UNIT Later Cholas and Pandyas 11 Learning Objectives The objectives of the lesson are to enable students to acquire knowledge of I Cholas The achievements of Chola rulers Cultural developments in the Chola region Emergence of well-developed agrarian structure and irrigation system Role of temples in medieval Tamil society Maritime trade during Chola period II Pandyas Rise of Pandyas with Madurai as their capital Malik Kafur’s invasion and its fallout Succession dispute inviting the attention of Sultan Alauddin Khalji Agriculture, irrigation and trade during the Pandya rule Religion and culture in southern Tamil Nadu Introduction grains. But this surplus in production resulted in unequal distribution of wealth. Society The Cholas belonged to one of the three gradually became highly differentiated unlike in mighty dynasties that ruled the Tamizh country the earlier period. Institutions and ideas from in the early historical period. Described as the the north of India, such as the temple and the Muvendhar in the Sangam literature, they were religion it represented, emerged as a new force. known for the valour and for their patronage of The Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars the Tamil language. Many songs were composed and Azhwars popularised the ideology and in high praise of their glories. However, after the the faith they represented. Similarly, political Sangam period until about the ninth century ideas and institutions that originated in the CE, there are no records about them. Changes northern India soon found their way to the that overtook Tamizhagam in the intervening south as well. The cumulative result of all the period brought about a major transformation new developments was the formation of a state, of the region and enabled the emergence of big, which in this case was a monarchy presided over long-lasting monarchical states. The Cholas by the descendants of the old Chola lineage. were one among them. After the eclipse of the Chola kingdom, The river valleys facilitated the expansion Pandyas, who began their rule in the Vaigai river of agriculture leading to the emergence of basin at Madurai, wielded tremendous power powerful kingdoms. The agricultural boom during the 14th century. Like the Cholas, the resulted in the production of surplus food Pandyas also realised substantial revenue from 155 XI History - Lesson 11.indd 155 29-02-2020 14:26:04 agriculture as well as from trade. Trade expansion overseas continued in the Pandya rule. Tirunelveli region, which was part of the Pandyan kingdom, exported grain, cotton, cotton cloth and bullocks to the Malabar coast and had trade contacts with West and Southeast Asia. Pandya kings produced a cultural heritage by synthesising the religious, cultural and political elements, and it differed totally with the assumed homogeneity of classical age of Guptas. I CHOLAS Origin of the Dynasty Big temple inscriptions Records available to us after the Sangam Age for the study of Chola history. The inscriptions show that the Cholas remained as subordinates mainly record the endowments and donations to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region. The re- to temples made by rulers and other individuals. emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya Land transactions and taxes (both collections (850–871 CE) conquering the Kaveri delta and exemptions) form an important part of from Muttaraiyar. He built the city of Thanjavur their content. Later-day inscriptions make a and established the Chola kingdom in 850. mention of the differentiation in society, giving Historians, therefore, refer to them as the Later an account of the castes and sub-castes and Cholas or Imperial Cholas. In the copper plate thus providing us information on the social documents of his successors that are available, structure. Besides stone inscriptions, copper the Cholas trace their ancestry to the Karikala, plates contain the royal orders. They also the most well-known of the Cholas of the contain details of genealogy, wars, conquests, Sangam age. In their genealogy an eponymous administrative divisions, local governance, land king ‘Chola’ is mentioned as the progenitor. The rights and various taxes levied. Literature also names of Killi, Kochenganan and Karikalan flourished under the Cholas. The important are mentioned as members of the line in these religious works in Tamil include codification of copper plates. the Saivite and Vaishnavite canons. The quasi- Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors starting historical literary works Kalingattupparani and from Parantaka I (907–955) to Kulothunga Kulotungancholan Pillai Tamizh were composed III (1163–1216) brought glory and fame to during their reign. Muvarula, and Kamba the Cholas. Parantaka Chola set the tone for Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this expansion of the territory and broadened period. Neminatam, Viracholiyam and Nannul the base of its governance, and Rajaraja I are noted grammatical works. Pandikkovai and (985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful Takkayagapparani are other important literary Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, and his son works composed during this period. Rajendra I (1014–1044),whose naval operation Territory extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the advances made by their predecessors and went Traditionally, the area under the Chola on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular dynasty in the Tamizh country is known as India. Chonadu or Cholanadu. Their core kingdom was concentrated in the Kaveri-fed delta Sources called Cholamandalam. This term came More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved to be corrupted as “Coromandel” in the on copper and stone form the primary sources European languages, which often referred to 156 Later Cholas and Pandyas XI History - Lesson 11.indd 156 29-02-2020 14:26:05 the entire eastern coast of South India. The Even as he was alive, Rajaraja I appointed Chola kingdom expanded through military his son, Rajendra I, as his heir apparent. conquests to include present-day Pudukkottai– For two years, they jointly ruled the Chola Ramanathapuram districts and the Kongu kingdom. Rajendra I took part in the military country of the present-day western Tamil campaigns of his father, attacking the Western Nadu. By the 11th century, through invasions, Chalukyas. Consequently, the boundary of the Cholas extended their territory to Tondainadu Chola Empire extended up to Tungabhadra or the northern portion of the Tamizh country, river. When Rajaraja I attacked Madurai, Pandinadu or the southern portions of the the Pandyas escaped with their crown and Tamizh country, Gangaivadi or portions of royal jewels and took shelter in Sri Lanka. southern Karnataka and Malaimandalam, the Thereupon, Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka Kerala territory. The Cholas ventured overseas and confiscated the Pandya crown and other conquering the north-eastern parts of Sri royal belongings. Lanka, bringing it under their control and they called it Mummudi-Cholamandalam. Rajendra I conducted the most striking military exploit after his accession in 1023 by his expedition to northern India. He led the expedition up to the Godavari river and asked his general to continue beyond that place. The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in North India. During the Chola reign, the naval Karantai Copper plate inscriptions achievements of the Tamils reached its peak. of Rajendra Chola I The Cholas controlled both the Coromandel 11.1.1 Empire Building and Malabar coasts. The Chola navy often ventured into Bay of Bengal for some decades. Rajaraja I is the Rajendra’s naval operation was directed against most celebrated of Sri Vijaya. Sri Vijaya kingdom (southern the Chola kings. He Sumatra) was one of the prominent maritime engaged in naval and commercial states that flourished from c. expeditions and 700 to c. 1300 in South-east Asia. Similarly, emerged victorious Kheda (Kadaram), feudatory kingdom under in the West Coast, Sri Sri Vijaya, was also conquered by Rajendra. Lanka and conquered the Maldives in the The Chola invasions of Western Chalukya Indian Ocean. The Empire, undertaken in 1003 by Rajaraja I military victory of Raja and 1009 by Rajendra I, were also successful. Raja I over Sri Lanka Rajaraja I with his Rajendra sent his son to ransack and ravage its mentor Karuvur Devar led to its northern and capital Kalayani. The dwarapala (door keeper) eastern portions coming under the direct image he brought from Kalayani was installed control of the Chola authority. Rajaraja I at the Darasuram temple near Kumbhakonam, appointed a Tamil chief to govern the annexed which can be seen even today. Rajendra I regions and ordered a temple to be built. It assumed the titles such as Mudikonda is locally called Siva Devale (shrine of Siva). Cholan (the crowned Chola),Gangaikondan The Chola official appointed in Sri Lanka (conqueror of the Ganges), Kadaramkondan built a temple in a place called Mahatitta. The (conqueror of Kadaram) and Pandita Cholan temple is called Rajarajesvara. (scholarly Cholan). Later Cholas and Pandyas 157 XI History - Lesson 11.indd 157 29-02-2020 14:26:05 11.1.2 Chola Adminstration Army King Cholas maintained a well-organised army. The army consisted of three conventional Historians have debated the nature of the divisions: infantry, cavalry (kudirai sevagar) Chola state. Clearly, it was presided over by a and the elephant corps (anaiyatkal). There hereditary monarchy. The king is presented in were also bowmen (villaligal), sword-bearers glowing terms in the literature and inscriptions (valilar) and spearmen (konduvar). Two type of of the period. Venerated on par with god. The ranks in the army are also mentioned: the upper kings were invariably addressed as peruman and the lower (perundanam and cirudanam). or perumagan (big man), ulagudaiyaperumal According to a Chinese geographer of the 13th (the lord of the world) and ulagudaiyanayanar century, the Chola army owned “sixty thousand (the lord of the world). Later, they adopted the war elephants that, when fighting, carried on titles such as Chakkaravarti (emperor) and their backs houses, and these houses are full of Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor of three soldiers who shoot arrows at long range, and worlds).