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UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE IS GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM BUILT BASED ON VAASTU SASTRA? A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE By Ramya Palani Norman, Oklahoma 2019 IS GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM BUILT BASED ON VAASTU SASTRA? A THESIS APPROVED FOR THE CHRISTOPHER C. GIBBS COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE BY THE COMMITTEE CONSISTING OF Callahan, Marjorie P., Chair Warnken, Charles G. Fithian, Lee A. ©Copyright by RAMYA PALANI 2019 All Rights Reserved. iv Abstract The Cholas (848 CE – 1279 CE) established an imperial line and united a large portion of what is now South India under their rule. The Cholas, known worldwide for their bronze sculptures, world heritage temples and land reforms, were also able builders. They followed a traditional systematic approach called Vaastu Sastra in building their cities, towns, and villages. In an attempt to discover and reconstruct Gangaikonda Cholapuram, an administrative capital (metropolis) of the Chola Dynasty, evidence is collected from the fragments of living inscriptions, epigraphs, archaeological excavation, secondary sources, and other sources pertinent to Vaastu Sastra. The research combines archival research methodology, archaeological documentation and informal architectural survey. The consolidation, analysis, and manipulation of data helps to uncover the urban infrastructure of Gangaikonda Cholapuram city. Keywords: Chola, Cola, South India, Vaastu Shastra, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Medieval period, Metropolis, Reconstruction, Archival research, Manasara, Mayamatam. v Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii 1. Reconstruction of Gangaikonda Cholapuram ............................................................. 2 2. Methods....................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 4 2.2 Hypothesis................................................................................................................. 4 2.3 Research Objective. .................................................................................................. 4 2.4 Study Design - Methodology and Data ..................................................................... 5 2.4.1 Archival Research .............................................................................................. 5 2.4.2 Archeological Excavation and Documentation ................................................. 6 2.4.3 Informal Architectural Survey ........................................................................... 7 2.5 Analysis..................................................................................................................... 8 3. Literature Review (Secondary Sources) ..................................................................... 9 4. The Cholas and their Philosophy .............................................................................. 14 4.1 Cholas in the World Arena ..................................................................................... 14 4.2 Great living Chola Temples - UNESCO ................................................................. 16 5. General History of Cholas ........................................................................................ 21 5.1 The Cholas of Tanjore ............................................................................................ 21 5.2 Art and Architecture of Cholas ............................................................................... 23 vi 5.3 Understanding Medieval Cholas and their Philosophy ........................................... 26 5.4 Geography of Chola Heartland ........................................................................... 26 5.5 Sociology of Cholas. ........................................................................................... 31 5.6 Impact of Vaastu Shastra on Dravidian Style of Architecture ............................ 36 5.7 Manasara and Mayamatam ................................................................................. 37 6. Chola Metropolises ................................................................................................... 40 6.1 Classification of Cities ............................................................................................ 40 6.2 Sri Rangam, the Temple City. ................................................................................. 41 6.3 Scholars’ Description of a Chola City. ................................................................... 42 7. Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the New Administrative Capital ................................... 45 7.1 Rajendra Chola........................................................................................................ 46 7.2 Why a New Capital? ............................................................................................... 47 7.2.1 Gangetic Expedition......................................................................................... 48 7.2.2 Rajendra and Digvijaya.................................................................................... 49 7.2.3 Military Advantages of Gangaikonda Cholapuram as the Capital .................. 49 7.3 Excavations at Gangaikonda Cholapuram .............................................................. 50 7.3.1 Epigraphical Evidence ..................................................................................... 52 8. Urbanization / Planning ............................................................................................ 53 8.1 Gangaikonda Cholapuram and remaining structure. .............................................. 53 8.2 City Layout ............................................................................................................. 53 8.2.1 Design Principle of Planning Gangaikonda Cholapuram. ............................... 54 vii 8.2.2 Angkor Wat, Mandalay and Cholas ................................................................. 55 8.2.3 Gangaikondacholeesvaram Temple and Mayamatam ..................................... 57 8.2.4 Other Temples in Gangaikonda Cholapuram Following Mayamatam ............ 57 8.2.5 The Royal City and Mayamatam ..................................................................... 59 8.3 Water Management in Gangaikonda Cholapuram. ................................................. 62 8.4 Infrastructure of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram City.............................................. 65 8.4.1 Enclosures ........................................................................................................ 65 8.4.2 Palace Complex. .............................................................................................. 71 8.4.3 Palace Complex Excavation and Building Materials....................................... 73 8.5 Evidences for Other Spaces .................................................................................... 80 8.6 Highways, Main Streets, Streets, and Under Ground Passages .............................. 85 8.7 Overall Gangaikonda Cholapuram Reconstruction ................................................ 90 8.8 Government....................................................................................................... 93 8.9 Fall of Gangaikonda Cholapuram ........................................................................... 94 9. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 97 10. References ........................................................................................................... 100 viii List of Figures FIGURE 1. SPREAD AND TIMELINE OF CHOLA .................................................................................................. 1 FIGURE 2. SHOWING TYPES OF DATA COLLECTED. ......................................................................................... 5 FIGURE 3. SHOWING AUTHORS WORLDWIDE STUDYING CHOLA DYNASTY. .......................................... 9 FIGURE 4. SHOWING A TIMELINE OF LITERATURE REVIEW. ...................................................................... 10 FIGURE 5. SPREAD OF CHOLA DYNASTY IN 11TH CENTURY. ...................................................................... 13 FIGURE 6. TIMELINE OF SOUTH INDIA AND RELIGION SPREAD IN SOUTH INDIA. ................................ 14 FIGURE 7. WORLD MAP SHOWING MEDIEVAL KINGDOMS. ......................................................................... 15 FIGURE 8. LOCATIONS OF UNESCO TEMPLES. ................................................................................................. 16 FIGURE 9. TANJORE BIG TEMPLE IN TANJORE CITY, TANJORE DISTRICT (“THE BRIHADISHVARA TEMPLE, THANJAVUR (ILLUSTRATION)—ANCIENT HISTORY ENCYCLOPEDIA,” 2015). ............. 17 FIGURE 10. GANGAIKONDACHOLEESVARAM TEMPLE IN GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM VILLAGE, ARIYALUR DISTRICT (“SERENE AMBIENCE DELIGHTS TOURISTS AT GANGAIKONDACHOLAPURAM,” 2016). .................................................................................................... 18 FIGURE 11. DARASURAM TEMPLE IN KUMBAKONAM CITY (STAFF, 2018). ............................................
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