Pastures for Profit: a Guide to Rotational Grazing (A3529) R-10-02-5.5M-500

A3529 Pastures for profit: A guide to rotational grazing

Dan Undersander Beth Albert Dennis Cosgrove Dennis Johnson Paul Peterson Introduction 1 Setting up a rotational Contents Why rotational grazing? 1 grazing system 26 Setting goals and What is rotational grazing? 1 assessing resources 26 Who is using rotational grazing? 2 Length of rest periods 26 Why use rotational grazing? 2 Length of grazing periods 27

Understanding plant growth 5 Grazing groups 28

Plant response to grazing 5 Spring start-up 28

Seasonal pasture growth patterns 8 Seasonal fluctuations Weed control 8 in pasture growth rate 28

Soil fertility 10 Determining stocking rate and acreage needed 29 Pasture establishment/ renovation 10 Drought 30

Stockpiling forage 16 Moving livestock 30

Estimating forage yield 16 Paddocks: How many and how big? 30

Animal needs 20 Paddock layout 31 Animal digestion and nutrient Fencing 33 requirements 20 Lanes and laneways 33 Animal water needs 21 Designing a pasture system 34 Animal grazing 23 Deciding when to move Grazing patterns 23 livestock 35

Selective grazing 23 Evaluating and improving your grazing system 36 Amount of available forage 24

Grazing habits of different animals 24 Animal health on pasture 37 Animal impact on pasture 25 Parasites 37 Bloat 37

Nitrate poisoning and poisonous plants 38

Additional reading back cover

Introduction

Why rotational What is rotational grazing? grazing? astures represent a largely Under rotational grazing, only one untapped resource for farmers. portion of pasture is grazed at a time P More than one quarter of the while the remainder of the pasture Midwest’s agricultural land is in “rests.” To accomplish this, pastures some form of pasture. Yet, 80% of are subdivided into smaller areas these pastures suffer from poor, (referred to as paddocks) and live- uneven fertility coupled with serious stock are moved from one paddock to weed and erosion problems. Most another. Resting grazed paddocks pastures are continuously grazed allows forage plants to renew energy throughout the season. However, con- reserves, rebuild vigor, deepen their tinuous grazing results in the lowest root system, and give long-term possible pasture yields since the maximum production. forage is not allowed to recuperate For rotational grazing to be success- between grazing. The lack of manage- ful, the timing of rotations must be ment makes these pastures a poor adjusted to the growth stage of the forage source and most farmers are forage. Unfortunately, rotational reluctant to rely too heavily on grazing is often reduced to regular pastures to feed their high-producing animal shifts from paddock to livestock. paddock based on rigid time sched- To produce good livestock feed from ules rather than in response to forage pasture, we must manage our growth rate. Rigid schedules reduce pastures differently. This bulletin the benefit of rotational grazing. outlines an alternative: rotational Rotational grazing can be practiced in grazing. By using rotational grazing, a variety of intensities. Systems can you can make a profit from pastures. range from 2 to 30 or more paddocks. This bulletin covers the basics of Management intensive rotational setting up rotational grazing on your grazing involves a higher level of farm. management with greater paddock numbers, shorter grazing periods, and longer rest periods. Generally,

more intense management results in

greater livestock production per acre. 1 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

This bulletin covers the basic princi- term implies slight differences in man- Why use rotational ples underlying all types of rotational agement, they all refer to some sort of grazing? grazing. Management intensive rota- intensive rotational grazing system. Everyone with livestock and grazing tional grazing will be emphasized land can benefit from rotational because it offers a number of advan- Who is using grazing. tages over both continuous grazing rotational grazing? and less intensive rotational systems. Economic benefits Many farmers throughout the These include Midwest practice rotational grazing. Most farmers try rotational grazing ■ more stable production during Wisconsin surveys indicate that in the because of the economic savings. In poor growing conditions (espe- 1990s, the number of rotational Wisconsin, graziers averaged about cially drought), graziers among dairy farmers has $200 more per cow net farm income than confinement dairy farms accord- ■ greater yield potential, increased from essentially 0 to over 21% (figure 1). These range from a ing to farm financial data collected ■ higher quality forage available, large dairy farmer who rotationally from 1995 to 1999 according to ■ decreased weed and erosion grazes 1,600 head on his 2,100 acre University of Wisconsin Center for problems, and all-grass farm to much smaller dairy, Dairy Profitability. During the same ■ more uniform soil fertility levels. beef, sheep, hog, and even chicken period, graziers averaged more than operations. Most livestock have the $1.50 higher net farm income per There are many names for intensive hundredweight equivalent of milk rotational grazing: Voisin grazing, potential to receive a substantial amount of their feed from pasture. sold than achieved by confinement Hohenheim grazing, intensive grazing dairies. Beef, sheep, and dairy heifer management, management intensive growing operations have also seen grazing, short duration grazing, reduced costs and increased profit Savory systems, strip grazing, con- from rotational grazing systems. trolled grazing, and high-intensity, low-frequency grazing. Although each Both start-up and maintenance costs are less for grazing compared to con- finement systems. The only capital cost specific to rotational grazing is fencing. Costs for new fencing range Figure 1. Estimated percent and number of Wisconsin dairy farms using from $1.18 per acre for mobile electric management intensive rotational grazing (MIRG), 1993Ð1999 fencing with fiberglass posts to $18.37 per acre for high-tensile electric 25% 5,000 fencing. Setting up the whole system percent using MIRG 4708 (using new fencing, fencers, and estimated number of MIRG farms 21.8% water systems) costs from $30 to $70 20% 4,000 per acre. The higher price range 3818 includes the cost of constructing some 3601 livestock lanes. 15% 3,000 14.6% 13.9% 2191 10% 2,000

7.3% 5% 1,000 percent of all dairy 1999 operations, Estimated number of MIRG farms, 1999 of MIRG farms, Estimated number 0% 0 1993 1995 1997 1999

Source: Program on Agricultural Technology Studies (www.wisc.edu/pats/dmirgperc.htm)

2 Introduction ______

If you haven’t already invested in Data from the USDA Natural Wildlife advantages confinement feeding systems, this Resources Conservation Service Populations of native grassland birds, represents a tremendous savings; if (NRCS) shows that in 1997, an such as upland sandpipers, you have, maintenance costs are average of 3.3 tons of soil per acre bobolinks, and meadowlarks, have reduced since your confinement were lost each year due to sheet and declined significantly within the past system needs to be operated only rill erosion on Wisconsin cropland. In 50 years. These birds once thrived in during the cold months. Once in Minnesota an average of 2.1 tons of the extensive native prairies that operation, grazing will reduce equip- soil per acre were lost each year on covered the state. As the land was ment, fertilizer, pesticide, and labor cropland due to sheet and rill erosion converted to row crops and fre- costs. and 5.8 tons of soil per acre per year quently mowed hay fields, the birds’ Because grazing operations can be from wind erosion. habitat has dwindled and their popu- less capital intensive they can also be Converting erosion-prone land to lations are now at risk. Many aspects more financially flexible. pasture is a good way to minimize of rotational grazing systems can help this loss since Wisconsin and reverse this decline: the rested Time savings Minnesota’s perennial pastures have paddocks provide undisturbed Many farmers are reluctant to try an average soil loss of only 0.5 tons nesting habitat; leaving at least 4 rotational grazing because of the time per acre per year from water erosion inches of growth in cool-season grass they assume it will take to move live- and less than 0.1 tons per acre pastures during the spring provides stock. However, the time to move annually from wind erosion. needed cover for the nests; and cattle is minimal if paddock and Reducing erosion rates will preserve creating large blocks (50 or more fencing design is efficient and cattle the most fertile soil with higher water acres) that are not grazed or har- are moved after a milking, often aver- holding capacity for future crop pro- vested between mid-May and early aging only 15 minutes per day. In duction. July give many young birds time to contrast, feeding hay and silage in a mature. Also, warm-season grass Pasturing helps water quality in confinement system may take 20 paddocks, which aren’t grazed until several ways. High levels of nitrates minutes to 1 hour. Grazing may also late June, provide especially good and pesticides in our ground and decrease your need to make hay nesting habitat. Game birds, such as surface waters can cause human, live- which takes an average of 7 hours per pheasants, wild turkey, and quail also stock, and wildlife health problems. acre each season. It also reduces the benefit from pastures, as do bluebirds Pasturing reduces the amount of need to haul manure because most whose favorite nesting sites are fence nitrates and pesticides leaching into manure is dropped by the cattle on posts. For more details about setting our groundwater in two ways: less is the pasture. up a bird-friendly grazing system, see applied and the deeper forage root What if you have to move a huge Wisconsin Extension publication systems take up nutrients from herd? A large-scale stocker farmer Grassland Birds: Fostering Habitats greater depths. Pasturing also reduces prefers to move 250 to 500 head at a Using Rotational Grazing (A3715). contamination of streams and lakes. time since he has found that it takes Nutrients contained in surface runoff no more time to move large groups of enrich waters of lakes and streams cattle than it does to move small with nitrogen and phosphorous groups (such as 50 or less). which promotes excessive aquatic Environmental benefits plant growth (leading to low oxygen Well-managed perennial pastures levels in the water which suffocates have several environmental advan- most water life). Pastures have tages over tilled land: they dramati- reduced runoff compared to cropped cally decrease soil erosion potential, fields and, since cattle spend less time require minimal pesticides and fertil- in the barnyard, less manure is izers, and decrease the amount of deposited there and barnyard runoff barnyard runoff. is reduced. 3 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Pesticides can be very damaging to Animal health and welfare wildlife. Examples include some Animals in grazing systems are often insecticides that are toxic to birds and healthier than animals housed in con- mammals (including humans) and finement. Animals have more space broad-spectrum insecticides that kill and fresh air, reducing their exposure the target pest as well as beneficial to high levels of microorganisms. insects that could help prevent future Increased freedom for movement pest outbreaks. Insecticides in surface enhances physical fitness and waters may kill aquatic invertebrates decreases opportunity for injuries and (food for fish, shorebirds, and water- abrasions. However, risks associated fowl). Herbicides can also be toxic to with exposure to severe weather or animals and may stunt or kill predators may be increased in non-target vegetation, which may grazing. serve as wildlife habitat. The reduced Many have reported fewer herd need for pesticides in rotational health problems after switching to grazing systems benefits all. grazing. For many graziers, culling Increased pasture animals for health reasons has productivity dropped from about 35% of the herd Rotational grazing can help improve annually to approximately 10%. A long-term pasture quality and fertility healthier herd is more profitable and by favoring desirable pasture species it allows the option of increasing herd and allowing for even manure distri- size or improving the herd by select- bution. Rotational grazing also can ing animals based on higher milk increase the amount of forage har- production or reproductivity. vested per acre over continuous grazing by as much as 2 tons dry matter per acre. Aesthetics and human health benefits One of the greatest advantages to using rotational grazing is that it is a “peaceful way of farming.” It is quieter than mechanically harvesting your feed and it gives you the excuse to stretch your legs and take a look at what’s happening in your pasture. You might even hear the birds singing or see a deer grazing as you move the fence.

4 Understanding plant growth

good understanding of the Carbohydrate storage basics of plant growth is key to patterns Aestablishing and maintaining Plants get the energy needed for profitable pastures. growth from the sun through photo- synthesis which occurs in green Plant response leaves. The plant immediately converts this energy to carbohydrates to grazing which can either be used right away Grazing isn’t “bad” for pasture for growth or stored in the roots for plants. Pasture plants have special future use (figure 2). In the fall most ways to cope with grazing. Grazing of these carbohydrates are stored as may actually stimulate pasture plants ready themselves for winter. In growth because old or dead leaves no spring these carbohydrates are used longer shade young leaves. to provide energy for early regrowth. Most pasture forages regrow from At some point (usually at about 6 to 8 low-lying or underground stems, inches tall) plants are large enough crowns, or roots, which are not and photosynthesizing enough to grazed off by livestock. Though their provide energy for growth plus have growing points are protected from additional carbohydrates for storage. grazing, few of these forages are well After grazing, these stored carbohy- adapted to continuous grazing. Only drates provide energy for regrowth plants such as Kentucky bluegrass, until the plant is once again large white clover, and many prostrate enough to provide for itself through weeds, whose low-growing leaves photosynthesis. This cycle repeats escape being completely grazed off, with each grazing until growth ceases survive well under continuous in fall. Managing these carbohydrate grazing. cycles is the key to vigorous, long Taller growing forages, on the other lasting stands. Grazing too frequently hand, usually die under continuous does not allow for replenishment of grazing since most of their leaves can root reserves which weakens plants, be grazed off. They need rest between slows recovery, and lowers yields. Figure 2. Carbohydrate reserves at grazings to survive in a pasture, so each stage of the plant growth cycle are well suited to rotational grazing. If allowed to grow tall, they will shade out shorter forages and weeds. Pastures that are routinely rested may have less bluegrass and a larger per- centage of taller growing species, even if tall species have not been recently seeded in the field.

y g g m de e arl t s ation seed e ation rowth rno g g etative g eadin ormin

e f g h

nt lon e lon i v e e 5 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Plant yield and quality dry matter is tied up in undigestible Grass growth patterns Forage growth is slow when plants forms (such as lignin). Greater In the seeding year, grass seeds ger- are small and have few leaves (early amounts of undigestible fiber result minate and give rise to a single shoot. spring growth or after grazing) and in lower quality forage with As the season progresses additional yield is low. As leaves get bigger, decreased amounts of total digestible shoots called tillers develop. photosynthesis increases dramatically, nutrients (TDN). Removing the top growth through allowing for rapid growth and The goal of a good grazing program grazing or mowing encourages tiller- increased yields. Prior to flowering, should be to maximize both forage ing. Some species such as orchard- most pasture plants are growing as yield and quality. As shown in figure grass, tall fescue, and ryegrass form fast as possible if other factors are not 3, the best time to graze is immedi- tillers from buds on the original limiting. As plants mature, growth ately following the most rapid growth shoot. These are called bunch-type slows since most energy is diverted to but before flowering and seeding. grasses as the tillers stay fairly close flower and seed production. While Species develop differently however together and form discreet bunches in yield is highest at heading, quality is and the best time to graze one grass the field. Other grasses tiller by very low. Quality is high when plants species may not be the best for sending out short rhizomes which are small and vegetative and declines another. For advice on ideal grazing form new shoots. These grasses are as plants mature. This occurs because, heights and rest periods for various known as sod-forming grasses as they as plants get larger and stemmier, a species, see the section on “Length of form a dense sod in the field. Tillering greater percentage of nutrients and Rest Periods.” continues throughout the seeding year and the plants enlarge. Most Figure 3. Relationship between yield and quality cool-season grasses (with the excep- tion of timothy) don’t form seed heads in the seeding year. Buds that form in late summer are the next year’s flower buds. They must be timetim exposed to cold temperatures during winter (vernalized) to produce y flowers the following year.

y g g m de e arl t s ation seed e ation rowth g g rrno etative g eadin ormin f e g h

lon e lon nt i v e e Figure 4. Grass development

The spring growth of the season is reproductive (produces seedheads); following grazing or harvesting, the regrowth of most species is vegetative only.

leaves only stem begins tillers forming jointing to elongate Spring growth (reproductive) Regrowth (vegetative)

6 Understanding plant growth ______

As illustrated in figure 4, after the Some grasses such as tall fescue, Legume growth patterns seeding year, early growth is all perennial ryegrass and Kentucky Legume seedlings consist of a single leaves. The growing points that will bluegrass tiller early and produce shoot. Additional shoots (tillers) become the seedheads are below heads profusely throughout the year. eventually form from buds below the ground and protected. Eventually the The stems of these grasses do not soil surface. These tillers form the stems begin to elongate. The stage elongate after initially heading. As a crown of the plant. Like grasses, when the stems are elongating but result, these grasses may be grazed grazing or harvesting top growth before seedheads can be felt is known more aggressively than others. encourages development of new as jointing. These stems will produce Bromegrass and timothy, on the other tillers at the crown. Additional shoots seedheads if not removed. Once these hand, develop tillers more slowly. also develop from above ground buds shoots are removed, the plant will Stems elongate after heading, lifting in leaf axils. Regrowth may come remain vegetative through the rest of the potential growing points above from buds on the crown or on stems the growing season for smooth the soils surface where they may be (axillary buds) depending on severity bromegrass, orchardgrass, quack- removed by grazing. These species of grazing. Some legumes, such as grass, and reed canarygrass. must be managed differently than white clover, spread by means of others. They should not be grazed prostrate stems called stolons. These until new tillers are visible at the base types of plants are very low growing of the plant. Grazing during jointing and tolerate close grazing. Legumes but before new tillers form will continue to branch and enlarge and severely damage or kill these grasses. eventually flower. Unlike grasses, legumes flower in the seeding year and several times annually every year thereafter.

boot stage early heading flowering 7 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Seasonal pasture There are several ways to lessen this Weed control growth patterns problem. One is to make hay from some Not all plants that are considered pastures during periods of rapid forage weeds in row crops are a problem in Ideally, forage production (or avail- growth. Also, lambing or calving before pastures. Many “weeds” such as ability) should correspond with live- rapid spring growth will allow the quackgrass and lambsquarters are stock needs. Livestock need forage all period of highest animal need to match very nutritious at certain growth year round, but providing an the greatest production of quality stages and need not be removed. Be adequate supply of yearly forage forage. Some dairy farmers have concerned mainly about those plants from pasture alone is difficult to do in switched to seasonal milking to achieve the upper Midwest. First, the growing this goal. You can even out pasture pro- your livestock avoid eating, that have season is short, ranging from about duction throughout the season and low nutritive value such as golden- 185 days in southern Wisconsin to extend the grazing season using the rod, or are poisonous like hoary 142 days in northern Minnesota. methods described below. alyssum. Secondly, pasture production is Good rotational grazing systems will Managing for more uniform uneven during the growing season tend to keep most weeds out of pasture growth while livestock feed needs are stable pastures. Grazing management alone, ■ Healthy, unstressed plants begin or increasing (figure 5). however, will not normally correct growth earlier in the spring, serious preexisting weed problems produce higher yields during the without causing great losses in summer, and continue growing animal performance. Plants such as longer in the fall. thistles, brush, and poisonous plants ■ Switching from continuous to may continue to be a problem even rotational grazing can extend the after you have intensified your grazing season and boost yields, system since they are seldom eaten since rotational grazing, by virtue even at high stocking rates. of its rest periods, is less stressful Before taking action, identify the to the forage. weeds that are a problem in your ■ A good fertility program will pasture. Your county Extension agent extend the season and boost yields. can give you specific control recom- ■ Pastures should be grazed early in mendations. Thistles are by far the the spring to help stagger growth most troublesome weeds in pastures. that will occur during the flush of There are two types of thistles late May and early June. commonly found in pastures—bienni- als and perennials. Each type requires different control measures. Figure 5. Typical pattern of pasture production and animal needs during the grazing season

amount produced

amount needed by a growing herd

amount needed by a milking animal pasture yield

April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov.

8 Understanding plant growth ______Biennial thistles live for two years. In Cultural control able legumes as well as weeds. More the first year they form a group of Several cultural practices help frequently, weeds are patchy, making leaves called a rosette. The rosette maintain a weed-free pasture. Weeds spot spraying the preferred method grows very close to the ground and are generally more of a problem in of control. Spot spraying is less costly usually escapes grazing. In the overgrazed, infertile pastures than in than broadcast treatments. second year the rosette “bolts” or fertile, well-managed pastures. Good Before applying any herbicides, be sends up a tall shoot, which produces grazing management (with pasture sure problem weeds have been accu- flowers and seeds. After this the plant rest periods) and good fertility will go rately identified. Wait until animals dies. Bull, musk, and plumeless a long way in keeping the forage have left a paddock before spraying thistle are in this group. These thistles healthy and able to compete with and do not graze treated areas until should be dug up or sprayed before pasture weeds. To prevent spread of label restrictions allow. they set seed, preferably during their weeds, avoid spreading manure con- first year of growth. Biennial thistles taminated with weed seeds, clean Integrated control are prolific seed producers. If allowed equipment after working in No single practice will produce or to set seed they will rapidly spread weed-infested pastures, and keep maintain weed-free pastures. An throughout a pasture. fencerows free of problem weeds. organized system that combines the appropriate preventative, cultural, Perennial thistles live for three or Mechanical control mechanical, and chemical measures more years. They spread by seed and Repeated mowing, clippings, and for each pasture is required. Start by by roots. The roots can grow far from hand weeding can diminish weed evaluating the present status of your the original plant and send up shoots infestations. When flower buds are pastures and devise a 3- to 5-year which themselves form roots and closed or just starting to open, cut plan of pasture improvement. Follow spread. In this way perennial thistles weeds 3 to 4 inches above the ground. the above recommendations and with can spread very quickly. Canada Some farmers clip each paddock after good management and perseverance, thistle and perennial sowthistle are in every grazing period. This weakens you will achieve more production this category. Digging up these existing weeds by depleting root from your grass and grass-legume thistles is impractical as new plants reserves and prevents further spread pastures. may form from any part of the root by preventing seed production. left behind. The most effective means Cutting controls bull thistle. Musk is the use of herbicides. Another and plumeless thistles, however, approach is to mow or graze the commonly produce new shoots after thistle patch frequently (every 10 to mowing. If these shoots are not 14 days) throughout the growing mowed, they will flower and set seed. season. These plants will eventually Tillage can be used to suppress weeds run out of food reserves and die or be as part of a pasture renovation weakened and killed over winter. The program, but is seldom used to best strategy is to detect these patches manage weeds in a good pasture. early and keep them from spreading or setting seed. Chemical control Good management greatly reduces the need for herbicides. But even with the best cultural and mechanical methods of control, serious weed problems can persist and herbicides may be needed. If weeds are a problem across the entire pasture, herbicides can be broadcast sprayed.

Keep in mind, however, that most

pasture herbicides will remove desir- 9 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Soil fertility report for your county from the Pasture Many agronomic and environmental Natural Resource Conservation establishment/ Service. Since local testing labs are problems can be avoided by fertilizing renovation at the correct levels. To determine fer- more attuned to local soil types and Before tearing up your current tilizer requirements, take regular soil climate, send your sample to the pasture, consider improving what’s tests and follow the recommendations nearest reputable lab. already there. Pasture renovation is given. Be sure to state the type of All pastures with less than 40% less expensive than tillage and con- pasture being grown when submitting legume need nitrogen fertilization for ventional establishment, provides your sample because fertilizer recom- optimal growth. All available nitrogen forage more quickly, and is less risky mendations from soil test will be is taken up by the next cycle of in terms of stand loss and erosion. based on the crop stated (or assumed) growth. The most efficient use of Many naturally growing forages may to be grown. Recommendations nitrogen is to apply it immediately already be present in your pasture, would be different for grass/legume after each grazing cycle. However, this and their yields can be improved pasture and tall grass pasture, for is generally not practical and most with proper fertilization and good example. When switching from one graziers apply nitrogen three times a grazing management. In fact, just type of management to another (e.g., year (early spring, mid-June, and early switching from continuous to rota- continuous to rotational grazing), August). The spring application may tional grazing can boost yields by up sample yearly until your management be skipped if hay will not be har- to 40%. Quackgrass, for example, is has stabilized. After that, testing every vested, otherwise the spring flush of an excellent forage which makes good 3 years should be sufficient. growth from the entire pasture will sod, produces high yields, and has exceed the animals’ needs. To get a good representative soil good quality. sample take 10 cores, or subsamples, To maintain healthy pastures, manage Many farmers use grass/legume and mix them together. Scrape an so that soil nutrients are returned to mixtures to meet most of their pro- inch of surface soil to the side; then the soil at the same rate they are duction needs from pasture. Seeding use an auger (works best for com- removed. Once soil nutrient levels are legumes into run-down pastures is pacted or frozen soil), or probe to at optimal levels, nutrients should the most common form of renovation. sample to a depth of 6 inches. Mix the cycle naturally in a well-managed Legumes reduce dependence on subsamples together in a clean con- pasture through nitrogen fixation nitrogen fertilizer, complement tainer to form your representative (or from legumes and livestock excre- grasses by balancing forage produc- composite) soil sample. Transfer to a ment. Since grazing animals normally tion throughout the season, and clean bag and label well. You should return 60 to 80% of available pasture improve pasture quality. take one representative soil sample nutrients (providing their manure is (about 2 cups of soil altogether) from returned to the pasture), some addi- each major soil type in your pasture tional fertilization will probably be or one for every 5 acres. required depending on your manage- Fertilizer recommendations are based ment and supplements being fed to on a number of factors including soil animals. Pastures rotationally grazed type, climate, yield goals, future crop by dairy cows receiving high levels of rotations, nitrogen credits from supplemental feeding can actually manure and legumes, pH, percent increase in phosphorus and potas- organic matter, etc. For this reason, it sium levels and thus not need main- is important that you fully complete tenance fertilization. the soil test form. If you are not certain what types of soil are on your farm, you can obtain a soil survey

10 Understanding plant growth ______

The method of renovation you choose Frost seeding. Frost seeding allows Conventional seeding. Complete depends on a number of factors: nature to assist the planting. Seed is pasture renovation through conven- ■ What are the current condition broadcast onto pasture in late winter tional seeding is rarely needed. and species composition of the or early spring during or just after However, if you are creating new existing pasture? snowmelt. Soil heaving due to frosts pasture from cropland, the best helps bury the seed. Frost seeding option may be conventional seedbed ■ How much money and effort are works best on soils that shrink and preparation and planting. This works you willing to spend? swell with freezing and thawing. best in spring when soil moisture is ■ How long are you willing to take Moving animals across the seeding adequate for germination and when a field out of production? area immediately after thaw may plants have the entire summer to ■ How long are you willing to wait help to incorporate the seed and establish. Seeding can also occur in to get good establishment? improve establishment. Frost seeding late summer if moisture is adequate. is a relatively cheap method that will ■ Are you willing to use tillage Conventional seeding can also be increase the percentage of the desired and/or herbicides? used for pastures in very poor condi- species but may produce non- tion. To renovate by conventional Seeding methods uniform stands. Red clover, white seeding, pastures are plowed or There are a number of different clover, ryegrass, and orchardgrass can chiseled, worked up to reduce clods, approaches for establishing and reno- be successfully frost seeded on and seeded. The advantages of tillage vating pastures. The following existing sod. These and most other are that it eliminates competition sections describe these methods. species can be frost seeded on old from existing plants, it produces No-till or reduced tillage. With this alfalfa fields that are being converted uniform pasture stands of the desired method, seed is drilled into existing to pasture. As with no-till and species, and it allows for incorpora- sod. Modified grain drills can be reduced till seeding, it is essential to tion of lime and fertilizer at planting. used, but no-till drills are recom- reduce competition from the existing While conventional seeding is highly mended because they give better seed sod by grazing it heavily the previous effective, it is costly, reduces produc- placement and are designed to pene- fall and/or using limited tillage. tion the year of seeding, reduces sod trate sod. Soil erosion is greatly Grazing management and stability for several years, and opens reduced with no-till. Reducing com- patience. Some graziers improve the the potential for significant soil loss, petition from existing sod is critical to species composition of pasture simply especially on slopes that are fall- success. Options for reducing sod by improving grazing management. plowed and spring-planted. To competition include applying a non- Many fields have a seed bank of reduce erosion and minimize pasture selective herbicide before seeding desirable pasture forage species that disruption, conventional seeding (e.g., a suppression rate of Roundup), have not had an opportunity to ger- should be done in strips over 2 to 3 grazing heavily the summer and fall minate and survive under cropping years. before seeding, and/or using limited or continuous grazing. Rotational tillage to kill up to 50% of the stand. grazing provides the rest needed for Note, though, that disking causes these species to establish. average soil losses of 12 tons per acre Disadvantages of this method of on a 15% slope and 2 tons per acre on “passive” renovation include the time a 6% slope. required to observe a significant Controlling competition during change in species composition (often legume establishment is also critical. several years) and the fact that alfalfa Typically, the suppressed sod will rarely appears naturally. regrow more rapidly than new seedlings. Thus, the renovated area should be grazed at a high stocking density—enough animals to graze plants to 4 inches tall in 24 to 48 hours—when the soil is not wet to keep the regrowing sod from overtop- ping the developing seedlings. 11 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Livestock seeding. Using livestock Mixing seed with manure before Tailor the selection of the forage to do the seeding is appropriate in spreading. For areas that are accessi- species to the needs of your grazing terrain not accessible by equipment or ble by equipment, seed can be mixed system (i.e., climate, soil type, where animals can graze pasture or directly with manure before it’s moisture level, grazing intensity, be fed hay with seed and then be con- spread on pastures. This works best desired length of grazing season, veniently moved to pastures where when manure is spread in March or etc.). Table 1 identifies forage charac- the desired legume is wanted. early April just after snow is gone. teristics which are important to Livestock digest much of the legume Calculate the area covered by one compare when planning a grazing seed and all of the grass seed they load of manure and add red or white system. All of the forages listed in eat, so little seed is available in clover at a rate of 6 lb/acre. table 1 have some place in pastures manure for germination. Since live- Selecting appropriate but no single forage is best suited to stock do not distribute manure uni- forages all situations. formly, using them as seeders will It is most beneficial to grow a mixture produce less uniform stands than the of different forages in different fields previously mentioned methods. It on the farm. Every forage has its own may take several years to produce susceptibilities and resistances. good stands by this method. Planting your entire farm to a single There are a couple of approaches: species is a risky venture since a One to two days before moving single type of insect, disease, or envi- animals into the pasture, add forage ronmental condition could easily seed to the mineral mix (about 5 lb wipe out the entire pasture. seed to 50 lb mineral) or let the Generally, planting one or two long- animals graze a pasture of established lived grass species plus a legume in a legumes (e.g., birdsfoot trefoil) that pasture simplifies management. has been allowed to go to seed just before moving them to the pasture to be reseeded. Winter grazing can be a useful tool for improving pastures, especially in terrain not readily accessible to equip- ment. The idea is to place supplemen- tary forage in areas where the pasture needs to be improved so that waste feed and manure provide both seed and fertilizer. The success of this approach requires the ability to provide winter supplements at many sites in the pasture, and to move animals rapidly from site to site or even out of the pasture during muddy times when existing plants are vulnerable.

12 Understanding plant growth ______

Table 1. Characteristics of forage grasses and legumes

Regrowth Legume Winter Ease of Drought Flooding Species Grasses potential compatibility hardinessa establishment tolerance tolerance persistence Cool-season Italian ryegrass excellent fair poor excellent fair fair poor Kentucky bluegrass good poor excellent good fair fair good Orchardgrass excellent poor good good fair fair good Perennial ryegrass excellent fair poor excellent fair fair poor Quackgrass excellent good excellent n/a* good fair excellent Reed canarygrass good poor excellent poor good excellent excellent Smooth bromegrass fair good excellent good fair fair good Tall fescue excellent good fair excellent fair fair fair Timothy fair good excellent good poor poor poor

Warm-season Indiangrass good poor good poor excellent good excellent Big bluestem good poor good poor excellent poor good Sorghum/sudan good poor n/a excellent excellent fair n/a Switchgrass good poor good poor excellent poor good Regrowth Bloat Winter Ease of Drought Flooding Species Legumes potential problem hardinessa establishment tolerance tolerance persistence Alfalfa good yes excellent good good poor good Alsike poor yes good excellent poor good poor Birdsfoot trefoil fair no excellent poor poor fair excellent Kura clover excellent yes excellent poor good fair excellent Ladino poor yes good excellent poor good poor Red clover fair yes good excellent poor fair fair White clover good yes excellent excellent good fair excellent

N/A=not applicable aWinter hardiness assumes use of adapted varieties *No seed available 13 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Common grasses and legumes

Grasses Tall fescue is not recommended for Birdsfoot trefoil maintains its quality Italian ryegrass is a rapidly estab- pastures because of poor palatabil- better than any other legume or lishing grass that has high forage ity and persistence. However, it has grass, making it a good choice for quality but low winterhardiness. superior fall growth and works well stockpiling. It is the only commonly in heavily trafficked areas. It is grown pasture legume that doesn’t Kentucky bluegrass easily survives commonly used in grass waterways cause bloat. Birdsfoot trefoil grows on infertile, overgrazed pastures in since it establishes rapidly. Use well on poor soils and is extremely southern regions and the predomi- fungus-free seed if intending to persistent, with stands lasting more nant pasture forage of northern graze. than 80 years! However, it is difficult regions. A good choice for horse to establish, relatively low yielding, pastures because it combines low Timothy and smooth bromegrass easy to overgraze, and does not maintenance and high quality. are the recommended pasture forages for northern and southern tolerate drought. Orchardgrass is higher yielding than regions, respectively, because of Kura clover is an extremely persist- timothy and smooth bromegrass, their high yield potential, high ent legume that is well adapted to and it recovers more rapidly after quality, and good legume compati- pasture. It spreads by rhizomes grazing. Orchardgrass is extremely bility. For optimal performance, they (underground stems) to form a sod. competitive, so grow a competitive should be grown with other forages, This leafy plant produces high- legume (such as red clover) with it. since neither produces high yields quality forage that can induce bloat. Perennial ryegrass is an excellent of regrowth when grown alone. It does not tolerate competition choice if you want to include tempo- Timothy has poor tolerance for heat during establishment because of rary pasture in your crop rotation. It and drought and lacks persistence low seedling vigor, but is very com- is easy to establish, high yielding, in southern regions. petitive once established. Reed and of high quality, but lack of win- Switchgrass and big bluestem are canarygrass and orchardgrass are terhardiness shortens persistence native warm-season grasses that compatible grasses. to two years. nicely complement cool-season Ladino and alsike clovers are less Quackgrass is often overlooked as a grasses. They are slow to establish persistent than red clover but forage because it has become such and poor competitors with weeds, perform well in heavily grazed a serious weed problem in row but once established are persistent pastures. They are high quality, crops. It is an excellent forage, and vigorous. Switchgrass is easier lower-yielding forages that are offering high yields of good quality to establish and seed is less expen- tolerant of overgrazing. Alsike is forage. sive than big bluestem, but it is especially well suited for poorly Reed canarygrass may be the only somewhat lower in quality. drained areas. forage option if flooding is a serious Legumes Red clover is a good choice for problem. Though difficult to estab- pastures. It persists for three to four Alfalfa is the highest yielding legume lish, it is extremely persistent. Plant years, is high yielding, and is the with excellent summer regrowth, new, alkaloid-free varieties to easiest and fastest legume to persistence, and drought tolerance. improve animal intake. Be aware, establish. However, alfalfa doesn’t tolerate though, that reed canarygrass is flooding or overgrazing, and bloat White clover is a good choice for extremely aggressive and may can be a problem in pure stands. heavily grazed pastures. It is easy invade and displace native plant to establish and very persistent. communities, especially in dis- turbed areas.

14 Understanding plant growth ______

Combining forages for each other. Forages may be mixed maximum productivity within a pasture if growth patterns Each forage species has a distinct are compatible (e.g., cool-season grass seasonal growth pattern (figure 6). and legume) or grown in separate For uniform yields throughout the pastures (e.g., cool-season and grazing season, plant several forages warm-season grasses). whose growth patterns complement

Figure 6. Seasonal growth patterns of forages

Species April MayJune July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Cool-season grasses Kentucky bluegrass

Orchardgrass

Quackgrass Reed canarygrass Smooth bromegrass

Tall fescue

Timothy Warm-season grasses

Big bluestem

Sorghum/sudan

Switchgrass Legumes

Alfalfa Birdsfoot trefoil

Red clover

Sweet clover

Alsike

Ladino Alternative forages

Corn stalks

Oat

Winter rye 15 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Stockpiling forage If you’re short on pasture, stockpiling Forage The length of your grazing season forage for fall and winter grazing is growth patterns need not be restricted to the length of probably not a good option since you’ll have to take some of your land Cool-season grasses such as your growing season. One Wisconsin out of production in the early fall timothy and Kentucky bluegrass, sheep farmer leaves 250 ewes on when forage is already in short prefer cool temperatures. They are pasture all winter, giving them little supply. Keep in mind, however, that most productive in the spring and supplemental feed until just before you can also stockpile crop residue. fall but go through a “midsummer spring lambing. This is possible by stockpiling forage. slump” in production. Estimating Stockpiling means allowing an accu- Legumes start growing a bit later in forage yield the spring than cool-season mulation of forage for later use. It is Tables 2 and 3 give average forage grasses but have fairly uniform most commonly done in the late yields for Midwestern states. This growth patterns throughout the summer to provide forage for grazing information gives an idea of relative grazing season. Many withstand after the killing frosts. The approach comparisons and preliminary heat and drought better than is to defer grazing on a portion of the planning. You’ll need to estimate cool-season grasses. pasture beginning August 1. This forage is allowed to accumulate and yields for your own pastures as they Warm-season grasses need warm is grazed throughout the fall and may be considerably different from soils for germination and thrive on winter after pasture growth has those listed due to differences in soil the midsummer heat that slows ceased. Spring pasture growth of type, fertility, and management. To the growth of most other species. birdsfoot trefoil can be stockpiled for estimate your own yields, keep a Both annuals (such as sudan- summer grazing because it maintains record of hay yields from any of the grass) and perennials (such as leaves and quality at maturity. This pastures to be grazed or calculate switchgrass and bluestem) tend to practice can provide grazing during animal grazing days and observing be very drought tolerant. the summer slump. animal performance on the pastures. Other alternative forages such as Refer to “Estimating Pasture The greatest limitation to late- annual grains (oats, winter rye, Productivity” on page 19 for step-by- summer forage growth is lack of and winter wheat) and crop step details. nitrogen. An application of 50 lb/acre residue (e.g., corn stalks) can be of nitrogen on August 1 will double grazed in the early spring and/or or triple yields of deferred forages. late fall. When grazing crop Another way to increase stockpiled residue, leave enough residue to forage is to use orchardgrass, which reduce soil erosion. grows more in the fall. Tall fescue also has good fall growth, but it is not very palatable for most of the growing season. Avoid stockpiling smooth bromegrass and quackgrass as they produce relatively little fall growth.

16 Understanding plant growth ______

Table 2. Average forage yields for southern Midwest region

Yield ______% Available by month ______Species Qualitya (lb/a DM) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Cool-season perennial grasses Kentucky bluegrass Good 5680 30 30 10 10 15 5 Poor 1900 10 40 10 15 15 10 Orchardgrass Good 6440 20 35 15 10 15 5 Poor 2260 10 30 10 20 20 10 Reed canarygrass Good 6180 20 30 25 10 10 5 Poor 2720 20 30 20 10 15 5 Smooth bromegrass Good 6080 30 30 15 10 10 5 Poor 2620 25 35 10 10 15 5 Tall fescue Good 7940 20 30 20 10 15 5 Poor 2740 15 40 10 10 15 10 Timothy Good 6260 25 35 10 10 15 5 Poor 2340 10 45 10 15 15 5 Warm-season grasses Big bluestem Good 5000 0 10 40 35 15 0 Poor 2520 0 15 40 35 10 0 Switchgrass Good 5000 0 15 35 35 15 0 Poor 2500 0 15 45 35 5 0 Sorghum/Sudangrass Good 5500 0 0 20 30 30 20 Poor 3000 0 0 40 45 15 0 Legumes Alfalfa/grass Good 5820 20 25 35 20 0 0 Poor 3000 20 25 35 20 0 0 Birdsfoot trefoil Good 5120 10 50 30 10 0 0 Poor 2500 10 50 30 10 0 0 Red clover/grass Good 5500 25 40 20 10 5 0 Poor 2750 25 40 20 10 5 0 Alternative forages (cool-season annual grasses) Oat Good 3000 55 35 10 0 0 0 Poor 1600 60 40 0000 Winter rye Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15 Poor 1200 65 25 0055 Winter wheat Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15 Poor 1200 60 30 0055

aQuality: Good = Lime and fertilizer have been applied. Rotational grazing.

Poor = No fertilizer added. Continuous grazing. 17 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Table 3. Average forage yields for northern Midwest region

Yield ______% Available by month ______Species Qualitya (lb/a DM) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Cool-season perennial grasses Kentucky bluegrass Good 4700 30 20 20 10 15 5 Poor 1240 15 45 15 10 10 5 Orchardgrass Good 5580 25 20 20 15 15 5 Poor 1520 20 35 20 10 10 5 Reed canarygrass Good 5460 25 20 30 10 10 5 Poor 1940 25 30 20 10 10 5 Smooth bromegrass Good 4900 35 20 20 10 10 5 Poor 1780 30 30 15 10 10 5 Tall fescue Good 6000 15 25 20 15 15 10 Poor 1740 20 45 15 5 10 5 Timothy Good 4800 25 30 15 10 15 5 Poor 1600 15 50 10 10 10 5 Warm-season grasses Big bluestem Good 3500 0 0 25 50 25 0 Poor 2520 0 0 30 45 25 0 Switchgrass Good 4830 0 0 35 50 15 0 Poor 2170 0 0 30 45 25 0 Sorghum/Sudangrass Good 5500 0 0 20 30 30 20 Poor 3000 0 0 40 45 15 0 Legumes Alfalfa/grass Good 5540 20 30 30 20 0 0 Poor 3000 20 30 30 20 0 0 Birdsfoot trefoil Good 4320 10 40 35 15 0 0 Poor 2500 10 40 35 15 0 0 Red clover/grass Good 5500 20 30 30 20 0 0 Poor 2750 20 30 30 20 0 0 Alternative forages (cool-season annual grasses) Oat Good 2500 55 35 10 0 0 0 Poor 1600 60 40 0000 Oat + rape Good 2410 30 45 25 0 0 0 Poor 1600 30 45 25 0 0 0 Winter rye Good 2300 55 25 0 0 5 15 Poor 1200 65 25 0055

aQuality: Good = Lime and fertilizer have been applied. Rotational grazing. Poor = No fertilizer added. Continuous grazing.

18 Understanding plant growth ______

Estimating pasture productivity—two methods

Direct estimate method Example weights are given for each step and are used in the final calculations. 1. Clip and collect the forage in 1 square yard of pasture. Clip at the intended grazing height; this will vary with species. 2. Weigh and record the forage. Take all measurements in pounds (example: 2.07 lb/sq yd). 3. Dry a sample: a. Record the weight of an empty paper plate (example: 1 oz). b. Take a half pound (approximately) sample of the forage. Place it on the plate and weigh it accurately (example: 9 oz). c. Place the sample in a microwave oven along with a cup of water. Microwave on high for 3 minutes, then weigh the sample. Note: It is extremely important to leave water in the microwave throughout the drying process. Water reduces the chance of ruining the microwave or possibly starting a fire. d. Microwave the sample for another minute, then reweigh the sample. Repeat this step until the weight remains the same. e. Record the final sample weight (example: 3 oz). 4. Calculate percent forage dry matter (DM): (final weight of sample) Ð (weight of plate) % forage dry matter = (original weight of sample) Ð (weight of plate) 3 oz Ð 1 oz Example: = 0.25 (25% forage dry matter) 9 oz Ð 1 oz 5. Determine pasture yield: [total weight of forage (step 2)] x [% forage DM (step 4)] x (43,560 sq ft/acre) Pasture yield (lb/acre) = (9 sq ft/sq yd) 2.07 lb/sq yd x 0.25 x 43,560 sq ft/acre Example: = 2505 lb/acre 9 sq ft/sq yd Pasture plate method A much faster way to estimate yield is through use of a pasture plate. You can make your own plate using the following directions: Materials: An 18-inch square sheet of acrylic (0.22-inch thick), a yard- stick, and a 2-inch bolt. Assembly: Drill a 1.5-inch hole in the center of the plate. To make it easy to lift and carry the plate and yardstick together, insert a large bolt through the bottom of the yardstick. 18" Procedure: Place the yardstick on the ground. Hold the plate (on the 1.5" hole yardstick) 1 foot above the standing forage and let it drop. Record the plate’s height (in inches) off the ground. Take measurements in 18" acrylic plate .22" thick (5.6 mm) 5 to 10 locations in the pasture and use the average height. To cal- culate dry matter yield (lb/acre), multiply the height by 390. For accurate results, the plants must be dry when taking measurements. Pasture yield (lb/acre) = 390 x height (inches)

Example: 390 x 6 inches = 2340 lb/acre 2" bolt 19 Animal needs

Animal digestion High-producing dairy cows require and nutrient supplementary feeds to fulfill their ability to produce milk. Table 4 shows requirements that high-quality pastures largely uminants, such as cattle, sheep, meet the requirements for protein, but and goats, are “natural grazers” even legume pastures will not Rhaving a rumen full of microbes provide for adequate intake of energy. that break down most plant fibers. Supplements should be formulated to Because of their efficient digestive complement the grass or legume system, ruminants can usually obtain growing in the pasture. Generally most of the nutrients and energy grass pasture requires a supplement needed for growth and production high in energy with moderate protein from good quality pasture alone. levels. Legumes come closer to Horses are “pseudo-ruminants.” They meeting the requirement of high pro- don’t have a rumen, but do have duction, so less supplement is microbes in an enlarged cecum which needed. digest some plant fiber. Therefore, horses must graze longer than true ruminants to get adequate nutrition. Pigs and poultry are non-ruminants with smaller digestive tracts in which relatively little fiber digestion occurs. They get nutrition from nonfibrous portion of plants and from seeds. In addition to pasture forage, they must be fed high-energy supplements to get the nutrition needed for growth.

Table 4. Nutrient needs for cows in early lactation and what pastures supply

Nutrient Recommendation Grass Grass-legume Legume Net energy of lactation (NEL), Mcal/lb 0.78 0.65Ð0.70 0.66Ð0.72 0.68Ð0.74 Crude protein (CP), % of DM 19 18Ð22 21Ð23 23Ð25 Escape protein 7.2 4.6Ð4.3 4.2Ð5.7 4.6Ð5.0 Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), % of DM (min) 28 50 44 38 Nonfibrous carbohydrate (NFC), % of DM 36Ð40 15Ð20 15Ð20 20Ð25 Adapted from Cherney, D.J.R., and J.H. Cherney. 1999. Feeding forages for optimum performance and pasture sustainability. Cornell Nutrition Conference for Feed Manufacturers

20 Animal needs ______

Figure 7 shows energy requirements Most of the mineral needs of livestock Animal water needs of livestock in relation to the quality can be met by the pasture alone. The Although livestock can get the of various forage types. Quality, in exception would be if you are grazing majority of their water from lush this case, is represented in terms of crop residue, such as corn stubble. forage which is 70 to 90% water, a total digestible nutrient (TDN) levels. Salt, however, should always be good supply of clean water is essen- As shown, each forage type has a dif- provided to animals “free choice.” tial in a grazing system, especially on ferent range of total digestible When selecting a salt, it is a good idea warm and sunny days. Livestock nutrient levels and each animal to buy a trace mineralized salt just to water requirements are shown in species and breed has a different make sure mineral requirements are table 5. Remember, though, that an range of nutrient requirements. being met. animal’s water needs vary with tem- Nutrient requirements vary with the perature, humidity, animal size, milk animal species, sex, maturity, size, production, and diet. For example, and whether or not the animal is lac- dry stock grazing lush grass in early tating. To maximize production, you spring or grazing snow-covered must match livestock nutrient pastures in winter may not need requirements with forage TDN levels. additional water while milking dairy High-producing dairy cows, for cows in the same conditions would example, could probably not get need water. enough nutrients from cool-season annual grasses alone but must be Table 5. Daily water requirements of grazing animalsa given a high percentage of legumes Animal Gallons per day and be fed supplement. Most animals can be maintained at TDN levels of 45 Beef cows 15Ð20 to 50%. Dairy cows 20Ð30 Yearling cattle 10Ð15 Sheep 2Ð3 Horses 10Ð15 a These are average figures. Water needs will be greater Figure 7. Ruminant nutrient requirements on hot, dry days and/or when grazing on dry forage. Needs will be less on cool, rainy days and/or when grazing on lush forage. warm-season grasses

cool-season Low nutrient requirements. Most dry or mainte- perennial grasses nance stock fit into this category. For example, a dry ewe or dry cow.

Medium nutrient requirements. Lactating sheep, goats, and horses, or fattening lambs. For cool-season example, a ewe and nursing lamb or a lactacting horse. annual grasses High nutrient requirements. Any beef steer or heifers or cow/calf pairs. For example, a stocker with an average daily gain of 2 pounds.

legumes Very high nutrient requirements. Only high- producing dairy cattle are included in this class. For example, a milking cow giving 60 pounds of milk per day.

40 55 65 75 85

total digestible nutrients (%) 21 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Access to water Some farmers use lanes to access a Size of waterer Ideally, water should be available central watering site, but the ideal The size waterer you’ll need depends within about 800 feet of the system is to have water available on the distance between the water maximum distance from which cattle within every paddock. This reduces and your animals. Any time there is might have to travel in a grazing the distance livestock must travel to considerable distance between the system. Missouri research indicates drink, discourages livestock from herd and the water source, getting a that animals will not graze much congregating around a central water drink involves travel and thus farther from water than this. source, and requires less fencing. becomes a social function involving Performance per animal is generally Often, pasture is severely trampled the movement of large animal reduced when cattle are forced to and eroded near central watering groups. Under these conditions, use a travel more than a quarter mile to sites, wasting forage and compacting separate water trough for each 50 to access water. the soil. 60 head or have it large enough for If you choose to use a natural water 10% of the head to drink at one time. source, consider siphoning water to The tank must also hold enough your livestock rather than bringing water for the entire herd to drink them to the source. This reduces once (e.g. 50 cows x 10 gallons/cow = disease and parasite problems and 500 gallons) since minimal refilling preserves water quality. To make can occur from the well in one pumping easier, moveable solar or drinking session. battery powered pasture pumps are Under intensive grazing (paddocks available. smaller than 10 acres), where water is Plastic tubing laid on the ground can provided in every paddock, going to be used for carrying water. That way water is an individual function. it is movable and temporary. To Under these conditions, a portable maintain water pressure, it works 50-gallon tank (with a demand valve best to use larger diameter tubing to attached to a float to regulate water transport water to the pasture (e.g. level) can easily water 100 head of 1-inch diameter) and smaller cattle. Or, a 100-gallon container can Figure 8. Movable 55-gallon drum fed diameter tubing (e.g. 5⁄8-inch serve two paddocks when located by garden hose with float diameter) to give water to the between them. A 10-gallon container paddocks. with a demand valve will be large enough to water 100 smaller livestock such as sheep and goats. Portable waterers need not be fancy; 55-gallon drums cut in half will work. Tanks can be put on wheels or skids to ease movement. Lightweight plastic or fiberglass containers are available in various sizes.

Figure 9. Single tank watering two pastures

22 Animal grazing Grazing patterns Selective grazing ost livestock prefer not to graze Livestock are naturally selective in during the hottest part of the what they eat. They will always select Mday, so the heaviest grazing the most nutritious, best tasting, and period occurs after sunrise for two or easiest-to-eat forage. Livestock favor three hours. Grazing increases again certain forage types over others as temperatures drop towards (forage favorites may change during evening. A third grazing period may the season). occur around midnight. On average, Selective grazing can be a problem 60% of grazing occurs during the day when the stocking density is too low. and 40% occurs during the night with Some spots are grazed down while livestock spending more time grazing other areas are allowed to go to seed. at night following hot days. During As soon as a preferred forage plant very hot weather, animals need begins to regrow after having been abundant water and may benefit by grazed, it will most likely be eaten being moved to shade during the again since it tastes better (and its hottest hours of the day. quality is higher) than older forage in Time spent grazing differs with the pasture. This is called spot grazing. species. Generally, cattle graze about Spot grazing causes yield losses in 8 hours per day, sheep 7 hours or less, two ways: First, the areas that mature goats no more than 6 hours, and are lost because forage quality drops horses 12 to 16 hours per day. too low. Second, the regrazed spots The time spent grazing each day is never have a chance to reach a height roughly the same regardless of that allows rapid growth. Forage pro- pasture quality or yield. Animals will duction in the heavily grazed spots is quit grazing after the normal grazing therefore reduced. time, whether or not they have gotten Spot grazing also favors poor forage all the energy and nutrients they need composition in pastures. High-quality for weight gain or milk production. forage species die out from overgraz- To maximize production, livestock ing, while unpalatable types flourish. must receive a sufficient amount of Legumes are usually the first plants high quality forage during their to be lost. grazing period. Rotational grazing, particularly man- agement intensive rotational grazing, reduces spot grazing. Higher stocking densities in rotational grazing systems cause livestock to graze more uni- formly and completely. High-quality forages, such as desirable grasses and legumes, thrive because they are given a rest period. Well-managed,

rotationally grazed pastures usually

have few weed problems. 23 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Livestock selectively graze certain Grazing habits Sheep and goats bite off plants close plant parts over others. Animals eat of different animals to the ground, which may lead to from the top down, taking the overgrazing when forages are scarce. Different animal species have differ- youngest, most nutritious leaves first, Close grazing by sheep and goats ent grazing behaviors. In addition, leaving less nutritious fibrous stems coupled with their sharp hoof action the animals eat different forage for later. Because of their small may lead to erosion problems, espe- species in different ways. Their mouths, sheep and goats can graze cially on overgrazed slopes. Goats dietary preferences are shown in table more selectively than cattle. For this prefer the leaves and stems of woody 6. If grazing more than one species of reason, sheep need to graze more plants over grass and can be used to livestock, it is best to graze the picky closely than cattle to get an even clear land. Sheep will eat more grazers first and follow with the less graze. If livestock are forced to graze weeds. picky eaters (e.g., horses or cattle a pasture down to the stems, followed by sheep or goats). Pigs, natural rooters, may eat entire however, they will perform poorly plants, root and all, which they dig Cattle typically tear off large mouth- (gain less weight or produce less and pull out of the ground with their fuls of forage. Older cows are spotty milk) because they get less snouts; this is very disruptive to a eaters. They avoid zones near manure high-quality forage per bite. To best pasture. They are excellent grazers, drops and eat other areas very close use your pasture, let high-producing however, when snout rings deter to the ground. With proper grazing livestock graze first followed by a them from rooting. “clean-up crew” of animals with supply management, yearlings graze Fowl will strip the soil bare if allowed lower nutritional needs. quite uniformly, often to the base of leaves. to, eating everything including roots and soil insects. They can be used to Amount of Horses are spotty eaters and tend to weed and fertilize land for small-scale bite off forage close to the ground. available forage planting. The amount of forage on offer also They are extremely picky grazers and influences consumption. The taller rarely touch weeds and woody and denser the forage, the more species. forage an animal will get per bite. However, when forage is tall (over 10 inches), large amounts are wasted because of trampling. If forage is short, animals waste energy trying to get enough to eat with little bites. If ground can be seen when looking down through the forage, the stand is likely too thin and stand density will limit forage intake. When forage is Table 6. Diet selection of livestock too short or thin, animal intake will decline and animal performance will Cattle and Goats and suffer. Keep these factors in mind Type of diet Horses red-tailed deer Sheep white-tailed deer when deciding at what height to ______% of diet ______graze. Each forage species has a dif- Forages (grasses 90 70 60 20 and legumes) ferent height at which it does best when grazed. For more information, Weeds 4 20 30 20 see the section on length of rest Woody material 6 10 10 60 periods in “Setting Up a Rotational Grazing System.”

24 Animal grazing ______

Animal impact Manure Rejection of forage surrounding on pasture Manure is a very important source of manure cannot be avoided but it can recycled nutrients and should be be lessened. Higher stocking rates Livestock impact pastures in a variety managed to the benefit of the pasture. will decrease the “zone of distaste,” of ways besides simply harvesting With continuous grazing, manure is but animals should never be forced to forage. They tread on the soil, not effective as a fertilizer because eat right up to manure of the same trample the forage, and disperse grazing animals concentrate manure species since it often contains harmful manure. in areas where they congregate, not parasites. High stocking rates will Treading and compaction where they graze. As a result, some also help break up manure (through Some animal treading breaks up the areas of the pasture receive few nutri- hoof action), speeding decomposition. soil surface allowing better water ents while other favorite areas Following one species of animal with penetration and is not harmful to become overloaded. Rotational another will promote more uniform pasture plants. However, excessive grazing greatly improves manure dis- forage consumption and can help to treading (as seen in cow paths or live- tribution across growing pastures and break up parasite cycles. To obtain stock lanes) can compact soil. reduces maintenance fertilizer costs. additional nutrients, some animals Rotational grazing minimizes com- Grazing lush vegetative growth also (such as pigs) will actually eat the paction since the soil is given time to helps distribute manure more uni- manure of another species! recover after grazing. Keeping formly and accelerates the breakdown animals off of a pasture when it is and recycling of manure nutrients very wet will reduce both soil com- because manure is more liquid than paction and plant damage. when coarse, overmature forage is Erosion, which can be a problem in consumed. continuously grazed pastures where Manure is an important contribution animals walk or in camp areas (near to a pasture providing both nutrients shade, feed, water, gates, etc.), is min- and organic matter. One cow can imized in a rotational system since excrete 50 pounds or more of manure livestock are prevented from treading in a day! Animals will usually avoid on the same area day after day. eating near manure of their own Sod-forming grasses like smooth species but will eat right up to bromegrass, reed canarygrass, and manure of a different species. Cattle, Kentucky bluegrass are very tolerant for example, will avoid eating near a of heavy traffic. Adding any of these fresh cow pie. At first, this avoidance species to a pasture mix will greatly is most likely due to odor which increase the treading tolerance of the leaves after two to three weeks. By pasture. Paddocks with only bunch or the time the odor is gone, the crown-forming plants like alfalfa, ungrazed forage has become more orchardgrass, and timothy are not mature and less palatable than the tolerant and should not be grazed surrounding forage and will conse- when the soil is wet. quently be avoided. You can take advantage of this behavior by spread-

ing manure in an area of the pasture

to keep livestock off. 25 Setting up a rotational grazing system

Setting goals and Resources assessing resources ■ How much capital is available to invest for starting a grazing he first step in starting a grazing system? system on your farm is setting Tmanagement goals. Well-defined ■ Do you have a shortage or an goals and an assessment of your abundance of pasture? pasture resources will determine how ■ What forage species are currently you design your system. Goals in the pastures? should be written to plan for profit, ■ What is the condition of the responsible land stewardship, and the pastures? Fencing? grazier’s personal needs and wishes. The following questions may help Length of rest you get started: periods Goals How does a person determine the ■ Are you grazing to maintain a appropriate rest period to give a herd, to achieve maximum pro- paddock? For optimum production, duction, or to clear land? pastures should be grazed about a ■ If grazing to achieve maximum week before the grass heads out (goes production, do you want to to seed) or when the legume is in the maximize production per animal early or mid bud stage. Table 7 or per acre? outlines the average heights at which ■ How intensive do you want your to begin grazing grasses and legumes. management to be? At these heights, pasture quality is high, forage is easy to eat, and plants ■ Are you willing to fertilize? have recovered sufficiently from the ■ Are you willing to feed supple- previous grazing. mental grain or hay or do you want to avoid running out of forage? ■ Do you want productive pastures right away or can you gradually work up to higher yields? ■ Do you have severe weed problems such as thistle and brush which must be taken care of before you intensify your system?

26 Setting up a rotational grazing system ______

The rest period required is closely The above guidelines provide a grazing period and can be damaged. related to seasonal forage growth (see starting point for deciding when to Regrowth occurs after about four figure 6). graze and how long of a rest period is days during May and June and 10 ■ Legumes such as alfalfa, birdsfoot needed, but they must be fine-tuned days during August and September, trefoil, and red clover need rest to fit your system. It is crucial that so the maximum grazing period periods of about 3 to 4 weeks you move your animals according to should never be longer than these throughout the season. the forage, not the calendar. If you averages. graze too early, the pasture will be set ■ Cool-season grasses such as Use short grazing periods. Since live- back, desirable plants may die out, Kentucky bluegrass, ryegrass, stock graze selectively, they will eat and weeds may take hold. If you orchardgrass, or timothy need as highest quality forage when first graze too late, the grass becomes little as 2 weeks of rest during turned out onto a paddock and be bunchy, loses palatability, and your cool weather and 5 to 7 weeks forced to eat lower quality forage production might suffer. There are during hot weather. each day they remain in the same times when you’ll want to purposely paddock. They also tend to eat more ■ Grass-legume mixes should be use shorter rest periods to weaken a when first turned out onto a fresh grazed when the grass reaches the pasture (say for interseeding paddock. Therefore, shorter grazing ideal height. legumes) or keep up with unusually periods will provide for more ■ Warm-season grasses, such as fast growth. There are also times uniform forage intake. This is espe- sorghum/sudan or big bluestem, when you’ll need to use longer rest cially important for dairy farmers need to rest for 5 to 6 weeks periods to let forage reseed itself, since change in forage quality shows during cool weather and about 3 renew its root reserves, or be stock- up in milk yields. Many dairy weeks during hot weather. piled. farmers use one-day grazing periods; Plants under stress (drought, cold some move livestock after every weather, poor soil fertility, etc.) will Length of milking. With other types of livestock, require longer rest periods. Optimal grazing periods rapid moves are less beneficial and growing conditions, on the other Controlling the amount of time a animals may be moved to new hand, decrease the rest period paddock is grazed is just as important pasture every 2 to 6 days depending needed. If you must abuse a pasture as leaving adequate rest periods on the level of nutrition required. (by overgrazing and/or using short between grazing. If the grazing Do not overgraze pastures. The closer rest periods), do it when growing period is too long, newly grazed you graze a pasture, the longer the conditions are optimal such as in the plants may grow back tall enough to rest period required for forage spring. be regrazed again within the same recovery. The higher the stubble, the more quickly the plant will be able to Table 7. Average heights to begin and end grazing recover after grazing. A good rule of thumb is to leave 4 inches of stubble Plant height (inches) for cool-season grasses and legumes Species Start grazing Stop grazing and 4 to 8 inches of stubble for Tall-growing cool-season grasses 8Ð10 4 warm-season grasses. Try to adjust orchardgrass, quackgrass, reed canarygrass, the length of your grazing period to smooth bromegrass, tall fescue, and timothy allow for these stubble heights. If you Tall-growing legumes 8Ð10 4 can’t leave these stubble heights, your alfalfa, alsike clover, birdsfoot trefoil, forage will probably do all right if kura clover, ladino clover, and red clover you give it adequate rest between Ryegrasses Italian and perennial 6Ð8 2 grazing. A sure way to kill desirable species is to graze close and then Short-growing cool-season grasses 4Ð6 2 and legumes graze the regrowth without allowing Kentucky bluegrass and white clover adequate rest.

Warm-season grasses 12Ð14 4Ð6

big bluestem, indiangrass,

sorghum/sudangrass, and switchgrass 27 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

If cattle are leaving excessive forage, 2) Graze different groups in separate 1) Spread spring green-up by stag- you may wish to decrease your paddocks. If you have some poor gering the last grazing in the fall. paddock size instead of lengthening quality pastures, let the animals 2) Graze a large paddock or the the grazing period. You may have to with lower nutritional needs graze entire pasture when the plants are lengthen the grazing period and/or them. only 2 to 3 inches tall and gradu- increase the size of your paddocks Note: Animals with only mainte- ally reduce the size of the midseason to correspond to decreas- nance requirements can be used to paddock as the forage gets ahead ing forage growth rates. clear land if used at high stocking of the animals. Reduce paddock rates (approximately 170,000 size by about 30 to 50% as grass Grazing groups lb/acre). Goats are especially good height reaches 6 inches. This will To make the most out of your for this since they prefer woody help stagger pasture growth pasture, it is often beneficial to divide forage. When using animals to throughout the season. livestock into different groups based clear land, don’t leave them on so 3) Make hay or mow pastures that on nutritional requirements for long that they’re forced to eat poi- get ahead. For instance, plan to desired performance levels. This way, sonous plants. make hay from about half of your you can allow the animals requiring pasture (make sure it is not too the highest level of nutrition to get Spring start-up steep, rocky, or wooded to be the highest quality forage while There are two problems that you hayed) during the first grazing saving the lowest quality forage for must deal with when getting started cycle. the animals with lower nutritional in the spring. The first is getting your During wet springs, avoid mud requirements. There are several possi- animals used to consuming fresh feed problems by grazing paddocks bilities which should be modified to after a winter of eating stored feed. located on high, dry land. your own situation. A herd can be Make the transition gradually to divided into two or three groups. allow the rumen microbes to adjust. Seasonal Table 8 shows examples of this. Don’t turn hungry livestock onto There are two ways to best use forage pasture to start out with, as they may fluctuations in to meet animal needs: eat too much and bloat. To guard pasture growth rate 1) Graze more than one group on the against bloat, see bloat in “Animal There are a number of ways to same paddock sequentially. High Health on Pastures.” provide high yielding, quality forage producers should be grazed first The second problem has to do with throughout the grazing season. (to consume the highest quality the pasture. The entire pasture will be 1) Reduce the number of paddocks forage), animals with lower nutri- growing at about the same rate but grazed in the spring by using tional needs should graze second, you will be grazing small sections at a them to make hay. Put those followed by animals with only time. This means that the paddocks paddocks back into the rotation in maintenance requirements (dairy you leave for last probably will the middle of the summer and, if cows followed by heifers and dry over-mature unless you compensate necessary, supplement your cows, or lambs followed by ewes). somehow. You can try one of three grazing animals with the hay alternatives: made in the spring. 2) Plant portions of pasture to differ- Table 8. Grazing groups based on nutritional needs ent species to stagger heading. High Moderate 3) Plant legumes in cool-season grass Livestock performance performance Maintenance pastures to provide more even Dairy dairy cows heifers dry cows summer growth (see figure 6). Beef steers and heifers cows with calves dry cows for meat production and growing heifers Goats milking does does with kids dry does Sheep weaned lambs ewes with lambs dry ewes

28 Setting up a rotational grazing system ______

Determining stocking rate and acreage needed

How many animals should be put in a pasture? The answer to this question about stocking rates depends on your goals. If you have a limited amount of pasture land but a flexible herd size, you’ll probably benefit from going to a more intensive system. If you don’t plan on feeding supplement and/or are more concerned about individual animal gain than gain per acre, you may wish to stock at a lower level. The calculations below will give a rough estimate of the maximum number of animals that can be grazed on your land. 1) Determine total pasture acreage for the season (example: 20 acres). 2) Estimate average pasture yield per acre. For average yields of various forage mixtures see tables 2 or 3 or use your own figures if you have them (example: 4000 lb/acre). 3) Estimate the length of your grazing season in days (example: May 15 through October 15 or 153 days). 4) Estimate the average weight of one of your animals for the season

Average weight = (beginning weight + predicted final weight) 2 Some average weights: dairy cow (Holstein) = 1300 lb horse = 1250 lb beef cow = 1000 lb goat = 170 lb beef bull = 1250 lb ewe and lamb = 200 lb 5) Estimate the maximum animal numbers that can be grazed on your pastures during an entire season: (total acreage) x (average yield/acre) Number of animals = 0.04* x (average weight/animal) x (total days grazed) For example, for a ewe and a lamb: 20 acres x 4000 lb/acre = 65 ewes with lambs Number of animals = 0.04 x 200 lb x 153 days How many acres do my animals need? If you have a lot of pasture and a fixed number of livestock, you might want to use a less-intensive system to maximize production per head rather than per acre. The calculations below will tell you the minimum amount of land required to pasture your herd. Remember, you can always use more than the minimum. The minimum amount of land needed to pasture your herd: (number of animals) x (average weight/animal) x 0.04* x (total days grazed) Pasture acreage needed = (average yield/acre) For example, if you have 25 Holstein cows:

Pasture acreage needed = 25 cows x 1300 lb/cow x 0.04 x 153 days = 49 acres 4000 lb/acre *The 0.04 figure is used because livestock need to have daily access to approximately 4% of their live weight in forage (2.5% intake, 0.5% trampling loss, and 1% buffer). This figure may be decreased if you are willing to feed supplemental hay or grain during periods of low production.

These calculations should be used only as guides to help you get started. Actual numbers will vary from

site to site and from year to year because of variations in the weather, soil type, and pasture condition. 29 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Drought Moving livestock If you have difficulty moving them, During periods of drought, greater Moving livestock needn’t be trau- don’t make any quick movements intensity of management will result in matic or time consuming for either and don’t try to push them directly forage lasting longer into the drought. you or your animals; an experienced from behind. Instead, stand slightly The key is to recognize that a drought rotational grazer can move 50 to 250 to the side of them, walk towards is occurring and take appropriate head of livestock in 15 minutes. them and they should start walking action before forage reserves have Animals rapidly develop herding away from you. Alternately, leave the fallen too low. Rest between grazing behavior when they are managed on gate open and go away and they’ll becomes more and more crucial as pasture. Using principles of animal move themselves painlessly! drought stress increases. As a general behavior, you can readily move large Paddocks: How rule, during drought periods, more groups of animals from pasture to stubble should be left after grazing. pasture with little difficulty. many and how big? There is no “best” number of paddocks. This can most readily be done by The key to fast moves lies in minimiz- Any number of paddocks is better than feeding energy from a supplemental ing animal stress. Avoid forcing your grazing a single pasture continuously. source along with the pasture. The animals to go somewhere they don’t Initially, the number of paddocks in supplement might be hay, corn silage, want to go, especially by hitting or your rotational system may be deter- or corn. yelling at them. Instead, make your mined by current fences, topography, Some farmers have set land aside to animals want to move. Move them access to water or access to a central be grazed only during a drought. when they’re hungry and during the collection corral or yard (as discussed This should be extremely drought day when they can see where they’re in the next section). This may lead to a tolerant forage such as warm season going. Livestock are very habitual two- to eight-paddock system and will grasses. creatures. If you move them at the greatly increase both pasture condition same time each day, they will antici- Early weaning of beef calves (at 3 and animal performance. months of age) is an appropriate pate this, stop grazing, congregate The next step is to move into an pasture management technique near the gate, and wait for you to intensive grazing system and let the during drought. Calves should be come. As soon as you open the gate, length of grazing and rest periods turned onto good quality pasture and they’ll move themselves, anticipating determine the number of paddocks. be supplemented with several fresh pasture. Dividing a pasture into more pounds of grain. Dams or ewes can paddocks increases the length of the then be maintained at a lower level of rest period and decreases the length feed intake. of time an area is grazed (figure 10). More paddocks are usually better than fewer for both the animals and the plants. But paddock numbers don’t need to be rigid; they may be fenced with portable electric wire so that size and number may be changed as needed. Figure 10. Relationship between number of paddock and rest period per acre 100-acre undivided Two 50-acre Four 25-acre Sixteen 6.25-acre Sixty-four 1.57-acre pasture paddocks paddocks paddocks paddocks

graze—100% graze—50% graze—25% graze—6% graze—2% rest—0% rest—50% rest—75% rest—94% rest—98%

30 Setting up a rotational grazing system ______

To determine the ideal number of To figure out the approximate size of Paddock layout paddocks for a management intensive each paddock, divide total pasture Most farmers have traditionally only rotational grazing system, estimate acreage needed by the number of pastured land that is not suitable for the length of your longest rest period paddocks. The actual size of each cultivation. But pasture needn’t be (during the slowest period of forage paddock will need to be tailored to relegated to your roughest land. In growth), the length of your grazing the site. Paddocks should be large fact, after making good profits from period, and the number of animal enough to provide the optimum high- pastures, many experienced rotational groups which will be grazing the quality forage for each grazing period graziers have converted some of their same pasture sequentially. Paddock (calculate daily forage intake and best land to pasture. Just about any numbers can then be calculated from fence off enough area in the paddock land can be pastured except exces- the equation below: to meet animal needs). If paddock sively steep hillsides and dense Number of paddocks = number and paddock size exceed woodlands. Fencing livestock out of your total acreage (for example, (rest period) + (number of woodlands allows young trees to (grazing period) animal groups) during summer or drought), plan on survive and results in more mar- supplementing the animals’ diet to For example, a pasture with 30-day ketable, higher-value timber. reduce forage needs. rest periods and 3-day grazing After deciding how much of your periods that is grazed by one animal land you want to pasture, you must group should be divided into 11 determine how much of it cannot be paddocks ((30 ÷ 3) + 1). harvested due to steepness of slope, rockiness, trees or brush. If pasture forage is to be your only source of Figure 11. Square or rectangular paddock layout uses a central feed for the summer, you’ll probably lane with shared waterers. Paddocks are separated by mobile or want about half of your pasture to be permanent fencing. land that can be mechanically har- vested so you can put up hay in the spring to compensate for high spring 12 3 4 5 6 productivity while having sufficient mobile or pasture for the summer. permanent shared fencing water tank The easiest way to lay out fencing is lane to make square or rectangular perimeter livestock paddocks of uniform size (figure 11). fence gate This way, paddocks can easily be sub- divided with mobile electric fence 12 11 10 987 and calculations are easier because of uniform paddock areas. Square paddocks will use the least amount of Figure 12. Strip grazing uses two wires that are moved along two per- fence for the greatest area. Another manent fences. Move the front wire according to pasture production and option is to make rectangular animal need. Follow with the back wire to prevent grazing of regrowth. pastures and strip graze as shown in figure 12. permanent perimeter fence

grazed ungrazed pasture pasture back wire front wire

direction of animal movement 31 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Unfortunately, using square or rectan- When separating pasture into Soil type gular paddocks is not possible on paddocks, it is not necessary to com- ■ Try to separate different soil types most farms due to variations within a pletely change your current fencing as much as possible. They will pasture and irregular pasture shapes. system. As a general rule, it is best to have different levels of productiv- Paddocks should always be fenced so use permanent perimeter fences and ity. For example, paddocks with that the grazing environment within temporary internal fences. Fence good soils can often be grazed them is uniform. If a pasture has vari- paddocks with the following princi- more frequently than those with ations (in slope, shade, soil type, ples in mind: droughty soils. forage quality, etc.), both forage Topography ■ Make sure appropriate forage growth and grazing will be uneven. ■ Separate different slopes into dif- species are planted in areas prone The rougher the terrain, the more ferent paddocks. Because a to flooding or drought. complicated the fencing system must south-facing slope gets more sun, be to ensure even grazing. In uneven Shade and water availability it may be ready to graze as much pastures, proper paddock placement ■ Fence shady and sunny areas sep- as 2 to 3 weeks before a is important in a rotational grazing arately. This will prevent cattle north-facing slope on the other system and essential in intensive rota- from grazing the sunny areas and side of the same hill. South-facing tional systems. resting and leaving manure in the slopes usually dry out faster in shade. You may wish to use a couple of tools midsummer. available from your county Natural ■ Water should be accessible from ■ Lay paddocks out across the slope Resources Conservation Service each paddock. (on the contour) rather than con- (NRCS) office to help you determine structing a paddock running from Other considerations how to divide your pastures: a land top to bottom of a hill because ■ Square or rectangular paddocks, use capability chart, a soils type map, pasture growth will be different while generally desired, are a topographic map, and an aerial on the top and bottom of a hill. usually a bad choice for hilly photograph of your pasture. To start and/or non-uniform land. out with, use the aerial photograph ■ Fence hill crests and valleys sepa- ■ and maps to draw (or photocopy) a rately from slopes. Livestock often Livestock lanes are more impor- scaled map of your pasture land indi- prefer to graze on level ground; if tant the more frequently used. cating the location of existing fencing, allowed, they will graze it more Dairy farms, for example, need relevant buildings, roads, water heavily than sloping land within more and better lanes than farms sources, woodlands, and hills. the same paddock. with other animals. Lanes should be located on high ground and Forage type should be as short as possible. ■ Different forages will begin spring ■ Gates should be located in the growth at different times and will corner of the paddock nearest to produce different amounts of the barn. summer growth (figure 6). ■ Stream banks may need to be ■ Grazing may hurt certain forages fenced so they’re not grazed when at certain times of the year and the ground is soft. Otherwise live- reduce persistence. For example, stock will damage the embank- avoid grazing legumes between ment. September 1 and October 15. ■ Setting aside large open areas for hay-making during spring when excess pasture occurs will enhance nesting for grassland birds.

32 Setting up a rotational grazing system ______

Fencing When constructing new perimeter If you choose to use polyethylene Good fencing is a must in rotational fence, most farmers choose smooth, wire or tape, you’ll need to carefully grazing systems. The fencing system high-tensile wire since it is relatively select your fencer since ordinary, used for rotational grazing includes a cheap, long-lasting (about 30 years), weed-burning chargers will melt the permanent perimeter fence as well as fairly easy to move (if necessary), and plastic. The best type of energizer on permanent or movable fencing to highly effective. These fences can be the market today is the New Zealand separate paddocks. For more infor- constructed so that some or all of the type, low impedance pulsating high mation about the fencing options strands can be electrified. energy charger. These give extremely short (0.0003 second), high-energy DC described below, contact your local Lightweight movable fencing electrical pulses. Since the pulse is so fencing distributor. With movable fencing you can easily fast and short, energy can’t be alter paddock size to meet changing Permanent fencing drained off by weeds or by a section conditions of forage growth or herd Most farmers use permanent fencing of fence that has fallen onto the soil. size. Pasture divided into temporary for perimeter fences and movable There is less need to trim weeds from paddocks is easily accessed by fencing for individual paddocks. underneath fences energized with machinery, or can easily be taken out Other farmers have chosen to con- New Zealand type energizers since of pasture all together. struct permanent paddocks for all or they rarely short out. part of their pastures. The advantage Portable wires and tapes are made of of permanent paddocks is that, once polyethylene imbedded with stainless Lanes and laneways they are established, fences do not steel strands (the greater the number Lanes allow for livestock movement have to be moved. If your livestock of metal strands, the longer it will from one paddock to any other numbers are fairly stable and you are last). Polywire is a braided wire and paddock or to the barn without experienced in rotational grazing, this is available in a variety of colors and moving back through a previously may be a viable option. lengths. Brightly colored tape is more grazed paddock or through an inade- Before buying new fencing, deter- easily seen by livestock and therefore quately rested paddock. The need for mine what permanent fencing you is good for training animals new to lanes depends on the length of occu- already have on your farm. Existing rotational grazing. Both kinds of pation of a paddock and the fre- wooden or barbed wire fencing will fencing come on light-weight reels quency of livestock movement. work fine for the perimeter fence as which can be easily moved and Animals can generally walk through long as it provides an effective barrier hooked on to perimeter fences. A a wet area once with minimal damage for the animals. To separate individ- single strand is all that is needed to the area but not twice. Thus, stable ual paddocks, you’ll probably want to between temporary paddocks since lanes are critical on a dairy operation use temporary electric fencing as electric fencing is a fear barrier rather where cattle need to move back and described in the next section. Don’t than a physical barrier. (A second forth from the pasture to a milking let your current fencing arrangement strand may be needed when very facility at least twice daily; they are limit you. Fence in a way that makes young animals are kept with mature less important for other animals that the best use of your land. animals.) are moved less frequently. Consider the state of repair of the Lightweight plastic or fiberglass posts current fence. An old fence can be can be used to hold up the polywire. improved by adding a single electric They are so light that 20 or 30 stakes wire on a strut that protrudes into the can be carried at a time. Their narrow pasture (offset fence). Never electrify ends are easily inserted into the soil barbed wire since animals can cut by stepping on a side lip with your themselves badly on the barbs when foot, or pushing down from the top. recoiling from a shock. Beware of splinters if you use fiber-

glass. 33 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Lanes must be properly planned, In situations with frequent traffic, Designing located and built. The width should lanes should be surfaced. Inadequate a pasture system be kept as narrow as possible, 6 to 8 lanes that are wet and muddy can Tailor paddock layout to your own feet wide for cattle or 14 to 18 feet for cause animal health problems besides farm. The most important part in cattle and machinery. Lanes can be lengthening livestock travel time. setting up a grazing system is putting formed by two parallel single strand Mastitis, high somatic cell counts, what you know about your farm to electric fences with gates. If high- lameness, and reduced feed intake are work. Figure 13 is an example of how tensile wire is used, gates are not nec- some problems that can be attributed a “typical” farm might gradually essary. The wire can be unclipped to poor lane design. For a dairy oper- move from continuous to rotational from the post and held to the ground ation you should reinforce at least grazing. This farm has a 5-acre field by a nail driven into the post at 1000 feet of lane closest to the milking at the top of a hill south of the build- ground level. Another technique is to facility and all areas that are unstable ings. There is a slope to the north and raise the wire in the air with another due to wetness or slope. There are south of this pasture, a low area post for the livestock to walk under. many types of surfacing materials northwest of the buildings, and a including concrete, asphalt, and rock Lanes should be centrally positioned south slope along the northern with limestone screenings on top. For to access the field or paddocks to be property line. grazed, including crop or hay fields more information contact your local The land with buildings and existing that will be grazed temporarily. When Conservation District, Land perimeter fence is shown in the first lanes serve rotational pastures, they Conservation Department, Extension drawing. The first step in switching should be positioned to create Service, or USDA-Natural Resources to rotational grazing is to divide the paddocks that are as nearly square as Conservation Service office. land into four paddocks (drawing 2). possible. Also, placing lanes directly All lanes should be crowned at least 6 To maintain water quality, the pond up and down steep slopes should be inches to 12 inches in the center to has been fenced off. Water will be avoided if at all possible. If this is not provide drainage. Constructed fords, pumped to a waterer in the barnyard. possible, the lane should be rein- culvert crossings, or bridges should Each paddock has a gate at the forced with weatherproof surfacing. be used for stream crossings. Culvert barnyard. This avoids the need to Equip any lane having long, continu- crossings or bridges should be used create lanes and simplifies handling ous gradients with water diverters to sparingly. They should not be used at animals; it also allows a single water break up waterflows directed down all if the stream is prone to flooding. source to provide water for all the lane. Maintenance of crossings and bridges paddocks. This setup is not necessary is high. Debris can easily plug the Avoid driving equipment up and for most pasturing systems but essen- entrance. Damage to downstream down non-surfaced lanes when wet. tial for milking herds, which return to areas caused by successive washouts Livestock use the slightest wheel rut the barn daily. The paddock northeast of either abutment can also be exces- as a preferred trail. Continual use of the buildings was fenced sepa- sive. If flooding occurs, it is generally kills the vegetation and causes rately because it is reasonably flat and safer to have a constructed ford with erosion to begin where water can could be left for hay making when rock along the streambed. The rocks channel and gather velocity in the there is surplus forage. Different should be large enough to avoid trail. slopes were not fenced separately, but becoming lodged in hooves, usually with just four divisions there are 4 inches or more. Crossings should be limits to how much fine tuning can be perpendicular to waterways and done. This fencing division to four streams. paddocks will greatly improve pro- duction compared to the two- paddock system. The fencing can be either permanent or temporary and may be the final stage of setting up a 4-paddock system or the first step to establishing an intensive grazing system.

34 Setting up a rotational grazing system ______

The third illustration in figure 13 When deciding how to divide your Example 1. Suppose you estimate shows the next set of divisions that pasture, think about what you have the longest rest period of the season should be made to go to an intensive to work with: existing fencing, per- to be 32 days. If you allow 2 days in grazing system. Each of the four manent buildings, water sources, etc. each paddock you’ll need 17 paddocks has been further divided Use these resources as much as paddocks in all [(rest period ÷ using portable fencing which can possible. grazing period) + number of animal easily be moved, increased, or groups]. Anticipating faster growth decreased in number. In this fencing Deciding when rates in the spring, you estimate that refinement, the south-facing slopes to move livestock the rest period will need to be only were all fenced separately from other about 16 days to start out with. You For rotational grazing to be successful areas because they can be grazed decide to split the pasture in half in you must be flexible! Don’t get into a earlier than other paddocks in the the spring, harvest half for hay and rut of grazing every paddock in the spring. The low area northwest of the graze the other half. You begin “proper” sequence for the “proper” pond was fenced into a separate grazing paddock #1 moving sequen- number of days and then follow your paddock because production would tially through all eight paddocks. But estimated rest period. The number of be much higher than other areas it has been a dry spring. By the time paddocks grazed and the lengths of during dry spells. Note that the you’ve finished grazing paddock #8, the grazing and rest periods should paddocks are not all the same size. It paddock #1 isn’t ready to be grazed vary as pasture growth rates change is more important that the paddocks yet. What do you do? Graze some of with the weather. The faster the yield roughly equal amounts of the land you were setting aside to pasture grows, the fewer paddocks forage than that they have equal make hay until paddock #1 is ready you’ll need and the shorter grazing areas. to be grazed (or feed stored feed)? A and rest periods you’ll need to take. better solution would be to anticipate During times of slow pasture growth, this slow growth in time to slow you’ll need more paddocks and down the rotation. longer rest periods.

Figure 13. Example of how a farm might gradually implement rotational grazing

1. Add a division fence 2. Subdivide the land into four 3. To move to intensive rotational paddocks using permanent (x—x—x) grazing, subdivide the land into eight and temporary (— —) fencing paddocks using portable fence

Source: University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service publication Planning Fencing Systems for Intensive Grazing

Management (ID-74) 35 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Example 2. On the other extreme, it Evaluating and 2. Pasture observations is midsummer, the weather has been improving your ■ Keep track of rest and grazing rainy and cooler than usual. You are grazing system periods. How is your pasture on paddock #10 in a 16-paddock responding to these? Do your If you are interested in intensifying rotation when you notice that pastures recover slowly (a sign your current grazing system or paddock #1 is ready to be grazed of overgrazing)? Are they making a transition from confinement again. If you follow your planned getting ahead of you? How do feeding to pasturing, do so gradually. rotation, paddock #1 will be you respond? over-mature by the time you get to it. It takes a while to attain good stands ■ Keep track of which pastures What do you do? Graze paddock #1 and pasture forage yields. Rotational you grazed so you know how out of sequence. You can mow or hay grazing requires new forage manage- much rest they need. the paddocks that you didn’t get to in ment skills, which take time to this round so they’ll be ready later in develop. ■ Keep track of the growth stage the season. In order to evaluate and improve of your forages. How long does it take to reach the What if you don’t want to (or can’t) your rotational grazing system, it optimal stage for grazing? make hay during periods of rapid may be helpful to draw up a “pasture forage growth? Move the animals calendar.” This calendar should span ■ How much stubble are you faster from one paddock to the next. the entire year and be subdivided leaving? Is pasture recovery The animals will “top” the paddocks, into monthly and weekly sections. fast enough? grazing the most nutritious forage, Leave enough space to record timely ■ How do you plan to deal with leaving the rest. Under this system, observations of your pasture and the midsummer slump? forage is wasted but only the lower animals, management plans, and new ■ How will you extend the quality forage will be lost. The less- ideas. grazing season? desirable alternative is to use the 1. Animal observations ■ same grazing period length you Try to match animal needs with If you plan to stockpile forage, would have used under “normal” forage production. how much forage do you growing conditions. Because of rapid need? ■ Record animal health problems growth, the paddocks yet to be you think might be related to grazed would become over-mature grazing. and even more forage would be lost ■ as well as animal productivity. Keep track of stocking rates. Are the rates high enough to prevent spot grazing? ■ Are your livestock developing “camp” areas? How can this be avoided? ■ Are your livestock getting enough feed from pasture? Why or why not? Is there sig- nificant trampling loss? Are you feeding them too much non-pasture feed in the barn? ■ Is production at desired levels? Do you need to feed supple- ment or renovate your pastures?

36 Animal health on pasture

Parasites The key to parasite control is preven- razing livestock (especially tion. It is best to de-worm livestock grazing intensively) can lead to before they are put to pasture in the Gincreased parasite infestation. spring to kill any adult worms still in Since early signs of an infested herd their bodies. (Check product label for are not always obvious, producers restrictions before de-worming often fail to treat animals until they pregnant stock.) Since livestock will see visible symptoms such as probably ingest overwintering larvae diarrhea, sunken flanks, or “bottle in the pasture while grazing, worm jaw.” By this time, significant herd them again 3 to 4 weeks later when production losses have already larvae have matured but before they occurred. Infected animals show release more eggs. A follow-up greater susceptibility to disease, worming in another 3 to 4 weeks is general lack of vigor, slow growth, also advisable. Try to treat immedi- low milk production, and low weight ately before livestock are moved to a gains. Although parasites affect new paddock to prevent contamina- young animals most severely, all live- tion of new paddocks. stock are detrimentally affected. De-worming is simpler than it used Understanding the general parasite to be due to de-wormer blocks, feed life cycle aids in being able to control premixes, and medicated mineral or prevent infections. Infected salts which eliminate the need to animals spread parasites quickly and round up livestock separately for effectively, putting an entire herd at treatment. Make sure to use the new risk. One cow can shed up to 400,000 broad-spectrum de-wormers which worm eggs per day in its manure. are effective against all larval and Under warm and moist conditions, adult stages of worms. these eggs hatch into infective, mobile larvae, which move out onto pasture Bloat forage. After being eaten by livestock, Bloat is most often a problem when the ingested larvae become grazing high-quality, lush legume egg-laying adults in about 3 weeks, pastures (except birdsfoot trefoil), eventually releasing thousands more lush young grasses, or brassicas. eggs which come out with manure. Foam-producing compounds in the Though hot, dry weather kills most immature plants cause stable foam larvae, some survive in soil, in formation in the rumen of susceptible manure pats, or under vegetation. animals, prohibiting them from Surviving larvae overwinter beneath belching rumen gas. This condition, if the snow to reinfect livestock the fol- not treated immediately, can lead to lowing spring. death. Individual animals differ in

their susceptibility to bloat. 37 ______P ASTURES FOR PROFIT

Bloat can be a serious problem if Bloat can “sneak up on you.” One If you suspect a potential for nitrate hungry livestock are turned out on farmer, in his first year of rotational poisoning, have your forage tested. young, lush legume pasture (greater grazing, complained of having bloat Levels above 0.1% may affect animal than 50% legumes). Listed below are problems on a pasture that never production (depending on animal some ways to prevent bloat: gave any problems when grazed con- age, nutritional requirements, and 1) Don’t graze hungry livestock on tinuously. It turns out that he was whether or not pregnant). Levels pure legume pastures (except leaving his cattle on one paddock so above 0.35% nitrate-nitrogen may be birdsfoot trefoil). Play it safe by long that in the last days before lethal. planting grass with your legume. moving, they were grazing extremely There are a few steps you can take to Also, feed them with hay before poor-quality forage and were very help decrease the risk of chronic turning out and let them graze hungry. When turned onto a fresh nitrate toxicity. Supplement forages only 2 to 3 hours for the first 2 to 4 paddock, they gorged themselves on that have potentially toxic nitrate days of the grazing season. And lush legume/grass forage and bloat levels with low-nitrate forages. Avoid finally, once on pasture leave live- became a problem. unnecessary fertilization. And do not stock there continuously so they graze pastures with high numbers of don’t gorge themselves. Nitrate poisoning lambsquarters and pigweed during 2) Moving cattle frequently (every 1 and poisonous periods of drought. to 4 days) to new pasture will plants Poisonous plants are seldom a keep animals from getting hungry Nitrate poisoning acts very quickly problem in the Midwest because they towards the end of grazing one and symptoms may not be observed generally taste bitter and will be paddock and gorging themselves until an animal drops dead. Primarily avoided as long as other forage is when placed in a fresh pasture. older and very young animals are available. 3) Feed poloxalene, an anti-foaming affected. Certain plants, such as lambs- agent. Give to cattle before quarters, pigweed, and annual grains, turning onto pasture and continue tend to have a greater concentration throughout the season. The effec- of nitrates than others. Nitrate accu- tiveness of poloxalene depends on mulation is especially a problem daily consumption. Mix with a during periods of slow growth initi- daily feed supplement. Avoid sup- ated by drought, shade, or herbicide plying it as a block or mineral mix application. Application of manure as this allows non-uniform daily and/or nitrogen fertilizer also feeding and is less effective. increases nitrate content of forage. Nitrates can also be high in well 4) Don’t graze legumes or brassicas water the animals drink. with lots of rain or dew on them, especially in autumn. 5) Don’t graze grass or legume pastures at immature stages, before they have regrown. 6) Plant birdsfoot trefoil, a non-bloating legume.

38

Additional reading Acknowledgments Books Intensive Grazing Management. Forage, The following agencies and Grass Productivity by Andre Voisin. Animals, Men, Profits by Burt Smith, organizations cooperated in the devel- 1993. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Pingsun Leung and George Love. opment and publication of 353 pages. 1986. Kamuela, Hawaii: The Graziers this pamphlet: Grazing Management: Science into Hui. 350 pages. ■ Department of Agriculture, Trade Practice by John Hodgson. 1990. New Web sites and Consumer Protection, Sustainable Agriculture Program; York: Longman Scientific & Technical. University of Wisconsin-Extension 203 pages. Team Forage: www.uwex.edu/ces/ ■ Department of Natural Resources, Greener Pastures on Your Side of the crops/uwforage/uwforage.htm Bureau of Wildlife Management; Fence: Better Farming with Voisin Great Lakes Grazing Network: ■ Wisconsin Nutrient and Pest Grazing Management by Bill Murphy. www.glgn.org Management program with 1999. Colchester, Vermont: Arriba the Center for Integrated Publishing. 379 pages. Agricultural Systems, University of Holistic Resource Management by Allan Wisconsin, College of Agricultural Savory. 1988. Washington, D.C.:Island and Life Sciences; Press. 558 pages. ■ University of Wisconsin-Extension, How to Plan, Implement, and Practice Cooperative Extension; and Controlled Grazing on Your Place by ■ University of Minnesota-Extension. Bob Kingsbury. 1989. Woodinville, Thanks also to the farmers whose Washington: Kingsbury experiences and expertise in using Communications. 57 pages. rotational grazing on their farms added greatly to the production of this publication.

© 2002 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. Send inquiries about copyright permissions to Cooperative Extension Publishing, Rm. 103, 432 N. Lake St., Madison, WI 53706. Authors: Dan Undersander is a forage agronomist with the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison and University of Wisconsin-Extension; Beth Albert is a technical writer, formerly with the University of Wisconsin-Madison; Dennis Cosgrove is a forage agronomist with the University of Wisconsin-River Falls and University of Wisconsin-Extension; Dennis Johnson is a dairy scientist with the University of Minnesota- Morris; and Paul Peterson is a forage agronomist with the University of Minnesota. The authors wish to thank Neal Martin and Pamela Porter for their contributions to earlier versions of this publication. Produced by Cooperative Extension Publishing, University of Wisconsin-Extension. Edited by Linda Deith and designed by Susan Anderson. University of Wisconsin–Extension, Cooperative Extension, and Minnesota Extension Service, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, provide this information to further the pupose of the May 8 and June 30, 1914 Acts of Congress; and provide equal opportunities in employment and programming, including Title IX and ADA. If you need this material in another format, contact the Office of Equal Opportunity and Diversity Programs or call Extension Publishing at 608/262-2655. You can get copies of this publication from your Wisconsin or Minnesota county Extension office or from Cooperative Extension Publications, 45 N. Charter St., Madison, WI 53715, 608/262-3346. Outside Madison, call toll free: 1-877/WIS-PUBS (947-7827). For more Cooperative Extension information, visit our web site: www1.uwex.edu/ces/pubs/ Pastures for Profit: A Guide to Rotational Grazing (A3529) R-10-02-5.5M-500