UNIT Later Cholas and Pandyas 11

Learning Objectives

The objectives of the lesson are to enable students to acquire knowledge of I Cholas „„The achievements of Chola rulers „„Cultural developments in the Chola region „„Emergence of well-developed agrarian structure and irrigation system „„Role of temples in medieval Tamil society „„Maritime trade during Chola period II Pandyas „„Rise of Pandyas with as their capital „„Malik Kafur’s invasion and its fallout „„Succession dispute inviting the attention of Sultan Alauddin Khalji „„Agriculture, irrigation and trade during the Pandya rule „„Religion and culture in southern

Introduction grains. But this surplus in production resulted in unequal distribution of wealth. Society The Cholas belonged to one of the three gradually became highly differentiated unlike in mighty dynasties that ruled the Tamizh country the earlier period. Institutions and ideas from in the early historical period. Described as the the north of India, such as the temple and the Muvendhar in the , they were religion it represented, emerged as a new force. known for the valour and for their patronage of The Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars the . Many songs were composed and Azhwars popularised the ideology and in high praise of their glories. However, after the the faith they represented. Similarly, political until about the ninth century ideas and institutions that originated in the CE, there are no records about them. Changes northern India soon found their way to the that overtook Tamizhagam in the intervening south as well. The cumulative result of all the period brought about a major transformation new developments was the formation of a state, of the region and enabled the emergence of big, which in this case was a monarchy presided over long-lasting monarchical states. The Cholas by the descendants of the old Chola lineage. were one among them. After the eclipse of the Chola kingdom, The river valleys facilitated the expansion Pandyas, who began their rule in the Vaigai river of agriculture leading to the emergence of basin at Madurai, wielded tremendous power powerful kingdoms. The agricultural boom during the 14th century. Like the Cholas, the resulted in the production of surplus food Pandyas also realised substantial revenue from

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 155 29-02-2020 14:26:04 agriculture as well as from trade. Trade expansion overseas continued in the Pandya rule. region, which was part of the Pandyan kingdom, exported grain, cotton, cotton cloth and bullocks to the Malabar coast and had trade contacts with West and Southeast Asia. Pandya kings produced a cultural heritage by synthesising the religious, cultural and political elements, and it differed totally with the assumed homogeneity of classical age of Guptas. I CHOLAS Origin of the Dynasty Big temple inscriptions Records available to us after the Sangam Age for the study of Chola history. The inscriptions show that the Cholas remained as subordinates mainly record the endowments and donations to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region. The re- to temples made by rulers and other individuals. emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya Land transactions and taxes (both collections (850–871 CE) conquering the Kaveri delta and exemptions) form an important part of from Muttaraiyar. He built the city of their content. Later-day inscriptions make a and established the Chola kingdom in 850. mention of the differentiation in society, giving Historians, therefore, refer to them as the Later an account of the castes and sub-castes and Cholas or Imperial Cholas. In the copper plate thus providing us information on the social documents of his successors that are available, structure. Besides stone inscriptions, copper the Cholas trace their ancestry to the , plates contain the royal orders. They also the most well-known of the Cholas of the contain details of genealogy, wars, conquests, Sangam age. In their genealogy an eponymous administrative divisions, local governance, land king ‘Chola’ is mentioned as the progenitor. The rights and various taxes levied. Literature also names of Killi, Kochenganan and Karikalan flourished under the Cholas. The important are mentioned as members of the line in these religious works in Tamil include codification of copper plates. the Saivite and Vaishnavite canons. The quasi- Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors starting historical literary works Kalingattupparani and from (907–955) to Kulothunga Kulotungancholan Pillai Tamizh were composed III (1163–1216) brought glory and fame to during their reign. Muvarula, and Kamba the Cholas. Parantaka Chola set the tone for Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this expansion of the territory and broadened period. Neminatam, Viracholiyam and Nannul the base of its governance, and are noted grammatical works. Pandikkovai and (985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful Takkayagapparani are other important literary Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, and his son works composed during this period. Rajendra I (1014–1044),whose naval operation Territory extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the advances made by their predecessors and went Traditionally, the area under the Chola on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular dynasty in the Tamizh country is known as India. Chonadu or Cholanadu. Their core kingdom was concentrated in the Kaveri-fed delta Sources called Cholamandalam. This term came More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved to be corrupted as “Coromandel” in the on copper and stone form the primary sources European languages, which often referred to

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 156 29-02-2020 14:26:05 the entire eastern coast of . The Even as he was alive, Rajaraja I appointed Chola kingdom expanded through military his son, Rajendra I, as his heir apparent. conquests to include present-day Pudukkottai– For two years, they jointly ruled the Chola Ramanathapuram districts and the Kongu kingdom. Rajendra I took part in the military country of the present-day western Tamil campaigns of his father, attacking the Western Nadu. By the , through invasions, Chalukyas. Consequently, the boundary of the Cholas extended their territory to Tondainadu Chola Empire extended up to Tungabhadra or the northern portion of the Tamizh country, river. When Rajaraja I attacked Madurai, Pandinadu or the southern portions of the the Pandyas escaped with their crown and Tamizh country, Gangaivadi or portions of royal jewels and took shelter in . southern Karnataka and Malaimandalam, the Thereupon, Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka Kerala territory. The Cholas ventured overseas and confiscated the Pandya crown and other conquering the north-eastern parts of Sri royal belongings. Lanka, bringing it under their control and they called it Mummudi-Cholamandalam. Rajendra I conducted the most striking military exploit after his accession in 1023 by his expedition to northern India. He led the expedition up to the Godavari river and asked his general to continue beyond that place. The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in North India. During the Chola reign, the naval Karantai Copper plate inscriptions achievements of the reached its peak. of Rajendra Chola I The Cholas controlled both the Coromandel 11.1.1 Empire Building and Malabar coasts. The Chola navy often ventured into for some decades. Rajaraja I is the Rajendra’s naval operation was directed against most celebrated of Sri Vijaya. Sri Vijaya kingdom (southern the Chola kings. He Sumatra) was one of the prominent maritime engaged in naval and commercial states that flourished from c. expeditions and 700 to c. 1300 in South-east Asia. Similarly, emerged victorious Kheda (Kadaram), feudatory kingdom under in the West Coast, Sri Sri Vijaya, was also conquered by Rajendra. Lanka and conquered the Maldives in the The Chola invasions of Western Chalukya Indian Ocean. The Empire, undertaken in 1003 by Rajaraja I military victory of Raja and 1009 by Rajendra I, were also successful. Raja I over Sri Lanka Rajaraja I with his Rajendra sent his son to ransack and ravage its mentor Karuvur Devar led to its northern and capital Kalayani. The dwarapala (door keeper) eastern portions coming under the direct image he brought from Kalayani was installed control of the Chola authority. Rajaraja I at the temple near Kumbhakonam, appointed a Tamil chief to govern the annexed which can be seen even today. Rajendra I regions and ordered a temple to be built. It assumed the titles such as Mudikonda is locally called Siva Devale (shrine of Siva). Cholan (the crowned Chola),Gangaikondan The Chola official appointed in Sri Lanka (conqueror of the Ganges), Kadaramkondan built a temple in a place called Mahatitta. The (conqueror of Kadaram) and Pandita Cholan temple is called Rajarajesvara. (scholarly Cholan).

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 157 29-02-2020 14:26:05 11.1.2 Chola Adminstration Army

King Cholas maintained a well-organised army. The army consisted of three conventional Historians have debated the nature of the divisions: infantry, cavalry (kudirai sevagar) Chola state. Clearly, it was presided over by a and the elephant corps (anaiyatkal). There hereditary monarchy. The king is presented in were also bowmen (villaligal), sword-bearers glowing terms in the literature and inscriptions (valilar) and spearmen (konduvar). Two type of of the period. Venerated on par with god. The ranks in the army are also mentioned: the upper kings were invariably addressed as peruman and the lower (perundanam and cirudanam). or perumagan (big man), ulagudaiyaperumal According to a Chinese geographer of the 13th (the lord of the world) and ulagudaiyanayanar century, the Chola army owned “sixty thousand (the lord of the world). Later, they adopted the war elephants that, when fighting, carried on titles such as Chakkaravarti (emperor) and their backs houses, and these houses are full of Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor of three soldiers who shoot arrows at long range, and worlds). At the time of coronation, it was a fight with spears at close quarters”. The overseas practice to add the suffix deva to the name of exploits of the Cholas are well known and it led the crowned kings. The kings drew legitimacy historians to refer to their navy “with numberless by claiming that they were a comrade of god ships”. Generally, soldiers enjoyed padaipparru (thambiran thozhar). (military holding) rights. Cantonments, which Chola rulers appointed Brahmins were established in the capital city, were as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus (the known as padaividu. Military outposts in the kingdom’s guide). Rajaraja I and Rajendra I conquered territory were called nilaipadai. The mention the names of rajagurus and captain of a regiment was known as nayagam Sarva-sivas in their inscriptions. Patronising and later he assumed the title of padaimudali. Brahmins was seen to enhance their prestige and The commander-in-chief was senapati and legitimacy. Chola kings therefore granted huge dandanayagam. estates of land to Brahmins as brahmadeyams Local Organisation and chturvedimangalams (pronounced chatur- vedi-mangalam). Various locality groups functioned actively in the Chola period. These were bodies such as Provinces Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar. They As mentioned earlier, the territories of were relatively autonomous organisations of the Chola state had been expanding steadily the respective groups. They are considered the even from the time of Vijayalaya. At the building blocks using which the edifice of the time of conquest, these areas were under the Chola state was built. control of minor chiefs described by historians as “feudatories”. Rajaraja I integrated these Urar territories and appointed “viceroys” in these With the expansion of agriculture, numerous regions: Chola-Pandya in Pandinadu, Chola- peasant settlements came up in the countryside. Lankeswara in Sri Lanka, which was renamed as They were known as ur. The urar, who were Mummudi-cholamandalam, and Chola-Ganga landholders in the village, acted as spokesmen in the Gangavadi region of southern Karnataka. in the ur. The urar were entrusted with the In other less prominent regions, the territories upkeep of temples, maintenance of the tanks and of chiefs such as the Irukkuvels, Ilangovels or managing the water stored in them. They also Mazhavas or Banas were made part of the Chola discharged administrative functions of the state state and their chiefs were inducted into the such as collection of revenue, maintenance of law state system as its functionaries. and order, and obeying the king’s orders.

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 158 29-02-2020 14:26:05 Sabhaiyaar Nattar If the ur was a settlement of land holders, Nadu was a grouping of several urs, largely consisting of peasants of vellanvagai, excluding brahmadeyas formed around the brahmadeya was a Brahmin settlement. irrigation sources such as canals and tanks. The Sabha looked after the affairs of the Nattar (literally those belonging to the nadu) settlement, including those of the temples at were the assembly of landholders of vellanvagai villages (urs) in nadu. Nattar functioned as the core of brahmadeya and its assets. It was pillars of the state structure under the Cholas. also responsible for maintaining irrigation They discharged many of the administrative, tanks attached to the temple lands. Like the ur, fiscal and judicial responsibilities of the state. the Sabha also functioned as the agents of the They held hereditary land rights and were state in carrying out administrative, fiscal and responsible for remitting the tax from the judicial functions. respective nadu to the state. Landholders of the Nagarattaar nadu held the honorific titles such as asudaiyan (possessor of land), araiyan (leader) and kilavan Nagaram was a settlement of traders. (headman). There were functionaries such as However, skilled artisans engaged in masonry, the naattukanakku and nattuviyavan, recording ironsmithing, goldsmithing, weaving and the proceedings of the Nattar. pottery also occupied the settlement. It was represented by the Nagarattaar, who regulated 11.1.3 Economy their association with temples, which needed Agriculture their financial assistance. In the reign of One of the major developments in this Rajaraja I, Mamallapuram was administrated by period was the expansion of agriculture. People a body called Maanagaram. Local goods were settled in fertile river valleys, and even in areas exchanged in nagarams. These goods included where there were no rivers, and arrangements silk, porcelain, camphor, cloves, sandalwood were made for irrigation by digging tanks, wells and cardamom according to Chinese accounts. and canals. This led to the production of food In order to promote trade, inland and sea way, grain surplus. Society got differentiated in a big Kulotunga revoked the collection of toll fee way. The Chola state collected land tax out of the (sungam). Hence he was conferred the title agrarian surplus for its revenue. There was an 'Sungam Thavirtha Chozhan'. elaborate “department of land revenue” known

Local Elections and Uttaramerur Inscriptions : Two inscriptions (919 and 921) from a Brahmadeya (tax-free land gifted to Brahamans) called Uttaramerur (historically called Uttaramallur Caturvedimangalam) give details of the process of electing members to various committees that administered the affairs of a Brahmin settlement. This village was divided into 30 wards. One member was to be elected from each ward. These members would become members of different committees: public works committee, tank committee, garden committee, famine committee and gold committee. The prescribed qualifications for becoming a ward member were clearly spelt out. A male, above 35 but below 70, having a share of property and a house of his own, with knowledge of Vedas and bhasyas was considered eligible. The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on the palm- leaf slips and put into a pot (kudavolai).The eldest of the assembly engaged a boy to pull out one slip and would read the name of the person selected.

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 159 29-02-2020 14:26:06 as puravuvari-tinaikkalam, with its chief called the state was drawing most of its revenue from 'puravuvari-tinaikkalanayagam'. agriculture, the Cholas focused their efforts on managing water resources. Vativaykkal, a criss- Land Revenue and Survey cross channel, is a traditional way of harnessing For the purposes of assessing tax, the Cholas rain water in the Kavery delta. Vati runs in undertook extensive land surveys and revenue the north–south direction while vaykkal runs settlements. Rajaraja I (1001), Kulotunga I in the east–west direction. Technically, vati is (1086) and Kulotunga III (1226) appointed a drainage channel and a vaykkal is a supply people for land survey so that the land could channel. The water running through vaykkal be classified and assessed for the purposes of to the field was to be drained out to vati and to taxation. Like other functionaries of the state, the another vaykkal. Rain water would flow from surveyors of the land called naduvagaiseykira where the natural canal started. Many irrigation too hailed from the landholding communities. canals are modifications of such natural canals. Various units of the land measurement such as The harnessed water was utilised alternately kuli, ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc. are known, through vati and vaykkal. Here the mechanism with local variations. Generally, taxes were designed was such that water was distributed to collected in different forms. The taxes collected the parcelled out lands in sequel. included irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan Many canals were named after and kadamai. An important category of tax was the kings, queens and gods. Some kudimai. Kudimai was paid by the cultivating examples of the names are Uttamachola- tenants to the government and to the landlords, vaykkal, Panca-vanamadevi-vaykkal and the bearers of honorific titles such as udaiyan, Ganavathy-vaykkal. Ur-vaykkal was owned araiyan and kilavar. The tax rates were fixed jointly by the landowners. The nadu level vaykkal depending on the fertility of the soil and the was referred to as nattu-vaykkal. The turn status of the landholder. Opati were levied and system was practiced for distributing the water. collected by the king and local chiefs. Temples Chola inscriptions list some big-size irrigation and Brahmins were exempted from paying the tanks such as Cholavaridhi, Kaliyaneri, taxes. The tax paid in kind was referred to as Vairamegatataka created by the Pallavas, Bahur iraikattina-nellu. All these were mostly realised big tank and Rajendra Cholaperiyaeri. For from the Kavery delta but not widely in the the periodical or seasonal maintenance and outskirts of the kingdom. At the ur (village) repair of irrigation works, conscripted labour level, urar (village assembly) were responsible was used. for collecting the taxes and remitting them to the government. At the nadu level, the nattar The irrigation work done by Rajendra were responsible for remitting taxes. Chola I at Gangaikonda Chozhapuram was an embankment of solid masonry Paddy as tax was collected by a unit called 16 miles long. Rajendra described it as kalam (28 kg). Rajaraja I standardised the his 'jalamaya jayasthambham', meaning collection of tax. He collected 100 kalam “pillar of victory in water”. The Arab from the land of one veli (about 6.5 acres), traveller Alberuni visited the place a the standard veli being variable according hundred years later. On seeing them to fertility of the soil and the number of he was wonder-struck and said: ‘“Our crops raised. people, when they see them, wonder at them, and are unable to describe them, Irrigation much less construct anything like them”, records Jawaharlal Nehru in The Glimpses Cholas undertook measures to improve of World History. the irrigation system that was in practice. As

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 160 29-02-2020 14:26:06 Water Management 11.1.4 Society and its Different kinds of water rights were Structure assigned. These rights regulated the share In the predominantly agrarian society of water from the tanks and wells; it also prevailing during the Chola period, landholding entailed the right of deepening and broadening was the prime determinant of social status and the channels and repairing the irrigation hierarchy. The Brahmin landholders called system. The allotment of water is described as brahmadeya-kilavars at the top brahmadeya 'nirkkintravaaru' (share of water as allotted).The settlements with tax exemption were created, water was released through kumizh (sluice) or displacing (kudi neekki) the local peasants. talaivay (head-channel). Royal orders warned Temples were gifted land known as devadana, the people against the violation of water rights which were exempted from tax, as in and encroachment of water resources gifted brahmadeyams. The temples became the hub of to the brahmadeya settlements. Commonly several activities during this period. owned village tank was called enkalkulam (our tank). Land transaction in the form of donation The landholders of vellanvagai villages and endowment were accompanied by water were placed next in the social hierarchy. rights as well. For the periodical and seasonal Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land but had maintenance and repair of the irrigation tanks, to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and holders rendering free labour was in practice. Vetti and of vellanvagai villages. While landholders amanji were the forms of free labour related to retained melvaram (major share in harvest), the public works at the village level. ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share). Labourers (paniceymakkal) and slaves (adimaigal) stayed at the bottom of social hierarchy. Outside the world of agrarian society were the armed men, artisans and traders. There are documents that make mention of cattle-keepers who apparently constituted a considerable section of the population. There certainly were tribals and forest-dwellers, about whom our knowledge is scanty. Religion Kavinattu Kanmai with Chola inscription Puranic Hinduism, represented by the Village assemblies under the Cholas worship of Siva, Vishnu and associated deities, collected a tax called eriayam, which was utilised had become popular by the time of the Cholas. for repairing irrigation tanks. Sometimes local A large number of temples dedicated to these leaders like araiyan repaired and renovated deities were built. The temples were provided irrigation tanks destroyed in a storm. There vast areas of land and a considerable section of were instances of the water from a tank shared population came under their influence. by villagers and the temples. Special groups Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. Parantaka I known as talaivayar, talaivay-chanrar and eri- (907–953) and Uttama Chola (970–985) made araiyarkal were in charge of releasing the water provisions and gifted the lands to promote through the head channel and sluice from the religion. In a fresco painting in which Rajaraja rivers or tanks. A group of people who were I is portrayed with his wives worshiping Lord in charge of kulam was called kulattar. In later Siva in Thanjavur Brihadishvarar temple. One period, temples were entrusted with the upkeep of the titles of Rajaraja I is Siva Pada Sekaran, of the irrigation sources. i.e. one who clutches the foot of Lord Siva.

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 161 29-02-2020 14:26:06 Siva was the The devotion of Chola rulers to Saivism preeminent god for became a strong passion in due course of time. the Cholas and he Kulothunga II, for instance, exhibited such a was represented in trait. The theological tussle was fierce between two forms. The iconic state religion, Saivism, and Vaishnavism so form of Siva was much so that Vaishnavism was sidelined to the Lingodhbhava, and the extent of its apostle Sri Ramanujar leaving the Nataraja idol was the Chola country for Melkote in Karnataka. human form. A trace of Builders of Temples the locations of temple The Cholas centres in Kavery delta built and patronised could provide us the Lingodhbhava, innumerable temples. map of an agrarian- Brihadishvarar Temple The royal temples political geography spatially and temporally. in Thanjavur, The repeated representation of Tripurantaka Gangaikonda (the destroyer of three mythical cities of asura) Chozhapuram and form of Siva in sculpture and painting gave him a Darasuram are warrior aspect and helped in gaining legitimacy the repositories for the ruler. The representation of Nataraja or of architecture, Adal Vallan (king of dance) in the form of idol sculpture, paintings was the motif of Tamil music, dance and drama and iconography of Dancing woman with hymns composed by Nayanmars, the Saiva the Chola arts. The accompanied by musician, Brihadishvarar temple saints. These hymns sang the praise of Siva and temples became the extolled the deeds of god. They held great appeal hub of social, economic, cultural and political to the devotees from different social sections. activities. The paraphernalia of the temples including temple officials, dancers, musicians, The Saiva canon, the Thirumurai, was singers, players of musical instruments and their codified after it was recovered by Nambi Andar masers headed by the priests worshipping the Nambi. Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars were gods reflect the royal court. In the initial stages, appointed to sing in the temples to recite architecturally, the Chola temples are simple Thirumurai daily in the temple premises. and modest. Sepulchral temples (pallip-padai) The singers of hymns were known as also were built where the kings were buried. vinnappamseivar. The players of percussion instruments also were appointed. Girls were Temple as a Social Institution dedicated for the service of god. Musicians Chola temples became the arena of and dance masters also were appointed to train social celebrations and functioned as social them. institutions. They became the hub of societal space in organising social, political, economic A highly evolved philosophical system and cultural activities. The prime temple called Saiva Siddhanta was founded during officials were koyirramar, koyilkanakku (temple this period. The foundational text of this accountant), deva-kanmi (agent of god), philosophy, Sivagnana Bodham, was composed srivaisnavar, cantesar (temple manager) and by Meikandar. Fourteen texts, collectively others. They promoted the development of called Saiva Siddhantha Sastram, form the core learning, dance, music, painting and drama. A of this philosophy.In later times, many Saiva play called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life monasteries emerged and expounded this of Rajaraja I, was performed in the Thanjavur philosophy. temple. The festivals of Chithirai Tiruvizha,

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 162 29-02-2020 14:26:07 Brihadishvarar Temple The Grand Temple of Thanjavur, known as Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as an outstanding example of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture and iconography. This temple greatly legitimised Rajaraja’s polity. The sanctum with a vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone weighing 80 tons. The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhanarisvara and Bikshadana, a mendicant form of Siva, on the outer walls of the sanctum are some unique features. The fresco paintings and the miniature sculptures of the scenes from puranas and epics in the temple walls reveal the religious ideology of the Chola rulers. Dancing girls, musicians and music masters were selected from different settlements cutting across the nadu divisions and were attached to this temple. Singers had been appointed to recite the bhakti hymns in the temple premises.

Kartigai and Aippasivizha were celebrated. It Gangaikonda Chozhapuram is said that singing hymns in temple premises In commemoration promoted oral literacy. Traditional dance of his victory in North items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu India, Rajendra I were portrayed in the form of sculptures built Gangaikonda and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur, Chozhapuram on the Tiruvorriyur. Nirutya and karna poses are model of Brihadisvarar shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur big temple in Thanjavur. He temple. Traditional Tamil musical instruments built an irrigation tank also were portrayed in this way. called Chola-gangam near The pastoral group, as a mark of devotion, the capital called Jala- Anugrahamurthy donated livestock of specified number to the stambha (water-pillar). Gangai Konda temples so as to maintain the perpetual lamp It became the coronation Chozhapuram to be lit in the temple. To record their gift, centre, which was a Chola landmark. The their names were engraved in the inscriptions sculptures of Ardhanariswarar, Durga, Vishnu, of royal temple. Thus, they earned royal Surya, Chandesa anugrahamurty are the best affinity. The oil pressers called Sankarapadiyar pieces of the idols of gods placed in the niches of supplied oil to the temple and became part of the outer wall of sanctum. the functionaries of the temples. In times of Darasuram Temple famine, some of them sold themselves to the temple as servants. Darasuram Temple, built by Rajaraja II (1146–1172), is yet another important Temples functioned as banks by contribution of the Cholas to temple architecture. advancing loans and by purchasing and Incidents from the Periyapuranam, in the form of receiving endowments and donations. They miniatures, are depicted on the base of the garbha- also became educational centres as training griha (sanctum sanctorum) wall of the temple. was imparted in Vedas, music and the arts. Sculpture and metal work too were promoted. Trade Temple accounts were audited and the auditor Increased production in agriculture as was called koyilkanakku. well as artisanal activities led to trade and

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 163 29-02-2020 14:26:08 CHOLA EMPIRE Vangadesam (palas)

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growing exchange of goods for goods. This interior, goods were carried on pack animals trade activity involved the notions of price, and boat. The items exported from the Chola profit and market, which were not known in land were sandalwood, ebony, condiments, South India in the earlier period. Two guild- precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and like groups are known: anjuvannattar and salt. Imports included camphor, copper, tin, manigramattar. Anjuvannattar comprised mercury and etc. Traders also took interest West Asians, including Jews, Christians and in irrigation affairs. Valanciyar, a group of Muslims. They were maritime traders and were traders, once dug an irrigation tank called settled all along the port towns of the west coast. ainutruvapperari in Pudukottai. It is said that manigramattar were busy with trade in the hinterland. They settled in interior 11.1.5 Cholas as Patrons towns like Kodumbalur, , Kovilpatti, of Learning Piranmalai and others. In due course, both Chola kings were great patrons of learning groups merged and got incorporated under the who lavished support on Sanskrit education banner of ainutruvar, disai-ayirattu-ainutruvar by instituting charities. From the inscriptions, and valanciyar functioning through the head we see that literacy skills were widespread. The guild in Ayyavole in Karnataka. This ainutruvar great literary works Kamba Ramayanam and guild controlled the maritime trade covering Periyapuranam belong to this period. Rajendra South-east Asian countries. Munai-santai I established a Vedic college at Ennayiram (Pudukkottai), Mylapore and Tiruvotriyur (South Arcot district). There were 340 students (Chennai), , Vishakapattinam in this Vaishnava centre, learning the Vedas, and Krishnapattinam (south Nellore) became Grammar and Vedanta under 14 teachers. This the centres of the maritime trade groups. In the example was later followed by his successors

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 164 29-02-2020 14:26:08 Sambuvarayars : Sambuvarayars were chieftains in the North Arcot and Chengalpattu regions during the reign of Chola kings, Rajathiraja and Kulothunga III. Though they were feudatories, they were found fighting sometimes on the side of their overlords and occasionally against them also. From the late 13th century to the end of Pandya ascendency, they wielded power along the Palar river region. The kingdom was called Raja Ghambira Rajyam and the capital was in Padaividu. Inscriptions of Vira Chola Sambavarayan (1314–1315CE) have been found. Sambuvarayars assumed high titles such as Sakalaloka Chakravartin Venru Mankonda Sambuvarayan (1322–1323 CE) and Sakalaloka Chakravartin Rajanarayan Sambuvarayan (1337– 1338 CE). The latter who ruled for 20 years was overthrown by Kumarakampana of Vijayanagar. It is after this campaign that Kumarakampana went further south, as far as Madurai, where he vanquished the Sultan of Madurai in a battle.

and, as a result, two more such colleges were associated with pearl fisheries, is believed to founded, at Tribuvani near Pondicherry in 1048 have been their early capital and port. They and the other at Tirumukudal, Chengalpattu moved to Madurai later. district, in 1067. In Sanskrit centres, subjects Many early Tamil inscriptions of like Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, religion and Pandyas have been found in Madurai and its philosophies were taught. Remuneration was surroundings. Madurai is mentioned as Matirai given to teachers in land as service tenure. in these Tamil inscriptions, whereas Tamil The End of Chola Rule classics refer to the city as Kudal, which means assemblage. In one of the recently discovered The was paramount in Tamil inscriptions from Puliman Kompai, a South India from the ninth to the thirteenth village in Pandya territory, Kudal is mentioned. centuries. By the end of the twelfth century, In Pattinappalai and Maduraikkanchi, Koodal local chiefs began to grow in prominence, is mentioned as the capital city of Pandyas. It which weakened the centre. With frequent finds mention in Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies) invasions of Pandyas, the once mighty empire, also. So, historically Madurai and Kudal have was reduced to the status of a dependent on been concurrently used. the far stronger Hoysalas. In 1264, the Pandyan ruler, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, sacked the Sources Chola’s capital of Gangaikonda Chozhapuram. The history of the Pandyas of the Sangam With Kanchipuram lost earlier to the Telugu period, circa third century BCE to third century Cholas, the remaining Chola territories passed CE, has been reconstructed from various into the hands of the Pandyan king. 1279 sources such as megalithic burials, inscriptions marks the end of Chola dynasty when King in Tamil brahmi, and the Tamil poems of the Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the Sangam literature. The Pandyas established last king Rajendra Chola III and established the their supremacy in South Tamil Nadu by the rule by Pandyas. end of the sixth century CE. A few copper plates form the source of our definite knowledge of the II PANDYAS Pandyas from the seventh to the ninth century. Pandyas were one of the muvendars The Velvikkudi grant of Nedunjadayan is the that ruled the southern part of India, though most important among them. Copper plates intermittently, until the pre-modern times. inform the essence of royal orders, genealogical Ashoka, in his inscriptions, refers to Cholas, list of the kings, their victory over the enemies, Cheras, Pandyas and Satyaputras as peoples endowments and donations they made to the of South India. , a town historically temples and the Brahmins. Rock inscriptions

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 165 29-02-2020 14:26:08 give information about the authors of rock- the border of the west while the Bay of Bengal cut cave temples, irrigation tanks and canals. formed the eastern border. Accounts of travellers such as Marco Polo, Wassaff and Ibn-Batuta are useful to know 11.2.1 Pandya Revival about political and socio-cultural developments (600–920) of this period. Madurai Tala Varalaru, Pandik Kovai and Madurai Tiruppanimalai provide The revival of the Pandyas seems to have information about the Pandyas of Madurai of taken place after the disappearance of the later period. Kalabhras. Once hill tribes, the Kalabhras had soon taken to a settled life, extending their Though pre-Pallavan literary works do patronage to Buddhists and Jains. Kadunkon, not speak of Sangam as an academy, the term who recovered Pandya territory from the Sangam occurs in Iraiyanar Akapporul of Kalabhras according to copper plates, was late seventh or eighth century CE. The term succeeded by two others. Of them, Sendan Sangam, which means an academy, is used in possessed warlike qualities and his title Vanavan late medieval literary works like Periya Puranam is suggestive of his conquest of Cheras. The and Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam. next one, Arikesari Maravarman (624–674), an illustrious early Pandya, ascended the throne in Seethalai Saththanar, the author 642, according to a Vaigai river bed inscription. of epic Manimekalai, hailed from He was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I Madurai. and Narsimahvarman I. Inscriptions and copper plates praise his victory over his counterparts Territory such as Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese. Arikesari is identified with Kun Pandian, the The territory of Pandyas is called persecutor of Jains. Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam or Pandynadu, which lay in the rocky, hilly regions and mountain ranges except the areas Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar fed by the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni. River converted Arikesari from Jainism to Vellar running across Pudukkottai region had Saivism. been demarcated as the northern border of the Pandya country, while Indian Ocean was its After his two successors, Kochadayan southern border. The Western Ghats remained Ranadhira (700–730) and Maravarman

Impaling of Jains Though the number of Jain people who were persecuted is questionable, the incitance of persecution is not in doubt.

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 166 29-02-2020 14:26:08 Rajasimha I (730–765), came Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayn (Varaguna I) (765–815), the donor Marco Polo, a Venetian of the Velvikkudi plates. He was also known as the (Italy) traveller who greatest of his dynasty and successfully handled visited Pandya country the Pallavas and the Cheras. He expanded the lauded the king for fair Pandya territory into Thanjavur, , administration and Salem and districts. He is also generous hospitality for credited with building several Siva and Vishnu foreign merchants. In temples. The next king Srimara Srivallabha his travel account, he (815–862) invaded Ceylon and maintained his also records the incidents of sati and the authority. However, he was subsequently defeated polygamy practiced by the kings. by Pallava Nandivarman III (846–869). He was followed by Varaguna II who was defeated by Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan Aparajita Pallava (885–903) at Sripurambiyam. The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya His successors, Parantaka Viranarayana and kingdom was Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman) Rajasimha II, could not stand up to the rising Sundarapandyan (1251–1268), who not only Chola dynasty under Parantaka I. Parantaka I brought the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, defeated the Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled but also exercised his authority up to Nellore the country in 920CE. in Andhra. Under his reign, the Pandya state Rise of Pandyas Again reached its zenith, keeping the Hoysalas in check. Under many of his inscriptions, he is (1190–1310) eulogized. Sundarapandyan conquered the In the wake of the vacuum in Chola state in Chera ruler, the chief of Malanadu, and extracted the last quarter of 12th century after the demise a tribute from him. The decline of the Chola of Adhi Rajendra, Chola viceroyalty became state emboldened the Boja king of Malwa region weak in the Pandya country. Taking advantage Vira Someshwara to challenge Sundarapandyan, of this development, Pandya chieftains tried who in a war at Kannanur defeated him. to assert and rule independently. Sri Vallaba Sundarapandian plundered his territory. He put Pandyan fought Rajaraja II and lost his son in Sendamangalam under siege. After defeating the battle. Using this situation, the five Pandyas the Kadava chief, who ruled from waged a war against Kulotunga I (1070–1120) and wielded power in northern Tamil Nadu, and were defeated. In 1190, Sadayavarman Sundarapandyan demanded tribute. He captured Srivallabhan, at the behest of Kulotunga I, the western region and the area that lay between started ruling the Pandya territory. He was present-day Arcot and Salem. After killing the anointed in Madurai with sceptre and throne. king of Kanchipuram in a battle, Pandyas took his To commemorate his coronation, he converted territory. But, by submitting to the Pandyas, the a peasant settlement Sundaracholapuram as brother of the slain king got back Kanchipuram Sundarachola Chaturvedimangalam, a tax- and agreed to pay tribute. Along with him, exempted village for Brahmins. there were two or three co-regents who ruled After the decline of the Cholas, Pandya simultaneously: Vikrama Pandyan and Vira kingdom became the leading Tamil dynasty Pandyan. A record of Vira Pandyan (1253–1256) in the thirteenth century. Madurai was their states that he took (Ceylon), Kongu and capital. Kayal was their great port. Marco Polo, the Cholamandalam (Chola country). the famous traveller from Venice, visited Kayal Maravarman Kulasekharan twice, in 1288 and in 1293. He tells us that this port town was full of ships from Arabia and After Sundarapandyan, Maravarman China and bustling with business activities. Kulasekharan ruled successfully for a period of

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 167 29-02-2020 14:26:09 40 years, giving the country peace and prosperity. and others. Titles of the later Pandyas in We have authentic records about the last phase Sanskrit include Kodanda Raman, Kolakalan, of his reign. He ascended the throne in 1268 and Puvanekaviran, and Kaliyuga Raman. Titles in ruled till 1312. He had two sons, and in 1302, the chaste Tamil are Sembian, Vanavan, Thennavan accession of the elder son, Jatavarman Sundara and others. The Pandyas derived military Pandyan III, as co-regent took place. The king’s advantage over their neighbours by means of appointment of Sundarapandyan as a co-regent their horses, which they imported through their provoked the other son Vira Pandyan and so he connection to a wider Arab commercial and killed his father Maravarman Kulasekharan. In cultural world. the civil war that ensued, Vira Pandyan won and became firmly established in his kingdom. The Palace and Couch other son, Sundara Pandyan, fled to Delhi and Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and took refuge under the protection of Alauddin Manaparanan Tirumaligai. Kings, seated on a royal Khalji. This turn of events provided an opening couch, exercised the power. The naming of couches for the invasion of Malik Kafur. after the local chiefs attests to the legitimacy of Invasion of Malik Kafur overlordship of the kings. The prominent names of such couches are Munaiya Daraiyan, Pandiya When Malik Kafur arrived in Madurai in Daraiyan and Kalinkat Traiyan. The king issued 1311, he found the city empty and Vira Pandyan royal order orally while majestically seated on the had already fled. In Amir Khusru’s estimate, couches. It was documented by royal scribe called 512 elephants, 5,000 horses along with 500 Tirumantira Olai. mounds of jewel of diamonds, pearls, emeralds and rubies are said to have been taken by Malik Royal Officials Kafur. The Madurai temple was desecrated and A band of officials executed the royal an enormous amount of wealth was looted. The orders. The prime minister was called wealth he carried was later used in Delhi by uttaramantri. The historical personalities like Alauddin Khalji, who had then taken over the Manickavasagar, Kulaciraiyar and Marankari throne, to wean away the notables in the court worked as ministers. The royal secretariat was to his side against other claimants. known as Eluttu Mandapam. Akapparivara After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan Mudalikal were the personal attendants of the kingdom came to be divided among a number kings. The most respected officials were Maran of the main rulers in the Pandya’s family. In Eyinan, Sattan Ganapathy, Enathi Sattan, Tira Madurai, a Muslim state subordinate to the Delhi Tiran, Murthi Eyinan and others. The titles Sultan came to be established and continued of military commanders were Palli Velan, until 1335 CE when the Muslim Governor of Parantakan Pallivelan, Maran Adittan and Madurai Jalaluddin Asan Shah threw off his Tennavan Tamizhavel. allegiance and declared himself independent. Political Divisions 11.2.2 State Pandy Mandalam or Pandy Nadu Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their consisted of many valanadus, which, in turn, capital. Madurai has been popularly venerated were divided into many nadus and kurrams. as Kudal and Tamil Kelukudal. The kings are The administrative authorities of nadus were traditionally revered as Kudalkon, Kudal Nagar the nattars. Nadu and kurram contained Kavalan, Madurapura Paramesvaran. The titles settlements, viz., mangalam, nagaram, ur and of the early Pandyas are: Pandiyatirasan, Pandiya kudi, which were inhabited by different social Maharasan, Mannar Mannan, Avaniba Sekaran, groups. A unique political division in Pandy Eka Viran, Sakalapuvana Chakkaravarti Mandalam is Kulakkil, i.e. area under irrigation

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 168 29-02-2020 14:26:09 tank. For instance, Madurai is described in an seventh century, led to the expansion of their inscription as Madakkulakkil Madurai. trade connection to the east coast of Tamizh The duty of the nattar was to assess the country. This was because the governments qualities of land under cultivation and levy of the east coast pursued a more liberal and taxes. In surveying the lands, the officials used enlightened policy towards the overseas traders. rods of 14 and 24 feet. After the measurement, Their charters exempted traders from various the authorities donated the lands. Salabogam kinds of port dues and tolls. In Kayal, there was land was assigned to Brahmins. The land an agency established by an Arab chieftain by assigned to ironsmiths was called tattarkani; for name Malik-ul-Islam Jamaluddin. This agency carpenters, it was known as thatchar-maaniyam. facilitated the availability of horses to Pandya Bhattavriutti is the land donated for Brahmin kings. group for imparting education. Horse trade of that time has been recorded Administration and Religion: by Wassaff. He writes: "…as many as 10,000 Seventh to Ninth Centuries horses were imported into Kayal and other An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli ports of India of which 1,400 were to be of district), dating to 800, provides an account Jamaluddin’s own breed. The average cost of of village administration. It looks similar to each horse was 220 dinars of ‘red gold’." Chola’s local governance, which included village assemblies and committees. Both civil and In the inscriptions, the traders are referred military powers were vested in the same person. to as nikamattor, nanadesi, ticai-ayiratu- The Pandya kings of the period supported and ainutruvar, ainutruvar, manikiramattar and promoted Tamil and Sanskrit. The great Saiva patinen-vishyattar. They founded the trade and Vaishnava saints contributed to the growth guilds in Kodumpalur and Periyakulam. The of . The period was marked by goods traded were spices, pearls, precious stones, intense religious tussles. The rise of the Bhakti horses, elephants and birds. In the thirteenth and movement invited heterodox scholars for debate. fourteenth centuries, horse trade was brisk. Marco Many instances of the defeat of Buddhism and Polo and Wassaff state that the kings invested in Jainism in such debates are mentioned in Bhakti horses as there was a need of horses for ceremonial literature. purposes and for fighting wars. Those who were trading in horses were called kudirai-chetti. They 11.2.3 Economy were active in maritime trade also. The busiest port town under the Pandyas Society was Kayalpattinam (now in Kings and local chiefs created district) on the east coast. Gold coins were in Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or circulation as the trade was carried through Chaturvedimangalam with irrigation facilities. the medium of gold. It was variously called These settlements were given royal names and kasu, palankasu, anradunarpalankasu, kanam, names of the deities. Influential Brahmins had kalancu and pon. The titular gods of the traders honorific titles such as Brahmmadhi Rajan and are Ayirattu Aynurruvaar Udaiyar and Sokka Brahmmaraiyan. Nayaki Amman. The periodically held fairs were called Tavalam in settlements called teru Trade where the traders lived. It was not the Khalji’s invasion from the north that brought the Muslims into Tamil Irrigation country for the first time. Arab settlements The Pandya rulers created a number of on the west coast of southern India, from the irrigation sources and they were named after the

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 169 29-02-2020 14:26:09 Sluice is a device to distribute the water from the water resources like river, tank and lakes. It is Sluice in Tank Srivilliputtur called Kumili, madai and Madagu in inscriptions.

members of the royal family. Some of them were The communal assembly of this group is Vasudeva Peraru, Virapandya Peraru, Srivallaba Cittirameli-periyanattar. Peraru and Parakirama Pandya Peraru. The Literacy tanks were named Tirumaleri, Maraneri, Kaliyaneri and Kadaneri. On either side of the The mission of promoting literacy was rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni, canals leading to carried on through many ways. Appointment of the tanks for irrigation were built. The Sendan singers to recite the Bhakti hymns in temple has Maran inscription of Vaigai river bed speaks of been seen as the attempt of promoting literacy. a sluice installed by him to distribute the water In theatres, plays were staged for a similar from the river. Sri Maran Srivallabhan created a purpose. Bhattavirutti and salabogam were big tank, which is till now in use. Like Pallavas endowments provided for promoting Sanskrit in northern districts, Pandyas introduced the education. Brahmins studied the Sanskrit irrigation technology in the southern districts treatises in educational centres kadigai, salai and of Tamil country. In building the banks of the vidyastanam. From 12th century, monasteries tanks, the ancient architect used the thread to came up and they were attached to the temples maintain the level. Revetment of the inner side to promote education with religious thrust. of the banks with stone slabs is one of the features A copper inscription says that an academy of irrigation technique in Pandya country. In was set up to promote Tamil and to translate the time of the later Pandyas (around 1212), an Mahabharatam. The important Tamil literary official constructed a canal leading from river texts composed in the reign of the Pandyas Pennai to the lands of Tiruvannamalai temple. were Tiruppavai, Tirvempavai, Tiruvasagam, In dry-zone Ramanathupuram also, tanks were Tirukkovai and Tirumantiram. created. In these areas, such irrigation works were done by local administrative bodies, 11.2.4 Religion local chiefs and officials. Repairs were mostly It is said that Pandyas were Jains initially undertaken by local bodies. Sometimes, traders and later adopted Saivism. Inscriptions and the also dug out tanks for irrigation. sculptures in the temples attest to this belief. The Iruppaikkuti-kilavan, a local chief, built early rock-cut cave temples were the outcrop of many tanks and repaired the tanks in disrepair. transitional stage in religion and architecture. The actual landowning groups are described as Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas repaired the Pumiputtirar. Historically they were locals many temples and endowed them with gold and hence they were referred to as nattumakkal. and land. The vimanam over the sanctum of

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 170 29-02-2020 14:26:09 and temples were these temples of the Pandya country, the sculptures covered with golden leaves. Sadaiyavarman of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa, Subramanya, Sundarapandyan was anointed in Srirangam Surya and Brahma are best specimens. Pandyas temple, and to commemorate it, he donated an specially patronised Meenakshi temple and kept idol of Vishnu to the temple. The inner walls expanding its premises by adding gopuras and of this temple and three other gopurams were mandapas. plated with gold. The prominent rock-cut cave temples Pandyas extended patronage to Vedic created by the early Pandyas are found in practices. Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Pillayarpatti, Tirumayam, Kuntrakkudi, Peruvaluthi, who performed many Vedic rituals, Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and is identified with Pandyas of the Sangam period. Sittannavasal. Paintings are found in the temples Velvikkudi copper plates as well as inscriptional in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti, Tirumalaipuram sources mention the rituals like Ashvamedayaga, and Tirunedunkarai. A 9th century inscription Hiranyagarbha and Vajapeya yagna, conducted from Sittannavasal cave temple informs that the by every great Pandya king. The impartiality of cave was authored by Ilam Kautamar. Another rulers towards both Saivism and Vaishnavism is inscription of the same period tells us that Sri also made known in the invocatory portions of Maran Srivallaban renovated this temple. The the inscriptions. Some kings were ardent Saivite; fresco paintings on the walls, ceilings and pillars some were ardent Vaishnvavites. Temples of are great works of art. These paintings portray the both sects were patronised through land grant, figures of dancing girls, the king and the queen. tax exemption, renovation and addition of The painting of water pool depicts some aquatic gopuras and spacious mandapas. creatures, flowers and birds and some mammals. The maritime would be Temples incomplete if the history of the Pandyas of Tamil Pandyas built different models of temples. They country is skipped. The busiest port-towns were are sepulchral temple (e.g sundarapandisvaram), located all along the east coast of the Tamizh rock-cut cave temples and structural temples. country. By establishing matrimonial link with Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build Southeast Asian dynasties, Pandyas left an any new temples but maintained the existing imprint in maritime trade activities. temples, enlarging them with the addition of gopuras, mandapas and circumbulations. The Cintamani, Mylapore, Tiruvotriyur, monolithic mega-sized ornamented pillars are the Tiruvadanai and Mahabalipuram are unique feature of the medieval Pandya style. The busy coastal trading centres recorded in early Pandya temples are modest and simple. In inscriptions.

Rock-cut cave temple, Jain sculptures-Kalugumalai Sittannavasal Anaimalai.c.800 CE

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 171 29-02-2020 14:26:11 SUMMARY EXERCISE I Cholas Q.R.Code „„Revival of Chola rule by Vijayalaya I. Choose the Chola (850–871) and its consolidation by Paranthaka CholaI (907–955). correct answer „„Rajaraja I (985–1014) built the great Chola 1. Naval expeditions of empire and constructed the Brihadishvarar ______extended as far as Sri Vijaya temple in Thanjavur, thereby bringing glory Kingdom. and fame to his dynasty. (a) Kulothunga III (b) Rajendra I „„Rajendra I further expanded and extended (c) Rajaraja I (d) Paranthaka the Chola territory by his overseas 2. The core of the Chola kingdom lay conquests from Kheda to SriVijaya. He in ______delta called built Gangai Konda Cholapuram temple to Cholamandalam. commemorate his victories in North Indian military expeditions. (a) Vaigai (b) Kaveri „„The Cholas’ efforts at providing tank (c) Krishna (d) Godavari and canal irrigation resulted in thriving 3. Rajaraja I and Rajendra I jointly ruled the agriculture and trade. Chola kingdom for ______years. „„Temples became the hub of activities (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 5 (d) 4 leading to patronage of arts and letters. 4. ______makes one kalam „„Royal temples at Thanjavur, Gangai Konda Chozhapuram and Darasuram exemplified (a) 28 kg (b) 27 kg (c) 32 kg (d) 72 kg the perfection and excellence attained 5. “Kedah” is in ______in architecture, sculpture, paintings and (a) Malaysia (b) Singapore iconography. (c) Thailand (d ) Cambodia „„Maritime trade flourished. Sandalwood, ebony, condiments, precious gems, pepper, 6. In the reign of Rajaraja I, Mammallapuram oil, paddy, grains and salt were exported, was administered by a body called ______. while the chief imports were camphor, (a) Nattar (b) Maanagaram copper, tin and mercury. (c) Nagarattar (d) Urar II Pandyas 7. Match the Following: „„The Pandyas established their dynastic rule (A) Cantonments - 1. Padaividu in southern Tamil Nadu by the end of the sixth century CE after Kalabhras. (B) Military outposts - 2. Dandanayagam „„Pandya’s presence revived in the thirteenth (C) Captain - 3. Nilai padai century after the decline of Chola rule (D) Commander-in-chief - 4. Padaimudali brought the Tamizh country to limelight. (a) 1, 3, 4, 2 (b) 4, 2, 1, 3 „„Pandyas built rock-cut cave temples and (c) 2, 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 3, 1, 4 structural temples. 8. In commemoration of his victory „„Pandyas left an imprint in maritime trade in______, Rajendra I built Gangaikonda activities. Chozhapuram. „„Kayal (port) region became the centre of trade and exchange, as recorded by Marco (a) Sri Lanka (b) North India Polo and other travellers from Arabia. (c) Kerala (d) Karnataka

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 172 29-02-2020 14:26:11 9. ______was the first capital of Pandyas. 7. What are the prominent rock-cut temples (a) Madurai (b) Kayalpattinam built by the early Pandyas? (c) Korkai (d) Puhar 8. Attempt an account of foreign travellers on Pandya kingdom. 10. Manur inscription dating to 800 CE provides an account of ______administration. IV. Answer the following in detail (a) central (b) village 1. Irrigation and water management schemes (c) military (d) provincial resulted in agrarian surplus during the rule of 11. In dry-zone Ramanathapuram, ______Cholas. Analyse. were created by Pandya kings. 2. Highlight the architectural excellence of (a) moats (b) sluices Cholas. (c) dams (d) tanks 3. Justify the statement “Temple was a social institution”. II. Write brief answers 4. Write about the flourishing trade and 1. What are the quasi-historical literary works commerce during Pandyas’ rule. of the Cholas? 5. Compare and contrast architectural styles of 2. Why was the Cholamandalam called Cholas and the Pandyas. “Mummudi Cholamandalam”? Activity 3. What were the titles assumed by Rajendra I? 4. List the various units of the land measurement. 1. Prepare a scrap book on the recent findings 5. Name the canals constructed and named after on Cholas making use of newspapers and Chola kings, queens and gods. Internet sources. 6. Write a short note on Sangam, the Tamil 2. Mark the places conquered by Chola kings in academy. the given outline map of Asia. 7. What were the results of Malik Kafur’s invasion of Pandyan kingdom? REFERENCE BOOKS

III. Write short answers 1. Noburu Karasimha (ed.), A Concise History of 1. Write a note on the naval expeditions of South India, Oxford University Press, 2014 Rajaraja Chola. 2. Y. Subbarayulu,South India under the Cholas, 2. Why was Rajendra Chola called “Kadaram Oxford University Press, 2011. kondan”? 3. Burton Stein,History of India, Oxford 3. Write a note on the role of guilds during the University Press, 2002. Chola period. 4. R. Champakalakshmi,Trade, Ideology and 4. Name some of the taxes collected during the Urbanization in South India, 300 BC to 1300, Chola period. Oxford University Press, 1996. 5. Write about the social hierarchy under Cholas. 5. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Colas, University of 6. Mention some educational institutions of the Madras, 1955. Chola period. 6. R. Sathianathier, History of India, Vol. I, 1949.

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XI History - Lesson 11.indd 173 29-02-2020 14:26:11 GLOSSARY

circa approximately ஏற鏍தாழ ceremony associated with உய쏍பதힿ뾿쯍 அம쏍鏍鏁믍 ேபா鏁 anointment induction of a person in ெச뿍யꯍப翁믍 சமய母சட柍埁 office/position homogeneity same kind ஓ쎿ன鏍தꟍைம ransack plunder 毂ைறயா翁 dominance especially by one hegemony state over other state or one ேமலா鎿埍க믍 social group over others not following accepted heterodox அைவ鏀க beliefs/faiths ravage devastate ேசதꯍப翁鏍鏁 venerated worshipful வண柍埁த쟍埁쎿ய preceptor teacher ஆ殿쎿ய쏍/ஆசாꟍ/埁쏁 extoll praise enthusiastically ꯁக폍垿ꟍற perpetual ever lasting 믁羿ힿ쯍லாத bustling busy பரபரꯍபான ensued resulted ꮿꟍꯁ ஏ쟍ப翍ட allegiance loyalty ힿ毁வாச믍 slain kill ெகா쯍 genealogy family tree வ믍சாவ쾿/埁羿வ펿

ICT CORNER Later Cholas and Pandyas

This activity explaining UNESCO World Heritage Sites, helps to learn about ancient Heritage.

Steps: • Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code. • World Heritage Centre page will appear on the screen. • Double click or zoom any tagged sites or places. (ex. Great Cholas Temples) • You can see pictures, videos and informations relating to human heritage. Browse in the link Web link: http://whc.unesco.org/en/interactive-map Mobile: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id =com.tripbucket.unesco *Pictures are indicative only.

174 Later Cholas and Pandyas

XI History - Lesson 11.indd 174 29-02-2020 14:26:11