with an crop residues, agro industrial by-products and annual population growth rate of 3.5%, other farm products. The proportional characteristic of most West African countries. contribution of these feeds however, varies Life expectancy at birth is 60 years. It has with location and season. great ethnic diversity with more than twenty Over the last decades, the crop and groups of which the main ones are: Fͻn livestock system production of the country (25%), Aja (10%), Yuruba (10%), Gun (8%), experienced rapid change in land use/land Ayizͻ (05%) and Tͻli (02%) in the south and cover mainly due to increase in human the center of the country: Batͻnu (14%), population pressure and partly due to climate Dԑndi (08%), Mͻkͻle (04%), Fulbe (3%), change (Koura, 2015). In some parts, over the Husa (02%), Otamari (02%), Natԑnba (01%), last five decades, the area under crop Wuama (01%) and Youm (01%) in the north cultivation has expanded considerably by (Nonfon, 2015). The remaining 4% is made about 25%, while that of grassland has up of minor ethnic groups. Benin population contracted greatly by about 30% (Adjolohoun, is predominantly in traditional religion 2008). This has resulted in to a considerable generally called Animism (48%), Christianity (35%), Islam (17%) (Nonfon, 2015).
520 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Population density is highly variable coastal areas, where the modifying influence according to the regions. It is highest in the of the sea breeze is felt the annual range of south of the country (about 100-200 per km2) temperature is between 25 and 26 o C. In the and lowest in the north (about 15-60 per km2). interior on the other hand, the range is higher, Average 70% of the population is rural about 27 o to 29 o C (ASECNA, 2010). The (INSAE, 2008; Azuka et al., 2015). rainfall generally decreases from the south to the north. The wettest area is the extreme SOCIO-ECONOMIC south-west where the rainfall is over 1300 mm CHARACTERISTICS per annum. In the extreme north, the annual For human development index, the rainfall is on average 900 mm. Much of the country rank was 159 and 167 among the 173 rain falls in intense storms of short duration, countries in 2003 and 2016, respectively. The especially at the beginning of the season standard of living is very low; according to resulting in heavy runoff and erosion. The UNDP (PNUD, 2000), 75% of the people are annual mean relative humidity is about 80% in below the poverty line and of which 30% in the south and 55% in the north (ASECNA, extreme poverty. Benin‟s Gross National 2010). The climatic limiting factor for plant Product (GNP) per inhabitant is 380 $ US. growth is rainfall which is generally tending Agriculture contributes 54% of Benin‟s GNP to diminish with increasing variation between and accounts for over 40% of export earnings years for most West African countries while at the same time providing over 90% of (Kagoné, 2000; Adjolohoun, 2008; Diarra et the food needs of the country. Unemployment al., 2017). These characteristics have to be to population ratio is 32%. The country is taken into account in research and primarily an agro-based economy, development programs so as to anticipate food characterized by subsistence agricultural and forage crises. production that employs more than 70% of the population. About 65% of the labour forces Soils and Topography are engaged in agriculture, 30% in services According to Adam and Boko (1983), and 2% in industry. Approximately, 39% of Youssouf and Lawani (2002), there are four farm labour forces are women (INSAE, 2015). soil types in Benin. These are: ferruginous soils; ferralitic soils; poorly evolved soils; CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL hydromorphic soils and vertisols. The first ZONES two soils cover more than two thirds of the Benin‟s climate is influenced by the country. Ferruginous soils cover the greatest hot, dry and dusty-laden air mass that moves areas. These soils cover generally the center from the north-east across the Sahara and by and the north of the country. They have sandy the tropical maritime air mass that moves texture and are regularly associated with from the south-west across the southern gravelly soils. Ferralitic soils are found in the Atlantic Ocean. According to ASECNA south of the country. Their area is very (2010), the climate ranges from the bimodal limited. Their profile is related to that of rainfall equatorial type in the south to the ferruginous soils but their physical and tropical unimodal monsoon type in the north. chemical properties are clearly different. The mean monthly temperature over most of Poorly evolved soils are mostly found in the the country never falls below 26 o C, a northern half of the country. They are found consequence of the low latitude position of over the granites and migmatites from which Benin and the absence of high altitude areas. they are derived. Hydromorphic soils are Mean annual temperature averages 27 o C. found on river alluviums or on fine weathered Absolute maxima approach 40 o C, especially material. They have poor drainage and are in the north, with absolute minima descending regularly waterlogged in the rainy season. to about 15 o C during harmattan. In the They are mostly developed in the west of the
521 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018 country and are aligned with the drainage VEGETATION AND CROP network of the main valleys. Vertisols have PRODUCTION SYSTEMS approximately the same textural parentage as According to the Ministry of the Hydromorphic soils. All of these types Agriculture, Livestock and fisheries (MAEP, have a poor cation exchange capacity and 2010), the country‟s land resources are therefore need appropriate soil management approximately divided as follows: cultivable for plant mineral nutrition. land 60% of which only 10% are under Soil chemical characteristics are cultivation and 75% under grazing; protected variable. According to FAO (1965) and CPCS areas (forests, reserves, national parks) 20%, (1967) soil classification, ferruginous tropical other lands (buildings, homesteads, roads, soils in the north of the country are skeletal river, etc.) 20%. It should be noted that this chromic-luvisoil or tropical concretionary soil distribution of land is not static. Agricultural (Youssouf and Lawani, 2002). Most lands land is increasing at approximately 3% have a slope varying from 1 to 10%, annually at the expense of the grazing land sometimes with a slightly undulating (MAEP, 2010). In fact, grazing lands are topography and granite or gneiss as parent lands which are not under cultivation and material. Soil texture consists of friable include fallows, marginal lands and reserved gravely sand to gravely sand-loam and is lands. The ever increasing demand of highly leached in most of the region. Their farmland, fuel wood and charcoal production deepness is highly variable (0.40-2 m) with coupled with population growth has reddish colour more pronounced in some sites accelerated the rate of forest reduction in and they increase in ferruginous gravel Benin as in most countries of West Africa content with deep. Soils have a low water- (Kouelo et al., 2016; Gnikplepko, 2016; holding capacity and are generally medium to Zoumarou et al., 2016; Ye et al., 2017; well drained. The reaction is slightly acid to Enbakom et al., 2017). neutral (pHwater 6.0 – 6.7) in the surface layers Benin‟s farming systems vary with (0-20 cm), decreasing slightly to acid in the agro-ecological zone. However, certain lower layers. The chemical composition of general features are discernible throughout the these substrates shows an accumulation of country. This agriculture is predominantly ferric oxides and hydrates with low smallholder, traditional in rain-fed conditions concentrations of aluminium oxide and low with simple tools and, sometimes in the north exchangeable cations capacity (2-8 of the country, animals drawn implements in cmol+/100g), but with high base saturation cotton fields (DSA, 2017). Land is cropping (80-95%). Organic matter content is very low according to slash-and-burn cultivation (0.5-1.5%) and soils are deficient in N (0.01- method for 2 to 3 years and, afterwards, the 0.03%) and assimilable P (1-3 ppm Bray) land is left in a weed fallow with many (Youssouf and Lawani, 2002; Azuka et al., unpalatable species (Adjolohoun, 2008). 2015). Originally, the fallow duration ranged from 10 The topography of the country is to 20 years in the country (Floret and mainly a peneplain crystalline covers most Pontanier, 1999), while in other Soudanian area with numerous hills. This peneplain is zones of West Africa fallow periods up to 30 deeply dissected by the valley of Lama which years are reported (Klein and César, 1999; cut it into two blocks. Follow plateaus which Somé et al., 2007). Today, the increased are located mostly in the south of the country population densities and the development of with altitude between 20-200 m. The highest cash crops have drastically reduced land region of the country is the mountain of availability, leading to a net reduction of the Atacora (600 m). fallow period with dramatic consequences on soil fertility (Koutika et al., 2002; Nikiema, 2005; Saidou, 2006; Kouelo et al., 2013;
522 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Koura, 2015). Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 (DSA, 2017). According to FAO (2014), the present vegetable production for cereals, requirement needs of meat for the population tubercules and roots, leguminous food crop, of the country would be 143000 tons in 2020 legumes food crop, horticultural crops and and only 50% of this will be produced in the cash crops productions respectively (DSA, country. Therefore, the import of more than 2017). Cereal staple food crops are maize 70000 tons of meat would be necessary to (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), pearl meet the requirement of the population. millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and legume crops are groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and Cattle cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Rice (Oryza Many cattle breeds are reared in sativa) is cultivated on limited areas Benin. The most important in term of number corresponding to hydromorphic soils. Pepper is Zebu × Borgou accounts for 35% of the (Capsicum annuum), tomato (Lycopersicon total country cattle livestock. It is a natural esculentum) and bitter-leaf (Vernonia cross between Zebu and Borgou and is found amygdalina) are sometimes grown around the mainly in the Center and North of Benin. houses. Tomato is one of the most important Followed by Borgou breed (27%) of the productions in Benin (Doussoh et al., 2017). livestock is encountered particularly in the Tuber and root crops are yam (Dioscorea South of Borgou and East of Atacora regions batatas), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and (DE, 2013). The breed Borgou × Somba sweet potatos (Ipomoea batatas). Clearing accounts for 14% is found in Atacora region. starts around January and February and tilling Borgou × Lagunaire breed (11%) is found in is done between March and April. Planting the Center and South of the country. Zebu starts with the rains, between April and May, breed (8%) and Lagunaire breed (4%) are but installation of some later varieties of yam found in North and South of the country, might take place already in December. respectively. Somba breed is the least Harvesting happens between August and represented (˂ 1%). The Borgou is a natural December (Adjolohoun, 2008, Kouelo et al., cross between the West African Short 2016). (Lagunaire) and the large humped Zebu cattle. It has developed a degree of tolerance to LIVESTOCK RESOURCES tsetse-borne trypanosomiasis (DE, 2013). The Based on a national livestock survey in Zebu cattle are susceptible to trypanosomiasis 2016, the national herd is estimated to be and are found mainly in tsetse fly free areas. 2 339 000 cattle (B. taurus or B. indicus), 915 Zootechnical performances of these animals 000 sheep (O. aries), 1 836 000 goat (C. are presented in Table 8. The poor quality and hircus), 466 000 swine (S. scrofa), 2 000 instability of the native pasture lead to a low equines (E. caballus), 800 donkeys (E. nutritive value of forages and increase calf asinus), 20 camels (C. bactrianus) and mortality, the mortality rates from birth to 20 000 000 poultry (mainly N. meleagris). weaning are about 35 to 45% (Table 8). Over the last decade, annual increases are 2.7% for cattle, 15% for swine and 3% for Sheep small ruminants (DSA, 2017). Table 7 shows The major sheep breed, the indigenous livestock number and production data for West African Dwarf (WAD) or Djallonké Benin from 1970 to 2016. During the last breed is distributed nation-wide. The breed is decade, total meat, milk and eggs production acknowledged for its hardiness, varied between 39500 and 71990 tons, 80089 trypanotolerance, prolificacy and suitability and 115000 tons and 7445 and 16006 tons per for year-round breeding. Although it is a small year, respectively. Cattle, poultry, small animal, with an adult weight of 15-25 kg in ruminants and swine contribute about 57%, males and 15-20 kg in females, the Djallonké 20%, 13% and 8% to total meat production does not exhibit traits associated with
523 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018 dwarfism (DE, 2013). The larger and long- livestock is very low, well below their legged Sahelian sheep, and crosses between potential and there is room for improvement the Djallonké and the Sahelian sheep, are (Table 8). There is an urgent need to adopt found mostly in the north of the country and grassland improvement practices to maintain peri-urban areas. The low feed supply in the quantity and quality of grasslands. quantity and quality increases lamb mortality, the mortality rates from birth to weaning are ANIMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS about 15 to 40% (Table 8). Although transhumant, pastoralists, nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes are crossed Goats through Benin land, the main production Most goats in Benin are of the system is based mainly agro-pastoralism indigenous WAD breed. The adult male system on extensive grazing or free range weighs 15-22 kg and the female 15-20 kg. The among smallholder farmers. After crop breed is very prolific, precocious and harvest, all members of the community have trypanotolerant and are found throughout the the right to graze their stock on any farmland, country (DE, 2013). There are considerable and grazing land (natural pasture) is generally numbers of the much larger and long-legged communally owned (Lesse, 2016). and exotic Sahelian as well as crosses between the WAD and the Sahelian goats in the north Agro-pastoralism of the country and in the peri-urban areas. The The smallholder agro-pastoralism, the productivity of the livestock is very low, the main cattle production system in Benin, is mortality rates from birth to weaning are geared towards beef production. It is linked about 15 to 40% (Table 8). with milk production system whereby milk is shared between the herdsman and the calf, Ruminants with the surplus going to the market In Benin, ruminant livestock (Gnikplepko, 2016). In this system, settled improvement has been impeded by several farmers whose main occupation is crop constraints such as low feed supply in quantity cultivation own livestock. Ownership may be and quality, low crop-livestock integration, direct, personal and individual, or in the form low level of management practices, lack of of trusteeship for family group property held improved breeding stock, disease, inadequate in trust. Where a large herd is found the stock water, poor marketing and lack of owning family group may be several, varying capital (Adjolohoun, 2008). Among these widely in size and in relationship. It difficulties, the first is cited to be the most frequently occurs that the apparent owner is important. Livestock owners in their search not the sole owner and he is unable either to for ruminant feeds intensively overexploit the authorize or approve extensive interventions natural vegetation as well as the weed fallows, without consultation with the co-owners (DE, and the availability of the natural forage has 2013). The practice of herding under currently become the main constraint to smallholder agro-pastoralism has not changed ruminant production as in most West African over decades. It has been described by countries (Peters and Lascano, 2003; Carr et Gnikplepko (2016) as a function of the type of al., 2005; Adjolohoun, 2008; Koura, 2015, settlement and distribution of the community, Gimenes et al., 2017). This is especially the influenced by the availability of water and case during the dry season when the low quantity of grazing areas. nutritive value of forages induces loss of ruminants body weight, reduces milk Integrating livestock with tree crop production and increases calf mortality as well plantations as nutritional anoestrus (McIntire et al., 1992; There is a long history of integrating Gbamboché, 2005). The productivity of the livestock into farming systems in Benin, the
524 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018 major one being rearing of cattle and sheep belonging to state institutions with herds under tree crop plantations. This is mainly ranging from 500 to 3 000 cattle (DE, 2013). found in coastal region of the country on oil In this system, cattle graze on sown pastures palm, citrus and coconut plantations (DE, as well as natural pastures, which are 2013). Introduced forage species of Panicum sometimes improved with forage legumes. maximum, Brachiaria deflexa, B. lata, Introduced forage species of P. maximum Andropogon gayanus, Centrosema local and P. maximum C1, B. ruziziensis, A. pubescens and Pueraria gayanus, C. pubescens, Stylosanthes hamata, phaseloides constitute the main diet of these Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium. animals in the plantations. However, a wide The system represents a comparatively safe, range of volunteer forbs and grasses, such as automatically incremental and readily Aspilia africana, Asystasia gangetica, realizable investment. Euphorbia hirta, P. laxum and Phyllanthus muellerianus contribute significantly to the Poultry production system forage biomass. Farmers who have adopted In Benin, poultry is raised in traditional the technology of integrating livestock with free-range system which accounts for about tree crops show lower standards of stock 97% of the poultry population of the country husbandry than the agro-pastoralists (DE, and are kept by smallholders (DE, 2013; DSA, 2013). 2017). In this system, different species are kept and the most important being chickens, Backyard small ruminant rearing guinea fowls, ducks and pigeons. Flock sizes Backyard small ruminant rearing is vary from an average of 1-10 birds of popular in peri-urban areas. In this system, indigenous poultry per rural household simple pens are usually provided for sheep (Nonfon, 2015). The birds are owned mostly and goats within or attached to the owner‟s by women and children for home house (DE, 2013). The pens are constructed consumption, small cash income, social and from locally available materials such as cultural activities. These are left to scavenge timber offcuts, bamboo, tree branches and around the homesteads during daytime mud, and roofed with leaves, split bamboo or feeding on household leftovers, waste metal sheets. Children often undertake daily products and environmental materials such as management, such as provision of water, feed insects, worms, seeds and green forages. In and bedding as well as cleaning of pens. The addition, the birds are not regularly provided system is based on cut and carry of forages, with water and other inputs such as and the use of household wastes, mainly supplementary feeds, houses, vaccination and cassava and yam peels, crop residues and crop medication. As a consequence, many birds die by-products. Breeding is normally not during pre-weaning periods due to starvation, controlled and the animals are therefore open diseases and predators. The level of to conception as soon as puberty is attained productivity in terms of number of eggs (DE, 2013). Due to limited access to produced (30-50 eggs hen-1 year-1) and growth veterinary services, curative "self-medication" rate (5-10 g day-1) (Smith, 1990; Guèye, 1998; is commonly practised at times using various DSA, 2017) is very low compared with semi- herbal concoctions (Olounladé, 2011). The intensive or intensive systems. backyard system supplies fattened rams and bucks for the expanding urban market, FEED RESOURCES particularly during religious festivities. In Benin, ruminants are maintained throughout the year on natural pastures Ranching comprised largely of grasses which nutritional There are also four farms (Okpara, value decreases very rapidly during the dry Bétécoucou, Samiondji and Kpinou) season (Adjolohoun, 2008; Adjolohoun et al.,
525 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
2013a; Gnikplekpo, 2016). Feeding animals pastures are estimated to give forage dry remains the major constraint for productivities matter (DM) yield of about 200-500 improvement in ruminant production kg/ha/year (Adjolohoun, 1992). The nutritive (Adjolohoun, 2008; Koura, 2015). Natural value of the natural pasture herbage varies fallows and savannahs constitute the basic over the year according to the season. Protein feed for ruminants. Legume species are poorly content is high (8-12 percent DM) at the represented in these grasslands, which are beginning of the rains but may drop to as low largely dominated by native grasses and as 2 to 4 percent DM in the dry season weeds (Buldgen et al., 2001; Adjolohoun, (Adjolohoun et al. 2013a). Phosphorus levels 2008). Ligneous species available are Afzelia are also low and rang between 0.06 and 0.16 africana, Khaya senegalensis, Pterocarpus percent DM (Buldgen et al., 2001; erinaceus, Parkia biglobosa and Elaeis Adjolohoun, 2008; Adjolohoun et al. 2013a; guineensis (Houinato, 2001). Montcho et al., 2016). Bush fires often occur as a result of Natural pastures illegal and uncontrolled burning of bush after The growth pattern of the forages harvest to remove rank vegetation, or for follows the rainfall pattern within the hunting or just for fun. The incidence of bush different agro-ecological zones. In the Coastal fires can be correlated with human presence, Savannah area, there is a growing season of as indeed can cattle density, since fires occur seven months and a "non-growing" period of most frequently in areas with very high cattle five months while in the Northern Savannah populations. Damage done by fire to the area, the growing season lasts for six months natural pastures is very significant and is a and the "non-growing" period for equally major contributing factor in the decline in the length. The annual total dry matter yields condition of both natural and sown pastures as reduced continuously over the years and vary well as the greatest constraint to the success of between 0.3 and 2.5 tons dry matter per ha per over-sowing natural pasture with forage year through the country (Sinsin et al., 1989; legumes. Uncontrolled bush fire destroys Adjolohoun, 2008; Lesse, 2016). On this basis standing hay and crop residues lying in the of potential grazing land existing in the field. Although there have been efforts at country reported above by MAEP (2010) and educating the farming communities against the grassland productivity of about 500 kg dry bush burning, the impact has not been very matter per ha and per year reported by many effective, particularly in the Coastal Savannah authors (Atchadé and Sidi 1990; Adjolohoun, zone. This may be due partly to lack of 1992; Adandédjan, 1993; Adjolohoun, 1994; collaboration among the sectors in anti-bush Houinato 2001; Adjolohoun 2008; Lesse fire campaign and inadequate logistic support 2016), edible annual grass forage available in to fire-fighting volunteers. Whereas a group of Benin could be estimated to about 1,000,000 anti-bush fire campaigners place emphasis on tons. Main dominant species are Andropogon "early-burning" as a solution to the wanton sp, Panicum sp., Brachiaria sp., Cymbopogon incidence and the devastating effect of bush giganteus, Aframomum spp, Hyparhenia spp., fire, others preach "no-burning" concept, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Loudetiopsis which tend to confuse the farmers. ambiens, Sorghastrum bipennatum, Fuirena ciliaris, Setaria sphacellata, Hyparrhenia Crop residue rufa, Schizachyrium sanguineum, Crop residues and also tree fodder are Schizachyrium schweinfurthuii, etc. (Lesse, commonly used in the dry season (Koura, 2016). 2015). However, regarding tree fodders, the In both zones, about 80 percent of the legumes trees used are threated and their yields are achieved within the growing season. population decreased. Indeed, exploitation of The ligneous species within the natural branches of these trees with even reproduction
526 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018 organs limits the regeneration of the species. in West Africa (Savadogo, 1999; Ayantunde About 300,000 tons of legumes (groundnut et al., 2007; Attoh-Kotoku, 2011; Akinfemi et and cowpea) residues are produced in Benin al., 2012). (FAO, 2014). After harvest, crop residues normally PASTURE IMPROVEMENT: complement standing hay and in some cases INTRODUCTION OF LEGUMES take the place of natural grasses in the range SPECIES IN PASTURES in providing the bulk of ruminant feed. In Sustainable models of animal general, cereal and legume residue represents production constantly seek for ways to pasture approximately 30-35% of grain production production with inputs reduction. In this (Adjolohoun, 1992). On this basis and context, the introduction of forage legumes in according to cereal grain production in Benin the pasture system is fundamental to fix (Table 1), cereal crop residues can be nitrogen from the atmosphere and supply it to estimated at about 500,000 tons of cereal grasses, increasing its production and stalks and 900,000 tons of residues from roots persistence, enhancing animal nutrition and tubers are potentially available as animal (Adjolohoun et al., 2013c; Flávia et al., 2017). feed in each year. However, quantities of In tropical areas such as Benin, forage grasses these that are actually fed to livestock form a grow rapidly and plentiful biomass is very small fraction (˂ 10%) of the available produced after the onset of the rains, but crop residues. Large scale systematic feeding protein concentration declines as grasses grow of crop residues is hindered by alternative and mature. During the dry season, the crude uses such as fuel source (e.g. sorghum and protein concentration in the native grasses can millet stalks), thatching (hut roof), and by the drop below 3% DM (Adjolohoun 2008, problem of collection in view of the bulkiness Koura, 2015). To solve this problem, livestock of the residue and in some cases distance from farmers can supplement their livestock with settlements. In some cases, many possibilities agro industrial by-products such as cottonseed for using crop residues are ignored by farmers and groundnut cake, but this solution is costly. and do not made any attempt to recover from As an alternative, cultivated forage legumes the field, store and improve the quality of can provide cheap high-quality feed, which these valuable resources. In spite of this, crop can greatly enhance the productivity of residues, such as groundnut and cowpea traditional agricultural systems. Owing to haulms, bean vines, maize, sorghum and their higher N content compared with grasses, millet stover, cassava or yam peelings legumes improve intake of forage by constitute the bulk of ruminant feed during the ruminants and digestion of fiber and reduce dry season (Koura, 2015; Ojokoh and CO2 and methane emissions from the rumen, Odesanya, 2016). Tables 9 and 10 present dry through a more efficient use of the energy matter content and chemical composition of content of the ingested forage (Mannetje, main crop residues produced in the country. 2000). Tables 11, 12, 13 and 14 report a According to Koura (2015), crude protein number of forage legumes which can be used contents of cereal residues are between 2.44 to improve pasture productivity and nutritive and 5.84% and are very below the critical values. Their integration in crop rotations may level of 7 to 8% needed to maintain efficient also increase grain yields of the subsequent rumen function (Minson, 1981; Babatounde et food crops (25–136%) and potentially save al., 2010). Indeed, despite their low nutritive 50–300 kg/ha N of artificial fertilizer (Cook et value, crop residues supply feed for livestock al., 2005).
527 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Figure 1: Location of Benin in West Africa.
300000 400000 500000 600000 700000
Karimama Y# NIGER
1 3
0 Y# 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
3 BURKINA FASO N 1
Banikoara Y# Kandi
Y#
1
0 2
0 0 0
0 Kérou
0 0 0
0 Y# Y# Gogounou
2 0 1 Tanguiéta Y#
Natitingou Y#
Y# Péhonco Y# Bembéréké
1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 0
1 N'Dali Y# Djougou Y#
Parakou
Y#
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 Y#
0 0
Ouèssè Y# Limit of state
Y# Bantè Limit of district A
I Y# Locality
R 9
O 0
0 Agroecological zones
E
0 0
G
0 0
0 0
G Extreme zone of North-Bénin
O
0 0
Savè I 9
T Y# Cotton belt zone in north Benin Savalou N Y# Food crop zone of South Borgou West zone of Atacora Y# Dassa Cotton belt zone in center of Benin Barre soil zone Depression zone Fishery zone Djidja Kétou
Y# Y# 8
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 Y# Abomey 8 Y# Zogbodomè Y# Klouékanmè Y# Bonou Lokossa Allada 0 20 40 60 Kilometers Y# Y# Y# Houéyogbé Porto-Novo #
Y 7
0 0
0 0 0
0 Grand-Popo Y#
0 0 0 0 # 7 Y Cotonou Source: Topographic map and et general of Benin, IGN-Benin. GPS data ATLANTIC OCEAN LEA-FSA/UAC, 2017 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000
Figure 2: Benin map and agro-ecological zones (IGN, 2017). 528 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Table 1: Benin cereal food crop production.
Year 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 Crop Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) Maize 644989 1210 726016 1202 924764 1152 968030 1399 1003715 1281 Rice 17476 2112 24749 2627 40834 2760 74586 3139 65305 3129 Millet 37950 785 44761 823 33998 807 27724 854 26670 811 Sorghum 154564 812 181253 905 119880 1099 101513 988 131553 986 Source: (DSA, 2017).
Table 2: Tuber and root food crop production.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 Crop Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) Cassava 202117 10432 237916 13187 256615 14761 296641 13709 284033 12044 Yam 145366 9571 171746 12775 167919 14135 214054 14909 202605 13082 Sweet potato 10880 6327 11163 4479 11442 5585 10938 5987 10016 5532 Potato 3 533 12 667 11 768 13 1290 6 1386 Taro 518 4548 612 4144 974 2671 519 3913 559 2921 Source: (DSA, 2017).
Table 3: Benin leguminous food crop production.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 Crop Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) Bean 112218 664 122558 767 106764 826 116559 822 120612 822 Groundnut 125538 813 160217 966 147798 894 163009 869 15812009 850 Soybean 3234 835 10173 544 58225 949 97783 1013 152138 920 “Voandzou” 12747 1141 18581 813 14862 757 13250 949 12619 825 Source: (DSA, 2017).
529 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Table 4: Benin legume food crop production.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 Crop Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) Tomato 20953 5435 24526 5884 28078 5558 45630 8779 303893 7786 Pepper 17830 1302 20378 2058 18235 1415 28070 2706 25861 2928 Onion 726 15952 386 10238 2418 14893 2652 16155 4156 17120 “Gumbo” 12003 2662 4086 4847 12945 3310 14397 3397 12751 3258 “Leaf legume” 819 8873 1242 9047 4403 5279 10613 8593 13824 13971 Source: (DSA, 2017).
Table 5: Benin horticultural crop production.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 Crop Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) Lettuce 2167 4356 5004 6543 3289 7619 4271 7614 3564 8618 Cabbage 355 18760 389 12896 509 13666 398 16867 444 18125 Carrot 378 13902 429 16754 690 14901 651 14882 717 15847 Watermelon 12467 15698 1544 16770 967 19843 1432 18753 1596 17748 Cucumber 187 14699 190 13581 210 11631 267 12098 250 10643 Source: (DSA, 2017).
Table 6: Benin cash crop production.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 Crop Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield Area Yield (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) (ha) (kg/ha) Cotton 305236 1234 156350 1046 137086 999 405400 970 313535 859 Cashew nut 38966 1843 40988 1765 49087 2109 56398 1542 68166 2056 Sugar cane 553 21899 505 20150 437 20058 460 21790 810 33679 Oil palm 7007 7560 7843 9005 8082 8830 6584 10700 12129 5950 Pineapple 1492 47233 2065 58689 4208 51210 6512 57592 6682 53531 Tabaco 707 651 874 678 183 508 20 749 28 530
530 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Table 7: Benin statistics for livestock numbers, meat and milk production (1970 – 2016).
Year Species 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2012 2014 2015 2016 Cattle 500 000 750 000 1 080 000 1 879 000 2 005 000 2 111 000 2 222 000 2 280 000 2 339 000 Sheep 656 000 691 000 726 000 767 000 808 000 842 000 878 000 896 000 915 000 Goats 1 216 000 1 286 000 1 360 000 1 434 000 1 605 000 1 678 000 1 755 000 1 795 000 1 836 000 Swine 166 000 192 000 222 000 254 000 368 000 398 000 431 000 448 000 466 000 Equine 950 1 100 1 250 1 400 1 560 1 700 1750 1 900 2 000 Donkey 500 545 560 610 629 650 680 730 800 Camels 5 8 10 13 15 15 17 20 20 Poultry 10 000 000 12 000 000 12 900 000 15 600 000 17 200 000 17 820 000 19 500 000 19 512 000 20 000 000 Aulacode 90 000 110 000 150 000 200 000 230 000 250 000 300 000 320 000 350 000 Rabbits 20 000 25 000 36 000 45 000 58 000 60 000 70 000 74 000 75 000 Meat (tons) 39 500 47 000 53 900 58358 61 646 64 969 68 492 70 327 71 990 Milk (tons) 80089 84 560 89 200 94 110 99 334 107 254 110 066 112 958 115 000 Egg (tons) 7745 8 175 8 623 9 348 9 850 11 551 13 585 14 746 16 006 Source: (DSA, 2017).
531 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Table 8: Zootechnical parameters of cattle, sheep and goat.
Species Parameters Cattle Sheep Goat Swine Age at first oestrus (months) 24-27 16-20 14-21 4-6 Age at first parturition (months) 30-50 21-25 20-26 8-11 Parturition frequency (months) 15-20 7-10 7-10 5-8 Fertility (%) 80-90 80-95 80-95 90-94 Sterility (%) 10-20 5-20 5-20 6-10 Reproduction rate (%) 70-80 70-85 70-85 85-90 Abortion rate (%) 10-20 10-15 10-15 5 Number of animal per parturition (units) 1 1-1.2 1.2-2.0 4-8 Mortality rate from birth to weaning (%) 35-45 15-40 15-40 30-50 Adult mortality (%) 15-30 15 15 5 Weight at birthday (kg) 8-12 0.8-1.5 0.7-1.5 0.6-1.0 Age of weaning (months)* 9-15 4-6 4-7 8 (weeks) Weight at weaning (kg) 40-80 5-7 4-7 1.5-3.0 Weight at 1 year age (kg) 40-80 10-12 8-12 15-20 Adult weight (kg) 180-200 15-25 15-20 30-40 Numeric productivity (unit/female/year) 0.55-0.65 0.9-1.5 1.1-2.6 4-11 Weight productivity (kg/female/year) 22-55 9-18 9-20 60-200 * Week for swine age of weaning; Source: (Adjolohoun, 1994 ; Gbanboché, 2005 ; DE, 2013 ; DSA, 2017).
Table 9: Dry matter composition and nutritive values of crop residues in Central regions of Benin.
DM (%) Ash (%) CP (%) NDF (%) ME (KJ/kgDM) Cereal Maize cob 94.2 3.62 4.99 84.9 6.48 Maize husks 94.4 2.52 3.31 87.4 6.31 Maize stalks 92.9 3.25 4.40 88.1 6.38 Sorghum offal 93.2 4.53 2.44 83.8 4.54 Legume Cowpea haulms 91.2 8.56 15.6 43.2 14.51 Cowpea pod shell 90.7 8.95 9.20 65.5 9.07 Groundnut haulms 90.5 13.4 18.1 54.0 16.30 Soybean haulms 91.1 12.6 9.63 52.8 8.10 Soybean pod shell 91.1 8.03 8.50 58.3 8.51 DM = dry matter, CP = crude protein, NDF = neutral detergent fiber, ME = metabolizable energy; Source: (Koura, 2015)
532 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Table 10: Dry matter composition and nutritive values of crop residues in Northern regions of Benin.
DM (%) Ash (%) CP (%) NDF (%) ME (KJ/kgDM) Cereal Maize cob 92.90 2.68 4.36 86.6 5.69 Maize husks 92.50 6.88 5.84 79.9 6.90 Maize stalks 92.20 6.79 4.07 87.7 5.26 Sorghum offal 92.00 5.64 3.89 81.5 5.26 Legume Cowpea haulms 90.50 11.70 18.8 39.20 17.0 Cowpea pod shell 93.60 4.060 8.84 68.70 8.63 Groundnut haulms 90.40 10.10 13.90 51.70 12.6 Soybean haulms 91.20 12.90 8.90 57.20 7.61 Soybean pod shell 91.10 6.16 6.23 70.62 6.62 DM = dry matter, CP = crude protein, NDF = neutral detergent fiber, ME = metabolizable energy; Source: (Koura, 2015).
Table 11: Agronomic characteristics of some grass forages adapted to Benin environment.
Species Dry matter Feeding values Drought and defoliation tolerance Compatibility Source yield (tons/ha) with legumes Panicum 3-15 5-13% CP, 51-65% digestibility, 0,17% P, high palatability Good tolerance to drought and very Very good (1), (2), (3), maximum before flowering and LWG* = 100-400 kg/ha/year high tolerance to defoliation (4), (5) Andropogon 4-30 7-15% CP, 63% digestibility, high palatability and LWG + Very high tolerance to drought and Medium to good (1), (3), (6), gayanus 100-200 kg/ha/year good tolerance to defoliation (7) Brachiaria 3-25 5-15% CP, 55-75% digestibility, very high palatability and Low tolerance to drought and low (1), (8), (9) ruziziensis LWG* ˃ 200 kg/ha/year defoliation * LWG = Live weight gain with approximately 2 animal units per ha per year; (1) Cook et al. (2005), (2) Bodgan (1977), (3) Adjolohoun (2008), (4) Adjolohoun et al. (2013a), (5) Adjolohoun et al. (2013b), (6) Buldgen and Dieng (1997), (7) Toledo et al. (1990), (8) Adjolohoun et al. (2013d), (9) Milles et al. (1996).
533 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Table 12: Agronomic characteristics of some erect herbaceous legumes adapted to Benin environment.
Species Dry matter Feeding values Drought and defoliation tolerance Compatibility with grasses Source yield (tons/ha) and nitrogen fixation Aeschynomene 2-8 20% CP, 53-66% digestibility, very high Medium for drought and defoliation Good and 150 kg/ha/year (1), (2), (3), (4), histrix palatability and LWG* ˃ 200 kg/ha/year tolerance (5), (6), (7) A. americanum 3-5 10-28% CP, 60-70% digestibility, very high Moderate for drought and defoliation Good and 112 kg N/ha/year (1), (8), (9), (10) palatability and LWG ˃ 200 kg/ha/year tolerance A. indica - Not sufficiently evaluated but may be Low for drought and defoliation Very good with 100 kg (1), (10), (12), (14) acceptable tolerance N/ha/year Stylosanthes 3-5 8% CP, 66% digestibility, high palatability Highly good but medium defoliation Very good with more than (1), (2), (3), (4), (5) fruticosa tolerance 80 kg N/ha/year S. hamata 1-6 CP ˃ 17-24%, 66-72% digestibility, very Good for drought but low defoliation Good (1), (15), (16), (17), good palatability tolerance (18), (19), (20) * LWG = Live weight gain with approximately 2 animal units per ha per year; (1) Cook et al. (2005), (2) Tarawali and Mohamed-Saleem (1995), (3) Merkel et al. (2000), (4) Adjei and Fianu (1985), (5) Olanite et al. (2004), (6) Barnes and Addo-Kwafo (1996), (7) Muhr et al. (1999), (8) Bishop (1992), (9) Bishop et al. (1985), (10) Bishop et al. (1988), (11) Hodges et al. (1982), (12) Kretschmer and Bullock (1980), (14) Bielig (1997), (15) Roberge and Toutain (1999), (16) Cameron (1985), (17) English (1999), (18) Jones and Bunch (2003), (19) Jones and Jones (2003), (20) Loch and Ferguson (1999).
534 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Table 13: Agronomic characteristics of some climbing legumes adapted to Benin environment.
Species Dry matter Feeding values Drought and Compatibility with grasses Source yield (tons/ha) defoliation tolerance and nitrogen fixation Centrosema 2-7 13-26% CP, 54-65%digestibility, 0.15-0.21% P, 0.5- Medium to good for Very good and more than 100 (1), (23), (8), (9), pubescens 0.8% Ca, 0.32% Mg, 1.5% K, high palatability and drought and defoliation kg N/ha/year (10), (11) LWG ˃ 100-650 kg/ha/year tolerance Pueraria 1-6 10-20% CP, more than 65% palatability and LWG ˃ Medium and moderately Medium compatibility and (1) (22) phaseoloides 200 kg/ha/year tolerant to defoliation more than 250 kg N/ha/year Mucuna 2-10 11-26% CP, 60-65% digestibility, high mineral content, Annual plant Very good and more than300 (1), (13), (14), pruriens medium to high palatability and LWG is good. kg N/ha/year (15), (16), (17) * LWG = Live weight gain with approximately 2 animal units per ha per year; (1) Cook et al. (2005), (23) Muhr (1998), (8) Bishop (1992), (9) Bishop et al. (1985), (10) Bishop et al. (1988), (11) Hodges et al. (1982), (13) Buckles et al. (1998), (14) Bielig (1997), (15) Roberge and Toutain (1999), (16) Cameron (1985), (17) English (1999).
Table 14: Agronomic characteristics of some ligneous forage legumes adapted to Benin environment.
Species Dry matter Feeding values Drought and defoliation Compatibility with grasses Source yield (tons/ha) tolerance and nitrogen fixation Cajanus 2-25 10-25% CP, palatability increases with plant age, and Very good for drought but Very good with more than (1), (24), (8), (9), cajan LWG 200-500 kg/ha/year. low defoliation tolerance 250 kg N/ha/year (10) Leucaena 1-33 25-30% CP, 55-70%, very high palatability, 0.2-0.3% Very good for drought and Very good with more than (1), (11), (12), leucocephala P, 0.8-1.9% Ca, 0.01-0.02% Na and LWG : 200-1700 defoliation tolerance 200 kg N/ha/year (13), (14), (15), kg/ha/year (16) Gliricidia 2-20 18-30% CP, 60-65% digestibility, low palatability and Very good for drought and Very good with more than (1), (17), (18), sepium high toxicity, increases 25% LWG. defoliation tolerance 100 kg N/ha/year (19), (20), (21) * LWG = Live weight gain with approximately 2 animal units per ha per year; (1) Cook et al. (2005), (24) Vandenbeldt (1988), (8) Bishop (1992), (9) Bishop et al. (1985), (10) Bishop et al. (1988), (11) Hodges et al. (1982), (13) Buckles et al. (1998), (14) Bielig (1997), (15) Roberge and Toutain (1999), (16) Cameron (1985), (17) English (1999), (18) Jones and Bunch (2003), (19) Jones and Jones (2003), (20) Loch and Ferguson (1999), Ella et al. (1989).
535 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Conclusion Doctorat en Sciences agronomiques et In tropical areas such as Benin the Ingénierie biologique. Faculté growth of the ruminant livestock improvement Universitaire des Sciences has been impeded by several constraints such Agronomiques de Gembloux. Belgique. as low feed supply in quantity and quality, 101 p. low crop-livestock integration, low level of Adjolohoun S. 1992. Contribution à l‟Etude management practices, lack of improved des Systèmes d‟Elevage et Gestion breeding stock, disease, inadequate stock Agro-Pastorale du Terroir : Cas de water, poor marketing and lack of capital. Village de Tchankuehoun dans la Sous- Zootechnical performances of animals are Préfecture de Matéri (BENIN). Mémoire very low. To solve this problem cultivated d‟Ingénieur Agronome. Faculté des forage legumes can provide cheap high- Sciences Agronomiques, Université quality feed, which can greatly enhance the d‟Abomey-Calavi, 169p. productivity of traditional agricultural Adjolohoun S. 1994. Diagnostic zootechnique systems. des systèmes de production dans les régions voisines des Fermes du Projet COMPETING INTERESTS Développement Production Animale Authors have declared that no (PDPA). Rapport d‟activité, 100p. competing interests exist. Adjolohoun S, Dahouda M, Adandedjan C, Toleba SS, Kindomihou V, Sinsin B. 2013a. Evaluation of biomass production AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS and nutritive value of nine Panicum This work was carried out in maximum ecotypes in Central region of collaboration between all authors. DDMH Benin. African Journal of Agricultural designed the study, performed documentation Research, 8(17): 1661-1668. research, was involved in data collection, and http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR wrote the first draft of the manuscript. SA and Adjolohoun S, Dahouda M, Adandedjan C, others managed on data collection, evaluation Toleba SS, Houinato M, Nonfon R, and interpretations. All authors read and Sinsin B. 2013b. Diversité et approved the final manuscript. caractérisation morphologique des écotypes de l‟espèce fourragère Panicum REFERENCES maximum au Bénin. International Adam KS, Boko M. 1983. Le Bénin. EDICEF: Journal of Biological and Chemical Paris ; 95. Sciences, 6(5): 2043-2054. Adandedjan C. 1993. Essais et développement http://ajol.info/index.php/ijbcs des cultures fourragères. Rapport Adjolohoun S, Bindelle J, Adandedjan C, d‟activité mai 1993, Projet de Toleba SS, Houinato M, Sinsin B. Développement de la Production 2013c. Growth and forage production of Animale, Cotonou, Bénin, pp. 4-5. four Arachis pintoi (Kaprovickas & Adjei MB, Fianu FK. 1985. The effect of Gregory) genotypes in two contrasting cutting interval on the yield and nutritive ecological regions of Benin (West value of some tropical legumes on the Africa). International Journal of coastal grassland of Ghana. Trop. Agriculture Innovations and Research, Grass., 19: 164-171. 2(2): 2319-1473. Adjolohoun S. 2008. Yield, nutritive value Adjolohoun S, Bindelle J, Adandedjan C, and effects on soil fertility of forage Toleba SS, Houinato M, Kindomihou V, grasses and legumes cultivated as ley Nonfon WRV, Sinsin B. 2013d. pastures in the Borgou region of Benin. Influence de l‟écartement et de la Thèse pour l‟obtention du Diplôme de fertilisation azotée sur le rendement et la 536 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
qualité des semences de Brachiaria Bielig LM. 1997. Chromosome numbers in ruziziensis en climat tropical sub- the forage legume genus, Aeschynomene humide. Fourrages, 216: 339-345. L. Sabrao Journal, 29: 33-39. http://www.afpf-asso.org/index/action/ Bishop HG. 1992. Aeschynomene americana page/id/3/title/la-revue-fourrages L. In Plant Resources of South-East Akinfemi A, Adua MM, Adu OA. 2012. Asia No. 4, Forages, Mannetje L, Jones Evaluation of nutritive values of tropical RM (eds). Pudoc Scientific Publishers: feed sources and by-products using in Wageningen, the Netherlands; 37-38. vitro gas production technique in Bishop HG, Ludke DH, Rutherford MT. 1985. ruminant animals. Emirates Journal of Glenn jointvetch: A new pasture legume Food and Agriculture, 24(4): 348-353. for Queensland coastal areas. Queens. ASECNA 2010. Statistiques météorologiques. Agric. J., 111: 241-245. Agence pour la Sécurité de la Navigation Bishop HG, Pengelly BC, Ludke DH. 1988. Aérienne en Afrique et à Madagascar. Classification and description of a Atchadé C, Sidi B. 1990. Etude des pâturages collection of the legume genus, naturels et propositions de gestion. Aeschynomene. Trop. Grass., 22: 160- PDPA, Direction d‟Elevage, 50p. 175. Attoh-Kotoku V. 2011. Feeding two nerica Bogdan AV. 1977. Tropical Pastures and rice straw varieties to sheep: effects of Fodder Plants (grasses and legumes). supplementation with leguminous Longman : London, New York; 475. foliages on digestibility, nutrient Buckles D, Triomphe B, Sain G. 1998. Cover utilization and growth performance. Crops in Hillside Agriculture. Farmer Journal of Science and Multidisciplinary Innovation with Mucuna. IDRC and Research, 4: 59-67. CIMMYT: Ottawa, Canada; 222. Ayantunde AA, Delfosse P, Fernandez-Rivera Buldgen A, Michiels B, Adjolohoun S, S, Gerard B, Dan-Gomma A. 2007. Babatoundé S, Adandedjan C. 2001. Supplementation with groundnut haulms Production and nutritive value of grasses for sheep fattening in the West African cultivated in the coastal area of Benin. Sahel. Tropical Animal Health Trop. Grass., 35: 43-47. Production, 39: 207-216. Buldgen A, Dieng A. 1997. Andropogon Azuka CV, Igué AM, Diekkrüger B, Igwe Gayanus var. Bisquamulatus. Une CA. 2015. Soil survey and soil Culture Fourragère pour les Régions classification of the Koupendri Tropicales. Les Presses Agronomiques catchment in Benin, West Africa. de Gembloux : Gembloux, Belgique ; African Journal of Agricultural 171. Research, 10(42): 3938-3951. Commission de Pédologie et Cartographie des Babatounde S, Oumorou M, Tchabi VI, Sols. 1967. Classification Française des Lecomte T, Houinato M, Adandedjan C. Sols. Travaux C.P.C.S. Grignon, France: 2010. Ingestion volontaire et préférences ENSA, 96 p. alimentaires chez des moutons Djallonké Cameron DG. 1985. Tropical and subtropical nourris avec des graminées et des legumes 5. Siratro pasture (Macroptilum légumineuses fourragères tropicales atropurpureum): the most widely planted cultivées au Bénin. Int. J. Biol. Chem. subtropical legume. Queens. Agri. J. Sci., 4(4): 1030-1043. DOI: 111: 45-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v7i6.23 Carr PM, Poland WW, Tisor LJ. 2005. Barnes P, Addo-kwafo A. 1996. Evaluation of Natural reseeding by forage legumes introduced forage accessions for fodder following wheat in western North production at a subhumid site in southern Dakota. Agron. J., 97: 1270-1277. DOI: Ghana. Trop. Grass., 30: 422-425.
537 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/agronj2005.00 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation). 7 1965. Guidelines for Soil Description. Cook BG, Pengelly BC, Brown SD, Donnelly FAO Flat: Paris. France; 22. JL, Eagles DA, Franco MA, Hanson J, FAO. 2014. Faostat Database Results. Food Mullen BF, Partridge IJ, Peters M, and Agriculture Organisation of the Schultze-Kraft R. 2005. The Production United Nations: Rome, Italy. of Tropical Forages : An alternative Flávia MAG, Henrique ZB, Luciana G, selection tool. Available at Alessandra AG, Karina B, Waldssimiler
538 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
S-290. Institute of Food and Agricultural http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2015.102 Sciences, University of Florida. 77 Houinato M. 2001. Phytosociologie, écologie, Kouelo FA, Houngnandan P, Gerd D. 2013. productivité et capacité de charge des Contribution of seven legumes residues formations végétales pâturées dans la incorporated into soil and NP fertilizer to région des Monts-kouffé (Bénin). Thèse maize yield, nitrogen use efficiency and de Doctorat. Fac. Sc. Lab. Bot. Syst. et harvest index in degraded soil in the Phyt. Uni.Lib. Bruxelles, Belgique, center of Benin. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci., 219p. 7(4): 2468-2489. DOI: IGN. 2017. Institut de Géographie National. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v7i6.23 Carte du Bénin : Divisions Koura B. 2015. Improvement of animal administratives et Agroécologiques. 1 p. productivity by using crop residues in INSAE. 2008. Statistiques économiques/ integrated crop-livestock systems in Production agricole. http://www.insae- Benin. PhD thesis. University of bj.org/production-agricole.html. Abomey-Calavi. Abomey-Calavi. 186 p. Consulted on December 12, 2015. Koutika LS, Sanginga N, Vanlauwe B, Weise INSAE. 2015. Statistiques économiques/ S. 2002. Chemical properties of soil Production agricole. http://www.insae- organic matter assessment under fallow bj.org/production-agricole.html. systems in the forest margins Consulted on December 12, 2015. benchmark. Soil Biol. Biochem., 34: 757- Jones RM, Bunch GA. 2003. Experiences 765. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ with farm pastures at the former CSIRO S0038-0717 (02)00005-6 Samford Research Station, south-east Kretschmer AE, Bullock RC. 1980. Queensland, and how these relate to Aeschynomene spp.: Distribution and results from 40 years of research. Trop. potential use. Proceedings of the Soil Grass., 37: 151-164. and Crop Science Society of Florida, 39: Jones RM, Jones RJ. 2003. Effect of stocking 145-152. rates on animal gain, pasture yield and Lesse DPAA. 2015. Gestion et modélisation composition, and soil properties from de la dynamique des parcours de setaria-nitrogen and setaria-legume transhumance dans un contexte de pastures in coastal south-east variabilités climatiques au nord-est du Queensland. Trop. Grass., 37: 65-83. Bénin. Thèse de Doctorat. Université Kagoné H. 2000. Gestion durable des d‟Abomey-Calavi. Abomey-Calavi. 305 écosystèmes pâturés en zone nord- p. soudanienne du Burkina Faso. Thèse de Loch DS, Ferguson JE. 1999. Forage Seed doctorat, Faculté Universitaire des Production (vol 2), Tropical and Sciences Agronomiques de Gembloux. Subtropical Species. CAB International: Belgique. 236 p. + annexes. Oxon, UK; 479 p. Klein HD, César J. 1999. Plantes fourragères MAEP. 2010. Ministry of Agriculture, et fertilité du sol. In Culture Fourragères Livestock and fisheries of Benin. Tropicales, Robertge G, Toutain B (eds). Rapport d‟Activités. CIRAD ; 321-357. Mannetje L„T. 2000. Potencial y perspectivas Kouelo FA, Houngnandan P, Dedehouanou H, para la sustentabilidad de las pasturas Tossou R, Orou Bello DO, Joël Bekou tropicales. In Producción de Leche y KA, Tchetangni AY. 2016. Soil Carne en el Trópico con Base en conservation practices in three Pastoreo, Castillo GE, Jarillo RJ, watersheds of Benin: Farmers‟ cropping Concha OS (eds). Centro de Enseñanza, systems characterization. Afr. J. Agric. Investigación y Extensión en Ganadería Res., 11(7): 507-515. DOI: Tropical, FMVZ, UNAM, Unión
539 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Ganadera Regional del Norte de PhD thesis. Wageningen University. Veracruz, Tuxpam de Rodríguez Cano, Wageningen, p.102. Veracruz ; 1–15. Nonfon R. 2015. La filière de production du McIntire J, Bourzat D, Pingali P. 1992. Crop porc local au Bénin : l‟amélioration de sa Livestock Interaction in Sub-Saharan productivité par l‟alimentation. Thèse de Africa. World Bank: Washington DC, Doctorat. Faculté Universitaire des USA; 246. Sciences Agronomiques de Gembloux. Merkel U, Peters M, Tarawali SA, Schultze- Belgique, 236 p. Kraft R, Berner DK. 2000. Ojokoh AO, Odesanya OF. 2016. Characterization of a collection of Fermentation of cassava (Manihot Aeschynomene histrix in subhumid esculenta) and ripe plantain peels (Musa Nigeria. J. Agri. Sci., 134: 293-304. paradisiaca) in the production of animal Milles JW, Maass BL, Valle CB, Kumble V. feed. Journal of Advances in 1996. Brachiaria: Biology, Agronomy Microbiology, 1(2): 1-15. DOI: and Improvement. CIAT : Brasil, http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/JAMB/2016/30 publication No. 259, Cali. Colombia ; 354 288. Olanite JA, Tarawali SA, Akan‟ova ME. Minson DJ. 1981. Nutrition difference 2004. Biomass yield, quality and between tropical and temperate pastures. acceptability of selected grass-legume In. World Animal Science, Morley FHW mixtures in the moist savanna of West (ed). Elsevier Scientific Publishing Africa. Trop. Grass., 38: 117-128. Company: Amsterdam. Olounladé P. 2011. Etude phytochimique et Montcho M, Babatounde S, Aboh AB, Bahini propriétés anthelminthiques de MJD, Chrysostome CAAM, Mensah Newbouldia laevis et de Zanthoxylum GA. 2016. Caractéristiques physiques et zanthoxyloïdes sur des nématodes gastro- nutritionnelles des blocs multi intestinaux animaux et humains. Thèse nutritionnels fabriqués à partir des sous- de Doctorat. Université d‟Abomey- produits agricoles et agroindustriels du Calavi. Abomey-Calavi. 273 p. Bénin. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci., 10(6): Peters M, Lascano CE. 2003. Forage 2485-2496. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ technology adoption: linking on-station 10.4314/ijbcs.v10i6.7 research with participatory methods. Muhr L. 1998. Potential of forage legumes on Trop. Grass., 37: 197-203. follow land for enhanced forage PNUD. 2000. Rapport annuel sur le production and soil fertility in crop- développement humain durable du livestock farming systems of subhumid Bénin. West Africa. PhD Thesis. Univ. Roberge G, Toutain B. 1999. Choix des Hohenheim, Hohenheim, Germany. plantes fourragères. In Cultures Muhr L, Peters M, Tarawali SA, Schultze- Fourragères Tropicales, Roberge G, Kraft R. 1999. Forage legumes for Toutain B (eds). CIRAD; 147-184. improved fallows in agropastoral Saidou A. 2006. Converging strategies by systems of subhumid West Africa. III. farmers and scientist to improve soil Nutrient import and export by forage fertility and enhance crop production in legumes and their rotational effects on Benin. PhD thesis. Wageningen subsequent maize. Trop. Grass., 33: 245- University. Wageningen, p. 225. 256. Savadogo M, Zemmelink G, Van Keulen H, Nikiema A. 2005. Agroforestry parkland Nianogo AJ. 1999. Contribution of crop species diversity: uses and management residues to ruminant feeding in different in semi-arid West Africa (Burkina Faso). agroecological zones of Burkina Faso.
540 D.B. M. HOUNDJO et al. / Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 12(1): 519-541, 2018
Rev. Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop., 52(3-4): Grass for Tropical Acid Soils. CIAT 255-262. publication: Cali, Colombia; 381. Sinsin B, Oloulotan S, Oumorou M. 1989. Les Vandenbeldt JR. 1988. Cajanus cajan: it's pâturages de saison sèche de la zone more than just a pulse. NFT Highlights, soudanienne du Nord-Est du Bénin. Rev. NFTA, 88-06, p. 1-2 Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop., 42: 283-288. Ye L, Lata JC, Masse D, Nacro HB, Sébastien DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19182/ Barot S. 2017. Effets du pâturage sur la remvt.8859 biomasse herbacée et sur des paramètres Smith AJ. 1990. The Tropical Agriculturalist. chimiques et biologiques des sols dans Poultry CTA-Macmillan Press London, une savane arbustive au Burkina Faso. 106: 179-188. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci., 10(6): 2539- Somé NA, Traoré K, Traoré O, Tassembedo 2554. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ M. 2007. Potentiel des jachères ijbcs.v10i6.11. artificielles à Andropogon spp, dans Youssouf I, Lawani M. 2002. Les sols l‟amélioration des propriétés chimiques béninois: classification dans la réference et biologiques des sols en zone mondiale. Quatorzième réunion du sous- soudanienne (Burkina Faso). Biotechnol. comité Ouest et Centre Africain de Agron. Soc. Environ., 11: 245-252. corrélation des sols pour la mise en Tarawali G, Mohamed-Saleem MA. 1995. valeur des terres. Bénin, Abomey-Calavi The role of legume fallows in supplying 9-13 octobre 2000. Abomey-Calavi, improved feed and recycling nitrogen in Bénin. FAO. subhumid Nigeria. In Livestock and Zoumarou NW, Bagnan MA, Akossou AYY, Sustainable Nutrient Cycling in Mixed Kanlindogbe CB. 2016. Caractérisation Farming Systems of Sub- Saharan Africa morphologique d‟une collection de fruits ( Vol 2). Technical Papers, Tarawali G, d‟anacardier provenant de la commune Mohamed-Saleem MA, Powell JM, de Parakou (Bénin). Int. J. Biol. Chem. Fernandez RS, Williams TO, Renard C. Sci., 10(6): 2413-2422. DOI: (eds). Proceedings, Addis Ababa, http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v10i6.1 Ethiopia, 22–26 November 1993. Toledo JM, Vera R, Lascano C, Lenne JM. 1990. Andropogon gayanus Kunth. In A
541