Neonicotinoids

Home , Clothianidin, Dinotefuran, Nitenpyram, Thiacloprid

A PAN AP Factsheet Series H i g h ly Hazardous Pesticides Neonicotinoids

Neonicotinoids are a relatively dinotefuran – Albarin, Bonfram, new class of insecticides, launched Starkle, Safari, Scorpion, in 1991. They are synthetic Venom, Zylam derivatives of nicotine, the tobacco imidacloprid – Antarc, Confidor, (Photo courtesy of Graham White) toxin. Admire, Gaucho, Chinook, The mass death of bees threaten pollination Nicotine has been used as a Faibel, Premise, and others; and food production. In areas where pesticide for over 200 years but Advantage (cat and dog fleas); neonicotinoids have been banned, bee it degrades very rapidly, so the Avenge, Zapp (sheep louse populations have been recovering. neonicotinoids are designed to be treatment); Maxforce Quantum persistent (with the exception of (ant bait), Maxforce (fly bait) dinotefuran, they are chlorinated). nitenpyram – Bestguard, Capstar They target the insect’s nervous (cat fleas) system, binding with its nicotinic thiacloprid – Bariard, Calypso, receptors and interrupting the Eco-one, Winbariard sending of nerve impulses. thiamethoxam – Actara (foliar); There are 7 different active Cruiser, Helix (seed treatments), ingredients: acetamiprid, clothianidin, Veridian, Platinum (soil) dinotefuran, imidacloprid, nitenpyram, thiacloprid, and thiamethoxam. In 2006, these were being Uses marketed in 530 products in 123 Broad-spectrum, systemic countries. insecticides with stomach and The most common of these contact action, and residual are imidacloprid, clothianidin, and activity. thiamethoxam. Thiamethoxam breaks Some formulations are sprayed down into clothianidin. on foliage; some are used as Pesticide Action Network Imidacloprid was the first seed treatments to control pests Asia and the Pacific neonicotinoid to be introduced. and vectors of viruses; some It is used on more than 140 crops are incorporated into the soil P.O. Box 1170 in more than 120 countries, and by drenching, use of granules, 10850 Penang, Malaysia is one of the fastest growing injection, drip irrigation, spraying insecticides in terms of sales. Tel: (604) 657 0271 / 656 0381 and tablets; some are painted onto or injected into trunks of trees; Fax: (604) 658 3960 It is highly toxic to bees, as are most of the neonicotinoids, and is some are used for veterinary Email: [email protected] implicated in honeybee Colony medicine (fleas); and others for Homepage: www.panap.net Collapse Disorder, and in potential household fly control. They are ecological collapse. Several of the ineffective against spider mites Copyright ©Pesticide Action neonicotinoids also pose human and nematodes. Network Asia and the Pacific. health concerns. When applied into the soil or as All rights reserved. seed treatments, they are taken up via the roots and translocated Pesticide Action Network Asia Trade names throughout the plant. Applied and the Pacific (PAN AP) encourages acetamiprid – Adjust, Assail, Chipco, to the top surface of a leaf, they the reproduction and use of this Epik, Gazel, Intruder, Kadan, penetrate the leaf and kill insects publication as long as PAN AP is Matsu Green, Mospilan, Pristine, on the lower side. properly acknowledged as the Profil, Rescate, Supreme, Tristar, Seed treatment use mainly source and provided with a copy Yielder involves imidacloprid, clothianidin, or thiamethoxam, used on cotton, of the final work. clothianidin – Elado, Poncho, Votivo, Prosper, Redigo Deter corn, sunflower, cereals, sugar Meriel Watts, PhD (seeds); Dantotsu (soil applied); beet, oilseed rape, vegetables, and grass seed. November 2011 Dantop (foliar) 1 Active Crop/use Pest ingredient

imidacloprid cotton, sugar, oilseed rape, cereals, rice, fruit, jassids, aphids, thrips, mealybugs, leafminers, vegetables, ornamentals; pets, houses, home termites, planthoppers, whitefly, shoot fly, gardens and lawns mustard sawfly

clothianidin rice, cotton, cereals, corn, oilseed rape, fruit, brown planthopper, jassids, whitefly, woolly potatoes, sugar beets, vegetables, maize aphid, oriental fruit moth, corn rootworm

thiamethoxam vegetables, potatoes, rice, cotton, fruit, tobacco, mealybug, leafminer, termites, aphids, cereals, sorghum, tea, ornamentals, maize jassids, whitefly, leaf folder, gall midge, plant hoppers, tea mosquito bug

thiacloprid apples, pears, cotton, vegetables, oilseed rape, aphids, whiteflies, thrips, jassids, stemborer, cereals, potato, rice, ornamentals bollworms, codling moth diamondback moth, pollen beetle, shoot and fruit borer

acetamiprid cotton, vegetables, potato, apples, vines, citrus, codling moth, diamondback moth, aphids, tea, grapes, ornamentals, termites, house pests jassids, whitefly

dinotefuran vegetables, apples, sugar beets, rice, fruit, soft scales, thrips, mealybugs, aphids, cotton, potato, turf, ornamentals, residential whiteflies, crickets, leafhopper, leafminer, and commercial buildings, home gardens, pets sawfly, various bugs and beetles, cockroaches

nitenpyram rice, fruit, tea, vegetables, field crops; cat fleas

Classifications WHO: Class II, moderately National US hazardous (imidacloprid, thiacloprid; France Imidacloprid voluntarily withdrawn others are not listed) Imidacloprid: Use of Gaucho on in 2011, under pressure from state US EPA: sunflower seeds was banned in government of California, from • imidacloprid: moderately toxic 1999 after 1/3rd of bees died use on almonds, a major crop for by ingestion, variable toxicity following its widespread use; in bees. by inhalation, very low toxicity 2004 use on sweetcorn seeds was by dermal contact: Toxicity also banned. Bee populations are Categories - oral II, dermal IV, reported to have increased again International standards inhalation I (aerosol), IV (dust) after the ban. Clothianidin, dinotefuran, • clothianidin: Toxicity Categories - Clothianidin use was not approved imidacloprid, nitenpyram, and oral III, dermal III, inhalation III in France. thiamethoxam are on PAN International’s list of Highly • acetamiprid: Toxicity Categories - Germany Hazardous Pesticides (2010) for oral II, dermal III, inhalation III In 2008, Germany suspended global phase-out, because of • dinotefuran: Toxicity Categories - use of some seed treatments toxicity to bees; and thiacloprid is oral III, dermal III, inhalation IV; containing clothianidin, imidacloprid on the list because it is classified by moderate eye irritation (II) or thiamethoxam because of mass the US EPA as a likely carcinogen. • thiacloprid: Toxicity Categories - bee deaths caused by contaminated oral II, dermal III, inhalation III, dust arising from seed drilling eye IV operations which drifted onto Manufacture neighbouring crops where bees imidacloprid: Bayer. It came off were feeding. patent in 2006 so there are also Regulatory status generic versions manufactured in Italy International China, India, and possibly other In 2009, Italy suspended countries No international action has been neonicotinoid seed treatments as a clothianidin: Sumitomo, Bayer taken against any of the precautionary measure relating to neonicotinoids. bees. thiamethoxam: Syngenta

2 acetamiprid: Nippon Soda, Aventis; convulsions, tachycardia, formulations, has been shown to partially off-patent hypotension, and thirst. cause DNA damage in human dinotefuran: Mitsui Chemicals A metabolite of neonicotinoid lymphocytes and chromosomal nitenpyram: Sumitomo, Novartis insecticides was found in the urine aberration in rat bone marrow; mutagenic in some tests. thiacloprid: Bayer of 6 patients presenting at a clinic in Japan with the following range Cancer: classified by the US EPA of symptoms: headache, general as Group E, ‘no evidence of carcinogenicity’; however this Residues in food fatigue, finger tremor, short term memory disturbance, fever, cough, is based mainly on limited data As they are systemic insecticides, palpitation, chest pain, stomach submitted by the manufacturer. neonicotinoids will occur as ache, muscle spasm/weakness, Taking into account all evidence, residues in foods and will not heart rate abnormality. Symptoms including formulations that contain wash off. For example imidacloprid were thought to be caused by high carcinogenic excipients, it can be has been found in many foods intake of fruit and tea containing considered potentially carcinogenic. including chestnuts, ginger, neonicotinoid residues. Endocrine disruption: the thyroid is vegetables, potatoes, tea, wine, especially sensitive to imidacloprid fruit, and fruit juices. The residues Acute toxicity (lesions are formed). It has altered do not breakdown rapidly and are Imidacloprid: levels of luteinizing hormone, unchanged by processing. In the follicle-stimulating hormone and US, residues were found in 80% High acute oral toxicity, may have high inhalation toxicity, but not progesterone, and also altered of bananas, 76% of cauliflower and structure of follicles. 72% of spinach. by skin contact (little absorption through skin). Reproductive and developmental Symptoms following exposure toxicity: regarded by regulators as to agricultural formulations have not being a reproductive toxin, Health effects but in tests on animals it caused Mechanism of toxicity included reduced activity, lack of coordination, tremors, diarrhoea miscarriages, smaller offspring, and Neonicotinoids disturb the normal and weight loss. Nausea, vomiting, abnormal skeletons. function of acetylcholine which dizziness, disorientation, agitation, Immunotoxicity: metabolite causes plays an important role in the incoherence, breathlessness, and increased lymphocyte count and nervous system; they act as false excessive sweating have resulted decreased polymorphonuclear cells neurotransmitters which bind from inhalation and dermal (a type of white blood cell). with the acetylcholine receptor. exposure. They make neural transmission Clothianidin: Symptoms following ingestion Genotoxicity: mutagenic, clastogenic stay switched on, causing abnormal include drowsiness, dizziness, excitability. in some studies but not others. disorientation, fever, vomiting, Cancer: US classification ‘not likely’; sweating, increased heart and however this is based on limited Poisonings respiratory rates. Poisonings, including a low data submitted by the manufacturer Mild cases of dermatitis from (see note on imidacloprid above). level of fatalities, following veterinary use of imidacloprid. ingestion of imidacloprid have Reproductive and developmental been reported in a number of Clothianidin: toxicity: in animals it caused countries including China, India, Symptoms of poisoning include stillbirths, premature births, missing Iran, Portugal, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, increased restlessness followed by lung lobes, decreased and deformed and Turkey. Signs and symptoms violent convulsions and death. sperm, and delayed sexual maturity of poisoning include vomiting, in males. headache, sluggishness, tachycardia, Chronic toxicity Acetamiprid: hypertension, loss of consciousness, Imidacloprid: Neurotoxicity: can adversely respiratory failure, liver and kidney General: reduced weight gain, liver affect the brain, especially in the dysfunction, coma and death. damage, reduced blood clotting, developmental stage. Poisonings from inhalation and/or binds to haemoglobin. dermal contact have been reported Genotoxicity: clastogenic in some from Poland and Sri Lanka. There Neurotoxicity: gestational exposure studies. were no deaths amongst the can result in neurobehavioural Cancer: mammary tumours in one 68 poisonings (61 ingestions, 7 effects with long term adverse study but regarded by regulators as dermal) presenting to 3 hospitals health effects in the offspring. not statistically significant. in Sri Lanka. There were reported Synergistic neurotoxic effects can Reproductive and developmental deaths in Iran and Taiwan. occur with concomitant exposure toxicity: at high doses caused to organophosphates. Two cases of acute poisoning skeletal abnormality, delayed female Genotoxicity: regarded as being maturation. by acetamiprid in Japan involved not genotoxic by most regulatory severe nausea and vomiting, bodies; however, imidacloprid, Dinotefuran: muscle weakness, hypothermia, and especially the commercial General: targets nervous and

3 immune systems (decreased spleen terrestrial and aquatic insect life poses acute and chronic risks to and thymus weights). leading to ecological collapse. small birds and mammals. Cancer: US classification ‘not Dinotefuran: likely’; however this is based on Imidacloprid: limited data submitted by the Aquatic: very toxic to some aquatic Aquatic: highly toxic to aquatic manufacturer. organisms and there is a high risk invertebrates including shrimp; risk from spray drift or run-off. Endocrine disruption: causes decrease for aquatic invertebrates from in follicles, changes in ovary runoff and spray drift; extremely Agroecological disruption weight, changes in vagina, and toxic at low concentrations to some species of crustaceans All are harmful to bees except for altered oestrus cycles in females; thiacloprid and acetamiprid (although abnormal sperm, decreased sperm including shrimps; toxic to fish especially juveniles; can reduce thiacloprid produces sublethal count and motility, and decreased effects at higher concentrations). testes weight in males. the abundance of invertebrates in ponds; sublethal effects in Daphnia Imidacloprid and clothianidin in Thiacloprid: include reduced feeding, failure particular are implicated in General: damage to liver and to respond to predators, slower honeybee Colony Collapse thyroid. maturity, fewer young. Disorder and mass bee deaths. Cancer: thyroid adenomas in males, Birds: toxicity to birds varies Honeybees pollinate 1/3rd of and uterine tumours in females; widely; highly toxic to certain the world’s crops, including fruits US classification ‘likely species including house sparrow, and vegetables. Neonicotinoids carcinogen’. Japanese quails, canaries and are taken into the plant and Endocrine disruption: changes to pigeons, and exceeds US EPA translocated to all parts, including adrenal glands, thyroid hormone, level of concern for songbirds; pollen, nectar and guttation drops, prostate glands. causes abnormal behaviour such the droplets of water that form on Reproductive and developmental as lack of coordination, lack of the edges of leaves at night and in toxicity: delayed sexual maturation responsiveness and inability to the early hours after sunrise. Bees in males. fly, even in birds for which it is can drink from these droplets, not highly toxic; other problems especially in areas where access to Thiamethoxam: include eggshell thinning, other water sources is limited, and General: damage to liver, kidney, decreased weight, and reduced egg the sugar expressed in the droplets testes. production and hatching success. may also be attractive to bees. Neurotoxicity: developmental High levels in surface water in In one field experiment using neurotoxic effects in rats. Netherlands have been linked treated maize seed, the levels of Cancer: liver tumours, but classified to insect decline and a dramatic neonicotinoids found in guttation by US EPA as ‘not likely’ in decline in common grassland birds. droplets were 254 times the LD50 humans. for imidacloprid, 280 times the LD50 Terrestrial invertebrates: severe for clothianidin and 48 times the impacts on nontarget insects in LD for thiamethoxam. field and off-field areas. Residues 50 Environmental and need to age at least 273 days before Neonicotinoids have irreversible agroecological effects they become non-hazardous to effects on the nervous system of Toxicity native ground beetles in Europe. bees, and continual exposure even to very, very small amounts results UNEP reports that certain Plants: can be toxic to plants, in cumulative effects eventually fungicides have synergised with including citrus and brassica breaking down the nervous and neonicotinoids to increase their seedlings, blue-green algae and immune systems. environmental toxicity up to 1,000 diatoms. times; and other studies show that Pets: adverse reactions in dogs Imidacloprid: potentially synergistic fungicides on which it has been used as Bees: very acutely toxic to have been found together with the a flea treatment include nerve honeybees; high risk to bees neonicotinoids in pollen. inflammation, skin irritations, from spray applications, including Neonicotinoids are regarded as vomiting, seizures and difficulty in through spray drift; residues found having drastically reduced insect walking. in bees, pollen collected by bees, and beeswax; residues found in life in Europe including moths Clothianidin: and butterflies, with a consequent depopulated hives in Uruguay but decline in insect-eating birds. Aquatic: very highly toxic to not in populated hives; low levels aquatic invertebrates which are of residues have been found in a Scientists propose that there important in nutrient cycling, is no safe level of exposure to high percentage of plants of crops and uses which results in runoff sown with treated seed including these systemic pesticides, as over or spray drift to water bodies can time very small quantities of maize, sunflower and canola. compromise ecological integrity; Sublethal effects include neonicotinoid insecticides in very highly toxic to shrimps. surface waters and groundwater disorientation, disrupted may cause cumulative damage to Terrestrial: use of treated seeds navigation, impaired memory and

4 learning, diminished foraging and breakdown because of adverse nitenpyram – 1 species returning to hive, and decreased sub-lethal effects on decomposer thiacloprid – 1 species hive activity; minute doses invertebrates. thiamethoxam – 4 species, including suppress the immune system and aphids, whitefly bees become more susceptible Clothianidin: to diseases such as Nosema. It is Bees: Highly toxic to bees; Environmental fate and suspected that sublethal exposure risk from exposure through contamination to imidacloprid may also reduce contaminated pollen and nectar Imidacloprid: as it works its way through plant honeybees’ ability to groom Degradation: metabolised by photo- themselves which is important for from treated seeds; attacks the nervous system of bees; has lethal degradation from soil and water removing the Varroa mite. surfaces. It is currently proposed that and sub-lethal effects on larvae and reproductive effects on the Soil: moderate to very high Colony Collapse Disorder results persistence in soil under from the unique combination Queen. In Germany, beekeepers lost aerobic conditions (half life of of the sublethal effects of 40-997 days); in one US field, imidacloprid on bees, together 2/3rds of their bees in May 2008 as the result of dust from concentrations did not decrease with the presence of Varroa mites after 1 year. and diseases such as Nosema. Mass clothianidin-treated seeds; their bodies had a build-up of Aquatic: medium to high mobility bee die-offs have occurred in in soil, has the potential to leach several countries coinciding with clothianidin. In the US, dead and dying bees to groundwater; moderate to high the introduction of imidacloprid persistence in natural sediment- and/or clothianidin. and the pollen they had collected contained clothianidin, but healthy water systems (half-life of 30-162 On Canada’s Prince Edward days). Island, beekeepers reported serious bees did not. Beneficial insects: long-term risk. Countries reporting residues in losses of bees since 1995 linked to groundwater include Netherlands soil applications of imidacloprid Soil organisms: toxic to and USA. on potato crops to control earthworms. In theory breaks down in Colorado potato beetle. It is Thiamethoxam: believed that the rotational clover sunlight in water, faster in tropical and canola crops have sublethal Bees: very toxic to honeybees; very conditions; has been found to be residues of imidacloprid in the toxic to bumblebees with sublethal persistent and not very degradable pollen and nectar, the cumulative effects including impaired ability in stream water samples in effects of which cause slow death to orientate, impaired foraging Slovenia. of bee colonies. behaviour, lower reproduction Found in high levels in surface and colony mortality due to a water in Netherlands. Very toxic to bumblebees with lack of food, as well as decreased Bioaccumulation: unlikely. sublethal effects including pollination of plants. impaired foraging behaviour, lower Clothianidin: reproduction and colony mortality In the US, dead and dying bees and the pollen they had collected Degradation: metabolised by photo- due to a lack of food, as well as degradation from soil and water decreased pollination of plants. contained thiamethoxam but healthy bees did not. surfaces. Beneficial insects: acutely toxic to a Beneficial insects: toxic to many Soil: very persistent in soil, half-life variety of parasitic and predatory beneficial insects. ranges from 148 to 6,931 days; insects including mirid bugs, residues found in soil 2 years after ladybirds and lacewings; sublethal Resistance treated seed was sown. effects include disrupted foraging Pest resistance has been found in Aquatic: medium to high mobility and parasitising ability; use has a number of countries, including in soil and has high potential to resulted in increased damage from India, China, Thailand, and leach to groundwater, and run off spider mites because it killed their Vietnam. Resistance is worst for to surface waters. Water-sediment natural enemies but not the mite. imidacloprid, the most commonly system, half-life = 27 days. Birds: risk to birds that eat pest used of the neonicotinoids, but insects. Acetamiprid: Colorado potato beetle is resistant Soil: rapidly biodegradable in most Earthworms: acutely toxic to to all 7 of them. soils (half-life 8 days). earthworms; sublethal effects acetamiprid – 9 species, including include decreased sperm, decreased Aquatic: highly mobile in soil, cotton aphid potential for degradation products enzymes for breaking down clothianidin – 2 species cellulose, damage to DNA. to leach to groundwater. dinotefuran – 1 species Air: has been measured in ambient Soil organisms: risk to soil- imidacloprid – 12 species, including air in Spain. dwelling arthropods from seed brown planthopper and white- treatments. At environmental backed planthopper on rice, Dinotefuran: concentrations after systemic whiteflies, aphids, mosquitoes, Soil: persistent in soil, half-life up treatments, it may inhibit leaf litter houseflies, to 138 days, metabolite 459 days.

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