Distribution and Population Density of Endangered Primate Species in Ghana’S Forest Reserves

DOI: 10.5152/forestist.2021.20040 Forestist 2021 Short Communication

Distribution and population density of endangered primate species in Ghana’s forest reserves

Edward Debrah Wiafe School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Environment and Sustainable Development, Somanya, Ghana

ABSTRACT This study was conducted to determine the species, populations, and distribution of primates and the factors that affect their populations in three forest reserves of Ghana, namely Cape Three Points Forest Reserve (CTPFR), Atewa Range Forest Reserve (ARFR), and Tano Offin Forest Reserve (TOFR). Line transects were systematically distributed in these forests for the survey. The following primate species were encountered: Cerco- pithecus lowei, Cercopithecus petaurista, Procolobus verus, Colobus vellerosus, and Cercocebus lunulatus at CTPFR and Cercopithecus lowei, Cercopithecus petaurista, Colobus vellerosus, and Cercocebus lunulatus at ARFR. None of the forest reserves had Procolobus waldroni, Pan troglodytes verus, and Cercopithecus roloway. No primate was encountered at TOFR. The anthropogenic activities that were affecting the populations of primates in the forest reserves were as follows: at CTPFR, hunters, chainsaw lumbering, farms, snares, and empty shotgun cartridges were found; at ARFR, hunters, chainsaw lumbering, mining holes, snares, empty cartridges, hunting camps, and farms were detected; and at TOFR, hunters, chainsaw lumbering, snares, empty cartridges, hunting camps, and farms were found. The fate of primates in the forest reserves of Ghana is very critical as there is no control or regulations of the activities that can hunt, capture, or destroy these animals. Recommendations to save primates from extinction and further studies have been made. Keywords: Anthropogenic activities, endangered species, forest reserves, primates

Introduction

Conservation efforts in Ghana have traditionally focused strictly on wildlife protected areas or reserves because of their potential to protect rare and threatened species and provide essential ecosystem services (Adom et al., 2019). On the other hand, forest reserves are being managed for timber production, and they also provide multiple benefits at local and global scales; however, limited efforts have been invested to conserve wildlife in these forest reserves.

Unfortunately, Ghana governments (past and present) have focused the management of forest reserves primarily on the economic benefits of imbert production, neglecting their ecological and socio- economic benefits. Currently, there are 280 forest reserves in Ghana, covering an area of approximately Cite this paper as: 2 Wiafe, E. D. (2021). 23,792 km (approximately 11% of the total land area of Ghana). Of this, 75% has been designated and Alternative therapies managed for timber production and 25% for protection (Ministry of Environment and Science, 2002). in patients with non- Although many of the forest reserves host several wildlife species, there is limited knowledge on the muscle invasive bladder status and trends of existing biodiversity and the species that need to be protected or managed to cancer. Forestist, March ensure sustainable utilization in forest reserves (Parren & De Graaf, 1995). Knowledge is also scarce 23, 2021. 10.5152/ about some key ecological processes of the majority of species such as trees, mammals, birds, and forestist.2021.20040. [Epub Ahead of Print] even insects and their adaptation to environmental factors, including climate change.

Corresponding author: The resident primate species of the Guinea-Congolian Forest of West Africa is one of the groups Edward Debrah Wiafe e-mail: of animals that appear in the bushmeat market and pet trading. The population of this species [email protected] has been declining within its range because of habitat destruction and hunting (Oates et al., 2000; Received Date: Wiafe, 2013). July 16, 2020 Accepted Date: In the early 1950s, Miss Waldron’s red colobus (Procolobus waldroni) was found to be threatened December 25, 2020 due to habitat destruction and hunting. Booth (1956) expressed the view that the extinction of Available Online Date: March 23, 2021 this species in the Gold Coast (now Ghana) in the near future was to be considered as a probability Content of this journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- and asked for an effective legislation that would protect both the animal and its environment. It NonCommercial 4.0 International Licence. appears nothing was done about his view, and in 1973, another warning was issued by Jeffery Sonia Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

against the continual harassment of monkeys living in the up- forest remaining along the coast of Ghana, located less than 5 per canopy of the high forest reserves in Ghana. She stated that km from the coast and has some hilly features. The reserve is sur- the monkeys were not only harassed by the destruction of their rounded by rural settlements and extensive rubber plantations habitat but also by large-scale organized hunting, which would of the Ghana Rubber Estates Limited. The reserve harbors a rich cause their numbers to decline to a dangerously low level in the diversity of plants, which has led to its designation as a Globally next few years (Sonia, 1975). Subsequently, the first rainforest Significant Biodiversity Area (GSBA), and its bird population has protected area, Bia National Park, was commissioned in 1974 also been noted to be of significant importance. to protect primates and other associated animals. Reports from recent isolated surveys show continuing decline of primates in Atewa range forest reserve this country (Gatti, 2010, Wiafe, 2013). The Atewa Range is located in the eastern region of Ghana and consists of a range of hills aligned approximately north-south In addition, the primate taxa are experiencing a decreasing pop- with steep-sided slopes and flat summits. It is located between ulation trend in all their range in Ghana, in both the forest and latitudes 6°20’00”N and 6°59’00”N and longitudes 0°31’00”W the savannah landscapes. Ghana happens to be the only coun- and 0°40’50”W (Figure 1). try that has reported a suspected extinction of the red colobus in recent times (Oates et al., 2000). Other species of primates in Over the years, the ARFR has been recognized nationally as the endangered category are (1) the western chimpanzee (Pan important for providing the headwaters of three river systems troglodytes verus), (2) the roloway [Diana] monkey (Cercopithecus in Ghana, namely Ayensu, Densu, and Birim rivers. These three roloway), (3) the white-naped mangabey (Cercocerbus lunula- rivers are the most important source of domestic and industri- tus), and (4) the white-thighed colobus (colobus vellerosus). al water for local communities as well as for several of Ghana’s major population centers, including Accra. More than 40 settle- However, in recent times, there has not been any composite re- ments with an estimated population of approximately 75,180 search on the distribution of primates in forest reserves in the are located within the vicinity of the forest reserve. The major Key Biodiversity Area of Upper Guinea. Due to the current pau- economic activities of these communities include agriculture, city of data, the International Union for Conservation of Nature small-scale collection of nontimber forest products (NTFPs), (IUCN) has recognized the urgent need for further surveys of mining, logging, and bushmeat hunting. West African primate populations and implementation of miti- gation measures to save the endangered species.

The primary goal of this study was to estimate the population and map the occurrence, range, and distribution of primates in forest reserves. The specific objectives were to identify the primate species present, estimate the number of primates encountered, establish the location of the group of primates, and identify the human activities that pose threats to primates.

This knowledge is significant to illustrate critical information on the location, connectivity, and potential viability of primate populations and therefore provides the required information and contributes to the implementation of conservation action plans.

Methods

Study Areas

Cape three points forest reserve This reserve was originally established in 1949 as a protection area and has no records of ever being logged or of previous farming apart from some seven “admitted” farms in the southern and northeastern sections. The CTPFR consists of typical wet evergreen rainforest (Figure 1), with an opened upper and closed middle story and a restricted undergrowth. The important trees at CTPFR are around 40 cm dbh and include Piptarulaniastrum africanum, Heritiera utilis, Lophira alata, Pycnanthus angolensis, and Khaya ivorensis. The CTPFR is the smallest of the three work- Figure 1 ing areas, covering an area of 51 km². The forest lies in the moist Location of the Three Forest Reserves (Green Color) in Ghana evergreen zone and is one of the few patches of the Atlantic Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

The ARFR was originally established in 1926 under the Akyem (15:00–17:00). The team walked slowly (between ‘1’ to ‘2’ km/h) Abuakwa State Native Authority by-laws. It was later reconstitut- while detecting and noting any signs of animal presence and ed under the Forest Ordinance Cap 157 of 1935. The ownership human activities. The data recorded included all primates, and all of the reserve is vested in the President of Ghana and held in trust observations were noted on a data sheet, and the GPS waypoints for the Akyem Abuakwa Stool. It includes 232 km2 of forest, which were recorded. Start, stop, and back times were also noted to cal- is moist semideciduous at lower levels and upland evergreen at culate the time spent surveying an area, and tracks were logged higher elevations. Even though the forest was declared as a pro- in the GPS to calculate the distance walked/surveyed. tected area as far back as 1926, communal rights were granted to the natives of the Akyem Abuakwa Traditional Area. The area was Data Analysis designated as a Special Biological Protection Area in 1994. In 1995, The mathematical models associated with line transects could it was reclassified as a Hill Sanctuary under the Forest Protection not be applied to calculate densities; therefore, the Kilometric Strategy proposals, and in 1999, it was redesignated as one of the Index of Abundance (KIA), which is the ratio of the number of 30 GSBAs. It is also among the 36 Important Bird Areas in Ghana as animals encountered to the distance covered, was used to cal- designated by BirdLife International (Ntiamoa-Baidu et al., 2001). culate the encounter rates of the primates and the human activities affecting the primate population. This method is based on Tano offin forest reserve the ratio of the number of observed animals or human activities The TOFR falls within the Atwima District of the Ashanti Region to the distance traveled by the observer along a set of transects and is situated between the Kumasi–Wiowso–Tepa and Kuma- in the study area (Gatti, 2010; Groupe, 1991). The Spearman si–Bibiani roads. It lies between longitude 1°57’ and 2°17’W and rank-order correlation coefficient s(r ) was used to measure the latitude 6°54’ and 6°35°N (Figure 1). The site comprises much of strength and direction of the relationship between the pri- the Nyinahin hills, which run north-east–south-west, with Aya mates encountered and the indicators of human activities that Bepo (740 m) being the highest point, and which serves as the can harm primates’ existence, such as empty cartridges, snares, catchment area for several streams, tributaries of the Tano and chainsaw activities, and farms. Offin rivers. The reserve falls within the moist semideciduous forest zone and includes 34,100 ha of upland evergreen forest. The Census Efforts reserve was partitioned into 16 timber concessions in the 1970s At CTPFR, 18 transects were established and surveyed, amount- and 1980s, and the last official logging was recorded in 1991. The ing to a total distance of 101 km and a mean distance of 5.6 reserve lies within the tropical humid climatic zone. It is charac- (N = 18, SD = 0.90) km/transect surveyed. A total of 1015 scans terized by uniform high temperature and two peak rainfall sea- (searches) were made using binoculars in the range of 5–15 sons in June and October and a dry season from December to min/scan search in the canopies of the forest. The mean num- March and is dominated by desiccating winds blowing from the ber of scans per transect was 56.4 (SD = 9.67) and 10.1 (SD = northeast of the Sahara. The mean annual rainfall is 1250 mm. The 1.07) per km. mean humidity is 80%, and the mean temperatures reach 30°C maximum and 22°C minimum (Hall & Swaine, 1981). At ARFR, 52 transects were established and surveyed, amount- ing to a total distance of 262 km and a mean distance of 5.04 Transect distribution and survey (N = 52, SD = 0.20) km/transect surveyed. A total of 2600 scans In each study site, transects were laid at a systematic interval of at (searches) were made using binoculars in the range of 5–15 least 2 km apart. Each transect was straight and run for a length min/scan search in the canopies of the forest. The mean num- of 5 km, but where it coincided with the hunter’s trail, it ran more ber of scans per transect was 50.0 and 9.9 (SD = 0.35) per km than that length. Navigation was done by compass and a Geo- was used to search for primates in the canopies. The survey took graphical Positioning System (GPS) to reach the starting point of a total of 18,780 min to complete at a mean of 361.15 (SD = each transect. Transects that followed the compass lines were 62.30) min/transect. measured using a GPS and laid out with minimal cutting and dis- turbance (Peres, 1999). A 1 minute of latitude and longitude grid At TOFR, the vegetation has been largely converted into farms, consisting of cells each was placed systematically over the map predominantly plantain and cocoyam; parts have also been of the study site. The intersections of the lines then formed the burned through bush fires. Closed forests were left in isolated midpoint of each transect and were oriented north-southward as patches on the top of hills and along some valleys. A total of a rule of thumb. Some transects were longer than 5 km when a 100 km of 20 transects was surveyed for 126 h with a total of particular transect coincided with a hunter’s path. It is worth not- 1000 scans. ed that transects were selected systematically. Primate Species and Encounter Rates in the Three Forest Survey walks were conducted two times for each transect Reserves (CTPFR, ARFR, and TOFR) during the course of the study to search for the primate species. Primate composition and encounter rates at CTPFR Censuses were conducted on foot by a team of up to four peo- Five primates were encountered at different locations, although ple, generally early in the morning (6:00–10:00) or late afternoon mixed species groups were also present at some points. Two of Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

Table 1 Species, Encounter Rates, and Mode of Detection of Primates Encountered during the Survey at CTPFR

Scientific Name English Name Group Number KIA (Ind) KIA (Grp) Mode of Detection Cercopithecus petaurista Spot-nosed monkey 4 24 0.24 0.040 Sight, sound Cercopithecus lowei Lowe’s monkey 5 30 0.30 0.050 Sight, sound Cercocebus lunulatus White-naped Mangabey 1 5 0.05 0.010 Sight, sound, activities Colobus vellerosus White-thighed Colobus 2 8 0.08 0.020 Sound Procolobus verus Olive colobus 1 1 0.01 0.010 Sight

Table 2 Composition, Encounter Rates, and Mode of Detection of Primates Surveyed at ARFR

Primates Group No. in Group KIA Grp. KIA Ind. Mode of Detection Spot-nosed monkey 8 30 0.031 0.27 Sight, Calls Lowe’s monkey 12 50 0.046 0.24 Sight, Calls White-thighed colobus 2 5 0.008 0.40 Calls White-naped mangabey 1 4 0.004 0.25 Calls, Signs them, Cercocebus lunulatus and Colobus vellerosus, are classified For the western chimpanzee, the roloway monkey, and Miss as Critically Endangered by the IUCN, and all the remaining, Cer- Waldron’s red colobus, we did not see, hear, or note any sign copithecus petaurista, Cercopithecus lowei, and Procolobus verus, of their presence in the forest. No hunter’s accounts were also are classified as vulnerable (Wiafe et al., 2019). The encounter given for their presence in the CTPFR. The distribution of the rates and other details for all primates are shown in Table 1. primates encountered during the survey is shown in Figure 2.

We observed five groups of Lowe’s monkey (Cercopithecus lowei) Primate composition and encounter rates at ARFR distributed across the forest. They were directly sighted and calls At ARFR, four species of primates were encountered at different were also heard. The species appeared to be very common in locations using various modes of detection such as sighting, call- CTPFR and was located on the middle canopy trees, and it rap- ing or vocalization, and feeding signs. Two of them, Cercocebus idly took cover or moved away when our presence was felt. The lunulatus and Colobus vellerosus, have been classified as Critically presence of spot-nosed monkey (Cercopithecus petaurista) was Endangered by the IUCN, and the other two, Cercopithecus petau- confirmed by sighting five different groups in the investigated rista and Cercopithecus lowei, are classified as vulnerable (Wiafe et forest. Similar to Lowe’s monkey, this species was also found to al., 2019). The encounter rates for the primates and other details be common in CTPFR and was distributed across the forest. On are shown in Table 2. Lowe’s monkey and the spot-nosed monkey two occasions in a mixture of Lowe’s monkey, one individual of were the commonest primates encountered through sighting, the olive colobus was sighted with the group. The olive colobus calling, and feeding signs during the survey. The two were gen- (Procolobus verus) was found once in a mixture of Lowe’s and erally associated with each other when foraging. It was observed spot-nosed monkey group foraging together. Only one individ- that these species normally consume banana and plantain farms ual was encountered. This species is naturally very elusive and that have illegally been cultivated in the reserve. Two groups of the is often observed by chance. One group of the white-naped white-thighed colobus were encountered through their calls, al- mangabey (Cercocebus lunulatus) was seen foraging on the floor though efforts to sight them proved futile. One hunter whom we of the forest, but they quickly escaped into the forest thicket met at the Sagyimase part of the reserve (06°15’30”N, 00°33’59”W) when we approached them. We could estimate that there were indicated that efuo, the Twi name of the white-thighed colobus, be five monkeys. A hunter from Silimawu village (4°48’47”N is one of the commonest primates in the forest provided one can 02°05’05”) (approximately 2 km from the reserve boundary) descend into the valleys. The white-naped mangabey’s call and named Kofi Buah confessed that around the year 2009, his snare foraging activity were observed around the valley of the river caught a nursing mother of “kpamele”–the white-naped mang- “omenatwe” (06°08’50”N, 00°37’00”W). According to a hunter from abey–in Nzema, he captured the young, and a white man, Syl- Potroase, Forster Debrah a.k.a. Nana Wisie (whom we met in the vain Gatti, rescued it to the zoo in Accra (see Gatti, 2010). The forest), the mangabeys are generally found at that particular area white-thighed colobus (colobus vellerosus) was heard twice in and the local name is “akrawa.” different locations on the top of emergent trees. One group was heard in the northeastern portion, and the other call was heard In a previous study, Mc Cullough et al. (2007) recorded four di- at the northwestern side of the reserve. urnal primates belonging to two families as follows: Colobinae: Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

Figure 2 Figure 4 Distribution Map of Primates Encountered in CTPFR Distribution Map of Illegal Activities Encountered at CTPFR

keys, but only a few Lowe’s and spot-nosed monkeys remained. Regarding the reason for this situation, the hunter stated that it was due to overhunting and habitat destruction.

Anthropogenic activities affecting primate populations in CTPFR Human activities that are capable of hunting, capturing, or destroying primates in the forest were spent cartridges of shotgun (empty cartridges), wire snares, hunters, chainsaw trees, and farm expansion. Empty cartridges and wire snares were the ma- Figure 3 jority among them as illustrated in Figure 3, with KIAs of 0.20 and Encounter Rates of Some Human Activities Likely to Impact 0.14, respectively. Few chainsaw activities were encountered in Primates in CTPFR the reserved area, and one farm suspected to be an expansion of an admitted farm was recorded. We met one person (hunter) the white-thighed colobus and the olive colobus, and Cerco- who was fishing in one of the rivers in the forest. The distribution pithecinae: the spot-nosed monkey and Lowe’s monkey. In our of the illegal activities is shown in Figure 4, and pictures of some survey, we did not encounter the western chimpanzee, the rolo- illegal activities are shown in Figure 5. way monkey, or Miss Waldron’s red colobus in ARFR nor did any Anthropogenic activities affecting primate populations in ARFR hunter mention about their presence. Human activities and their indicators that are capable of hunting, capturing, or destroying the lives of primates included emp- Primate composition and encounter rates at TOFR ty cartridges, snares, chainsaw activities, farming, hunters, hunt- At TOFR, no diurnal primate was encountered, i.e., not sighted, ing camps, and mining holes or pits. The high quantum of the no calls heard, and no signs to indicate their presence in the empty cartridges indicated the high level of hunting using shot- area. No primate was found on any of the transects surveyed gun. Farms and mining are the other activities that, although or other areas outside the transect. According to a hunter’s ac- do not affect the primate directly, can destroy the habitat. The counts, when he (Douglas Halo) first came to the area in 1975, locations of the primates encountered in the forest reserve are there used to be the western chimpanzee, the white-thighed shown in Figure 6 and the encounter rates of the various illegal colobus, the olive colobus, and Lowe’s and spot-nosed mon- activities are presented in Figure 7. Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

Figure 5 Types of Illegal Activities Encountered at CTPFR During the Survey

We met some hunters in the forest who were either returning ary. Of note was that the mining activities outside the reserve from the hunting operation or in operation during the survey. are performed with machines (excavators) and leave large However, none of them indicated any sign of fear and answered openings like ponds uncovered. The activities of mining found all the interview questions. The presence of empty cartridges inside the forest reserve leave small but deep holes open. The indicated that shotgun was the hunting method used in the distribution of mining holes was highly concentrated around area. This method appeared to be the most preferred because the Pamen and Potroase side of the reserve. the pellets embedded in the shell, upon a shoot, can hit an animal on the top of trees as high as 60 m. It also immobilizes the Chainsaw activities were also found to be actively destroying animal for harvesting on the spot, and it is for targeted species trees that would have been used by primates for their activities. only. The cartridges found in the area were of two varieties, The target is on the large-diameter and timber tree species such ’AA‘ and ’BB’, but all of them perform the same function. Empty as Piptadeniastrum africanum, Milicia excelsa, and Khaya sp., and cartridges were found at high density and were distributed all the concentration is at both the northern and southern portions over the reserve (Figure 8). This indicates that the use of shot- (Figure 8). gun for hunting is highly prevalent in ARFR probably because of bushmeat markets that are distributed around the reserve and Farming activities were also found to destroy the natural for- the preference of bushmeat consumers to the meat of animals est vegetation, and the upland evergreen forest is very unique. killed with shotguns. However, banana and plantain farms were illegally springing up in the southwestern side of the reserve, ranging from Larbikrom Illegal mining activities were found to be springing up in the through Dokyi to Kabreso, although that is also a part of the reserve and in the area immediately outside the reserve bound- GSBA. Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

Anthropogenic activities affecting primate populations in TOFR the rate of vegetation degradation demands that they must The major threats identified to affect primates in TOFR were clear all the animals before the forest gets finished (Figure 10). as follows: farms, chainsaw activities, hunters, hunting camps, empty cartridges, and snares. The encounter rates of the activities are graphically presented in Figure 9. The survey team met several hunters during the period, all of whom indicated that

Figure 8 Distribution Map of Illegal Activities Encountered at ARFR

Figure 6 Distribution Map of Primates Encountered at ARFR

Figure 7 Type and Encounter Rate of Illegal Activities Affecting Figure 9 Primates at ARFR KIA of Illegal Activities Encountered at TOFR Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

Mining activities were also found to cause destruction to the reserve. Chainsaw operation was not left out of the scene, as this forest. The forest has even been earmarked as a bauxite mining activity was massively ongoing without any fear. As the woods concession to a mining company to mine bauxite, whereas ille- are being split into lumber, trucks were also ready to convey the gal gold miners were also operating at the remote parts of the lumber to the market centers.

Figure 10 Hunters Encountered and the Corresponding Animals Found Killed during the Survey at TOFR Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

Relationship between primates and illegal activities rectly attacks the lives of the individual organism. The rate of In CTPFR, a positive relationship was found between primates hunting and the evidence to support it do not in any manner and empty cartridges (rs = 0.7759) and snares ((rs = 0.0458). This correspond to the protection strategies. Any hunter met in all suggests that hunting occurs the most at where the primate these forests did not show any sign of fear of arrest and prosecu- numbers are high or the hunters take advantage of some re- tion. All of them boldly provided the survey team with informa- sources that attract the primates to hunt them. tion, freely questioned them, took photographs together, and gave their contact details. The fear is that one hunter can just In contrast, the primate numbers correlated negatively with wipe out an entire population or even a species within a short empty cartridges (rs = −0.2507) and chainsaw activities (rs = period of time through the use of shotguns and snares.

−0.1808) but positively with snares (rs = 0.1951) and farms (rs = 0.6362) in ARFR. This may be interpreted as primate numbers Habitat destruction was dominant in all the three forest re- were higher at places where empty cartridges and chainsaw ac- serves. This was due to the following anthropogenic activities: tivities are low. Primates in the wild would definitely attempt to (i) chainsaw lumbering, (ii) farming, (iii) reforestation, (iv) mining move away from human presence and disturbances, especially (Galamsay), and (v) bauxite mining. where hunting is less controlled. However, it must be noted that the presence of empty cartridges does not mean that primates In CTPFR, chainsaw lumbering activities were the common were the only animals that were targeted. Wire snares are also among them. This activity was recorded mostly at the periph- hunting methods, although they are generally used to target ery of the reserve. Valuable woods such as iroko, mahogany, forest floor species such as the brush-tailed porcupine Ather( - and niangon were found to be the commonest species un- urus africanus), the cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus), and the der threats. Rubber plantations belonging to the out-growers Maxwell’s duiker (Philantomba maxwellii). Primates are generally of Ghana Rubber Estate Company have surrounded the entire attracted to farms because of the abundance of human-cul- reserve. This has rendered the forest an island separated from tivated foods; hence, places that recorded higher number of other forest landscapes. farms also recorded higher number of primates. In ARFR, chainsaw lumbering, farming, and mining (surface and Conclusion bauxite mining) were the major causes of primate habitat destruction. Chainsaw lumbering was found to be rampant in all The fate of primates in the forest reserves of Ghana is very crit- parts of the reserve. These activities were observed on the top ical because of the lack of control or regulations of the activi- of hills and down the valleys, and they employ strong people as ties that can hunt, capture, or destroy these animals. No actions carriers to convey the lumber out of the forest. Many of them have been taken because similar findings were published by the convey the lumber in the night to Accra and other neighboring following authors: Abedi-Lartey, 1998; Abedi-Lartey, 1999; Gat- cities. ti, 2010; Magnuson, 2003; McCullough et al., 2007; Oates et al., 2000; Oates, 2006; Struhsaker & Oates, 1995; Struhsaker, 1993; Rampant and uncontrolled banana farming was springing up Whitesides & Oates, 1995. in the reserve. There has been a lucrative business of bananas in Accra, and the farmers at the southwestern side of the reserve The populations of primates in two of the three investigated for- are cutting away the forest and cultivating farms. est reserves (CTPFR and ARFR) were very low, and in the third reserve (TOFR), not even a single diurnal primate was encountered. Activities of small-scale surface mining for gold were also rampant in the forest. Deep holes had been dug rampantly, and It is almost certain that Miss Waldron’s red colobus is extinct trees around the area had been uprooted. in these forest reserves and or may be not part of its historical range. We also could not observe any signs nor heard the In TOFR, all the forests have virtually vanished, with few patch- presence of the roloway monkey and the western chimpanzee, es of natural forest remaining. Most of the areas have been which indicates that these species are following the path of converted into plantain farms, whereas other places are being Miss Waldron’s red colobus. Despite the historical presence of converted into teak and cedrella plantations. To enable further the chimpanzee, the black and white colobus, and all others, farming, the farmers intentionally set fire and burn the natural the present forest composition and structure do not permit the forest to degrade it. Chainsaw lumbering operation activities existence of any nonhuman primates. are also very rampant, and the species that are left scattered on the degraded areas are being harvested by chainsaw op- Although there was some evidence of the white-naped mang- erators. abeys in small numbers at CTPFR and ARFR, the future of this species is very perilous. The fate of the roloway monkey is also Hunters, farmers, and other gatherers depend on old mining more concerning. camps as a resting place for their activities. They also depend on the exploratory road to cart their farm products and chainsaw Hunting was found to be the major threat to the lives of pri- lumber. The accelerated massive rate of natural habitat destruc- mates living in the examined forest reserves, as this activity di- tion does not support the existence of primates in the reserve. Wiafe E.D. Fate of primates in Ghana’s forest reserves Forestist 2021

The government has permitted a company (Exton Cubic Com- References pany) to mine bauxite in the forest, which has given the impres- sion to the inhabitants of fringe communities that mining will • Abedi-Lartey, M. (1999). Survey of endangered endemic primates in destroy the forest and they better utilize it for farming. Western Ghana. Report to the Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, and the Ghana Game and Wildlife Department, Accra. In all the forest reserves, there are no strategies to control, deter, • Abedi-Lartey, M. (1998). Survey of endangered forest primates in or arrest the people who are involved in these activities. The sign Western Ghana. Wildlife Conservation Society, NY; Primate Conser- posts at the north of TOFR are not deterrent enough to scare vation Inc., NY; Conservation International, Washington, DC; and the Ghana Game and Wildlife Department, Accra. farmers, hunters, and/or chainsaw operators. Bushfire was found • Adom, D., Umachandran, K., Asante, D. B., Ziarati, P., & Sawicka, B. to be emerging at ARFR and TOFR to degrade the forest so that (2019). The concept, state, roles and management of protected ar- the forest officers would be compelled to demarcate those -ar eas in Ghana: A Review. Acta Scientific Agriculture, (1),3 68-76. eas for farmers to embark on “taungya.” • Booth, A. H. (1956). The distribution of primates in Gold Coast. Jour- nal of West African Science Association, 2, 122-133. Recommendations • Gatti, S. (2010). Status of primate populations in protected Areas targeted by the community forest Biodiversity project. WAPCA and WD/ The following recommendations were made: FC, Accra. 1. Further studies in other forest reserves are recommended • Groupe, C. (1991). Méthodes de suivi des populations de chevreuils to ascertain the status of primates in all the forest reserves. en forêt de plaine: Exemple: Lindice kilométrique (I.K.). Bulletin Long-term monitoring of primate programs must be insti- Mensuel ONC, Supplément 157, Fiche No 70. Paris, Office National tuted in the country’s forest management system. de la Chasse. 2. The current deforestation menace in the forest reserves is • Hall, J. B., & Swaine, M. D. (1981). Distribution and ecology of vas- cular plants in Tropical Rain Forest. Den Haag: W. Junk Publishers. very alarming and requires stringent measures to reduce the [CrossRef] rate. The model used by the Ghana Wildlife Division to man- • Magnuson, L. (2003). Distribution and Abundance of the roloway age wildlife protected areas should be adopted by the For- monkey (Cercopithecus diana roloway) and other primate species estry Services Division to conserve the remaining resources. in Ghana. African Primates, 6(1-2) (2002-2003), 19-25. 3. A serious measure against timber extraction and chain- • McCullough, J., Alonso, L. E., Naskrecki, I. P., Wright, H. E., & Osei-Ow- saw operations in the forest reserves must be instituted. usu, Y. (Eds). (2007). Biodiversity in the Atewa Range Forest Reserve, Regular patrols to deter chainsaw operators and arrest the Ghana. Conservation International, Arlington, VA. pp. 28. recalcitrant ones must be prosecuted, and they should be • Ministry of Environment and Science, (2002). National Biodiversity punished to serve as deterrent to others. Strategy for Ghana. Government of Ghana, Accra. 4. The status of CTPFR and ARFR must be changed from for- • Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y., Owusu, E. H., Daramani, D. T., & Nuoh, A. A. est reserves to national parks. This would ensure effective (2001). Important Bird Areas in Ghana. In: Fishpool, L. D. C., & Evans, management and conservation of the remaining primates M. I. (eds.). Important Bird Areas in Africa and Associated Islands: in these areas. Priority sites for conservation. BirdLife International, Cambridge. pp. 367-389. 5. Primate conservation awareness campaigns and commu- • Oates, J. F., Abedi-Lartey, M., McGraw, M., Struhsaker, T.T., & White- nity conservation education must be incorporated into the sides, G. H. (2000). Extinction of a West African red colobus. Conser- government institutional operation. vation Biology, 14(5), 1526-1532. [CrossRef] 6. The high incidence of hunting in all the forest reserves re- • Oates, J. F. (2006). Primate Conservation in the Forest of Western Gha- quires strict law enforcement, without compromise, within na: Field Survey results, 2005-2006. A report to the Wildlife Division. as well as outside the reserved areas. Accra, Forestry Commission. 7. Taungya farms should be discouraged but promote forest • Parren, M. P. E., & de Graaf, N.R. (1995). The quest for natural forest rehabilitation through natural regeneration. management in Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Liberia. Netherlands, Tro- 8. No form of mining should be entertained in and around penbos series 13. CTPFR and ARFR. • Peres, C. A. (1999). General guidelines for standardizing line-transect surveys of tropical forest primates. Neotropical Primates, 7(1), Ethics Committee Approval: Ethics committee approval was received for 11-16. this study from the ethics committee of the Presbyterian University College. • Sonia, M. J. (1975). Ghana’s New Forest National Park. Oryx, 13, 34- 36. [CrossRef] Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed. • Whitesides, G. H., & Oates, J. F. (1995). Wildlife surveys in the rain-forest zone of Ghana. Accra, Ghana Game and Wildlife Department Acknowledgements: This study was sponsored by Critical Ecosystem Part- and the World Bank. nership Fund small grant programme through BirdLife International Ghana. • Wiafe, E. D. (2013). Status of the critically endangered roloway monkey (Cercopithecus diana roloway) in Dadieso Forest Reserve, Conflict of Interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest to de- Ghana. African Primates, 8, 9-16. clare. • Wiafe, E., Oates, J. F., Gonedelé Bi, S., Koné, I., Matsuda Goodwin, R., & Osei, D. (2019). Cercopithecus lowei. The IUCN Red List of Threat- Financial Disclosure: The authors declared that this study has re- ened Species 2019: e.T136931A92373680. Downloaded on 25 ceived no financial support. March 2019.