Analysis of William Bolcom's Second Violin Sonata: from a Performance Aspect by Cheng-Wei Hsieh a Thesis Submitted to The

Home , Joe Venuti, John Verrall, William Bolcom

Analysis of William Bolcom’s Second Violin Sonata: From a Performance Aspect

by Cheng-Wei Hsieh

A thesis submitted to the Moores School of Music/School of Theatre and Dance/School of Art, Kathrine G. McGovern College of the Arts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctoral of Musical Arts

in Violin Performance

Chair of Committee: Dr. John Snyder

Committee Member: Dr. Kirsten Yon

Committee Member: Dr. Ji-Yeon Lee

Committee Member: Mr. Franz Krager

University of Houston December 2020

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my thesis adviser, Dr. John Snyder, who has patiently spent hours reviewing the materials and shared invaluable comments with me. I also want to show my appreciation to my violin professor, Dr. Kirsten Yon, who has taught me not only musicianship, but also helped me become a better educator and person. My sincere thanks to other two committee members, Dr. Ji-Yeon Lee and Mr. Franz Krager, who have always shared their insightful comments and their dedication on sharing their musical knowledge throughout the degree.

Last, I am indebeted to my parents for believeing in me and offering unconditional support and love through the years of my musical education.

ii ABSTRACT

The American composer William Bolcom (b.1938) has demonstrated an exceptional capacity for integrating various musical elements with traditional forms, creating his own compositional language. This unique compositional style has earned Bolcom his reputation as a leading postmodernist American composer. This essay will explore William Bolcom’s general musical language, along with the relevant aspects of his musical education, and, briefly, the background of his Second Violin Sonata. Moreover, a detailed analysis of the Second Sonata will be provided by looking into its larger structural aspects, and also approaching each movement with set theory and topic theory. In addition, stylistic features and musical interpretation will be discussed in the last section of the essay, connecting with the outcome of the analysis from the previous section.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii

ABSTRACT ...... iii

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ...... v

I. CHAPTER ONE ...... 1

Introduction ...... 1

Bolcom’s Biography ...... 3

II. CHAPTER TWO ...... 10

Second Violin Sonata ...... 10

Analysis of Second Violin Sonata ...... 12

First Movement ...... 12

Second Movement ...... 19

Third Movement ...... 25

Fourth Movement ...... 29

Seeing the Sonata from the Perspective of Topic Theory ...... 38

III. CHAPTER THREE ...... 46

Stylistic Features and Musical Interpretation ...... 46

CONCLUSION ...... 56

REFERENCES ...... 57

iv LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

2.1 First movement, A section, mm. 1–7 ...... 13 2.2a First movement, A section, end, mm. 21–22 ...... 14 2.2b First movement, B section, opening, mm. 23–27 ...... 14 2.3 First movement, Cadenza (m. 62) ...... 16 2.4 First movement, the beginning of the A1 section (mm. 63–65) ...... 16 2.5 First movement, violin blends in with piano (mm. 68–69)...... 17 2.6 First movement, Coda (mm. 83–88) ...... 17 2.7 First movement, the beginning of B section subset (mm. 23–26) ...... 19 2.8 First movement, the segment of bell-like subset (m.62) ...... 19 2.9 Second movement, descending half-step motion as a motive ...... 20 2.10 Second movement, mm. 23–36 ...... 22 2.11 Second movement, mm. 42–44 ...... 22 2.12 Second movement, mm. 66–69 ...... 23 2.13 Second movement, mm. 81–96 ...... 24 2.14 Third movement, mm. 1–10...... 26 2.15a Third movement, m. 11 ...... 27 2.15b Third movement, mm. 12–17...... 27 2..16 Third movement, mm. 20–21...... 28 2.17 Third movement, mm. 24–26...... 29 2.18 Third movement, The end of the requiem, mm. 42–47 ...... 29 2.19a Fourth movement, A section, mm. 1–6...... 31 2.19b Fourth movement, A section, mm. 17–19, mm. 26–31 ...... 32 2.20 Fourth movement, B section, mm. 52–53 ...... 33 2.21 Fourth movement, C section, mm. 69–78 ...... 34 2.22 Fourth movement, D section, mm. 83–88...... 35 2.23 Fourth movement, E section, mm. 116–123 ...... 37 2.24 Fourth movement, Coda section, mm. 149–152 ...... 37 2.25 Third movement, hymn-like section, mm. 34–37 ...... 41 2.26 First movement, cadenza section, m. 62 ...... 41 2.27 Second movement, mm. 53–55 ...... 42 3.1 Third movement, m. 30 ...... 50

v 3.2 First movement, pizzicato ...... 50 3.3 Second movement, grand pause ...... 54 3.4 Fourth movement, pizzicato...... 54 3.5 Third movement, fermata comma, m. 23 ...... 55

vi Chapter One

Introduction

To date, Bolcom has composed nine works for violin and piano. Although not a violinist himself, he has a strong connection with the instrument, having briefly studied the violin during his childhood. His violin works extend over forty years, allowing us to appreciate the development of his style throughout the different works he composed for the instrument. What immediately captivated me, as a violinist, was Bolcom’s ability to mix popular and classical elements in his music, especially in his Second Violin Sonata

(1978). Bolcom is not the first composer to employ popular idioms in art music. In the early twentieth century, Stravinsky, Milhaud, Copland, and Gershwin also composed using American popular elements. Bolcom, however, has made this distinctive compositional style his personal signature.

Some scholars describe this mix of styles as a representation of postmodernism, even though Bolcom does not fully approve of such a label for his compositions.1 The term postmodernism, originally developed in America, came into common use in the

1970s. The American cultural theorist Charles Jencks states in his book about postmodernism: “Post-Modernism is now a world-wide movement in all the arts and disciplines.”2 Likewise, Jann Pasler explained in her article “Postmodernism,” in the New

Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, that postmodernism delivers

1 Robert Carl, “Six Case Studies in New American Music: A Postmodern Portrait,” College Music Symposium 30 (Spring 1990): 59. 2 Charles Jencks, The Post-Modern Reader (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1992), 6. 1 with a broad range of meanings. Some come from multiple associations with

“modern” and “modernist,” others from disagreement over what the prefix “post”

implies about the “modern”—contestation or extension, difference or

dependence—and whether postmodernism is a regressive or progressive force.3

The term “postmodernism” has been utilized to categorize the movement of human society, literature, architecture, and the arts. In music, the term “postmodernism” is sometimes used in an attempt to classify works of a mixed style that combine elements of the past and present, tonal and atonal. The American composer Robert Carl mentioned

Bolcom in an article exploring six “postmodern” composers, positing that Bolcom’s ability to cross over between popular and classical musical styles earned him the “role of

4 the entertainer.” Carl also identified five aspects of Bolcom’s “mix and match” approach: virtuosity, facility, tunefulness, sincerity, and love for and mastery of popular music.5

Such musical postmodernism came naturally to Bolcom. He was inclined to use different musical styles from an early age. Bolcom has stated, “I have often been berated for not being ‘original’…; I am in love with the many genres of music and have learned that it is important to respect the genre you are contributing to if you want its expressive potential in your music.”6

3 Jann Pasler, “Postmodernism,” Grove Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed October 1, 2019. 4 Carl, “Six Case Studies,” 60. 5 Carl, “Six Case Studies,” 60–62. 6 Elliott Schwartz, Barney Childs and Jim Fox, Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music (Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2009), 483. 2 William Bolcom’s Biography

Childhood and Teenage Years

William Elden Bolcom was born in Seattle, Washington, on May 26, 1938 into a family where music was broadly appreciated. He started piano lessons at the age of five with Evelyn Brandt (1901–2003).7 In 1949, at the age of eleven, Bolcom was admitted to the University of Washington, where he began piano lessons with Berthe Poncy-Jacobson

(1894–1975), head of the piano department at the University. That same year, he studied theory, composition, and orchestration with the American composers John Verrall (1908–

2001) and George Frederik McKay (1899–1970); he later spoke of Verrall and Mckay as

“more influential as teachers than as style influences.”8 In 1949, Bolcom also became interested in the violin. He had some “not very successful lessons” with Gene Nastri

(1909–97), the string and orchestra director of the Everett Public School String Program in Seattle, but nonetheless felt fortunate to learn violin technique and literature.9

University Studies

Bolcom’s musical language and style started to develop during his undergraduate studies at the University of Washington (1955–58), a period of great significance in his musical career. In his freshman year, he composed the First Violin Sonata (1956). During the summer between his junior and senior years (1957), Bolcom attended the Aspen

7 Ruth E. Anderson, “William Bolcom,” In Contemporary American Composers: a Biographical Dictionary, ed. by Eleanor Caldwell (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1976), 106. 8 Melinda Bargreen, Classical Seattle: Maestros, Impresarios, Virtuosi, and Other Music Makers (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2016), 243. 9 William Bolcom, liner notes to Second Sonata/Duo Fantasy/Graceful Ghost, Sergiu Luca and William Bolcom, Nonesuch 79058 LP, 1983. 3 Music Festival, where he met Darius Milhaud (1892–1974), his life-long composition mentor. A French composer known for his eclectic integration of popular and serious elements in his music, including experiments with jazz and polytonality, Milhaud had moved to America in 1940 after the Nazi invasion of France. Milhaud suggested that

Bolcom pursue a master’s degree in composition with him at Mills College in California

(1958–61). Although the Yale Music Department offered him the opportunity to study with Paul Hindemith (1895–1963), Bolcom decided to remain with Milhaud, given his familiarity with the latter’s style and their shared opinions of composition.10

Many European composers in exile in America taught composition with an assertive pedagogical approach, usually forbidding students from creating their own works with unconventional structure.11 However, Milhaud encouraged a rather relaxed atmosphere; in his article “Reminiscences of Milhaud” (1977), Bolcom recalls that

“[Milhaud] seemed to put most of us at ease with no apparent effort, and this was the true aristocrat’s case: a man whose own self-confidence helped you begin to establish your own.”12 In addition:

Many people have said Milhaud wasn’t a great teacher…that they hadn’t been

given anything concrete. The concrete directions a teacher gives you are often the

very things you must shed, one by one, as your own compositional personality

emerges.13

10 William Bolcom, “Reminiscences of Darius Milhaud,” The Musical Newsletter 7, No. 3 (Summer 1977): 7. 11 Bolcom, “Reminiscences,” 4. 12 Bolcom, “Reminiscences,” 4. 13 Bolcom, “Reminiscences,” 4. 4 Milhaud never discouraged Bolcom’s interest in using features of popular music in his classical compositions, which helped shape Bolcom’s style.

In 1959, while Bolcom was pursuing a master’s degree, Milhaud received a

French Government Grant (scholarship) and invited Bolcom to study with him at the

Paris Conservatoire de Musique (1959–61). Milhaud arranged for Bolcom to take counterpoint lessons with Simone Plé-Caussade (1897–1986), composition lessons with

Jean Rivier (1986–1987), and a musical aesthetics class with Olivier Messiaen (1908–

92).14 Of these teachers, Messiaen had the most significant influence on Bolcom’s compositional style; this is evident in their similar compositional technique, which involved “the ‘borrowing’ of pre-existing material and its transformation through what the composer (Messiaen) calls the ‘prism' of his own musical consciousness.”15

Bolcom returned to the United States in 1961. Having been drafted for military service, he avoided serving by pursuing a doctoral degree at Stanford University.16 After receiving his doctorate in 1964, Bolcom returned to Paris Conservatoire de Musique with a Guggenheim Fellowship (1964-65), resuming studies with Milhaud. In 1965, Bolcom composed his String Quartet No. 8, which won second place at the Prix de Composition at the Conservatoire; the piece’s “rock’n’roll” elements were the main reason Bolcom did not win first place.17

Bolcom increasingly had concerns regarding the development of his compositional style, due to the limited mentality he felt the classical music world

14 Bolcom, “Reminiscences,” 10. 15 Robert P. Morgan, Twentieth-Century Music: A History of Musical Style in Modern Europe and America (New York: Norton, 1991), 337. 16 Men enrolled in graduate school were excused from the draft. 17 David Ewen, American Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,1982), 84. 5 imposed on him. He raised the issue in a 1966 interview he conducted with the American composer John Cage (1912–92), a pioneer of electroacoustic music and non-standard instrumental music. Bolcom told Cage that “[s]electing a style and choosing notes is not making me as happy as I would like it to.” Cage responded “Some people divide the world into things that are good and things that are bad. Other people take it all in and let their own organism decide.”18 This encouraged Bolcom to continue crossing the boundaries between classical and popular music.

New York City

Living in New York City played a substantial role in Bolcom’s musical career.

From 1966–68, he was a Lecturer and Assistant Professor of Music at Queens College.

Although the Music Theatre Drama School at Yale University invited Bolcom as a

Visiting Critic and teacher in 1968, he returned to New York after a year, now as a

Composer in Residence in Theatre Arts Program of New York University from 1969–71

(with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation). Following this tenure, Bolcom worked as a freelance pianist and composer throughout the city until the mid-1970s.

During the time Bolcom lived in New York City, he made several significant breakthroughs enriching his compositional style. He started to incorporate ragtime and jazz features into his music—the musical genre most prominent in his output. Bolcom was heavily influenced by the American pianist and composer Scott Joplin (1868–1917), who pioneered ragtime. Bolcom often played in the style, and found himself thinking: “I can open this up a little further,” and pretty soon I was getting the various styles [of jazz]

18 Nancy Malitz, “Synthesizer,” Opera News Vol. 57, Issue 5 (November 1992): 15. 6 to talk to each other in an interesting way.”19 Black Host (1967), a piece for organ, percussion, and tape, is an example of his early experiments with jazz and ragtime elements. He composed 14 piano rags over the next several years, including his most successful, Graceful Ghost Rag (1970). He also developed his improvisational style by engaging with music theater and recording distinctive classical label music with record company.20

Nonetheless, Bolcom had a hard time fitting into the music world of New York

City. On the West Coast and in France, Bolcom’s compositions and piano performances were recognized widely enough to let him make a living as a full-time musician. But even as his popularity as a ragtime composer grew, he found himself “increasingly alienated” from the field of “classical” music.21 Yet when he tried to write popular songs, Milhaud expressed concerns. Bolcom said: “I still wonder why, when it’s the sort of thing he might have done in my place—so much of his own music stems from the popular idiom—but when I began writing concert music again, he wrote a warm congratulatory letter.”22 Later Bolcom realized that Milhaud was hoping he would be a composer who fuses different musical elements in classical music rather than has a reputation as a jazz composer and musician.

Bolcom reached a musical turning point in 1967. Following Black Host (1967),

Bolcom began to ignore comments from music critics, instead developing his eclecticism through the use of a personalized serial method, microtonal musical elements, and

19 Malitz, “Synthesizer,” 16. 20 John Rockwell, “Music, Every Which Way: Composer William Bolcom Gains Popularity Mixing and Matching Classical, Pop and Folk,” New York Times, August 16, 1987, 50. 21 John Rockwell, “Music, Every Which Way.” 22 Bolcom, “Reminiscences,” 11. 7 American popular idioms. Determined to create his own path in music, he insisted that listeners should not be expected to have specific knowledge of the musical language to appreciate a work.23 He also emphasized that musical production is a byproduct of creativity:24 “I am not aware of everything I write. There are some things I’ve written that will be brought out by a sensitive performer who will find things in the music that I didn’t know were there.”25

Bolcom met his current wife, Joan Morris in 1972, a mezzo-soprano who sang

American popular songs and worked in musical theater; they shared a profound interest in the pop music literature. After their marriage in 1975, Bolcom began a second career as a collaborative pianist, often performing with Morris. Together, Bolcom and Morris performed American popular songs throughout the United States and as well as overseas.

They also made several commercial recordings, performing songs by George Gershwin,

Jerome Kern, and other composers of the Great American Songbook.

In 1973, Bolcom met another life-long musical partner, the Romanian violinist

Sergiu Luca (1943–2010). Although he toured worldwide, Luca became a citizen of the

United States in 1966. A mutual friend suggested that Luca and Bolcom prepare a tentative concert series; Bolcom was attracted to Luca’s brilliant nuance in playing and ability to interpret classical music, but more remarkably his skill in American popular music, especially jazz. Luca and Bolcom worked closely in various chamber music projects; having commissioned several pieces from Bolcom, Luca premiered many of

Bolcom’s works and the two also performed works by other composers as a duo.

23 Bolcom, liner notes to “Second Sonata/Duo Fantasy/Graceful Ghost.” 24 Bolcom, liner notes to “Second Sonata/Duo Fantasy/Graceful Ghost.” 25 Mark Wait, “Meet the Composer-Pianist: William Bolcom,” The Piano Quarterly 142 (Summer 1988): 34. 8 That same year, Bolcom moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan, to take up a position as an Associate Professor of Composition at the University of Michigan, School of Music.

The stability of a university position gave Bolcom the time he needed to finish a massive choral work, Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1956–81, texts by William Blake).

The piece is scored for nine solo voices, three professional choruses, a children’s chorus, and orchestra. Bolcom had begun this project in 1956 but was not able to work consistently on it due to the instability of a performance career. Since its premiere in

1983, Songs of Innocence and of Experience has been considered one of Bolcom’s most outstanding works; the recording put out by Naxos won four Grammy Awards in 2005.26

In the same year Songs premiered, Bolcom composed one of his most successful concertos, the Violin Concerto in D major, which he dedicated to Luca. The premier was performed by Luca and Saarbrücken Radio Orchestra in Saarbrücken, Germany, on June

3, 1984.27 Bolcom was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1988 for his 12 New Etudes for

Piano (1977–86), which amalgamate diverse piano techniques and styles. Bolcom retired from the University of Michigan in 2008 after 35 years of service as a full-time professor.

But he has continued to compose ever since his retirement and has fully dedicated himself to his compositional career.

26 William Bolcom, “Songs of Innocence and of Experience (William Blake).” University of Michigan School of Music Symphony Orchestra and Leonard Slatkin. Hong Kong: Naxos Music Library 8.559216- 18, 2004. 27 William Bolcom, liner notes to Violin Concerto/Fantasia Concertante/Symphony No.5, Sergiu Luca and American Composers Orchestra, New York: Argo 433 077-2, 1992. 9 Chapter Two

Second Violin Sonata

The Second Violin Sonata (1978) grew out the intimate friendship and collaboration between violinist Sergiu Luca and William Bolcom. The Bolcom-Luca duo had previously performed Bolcom’s Duo Fantasy (1973), a composition for violin and piano, which opened the path for their future partnership. The McKim Fund of the

Library of Congress commissioned the Second Sonata at the request of Luca in June of

1978.28 Bolcom completed the piece in August of the same year and dedicated the work to his first composition teacher, John Verrall. An eclectic work that fuses elements from ragtime and blues, the composition was premiered by Luca (violin) and Bolcom (piano) on January 12, 1979, at the Coolidge Auditorium of the Library of Congress,

Washington, DC.29

Composed twenty-two years after the First Sonata, the Second Sonata results, in part, from the association of violinist Sergiu Luca with the great jazz fiddler Joe Venuti

(1903–78). Venuti’s parents, who immigrated to America in the early 1900s, were of

Italian descent. Various documents indicate that Venuti was born in 1903 in Lecco, Italy; however, his first wife assured a reporter from the Los Angeles Times, that Venuti was born in Philadelphia, where he also changed his first name from Giuseppe to Joe. 30 Zoot

Sims, a saxophonist who often played with Venuti, characterized him as “the only guy I knew who lied about his age and made himself older because he thought it was more

28 Bolcom, liner notes to “Second Sonata/Duo Fantasy/Graceful Ghost.” 29 Bolcom, liner notes to “Violin Sonatas.” 30 Leonard Feather, “To Joe Venuti: With Love and Laughter,” Los Angeles Times, August 20, 1978. 10 commercial.”31 There are few reliable sources that record Venuti’s musical education, with Venuti receiving musical tutelage from his father and grandfather as a young child.

Venuti started his professional jazz career by working with another Italian immigrant,

Eddie Lang (1902–33), a remarkable jazz guitarist.32 During the years that Venuti and

Lang performed as a duo, Venuti elevated the violin from the position of instrumental background in jazz to a central and prominent solo instrument. Asch and Reiner describe

Venuti’s playing style as follows:

His flawless intonation, bold swing, and intuitive good taste satisfied his most

critical listeners, while his exuberance and humor kept the rest amused. His

playing was built around melodic and rhythmic highlights, which he used with

imagination and sensitivity.

…Venuti’s sheer virtuosity and instinctive swing were amazing, and he brought

to the jazz violin a definitive style which was often copied, but seldom equaled.33

When Bolcom began to work on the Second Sonata, he incorporated many of

Venuti’s violin techniques, such as alternating left and right hand pizzicato, double-stop slides, and several other instrumental nuances. Owing to the confidential friendship that

Bolcom, Luca, and Venuti have, this sonata presents all three of their characters at once.

31 Sanford Josephson, Jazz Note: Interviews Across the Generations (United States: ABC-CLIO, 2009), 23. 32 Leonard Feather, “To Joe Venuti.” 33 Glenn Asch and Dave Reiner, Deluxe Anthology of Jazz Violin Styles (Missouri: Mel Bay Publications, 1982), 36. 11 Analysis of Second Violin Sonata

The Second Violin Sonata is a four-movement sonata—first movement “Summer

Dreams,” second movement “Brutal, fast,” third movement “Adagio,” and final movement “In Memory of Joe Venuti.”

First Movement: Summer Dreams

The first movement, “Summer Dreams,” is structured in three sections, A–B–A1, where the A sections are tonal and B atonal. A smooth blues harmonic progression and syncopated ostinato feature strongly in the A section, as well as the core theme of the movement (mm. 1–22), the B section carries a dancing and scherzo character with wide- ranging, dissonant chords in both instruments (mm. 23–61). A brief cadenza links the B and A1 sections (m. 62). A short coda, with a transparent texture, ends the movement.

A Section (mm. 1–22) (tonal)

The principal theme of the movement is in jazz style, opening with a blues ostinato bass line based on the key of F. The piano plays a syncopated rhythm specified as “smooth: no dynamic or rhythmic change,” which creates a dreamy atmosphere and swinging character through the section. The piano left hand line has a standard blues harmonic progression, I–IV–V–IV–I, in F major. However, the top line is a “restrained” atonal, muted violin, with dissonances and wide leaps. Bolcom describes the harmonic disjunction between the violin and piano as contrary, not contradictory; as he states the idea of composing his music, “without contrary, there is no progression.”34

34 William Bolcom, liner notes to Songs of Innocence and of Experience (William Blake), University of Michigan School of Music Symphony Orchestra and Leonard Slatkin, Hong Kong: Naxos Music Library 8.559216-18, 2004, 5. 12 Inner tension is developed in the violin with the E♭ in m. 3, the only point where the violin and piano share the same note and rhythm in the A section. The violin takes off after the first E♭ with a rhythmic contour contrasting with the piano’s syncopated patterns. To enforce this rhythmic contrast, the violin plays a tied note across every bar line in the A section, creating the illusion of a rhythmic pattern (See Example 2.1, p. 13).

Example 2.1: William Bolcom, Second Sonata for Violin and Piano, first movement, A section, mm. 1–7.35

35 William Bolcom, Second Sonata for Violin and Piano (New York: E.B. Marks Music, 1985), 1. 13 B Section (mm. 23–61) (atonal)

The B section introduces a new tone, instrumental texture, and harmonic structure, through the addition of spiky chords and a scherzo-like dancing character. The

“disagreement” between the instruments in the A section is now a “conversation,” as the violin and piano imitate each other’s rhythmic pattern and articulation. Unpredictable rhythmic patterns disrupt the regularity created by the ostinato bass line in the A section.

Nonetheless, the A and B sections are linked in various ways. The atonal, linear violin line of A is transformed into chords maintaining the prominent sixth, seventh, and tritone intervals. The A section concludes with a G-F# gesture in the violin—part of a major seventh chord—which is then used to initiate the B section (See Example 2.2a/2b, p. 14).

Example 2.2a: First movement, A section, end, mm. 21–22.

Example 2.2b: First movement, B section, opening, mm. 23–27.

14 Cadenza (m. 62)

The Forte-Pianissimo harmonic A played by the violin at the m. 61 opens up a one-bar cadenza (transition) to bridge the B and A1 sections. In this small cadenza, the violin plays horizontal tonal D major arpeggios that seem to release the tension of the previous B section, as the piano plays the vertical atonal “bell-like” chords underneath it.

Bolcom evidently switches the roles from the beginning A section, which has tonal piano and atonal violin. Once again, he produces the musical progression with contrary motion between the two voices (See Example 2.3, p. 16).

A1 Section (mm. 63–81) (tonal)

Shortly after the virtuosic Cadenza, the violin connects the recap A1 section with a decrescendo A, while the piano smoothly slides back into the syncopated ostinato bass with a more active left-hand, compared to the A section. On top of the jazz character in the A1 section, Bolcom uses the popular compositional language in the twentieth century—bitonality. Whereas piano goes back to jazz syncopated figures in the key of F, the violin keeps the D major arpeggiated chord figures which it carries from the Cadenza rather than retaining the atonal melody as in the beginning (See Example 2.4, p. 16).

15 Example 2.3: First movement, Cadenza (m. 62).

Example 2.4: First movement, the beginning of the A1 section (mm. 63–65).

In the second half of m. 68, the violin merges into the F major harmony and joins the piano in the blues theme. The violin picks up the syncopated swing rhythm by mainly playing the chords that consist of perfect fourth and fifth with the blue note—the lowered

16 third of F major chord, A♭. Moreover, the A♭ blue note will become a notable link in the next three movements (See Example 2.5, p. 17).

Example 2.5: First movement, violin blends in with piano (mm. 68–69).

Coda (mm.82–88)

After Bolcom restates m. 22 at the end of the A1 section (m. 81), he creates a transparent coda (Adagio) as the last section of the movement. In the coda, the piano keeps delivering chime-like chords while the violin joins the resonance with a harmonic double-stop fifth. At the very end, the violin plays the bluesy slide from G♭ to F, recalling the F tonality (See Example 2.6, p. 17).

Example 2.6: First movement, Coda (mm. 83–88).

17 Looking at the 1st movement from the set theory perspective

Since Bolcom admires the music of Schoenberg and other 20th century composers, it is not a surprise that a tone row will be discovered in his music. Bolcom implements a perfect twelve-tone row from the pick-up to mm. 3–8 of the A section, where violin and piano share the equal duty of playing all the notes. However, Bolcom claimed in an interview by Philip Baldwin that he had no intention to apply the rows in his music.36 He did not see himself as a tone row composer; apparently, he was subconsciously putting those rows down to serve as a tool that let the music have a better flow and transition effect (See Example 2.1, p. 13).

The violin never plays the F in the entire A section and even ends at the F#. The evidence implies that Bolcom consciously keeps the violin (E♭, C#, B, A♭, G, F#) away as far as the F tonality to create the “restrained” and contrary motion. The tone row in the mm. 3–8 is the only set theory activity in the A section, with no further development of twelve-tone row in the rest of the section. (mm. 9–22)

In the atonal B section and Cadenza, Bolcom utilizes the sets as motive and the complete twelve-tone row (m. 23–30). The spiky chord texture can be seen as a reflection of Webern’s pointillistic style.37 From the result of the set and subset analysis, see

Example 2.7 (mm. 23–26, p. 19) shows the set relationship is not direct, but rather indirect.

36 Philip Richard Baldwin, “An Analysis of Three Violin Sonatas by William Bolcom” (DMA diss., Ohio State University, 1996), 125. 37 James Peter Burkholder, Donald Jay Grout, and Claude V. Palisca, A History of Western Music Tenth edition. (New York: Norton, 2019), 817–18. 18 Example 2.7: First movement, the beginning of B section subset (mm. 23–26).

Likewise, the bell-like chords played by piano in the Cadenza (m. 62) also have sets [014], [0146], [0147], and [0148] in common (See Example 2.8, p. 19).

Example 8: First movement, the segment of bell-like subset (m.62).

The set analysis shows again that Bolcom might not purposely use specific sets or rows, but he grew up under the influence of tone row music and it found its way into the piece.

Second Movement: Brutal, fast

As indicated by its title, this movement presents its character by having unpredictable angular entrances, grand pauses (scherzo-like, mm. 12–17), extreme dynamic changes (mm. 33–37), and extensive range for both voices (mm. 80–84); all of

19 these features reflect the title that Bolcom gives to the performers, and certainly contains one of “the toughest passages for the piano he has ever written,” as Bolcom stated.38 The form of this atonal rondo-like movement is structured as ABA1 CDA2C1A3. Bolcom uses two principal motives to connect the second movement. The first is the descending half- step motion as the motive of the movement (mm. 1–2) (See Example 2.9, p. 20). It has the same violent character and rhythmic structure as those elements found in Stravinsky’s

Rite of Spring, the composer who Bolcom admired the most during his youth. Second, he uses the blue-note (A♭) in every section of this movement and even ends the movement with a blue-note, so that the beginning and the end correspond.

Example 2.9: Second movement, descending half-step motion as a motive, mm. 1–2.

The set theory analysis of the second movement discloses that Bolcom did not apply various musical elements in the movement; instead, he transforms the descending half-step motive into different motivic sets. He achieves the unifying sound by using a limited number of sonorities reconstructed in both vertical and horizontal directions.

38 William Bolcom, liner note to American Double The Bolcom Project: William Bolcom Music for Violin and Piano, Philip Ficsor and Constantine Finehouse, Albany Records TROY959-60, 2007, 7. 20 Those motivic sets are assembled with three-note sets. In the A section (mm. 1–

22) the set motives are C#–C–D [012], C#–C–A♭ [014], C–D–A♭ [015], and A–B♭–F#

[016] (See Example 2.9, p. 20).

In the B section (mm. 23–30), the vertical motive has become the horizontal chromatic scale in the piano ([012345], mm. 23–24), while violin plays [013]. Later in m.

28, the piano plays the same row [012345] with a more compressed texture (See Example

2.10, p. 22).

The violin and piano share the same six-pitch set [012345] in the A1 section (m.

31–42) as the vertical chords. This shows how Bolcom was careful not to represent the scherzo-like movement by overreaching the complexity of the musical elements but instead using the variation of the original motive (See Example 2.10, p. 22).

Bolcom suddenly shifts the six pitches to six chords and installs a perfect twelve- tone row in the following C section (mm. 42–51) (See Example 2.11, p. 22). A blues theme transition-like D section based on the subset [014] immediately follow after, to

“cool” (Bolcom’s indication) down what happened in the agitated C section.

The returning A2 section (mm. 64–79) is embodied with the fragment and reverse of the beginning descending motive and B section motive [013]. Bolcom adopts the motives from m. 1 and m. 32 to introduce a fresh motive from m. 69 to the end of the section (See Example 2.12, p. 23).

21 Example 2.10: Second movement, mm. 23–36.

Example 2.11: Second movement, mm. 42–44.

22 Example 2.12: Second movement, mm. 66–69.

In the “WILD!” C2 section (mm. 80–101), under the seeming chaos, Bolcom actually employs an artfully assembled pitch collection. By letting the violin randomly play four different motivic gestures and the piano play gestures frequently based on

[014], [015], and [016], Bolcom sends an intense musical image to the listener in a cohesive fashion (See Example 2.13, p. 24).

In the last A3 section (mm. 102–120), Bolcom ends the movement with a preceding motive from the A1 section [012345], and a pppp triplet pizzicato close to the bridge. By utilizing the off-beat pizzicato, Bolcom seems to convey the overwhelming and off-center feeling experienced by the listener and performer after a wild journey. He manipulates different rhythmic patterns and a complex texture to challenge the human brain, creating questions around how it perceives different rhythmic gestures throughout the movement.

23 Example 2.13: Second movement, mm. 81–96.

24 Third movement: Adagio

Bolcom connects the second and third movements with the blue note A♭.

Compared to the second movement that is based on three-note chords, this free-form third movement is built mainly on four-note chords. This movement has two sections–

Recitative and Requiem. Bolcom described the third movement as free, and recitative in style, with a hymn-like passage.39 While working on the third movement, Bolcom was notified by Sergiu Luca of Joe Venuti's death; both men had a close relationship with the great jazz violinist. In response to Venuti’s death, Bolcom composed a tonal requiem in

D♭ major in the last section of this Adagio as a requiem for Venuti.

Recitative section (mm. 1–23)

The recitative section sets the character of the entire third movement. It starts with a solo violin atonal recitative, followed by supportive chords played by the piano.

Notably, this is the first time that the two voices collaborate rather than compete in this sonata—it depicts a change in the mood of the piece by its free meter and rhythmical pulse. Bolcom smoothly spread out the four-note sets as chords and arch-shaped melodic contours, primarily in the set types [0258, 0248, 0247, 0147] (subsets [014, 016]) everywhere in the movement (See Example 2.14, p. 26).

After the abstract first statement beginning and before diving into the fantasy and dreamy section (mm. 12–22), Bolcom inserts a short bridge section with consecutive blue note A♭ and chords of [0258], [0248], [0147] (See Example 2.15a, p. 27). Bolcom gives the piano a very different texture from m. 12 onwards. Rather than using only chords like

39 Bolcom, liner note to “American Double,” 8. 25 earlier, he uses multiple voices in different registers to create a contrapuntal quality, within the bass line motion G–B♭–D–G–D♭–E–D♭–B♭–F. The contrapuntal bass line (m.

12–14) is a horizontal motion of a 4-note set [0147] (See Example 2.15b, p. 27).

Example 2.14: Third movement, mm. 1–10.

26 Example 2.15a: Third movement, m. 11.

Example 2.15b: Third movement, mm. 12–17.

27 Bolcom makes the set motive [0248] appear again as the rising chromatic harmony progression in the piano, creating tension and momentum towards the movement's peak; this is intensified by the violin’s extremely high notes at the end of the fingerboard (m. 15–18) (See Example 2.15b, p. 27). To sustain the tension, he creates a new texture by letting the piano play broken chords (like a harpsichord) while the violin slides down dramatically in double stops (mm. 19–20). Finally, the tension is deflated in mm. 20–21 with continued descending slides in the violin and the chromatic progression

[0248] in the piano, while the triplet rhythm gives way to syncopation. This section can connect deeply to the sorrowful emotion of losing Joe Venuti (See Example 2.16, p. 28).

Example 2.16: Third movement, mm. 20–21.

Requiem section (mm. 24–47)

This section is the best example of how Bolcom voices the intimate hymn-like melody as a farewell to his friend, Venuti. As the piano introduces the common jazz tonality of D♭ major, interrupted by the insubstantial atonal violin melody that is based on the trichords at mm. 24–26, it seems to express Bolcom’s emotional reaction to the news of Venuti’s Death (See Example 2.17, p. 29). However, after the ppp A♭, the violin 28 and piano finally come together, presenting a peaceful hymn to end the third movement.

Bolcom embodies in the last chord the set motive [0247], which includes the blue note; at the same time, the violin plays G as the resolution of the A♭ (m. 46), simultaneously representing the end of great jazz violinist’s life (See Example 2.18, p. 29).

Ecample 2.17: Third movement, mm. 24–26.

Example 2.18: Third movement, the end of the requiem, mm. 42–47.

Fourth Movement: In Memory of Joe Venuti

Attacca from the end of the requiem in the third movement, the final movement, titled “In memory of Joe Venuti,” evokes Venuti’s playing style, which consisted of brilliant-virtuosic violin jazz techniques—slides up to the notes and alternate right and

29 left hand pizzicato.40 According to Bolcom, shortly after he received news of Venuti’s death, “The Second Sonata became in part a farewell to Joe: although there is little in it that refers to his playing style, it is necessary for the violinist to know, and have well- rooted in the ear, the special world of Venuti.”41

Similar to the second movement, the fourth movement can be seen as a transformative rondo that consists of eight sections—ABCDA1EA2, and coda. Bolcom reclaims the elements from previous movements and inserts new features for the fourth movement itself; the melody alternates between the sections that either recall thematic elements from other movements, or indirectly arouse the characters. In other words, the fourth movement presents a summation of the sonata.

A section (mm. 1–51)

Bolcom ingeniously develops the entire A section with variations on the interval of the sixth. The movement begins with a jazzy character in B♭ major. The piano plays the blues progression I-IV-V of the ostinato accompaniment figures that correspond to the jazz character from the first movement, while the violin plays a melody based on thirds with jazz improvisation notes (See Example 2.19a, p. 31). After m. 18, the variation in the piano part creates a different momentum that pushes the phrase to mm.

27–30, where he uses the circle of fifths on intervals of the sixth for both violin and piano

(See Example 2.19b, p. 32).

40 Philip Richard Baldwin, “An Analysis of Three Violin Sonatas by William Bolcom” (DMA diss., Ohio State University, 1996), 129. 41 Bolcom, liner notes to “Second Sonata/Duo Fantasy/Graceful Ghost.” 30 B section (52–56)

Although this is an atonal section, the violin’s motive moves down by sixths.

With the piano’s left hand playing a pedal F as in the first movement, the right hand is playing the same element from the third movement (requiem). Besides the violin's alternate pizzicato, Bolcom changes the meter, producing quasi-impovisational off-beats and syncopation (See Example 20, p. 33).

Example 2.19a: Fourth movement, A section, mm. 1–6.

31 Example 2.19b: Fourth movement, A section, mm. 17–19, mm. 26–31.

32 Example 2.20: Fourth movement, B section, mm. 52–53.

C section (mm. 67–83)

The furious C section features Stravinsky-like block chords that inherit the brutal character from the second movement. While the violin is playing dissonant chords related primarily to set types [014], [015], and [016], the piano presents a unique contour along with ostinatos based on the set types [01256], [01267], and [01568]—all of which are related by subsets [015] and [016] (See Example 2.21, p. 34).

D section (mm. 83–98)

Bolcom handily introduces a new texture in this section by mixing old elements.

Although both instruments play chromatic lines, the third movement Requiem melody is hidden in the piano line using accents, while a perfect twelve-tone row with a jazz character is presented in the violin. The harmonic progression in the piano part is built on

[0247] and [0148] (See Example 2.22, p. 35).

33 Example 2.21: Fourth movement, C section, mm. 69–78.

34 Example 2.22: Fourth movement, D section, mm. 83–88.

A1 section (mm. 99–116)

At the end of the D section, the violin plays a short transition-like passage with slides and double-stops in sixths to link back to the B♭ tonality of the jazz A1 section. In this recapitulatory section, the piano part becomes more active through the use of octaves and syncopated rhythm, while the violin stabilizes the key by playing a long “B♭” and arpeggio gestures in thirds.

E section (mm.116–134)

Bolcom retains the elements of the third movement (requiem) and previous C section (ostinato). However, instead of mixing the major sixths and minor sixths to create a lively character as in the previous sections, he uses all minor sixths this time to create the “misterioso” which he marks in the music. The sets in the transformative requiem

35 alternate between [0347] and [0145]; as the ostinato is [037], [015], and [0158]. Hence, the entire section is united by the subsets [014] and [037] (See Example 2.23, p. 37).

A2 (mm. 135–142) and Coda section (mm. 143–153)

In the last appearance of A2 section, Bolcom uses only the segmentation of section A. With asymmetrical pauses between the jazz theme and “covered tone,” it is a resonance of section A, as well as the memories of Venuti flashing back. The coda presents the transparent harmonic texture of the first movement, with the original bell- like piano replaced by the ostinato chords from the fourth movement’s A section. The

G♭–F slides at the end correspond with the end of the first movement. Instead of having an emotional ending because of the farewell, Bolcom concludes the piece with the violin holding the “F” and a teasing wide-range “B♭” in the piano. The gentle and humorous ending seems like an appropriate goodbye to the great jazz violinist Joe Venuti (See

Example 2.24, p. 37).

36 Example 2.23: Fourth movement, E section, mm. 116–123.

Example 2.24: Fourth movement, Coda section, mm. 149–152.

37 Seeing the Sonata from the Perspective of Topic Theory

In the last decade, the topic theory as analytical method has been expanded to include music of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as well as the eighteenth.

According to Kofi Agawu, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, topics were recognized as conventions of style or representations of certain emotions in the music; the twentieth century topical practice keeps the idea but expands the topical universe and variety of topical gestures.42

Topic theory can identify specific musical meanings in the music by certain harmonic progressions, rhythmic patterns, and musical texture. An abundance of topical gestures can be noticed in Bolcom’s Second Violin Sonata, such as jazz, ostinato, bell motive…etc., even without considering topic theory as an analytical tool. However, since the sonata is late twentieth-century music that crosses over tonal and atonal elements, the typical eighteenth-century topic theory will not be sufficient for this sonata. For this reason, the fundamental form/harmonic and set theory analysis from the previous section will support the topic theory analysis here.

This section will consist of two parts—the first section is an overview of various topics displayed in the sonata, identifyingthem based on their unique musical gestures.

This will include the traditional topics from the topical collection and pitch sets as topics.

The second section will address topics as the cyclic agents, specifically how the

“jazz” and topic pitch set topics are transformed across the movements. The contemporary composers might not treat the topics as a pictorial tool in the eighteenth- century manner that communicates between listeners and composers; instead, they

42 Kofi Agawu, Music as Discourse: Semiotic Adventure in Romantic Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 48. 38 ingeniously install the topics in the deeper layers of the music. Hence, to investigate how those topics are signified and displayed throughout the piece will be crucial.

Overview of the conventional topics in the Second Sonata

Bolcom opens the sonata with a distinctive jazz topic. The syncopated rhythm and

“blues” harmonic progression (I–IV–V–VI–I) is played by the piano, incorporating the ostinato topic with specific instruction “smooth; no dynamic or rhythmic change”; it does reflect the movement title “Summer Dreams” (See Example 2.1, p. 13). The jazz topic is also installed in the second movement B and D section, third movement m. 11, and fourth movement A section.

The bell motif topic often comes with a cadenza topic. For instance, in the first movement cadenza section (m. 62, See Example 2.3, p. 16), the piano plays the bell-like chords along with the violin broken thirds on top; in the third movement, the bridge cadenza section (m. 11), where the violin plays the blue notes with bell-like chords underneath (See Example 2.15a, p. 27).

The other noticeable topic that repeats frequently is the ostinato topic. Bolcom generally pairs the ostinato with a jazz topic, which could possibly imply a steady bass line/chord in the jazz ensemble. For example, at the beginning of the first movement, where the piano has the swing ostinato right hand, and the three chords in the interval of the sixth (I–IV–V) at the beginning of the fourth movement are also a combination of ostinato and jazz topic (See Example 2.19a, p. 31). The ostinato topic not only arises in the tonal jazz sections but also in the atonal sections in the fourth movement. Mm. 69–78

39 is one passage where Bolcom uses an ostinato figure when the violin has a long sustained note in the atonal section (See Example 2.21, p. 34).

All the topics presented above are the recurrent topics that are connected through each movement of the sonata. On the other hand, the second and third movements have several unique topics that exist only within these two movements. The second movement exhibits an extremely contrasting character with the smooth jazz character in the first and fourth movements. The scherzo topic can be approached according to the numerous unpredictable entrances and grand pauses, which could relate to the jazz topic. Still, the unprecedented agitato topic is displayed by the extreme dynamic changes and wide intervals.

Bolcom thoroughly shifts the mood from the second to the third movement. He presents a clear recitative topic at the beginning of the third movement, and this topic carries over to the end of the fourth movement with the singing style topic. From mm.

12–23, the fantasia topic is implied by its dreamy piano voice (m. 12–14) and stepwise up and down the chromatic passage (mm. 15–22) (See Example 2.16, p. 28). At the end of the movement, Bolcom integrates the singing topic (the simple melodic line from violin) and jazz topic (syncopated obligato piano accompaniment) to depict the farewell (See

Example 2.25, p. 41).

40 Example 2.25: Third movement, hymn-like section, mm. 34–37.

Overview of the pitch-class set topics in the sonata

First movement

Although some of the pitch-class sets have more than four notes, from subset analysis it can be concluded that the pitch set topics in the atonal B section of the first movement mainly are [0146], [0147], and [0148]. Furthermore, all are related by a smaller subset [014]. For example, the gestures in mm. 23–26 are related by the subset

[014] (See Example 2.7, p. 19). The first four bell-like chords in the cadenza section in m. 62 are also connected by the subset [014], while some are linked by [013] (See

Example 2.26, p. 41).

Example 2.26: First movement, cadenza section, m. 62.

41 Second movement

The second movement's pitch-class set topics are based on three-notes chords.

The essential pitch-class sets grow and repeat from [012], [014], to [0146], and to an even more extensive set [012345]. For instance, the sets from the beginning [0126] and [0146]

(mm. 1–2, See Example 2.9, p. 20) are transformed into different subset variations in the movement—m. 23 and mm. 53–55 (See Example 2.10 and 2.27, p. 22 and p. 42). The set

[012345] is another set topic hidden in different sections—m. 23, m. 34, and m. 68 (See

Example 2.10 and 2.12, p. 22–23).

Example 2.27: Second movement, mm. 53–55.

Third movement

The four-note pitch-class sets [0258], [0248], [0247], [0147], and [0148] are the foundation of the set that assembles the entire third movement. These pitch-class set topics can be easier to perceive than those in the previous two movements because they involve melody lines of symmetrical contour. The examples that display these pitch-class sets are the beginning (mm. 1–9), the blue note [0258] topic, and the chromatic progression on [0248] (See Example 2.14, 2.15a, 2.15b, p. 26–27).

42 Fourth movement

The fourth movement's pitch-class set topics are most distorted, perhaps influenced by the form itself (transformative rondo). The brutal violin chords in the C section (mm. 67–83) have sets [0148], [0258], [013], [014], [015], and [016]. The piano ostinato has sets [01256], [01267], and [01568]—they are related by the subsets [015] and [016] (See Example 2.21, p. 34). In the D section, the harmonic progression in the piano part alternates between [0247] and [0148] (See Example 2.22, p. 35). Hence, the pitch-class set topics in this movement will be seen as its subset analysis—[013], [014],

[015], and [016].

Topics as cyclic agents

Jazz topic

The jazz topic is the only topical element that can be found in every movement of this sonata. Besides the first movement, the jazz topic has also appeared in the second movement B section (mm. 23–31, See Example 2.10, p. 22). Even though the brutal character does not correspond to the chill jazz vibes in the first movement, the syncopated rhythm on the notes D♭–B♭ played by the violin and the walking bass in the piano signify the jazz topic. Moreover, in the transition D section, the violin plays a

“cool” jazzy interval of sixth (See Example 2.27, p. 42).

In the third movement, Bolcom uses the consecutive blue note A♭ and an improvisation-like violin solo in the bridge section (m. 11) to connect the jazz topic. In the end, as the violin plays a peaceful hymn-like melody, it incorporates the slow syncopated accompaniment to reveal the emotion of losing a great jazz fiddler, Venuti.

43 The fourth movement has the most variations on the topic of jazz. In general,

Bolcom indicates violin slides the most among all the movements; it could reflect its movement title. The ostinato three sixths with blues harmonic progression (I–IV–V) immediately brings out the brilliant jazz topic at the beginning of the fourth movement.

On top of the ostinato, the violin plays a swing melody based on broken thirds and chromatic passing notes (See Example 2.19a/2.19b, p. 31–32). The bizarre rhythm pizzicato in the B section is also sending the image of free and soloistic swing improvisations (See Example 2.21, p. 34). Furthermore, Bolcom uses hemiola and chromatic violin melody to create a blues character in the atonal D section (See Example

2.22. p. 35). Therefore, this investigation of the jazz topic within the sonata, shows that

Bolcom not only presents the topic directly but also uses particular musical gestures to implicate the topic.

The connection of pitch-class sets across the movements

The pitch-class set topics within each individual movement are apparent as discussed in the previous overview section. However, unlike the jazz topic, there is no clear evidence that Bolcom applies specific pitch-class sets to link all the movements. As he mentioned in the interview, he did not purposely compose this sonata with a tone row in mind.43 Nevertheless, a few particular pitch-class sets are presented frequently, indicating that Bolcom might subconsciously seek certain pitch set patterns from his admiration of tone row music. For instance, the first four notes (E♭–C#–B-A♭) played by the violin at the beginning of the first movement is set [0247] (See Example 2.1, p. 13),

43 Baldwin, “An Analysis of Three Violin Sonatas,” 125. 44 which can be noticed in the third movement m. 4 and fourth movement D section (piano left-hand) (See Examples 2.15a and 2.23, p. 27 and p. 37). The other pitch-class set that

Bolcom uses often is [0147]; this set can found in the first movement B section (Example

2.7, p. 19), third movement fantasia section (Example 2.15b, p. 27), and fourth movement

C section (the subset of [01457])(Example 2.21, p. 34). If there is one common pitch- class set that connects through the sonata, it will be the subset [014], the only subset related to almost all the pitch-class sets in each movement.

45 Chapter Three

Stylistic Features and Musical Interpretation

The relationship between analysis and performance is a question that every performer nowadays must constantly consider. Are these two ideas interdependent? What would performance sound like without having any analysis as a foundation? Joel Lester mentions in his article, “Performance and Analysis: Interaction and Interpretation,” that

Wallace Berry believes “The purely spontaneous, unknowing and unquestioned impulse is not enough to inspire convincing performance…”44 In other words, Berry believes analysis largely influences performance. However, Lester argues that the performer should see analysis's function not too much but as the map of the piece.45 Indeed, there are some features that are not always thoroughly noted on the music—such as vibrato, timbre, phrasing…etc. For this reason, choosing among numerous possibilities is a principal task for performers. The following section will reflect on how a performer could make decisions based on the formal analysis.

This section includes two parts. The first section is Bolcom’s unique musical language in the Second Sonata—a stylistic feature survey. The second section is the timbral effect and gestural phrasing in the Second Sonata. Both sections will be discussed from the perspective of personal performance practice.

44 Joe Lester, “Performance and Analysis: Interaction and Interpretation,” in The Practice of Performance: Studies in Musical Interpretation, ed. by John Rink (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 197. 45 Lester, “Performance and Analysis,” 199. 46 Unique Musical Language

Symmetrical contrast

As Bolcom states, contrary motion creates musical progression.46 As shown in the preceding formal analysis, he often uses contrasting characters or tonalities to articulate the themes or motives in the sonata. For instance, in the first movement, the smooth linear jazz character in the A section (mm. 1–22, See Example 2.1, p. 13) is opposite in character to the spiky and rhythmic B section (mm. 23–61, See Example 2.2b, p. 14). On the other hand, switching between tonal and atonal is another stylistic feature that

Bolcom uses to create dissimilarity; the rondo-like fourth movement will be an excellent example of this matter.

Additionally, changing the instrumental texture is another way that Bolcom delivers contrast. For example, in the cadenza section of the first movement (m. 62), while the violin plays horizontal broken thirds, the piano plays block bell-like chords underneath (See Example 2.3 and 2.26, p. 16 and p. 41). It gives an impression of the piano slowing down the motion, but the phrase is actually moved forward by the friction of the opposite motion between the two instruments.

Symmetrical unity

Across the second sonata, Bolcom demonstrates a compositional sensitivity to its structure. He subtly links the movements ending and beginning with the same note. For example, the second movement (ending A♭), third movement (beginning A♭–ending G), fourth movement (beginning G–ending F), and first movement (ending F). The sign of

46 William Bolcom, “liner notes to Songs of Innocence and of Experience,” 5. 47 the particular connection also has a practical aspect—the timing between the movements during performance. The pause between movements is an interesting question for a performer. In general, the performer would not pay extra attention to the timing between movements. However, the cyclic ending-beginning, which Bolcom composes directly into the piece, impacts the emotion between the movements; the performer will need to consider its narrative within the sonata.

Another unity component is Bolcom’s reclaiming of the elements or musical gestures from other movements. The most prominent example is the fourth movement, where he brings back the jazz element from the first movement, the brutal block chords from the second movement, and the requiem from the third movement.

Finally, except for the free third movement, Bolcom assembles each movement as a repetitive structure in a traditional musical form—ternary ABA (first movement), transformative rondo ABA1CDA2C1A3 (second movement), ABCDA1EA2 (fourth movement). The harmonic structures do not strictly follow conventional principals, but

Bolcom’s process gives the performer clear formal structures and a chance to develop the musical characters within the traditional form.

Representation of the emotions

Not necessarily associated with programmatic music, Bolcom frequently uses expressive terms to articulate precisely what specific passages should sound like. Bolcom knows how a performer is capable of being creative in music. He does not refuse individual interpretation, but only assures that the performer would follow the script.

According to Bolcom, he desired to provide those expressive ideas in the lead of the

48 performer's perception while playing his music.47 There are a few examples, at the beginning of the first movement, he marked “smooth; no dynamic or rhythmic change” in the piano jazz syncopated ostinato and “restrained” in the violin melody48, where he wants nothing but steady jazzy ostinato and an atonal restrained violin sound explicitly

(See Example 2.1, p. 13). At the end of the A section (m. 22), he indicates “exactly counted,” by which he desires to create an abrupt emotional change from the A to the B section (See Example 2.2a, p. 14). In the third movement fantasia section (mm. 12–15), the piano line suddenly changes to more active and multiple voices, which might mislead the performer by its texture. Still, he marks “delicate, smooth” to remind the performer of the nuance that he prefers (See Example 2.15b, p. 27).

In addition to using specific terms to express the emotion, Bolcom also utilizes different timbral effects (harmonics, open strings, bell-like chords, pizzicato, and slide) and gestural phrasings to enhance the emotional content in the sonata.

Timbral Effect

Harmonics

Bolcom uses the A–D harmonic double stop to echo the endings from the first and fourth movements; where the performer should softly land on the harmonic chord softly and use more bow to create the resonance of the jazz character (See Example 2.6 and

2.24, p. 17 and p. 37). Besides the ending of first and fourth movements, the rest of harmonic notes that Bolcom uses in the sonata are the pitch A.

47 Philip Gyula Ficsor, “William Bolcom’s Works for Violin and Piano: A Performer’s Perspective” (DMA diss., Boston University, 2006),144–145. 48 The marking is missing in the violin part. 49 Open strings

The open strings are often a tool to emphasize the unique nuance quality of a specific note. Bolcom uses different open strings in each movement for various purposes.

For example, in the first movement, he uses the pp open G to illustrate the “flautando” timbre (m. 22, See Example 2.2a, p. 14). The second movement's minor second chords with open string give a very bold character (m. 1–2, 42–50) (See Example 2.9 and 2.11, p. 20 and p. 22). The open string in the third movement has a function of decompressing the tension; the A in m. 30 could use open A (even though Luca editorially suggested first finger on the D string), which has a better consistency of timbre with the subsequent slide to B on the A-string and serves to release the tension in the “very slow, calm” section (See Example 3.1, p. 50).

Example 3.1: Third movement, m. 30.

Pizzicato

The alternate left and right hand pizzicato is an inevitable technique while speaking of jazz violin playing. Consequently, Bolcom installs this unique jazz violin technique in this sonata. The pizzicato in the first movement B section is more percussive

50 and easier to pluck due to the “rhythmic” structure and open string pizzicato (mm. 23–61,

See Example 3.2, p. 51). In the second movement, every pizzicato is on the blue note A♭.

It requires the performer to have angular contact and immediate energy on those pizzicatos (See Example 2.10, p. 22). In contrast, the pizzicato in the fourth movement has the blues character, recognized by the syncopated rhythm and off-beat entrances that create the improvisatory effect (See Example 2.20, p. 33).

Example 3.2: First movement, pizzicato.

Slides

Slides are another jazz-related technique that Bolcom incorporates in this jazz- influenced sonata. Most of the slides are presented as gestural movements. Besides the printed slide markings from Bolcom, a few slides can be added to enhance the jazz flavor. For instance, adding slides occasionally in the A1 syncopated section in the first movement (mm. 68–76, See Example 2.5, p. 17) will emphasize the swing character of this particular passage. In the third movement in m. 11, between the third and fourth consecutive blue note A♭, a slide can be applied instead of having the same A♭ six times

51 (See Example 2.15a, p. 27). The slides give the repetitive phrase more color, gestural direction, and jazz-like inflection.

Gestural Phrasing

Slur over the bar line

In his Second Violin Sonata, Bolcom often intentionally has slurs crossing bar lines, focusing on the unique gesture rather than the meter itself. For instance, the entire

A section of the first movement has slurs crossing the bar lines (mm. 1–22, See Example

2.1, p. 13). The diffusion of the downbeat perfectly reflects the “restrained” violin voice that Bolcom wants to express. For this reason, the bow distribution and where to change the bow will be the crucial questions for the performer. Luca has several bowing suggestions in the violin part. However, the performer still needs to decide where to change the bow during the long-sustained notes. The performer will have to carefully consider the piano harmonic progression and change the bow accordingly. The recitative section in the third movement has a very similar bar-line-crossing gesture. Because of the unique melodic contour, the shape of the phrase will not be outlined if the performer does not think about the bowing thoroughly. For example, the C–D♭ bowing in m. 4 is different in the score and violin part. There is no “right” or “wrong”; the separate bowing that Luca suggested could bring out a more clearly syncopated gesture. On the other hand, Bolcom’s original slur gives more linear direction to the end of the phrase on the

C♭ in m. 5 (See Example 2.14, p. 26).

52 Abundant use of broken thirds, interval of sixths, and interval of sevenths

Bolcom also uses different intervals to imply different characters throughout the sonata. For instance, he uses the interval of the seventh to represent the “restrained” and

“agitated” gestures, which he displays in the first (mm. 4–5, See Example 2.1, p. 13) and second movements (m.1–2, See Example 2.9, p. 20). The interval of the sixth is a commonly used gesture that appears in every movement of the sonata, where it depicts the jazz character. For example, in the the syncopated piano in the first movement (C–A,

D–B♭, E–C) (See Example 2.1, p. 13), the second movement mm. 53–54 (A♭–F) (See

Example 2.27, p. 42), and the fourth movement mm. 2–3 (F–D, G–E♭, A–F) (See

Example 2.19a, p. 31).

The powerful grand pause

Throughout the sonata, Bolcom uses the grand pause to give different energy and character in each movement. As a performer, having a clear plan on how to present those different grand pauses is important. The first movement only has one grand pause, which is in m. 33 of B section; this is a grand pause that has a teasing and joking character in the scherzo-like section (See Example 3.2, p. 51). The grand pauses in the second movement give a strong image of holding the breath and contribute to the unpredictable entrances

(See Example 3.3, p. 54). In the fourth movement, Bolcom uses the grand pause to present the flashing memories or resonance of Joe Venuti (See Example 3.4, p. 54). The third movement is the only movement that does not have an “actual” grand pause; because of the abstract character, Bolcom replaces the grand pause with a fermata comma

53 (mm. 9 and 23) to create uncertainty, which fits well with the free-form third movement

(See Example 3.5, p. 55).

Example 3.3: Second movement, grand pause.

Example 3.4: Fourth movement, grand pause.

54 Example 3.5: Third movement, fermata comma, m. 23.

55 Conclusion

Throughout the Second Violin Sonata, Bolcom has presented an extraordinary ability for assimilating different materials and merging them into the newer compositions along with conventional musical forms. As aresult, he successfully employed the musical elements of jazz and blues into the Second Sonata. Going beyond the various compositional techniques that he used—including classical forms, romantic characters, serialism, and impressionism—he created his personal language by consistently combining all these elements in combination with his own rhythms, melodies, and harmonies. While Schoenberg created a new pitch system, and Messiaen a new rhythmic and harmonic system, Bolcom does not invent a musical language in the same manner as composers like them. On the contrary, Bolcom adopted eclecticism and consciously avoided falling into these “systems” while he was composing. Consequently, Bolcom is able to utilize classical harmony, polytonality, and jazz harmonies in his works.

Bolcom’s important contributions to twentieth-century literature are due to his expansion upon already existing styles and systems, and the amalgamation of all of these elements. His music reflects his individual perspective on the heritage of Western musical language, which was his expectation and desire. He fully explored and employed all of these elements simultaneously. As seen in his second violin sonata, he developed his musical style by expanding the typical harmonic language and musical references to encompass the classical and popular idioms at the same time., In closing, Bolcom has the striking ability to create new sounds from traditional elements, making performing and hearing these sonatas a unique and rewarding experience.

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