DOCSLIB.ORG

This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. In quest of a vernacular writing style for the Rangi of Tanzania: Assumptions, processes, challenges Oliver Stegen For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Edinburgh 2011 Abstract Despite increased efforts by linguists and educationalists to facilitate literacy and literature development in minority languages, there are still many languages worldwide which do not have a written form. One area that needs attention in literature production for a newly written language is the question of writing style. As the features of good style are language-specific, writing style guidelines have to be developed for each language anew. It has been assumed that such vernacular writing style develops predominantly by mother tongue speaker intuition. However, very few studies have been carried out to verify this. This research is set within the confines of the literacy project in the Rangi language of Northern Tanzania. As a contribution to the development of a natural writing style in Rangi, this research investigates what evidence for stylistic preferences can be found in texts that were produced by Rangi authors writing in their mother tongue for the first time. The main data of this study are 112 texts which were collected during a one-day writers workshop conducted between May 2005 and January 2006 in four different locations. One way of observing stylistic preferences is through analysing the changes which authors make in successive versions of their text. Of the 112 texts in the database, 71 display stylistic changes between draft and revised versions. These texts are then investigated in more detail, e.g. with regard to text length, lexical density and story components. The subsequent comparative analysis of draft version versus revised version of each text operates at three levels: narrative elements at the text level, lexical choice at the word level, and word order, tense-aspect verb forms and participant reference at the clause level. At all three levels, stylistic conventions could be identified, e.g. formulaic introductions and codas, elimination of Swahili loanwords, or certain tense-aspect usages. Despite such commonalities, this research suggests that, far from developing intuitively, vernacular writing style is influenced by a variety of factors, not least by previously available literature in languages of wider communication or in the target language itself. Among the concluding recommendations of this study for future vernacular writers workshops is the advice to employ guided editing which encourages multiple drafting and treats the different levels of editing separately, i.e. story structure, lexical choice and grammatical features. ii Declaration I hereby declare that I composed this thesis myself and that it has not been submitted previously. Oliver Stegen 28 th February 2011 iii Dedication To the memory of Teofilo Mwenda , army officer and church elder in Kondoa, died April 2005, and Josua Mattias Stegen , died September 2003, and Else Stegen , died December 2007. “Hail the victorious dead!” (King Théoden in The Return of the King ) iv Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................ ii Declaration......................................................................................................................iii Dedication....................................................................................................................... iv Abbreviations.................................................................................................................. ix Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................... xi 1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The Search for a Research Question........................................................ 4 1.2 A Brief History of the Rangi.................................................................... 7 1.3 Relevant aspects of the Rangi Language ............................................... 11 1.3.1 Rangi orthography ................................................................................. 12 1.3.2 Rangi morphosyntax .............................................................................. 14 1.4 Some Remarks on Research Constraints ............................................... 17 1.5 Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................... 20 2. Contexts and Relations of Writing......................................................................... 22 2.1 Literacy and Writing in Sub-Saharan Africa ......................................... 23 2.2 Literacy and Writing in Society............................................................. 31 2.3 Rangi Writing in the SIL Context.......................................................... 36 2.4 Writing and its Relation to Oral Language............................................ 42 2.5 The Development of Writers Workshops .............................................. 51 3. Methodology.......................................................................................................... 54 3.1 Workshop context and content .............................................................. 55 3.2 Computerising handwritten texts........................................................... 61 3.3 Toolbox databases.................................................................................. 64 3.3.1 Parameter choice.................................................................................... 66 3.3.2 Differential analysis in Toolbox ............................................................ 68 3.4 Teacher’s and editor’s interviews .......................................................... 70 4. Overview of the Text Corpus................................................................................. 73 4.1 Story types and themes .......................................................................... 75 4.2 Overview of changes between text versions.......................................... 87 4.3 Story length and lexical density............................................................. 89 4.3.1 Lexical density....................................................................................... 93 4.4 Order of levels: text, word, clause ......................................................... 97 5. Rangi Style at the Text Level ................................................................................ 99 5.1 Overview of Rangi story components ................................................. 100 5.1.1 Story titles ............................................................................................ 101 5.1.2 Story introductions............................................................................... 103 5.1.3 Overview of the main part of the narrative.......................................... 109 5.1.4 Features of the complication section ................................................... 112 5.1.5 Features of the post-complication section............................................ 121 5.1.6 Story conclusions and codas................................................................ 128 5.2 Two approaches to text function.......................................................... 139 5.3 Text level changes ............................................................................... 143 5.3.1 Clause additions and deletions at story beginning and end ................. 143 5.3.2 Clause additions and deletions in the middle of a story....................... 154 5.3.3 Notable instances of lengthening and/or shortening............................ 158 5.3.4 Replaced clauses .................................................................................. 161 v 5.3.5 Changes in the sequence of clauses ..................................................... 167 5.4 Summary of text level phenomena ...................................................... 173 6. Rangi Style at the Word Level............................................................................. 174 6.1 Lexical changes.................................................................................... 175 6.1.1 Lexical choice in verbs ........................................................................ 177 6.1.2 Lexical choice in nouns ....................................................................... 183 6.1.3 Lexical choice in other parts of speech................................................ 188 6.1.4 Replacement
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Here Referred to As Class 18A (See Hyman 1980:187)
    WS1 Remarks on the nasal classes in Mungbam and Naki Mungbam and Naki are two non-Grassfields Bantoid languages spoken along the northwest frontier of the Grassfields area to the north of the Ring languages. Until recently, they were poorly described, but new data reveals them to show significant nasal noun class patterns, some of which do not appear to have been previously noted for Bantoid. The key patterns are: 1. Like many other languages of their region (see Good et al. 2011), they make productive use of a mysterious diminutive plural prefix with a form like mu-, with associated concords in m, here referred to as Class 18a (see Hyman 1980:187). 2. The five dialects of Mungbam show a level of variation in their nasal classes that one might normally expect of distinct languages. a. Two dialects show no evidence for nasals in Class 6. Two other dialects, Munken and Ngun, show a Class 6 prefix on nouns of form a- but nasal concords. In Munken Class 6, this nasal is n, clearly distinct from an m associated with 6a; in Ngun, both 6 and 6a are associated with m concords. The Abar dialect shows a different pattern, with Class 6 nasal concords in m and nasal prefixes on some Class 6 nouns. b. The Abar, Biya, and Ngun dialects show a Class 18a prefix with form mN-, rather than the more regionally common mu-. This reduction is presumably connected to perseveratory nasalization attested throughout the languages of the region with a diachronic pathway along the lines of mu- > mũ- > mN- perhaps providing a partial example for the development of Bantu Class 9/10.
    [Show full text]
  • Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.3
    Griscom, Richard, Andrew Harvey, and Anne Kruijt (eds.). 2020. Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4300224 Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.3 December 1st, 2020 1 Introduction This document is a bibliography of the languages of the Rift Valley Area of Tanzania, which is home to dozens of distinctive ethnic groups and languages. Uniquely, it is the meeting place of languages from three of the largest language families in Africa—Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, and Afro-Asiatic—as well as Sandawe, a language with possible affinity with the so-called 'Khoisan' group, and Hadza, a language isolate, which means that it is not known to be related to any other languages currently spoken. The Rift Valley Bibliography is compiled by members of the Rift Valley Network and is hosted on the network website at the Rift Valley Bibliography page. This is a text version of the bibliography, but other formats of the bibliography are available on the website for those who use reference manager software (e.g. Zotero, EndNote, or Mendeley), and a Zotero Group is used to make additions and changes to the bibliography. A PDF Collection of selected entries is available for members of the Rift Valley Network only, and release notes are made available for each release. For comments or questions related to this bibliography, please send an email to [email protected]. 1 2 Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1
    [Show full text]
  • Studies in African Linguistics Volume 31, Numbers 1/2,2002
    Studies in African Linguistics Volume 31, Numbers 1/2,2002 DERIVATIONAL PROCESSES IN RANGI Oliver Stegen SIL The main object of research described in this paper is Rangi, a scarcely investi­ gated Bantu language of Northern Central Tanzania. Rangi phonology and morphonology are briefly sketched, including a classification with regard to both Vowel Height Harmony and Advanced Tongue Root activity. The main body of the paper consists of a detailed description of Rangi derivational processes, which follows the pattern established in Maganga and Schadeberg's description of Nyamwezi, a closely related language. Both verbal derivation, which exclusively uses the extensional slot of the verb structure, and nominal derivation, which employs noun class prefixes and a few suffixes, are covered. 1. Introduction It is no secret that despite decades of thorough linguistic work on Bantu languages, there are still a great many descriptive gaps. The aim of this paper is to address one such gap explicitly mentioned in the literature: "little public information is available on Langi" [Nurse 1999:11]. Rangi1 is a North-Eastern Bantu language, classified as F.33 [Guthrie 1967-7111:48], spoken by 310,000 people [Grimes 2000] in the Kondoa District of Northern Central Tanzania. The data on which the observations reported herein are based was collected during the 1 While the self-referent of the language is KIla:I]gi, it is usually called Rangi in both English and Swahili. As this paper is written in English, the language will be refered to as Rangi throughout. 130 Studies in African Linguistics 31 (112), 2002 author's stay in Rangi-speaking country.2 Of course, any language description has to be selective, and this one is no exception.
    [Show full text]
  • Vidunda (G38) As an Endangered Language?
    Vidunda (G38) as an Endangered Language? Karsten Legère University of Gothenburg 1. The position of Swahili and other Tanzanian languages Tanzania is a multi-ethnic and, as a consequence, multi-lingual country. This fact is reflected in the existence of approximately 120 ethnonyms according to the 1967 population census (Tanzania 1971). The most recent edition of Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) lists 128 languages (of which one is extinct) and glossonyms accordingly. This number recently grew even bigger when the results of a country-wide survey under the auspices of LoT1 were released (LoT 2006). Thus, the survey added approximately 80 more glossonyms to the existing lists published by, for example, Polomé & Hill (1980) and Ethnologue. As known, many glossonyms refer to language varieties which are mutually intelligible with those spoken mainly by neighboring ethnic groups or nationalities. People who claim to speak a language of their own frequently understand that of their neighbors, although the latter’s variety is terminologically distinct from the former.2 Hence, the high number of glossonyms is linguistically not relevant for adequately describing the factual situation, which is often characterized by a dialect continuum. In other words, dialect clusters which are comprised of “languages” (as expressed by particular glossonyms) may definitely reduce the number of Tanzanian languages. However, to which number a necessary linguistic and terminological recategorization may ultimately lead is still an open question. The informal and formal spread of Swahili (henceforth called L2) as a language of wider distribution/lingua franca (the national and co-official3 language; see Legère 2006b for discussion) has increasingly limited the use of all other Tanzanian languages (henceforth referred to as L1s).
    [Show full text]
  • LCSH Section K
    K., Rupert (Fictitious character) K-TEA (Achievement test) Kʻa-la-kʻun-lun kung lu (China and Pakistan) USE Rupert (Fictitious character : Laporte) USE Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement USE Karakoram Highway (China and Pakistan) K-4 PRR 1361 (Steam locomotive) K-theory Ka Lae o Kilauea (Hawaii) USE 1361 K4 (Steam locomotive) [QA612.33] USE Kilauea Point (Hawaii) K-9 (Fictitious character) (Not Subd Geog) BT Algebraic topology Ka Lang (Vietnamese people) UF K-Nine (Fictitious character) Homology theory USE Giẻ Triêng (Vietnamese people) K9 (Fictitious character) NT Whitehead groups Ka nanʻʺ (Burmese people) (May Subd Geog) K 37 (Military aircraft) K. Tzetnik Award in Holocaust Literature [DS528.2.K2] USE Junkers K 37 (Military aircraft) UF Ka-Tzetnik Award UF Ka tūʺ (Burmese people) K 98 k (Rifle) Peras Ḳ. Tseṭniḳ BT Ethnology—Burma USE Mauser K98k rifle Peras Ḳatseṭniḳ ʾKa nao dialect (May Subd Geog) K.A.L. Flight 007 Incident, 1983 BT Literary prizes—Israel BT China—Languages USE Korean Air Lines Incident, 1983 K2 (Pakistan : Mountain) Hmong language K.A. Lind Honorary Award UF Dapsang (Pakistan) Ka nō (Burmese people) USE Moderna museets vänners skulpturpris Godwin Austen, Mount (Pakistan) USE Tha noʹ (Burmese people) K.A. Linds hederspris Gogir Feng (Pakistan) Ka Rang (Southeast Asian people) USE Moderna museets vänners skulpturpris Mount Godwin Austen (Pakistan) USE Sedang (Southeast Asian people) K-ABC (Intelligence test) BT Mountains—Pakistan Kā Roimata o Hine Hukatere (N.Z.) USE Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children Karakoram Range USE Franz Josef Glacier/Kā Roimata o Hine K-B Bridge (Palau) K2 (Drug) Hukatere (N.Z.) USE Koro-Babeldaod Bridge (Palau) USE Synthetic marijuana Ka-taw K-BIT (Intelligence test) K3 (Pakistan and China : Mountain) USE Takraw USE Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test USE Broad Peak (Pakistan and China) Ka Tawng Luang (Southeast Asian people) K.
    [Show full text]
  • Swahili-English Dictionary, the First New Lexical Work for English Speakers
    S W AHILI-E N GLISH DICTIONARY Charles W. Rechenbach Assisted by Angelica Wanjinu Gesuga Leslie R. Leinone Harold M. Onyango Josiah Florence G. Kuipers Bureau of Special Research in Modern Languages The Catholic University of Americ a Prei Washington. B. C. 20017 1967 INTRODUCTION The compilers of this Swahili-English dictionary, the first new lexical work for English speakers in many years, hope that they are offering to students and translators a more reliable and certainly a more up-to-date working tool than any previously available. They trust that it will prove to be of value to libraries, researchers, scholars, and governmental and commercial agencies alike, whose in- terests and concerns will benefit from a better understanding and closer communication with peoples of Africa. The Swahili language (Kisuiahili) is a Bantu language spoken by perhaps as many as forty mil- lion people throughout a large part of East and Central Africa. It is, however, a native or 'first' lan- guage only in a nnitp restricted area consisting of the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba and the oppo- site coast, roughly from Dar es Salaam to Mombasa, Outside this relatively small territory, elsewhere in Kenya, in Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika), Copyright © 1968 and to a lesser degree in Uganda, in the Republic of the Congo, and in other fringe regions hard to delimit, Swahili is a lingua franca of long standing, a 'second' (or 'third' or 'fourth') language enjoy- ing a reasonably well accepted status as a supra-tribal or supra-regional medium of communication. THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PRESS, INC.
    [Show full text]
  • Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.1
    Griscom, Richard, and Andrew Harvey. 2019. Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.1. Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.1 November 1st, 2019 1 Introduction This document is a bibliography of the languages of the Rift Valley Area of Tanzania, which is home to dozens of distinctive ethnic groups and languages. Uniquely, it is the meeting place of languages from three of the largest language families in Africa—Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, and Afro-Asiatic—as well as Sandawe, a language with possible affinity with the so-called 'Khoisan' group, and Hadza, a language isolate, which means that it is not known to be related to any other languages currently spoken. The Rift Valley Bibliography is compiled by members of the Rift Valley Network and is hosted on the network website at the Rift Valley Bibliography page. This is a text version of the bibliography, but other formats of the bibliography are available on the website for those who use reference manager software (e.g. Zotero, EndNote, or Mendeley), and a Zotero Group is used to make additions and changes to the bibliography. A PDF Collection of selected entries is available for members of the Rift Valley Network only. For comments or questions related to this bibliography, please send an email to [email protected]. 1 2 Table of Contents 1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1 2 Table of Contents....................................................................................................................................2
    [Show full text]
  • Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.1
    Griscom, Richard, and Andrew Harvey (eds.). 2019. Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.1. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.3524860 Rift Valley Bibliography Version 1.1 November 1st, 2019 1 Introduction This document is a bibliography of the languages of the Rift Valley Area of Tanzania, which is home to dozens of distinctive ethnic groups and languages. Uniquely, it is the meeting place of languages from three of the largest language families in Africa—Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, and Afro-Asiatic—as well as Sandawe, a language with possible affinity with the so-called 'Khoisan' group, and Hadza, a language isolate, which means that it is not known to be related to any other languages currently spoken. The Rift Valley Bibliography is compiled by members of the Rift Valley Network and is hosted on the network website at the Rift Valley Bibliography page. This is a text version of the bibliography, but other formats of the bibliography are available on the website for those who use reference manager software (e.g. Zotero, EndNote, or Mendeley), and a Zotero Group is used to make additions and changes to the bibliography. A PDF Collection of selected entries is available for members of the Rift Valley Network only. For comments or questions related to this bibliography, please send an email to [email protected]. 1 2 Table of Contents 1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1 2 Table of Contents....................................................................................................................................2
    [Show full text]
  • Why Rangi Christians Continue to Practice African Traditional Religion
    GIALens. (2008):3. <http://www.gial.edu/GIALens/issues.htm> Why Rangi Christians Continue to Practice African Traditional Religion BY RICHARD COX, M.A. SIL Uganda/Tanzania Introduction The Uganda/Tanzania Branch of SIL conducts an orientation course for new members coming to work in East Africa. One of the components of the course is a scheduled lecture about African Traditional Religion (ATR). In 2006, ten expatriates attended the course. There were also five Tanzanian nationals present. The Tanzanians fulfilled various roles such as interpreters, Swahili language teachers and cultural guides. I was asked by the branch administrators to present a lecture concerning ATR. During the course of the lecture, I emphasized the fact that most Tanzanian Christians were still involved at some level in ATR. After mentioning some of the ATR practices I was aware of, I asked the Tanzanians if they could verify my assertions. One of the Swahili language teachers, a man in is mid-thirties, stated that my assertions were true. Then to everyone’s surprise, he stated that after returning to his home village the previous year for the first time after being in the capital city for more than ten years, he and his relatives sacrificed a goat to the ancestral spirits. Why did the young man admit this and feel that, even though he was a Christian, it was necessary to make such a sacrifice? Likewise, such practices are conducted in the Tanzanian village of Haubi. Haubi is a Rangi village comprised of more than 90% Roman Catholic Christians. In the Haubi highlands, there is a forest of very large trees which can not be cut down and within which no one is permitted to live.
    [Show full text]
  • A Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Language, Comprising Those of Zanzibar, Mozambique, the Zambesi, Kafirland
    A COMPARATIYE GRAMMAR OF THE SOUIH-AfRICAN BANIU LANGUAGES f^SlOBi-o.-Klway BOUGHT WITH THE INCO FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT THE GIFT OF m^nv^ M. Sage r89i f 1924 077 077 612 -3j 3^. no paDE^d ajtsJ iHQ\f nosjad ana hbih ajoin :o /907 ;Cq papaan sapog pa^tiEM jfx'aanasqB s,j3 -iiojjoq Snunp njn;aj nam joj apem s^nam -a3uBJiB JO 'X!jBaq;i aqi 0} paujtuaj aq Pinoqs . - spouad ssaaaj Saunp/U t\ I' jT^HjiHr*''* ^on sifoog papaan ^ •sjaqio jCq papaan ^on, sj 3iooq B H3IIM. 'saSaj .-TAud iBMauaj q^M*. 's>[aaM. oM% zo} samn -^6a 3Ag paMojiB aJB BJaMojjoq pajirajl •a^Bin aq ' • pin6qs ^sanbaj lEiaads , B s3[aaM OAv; pno/Caq papaan naqM '. a^qtssod _ SB igoos SB panan^aj aq pjnoqs japBJBqo x^-ia -naS B JO siBOipouad; ' -sja^oj -joq lie o| S5[aa4i jnoj 01 paiimii ajB qajBas .31 JO nofionjisni joj asn nt ^on sqooq nv 'U3>|e^sGAiaiun|0A sm:^ u9i(Afi sm.oi|s ovep am. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924077077612 A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF THE SOUTH-AFRICAN BANTU LANGUAGES. ST-AUSTIN'S PRESS, DESCLfiE, DE BROUWER AND CO., BRUGKS. SOUTH-AFRICA REFERENCE MAP TO ACCOMPANY THE Comparative Grammar OF THE South -African Bantu Languages BT J.TORREND, S.J. N. B. The names -printed in red are those of the languages more particularly dealt with in this work .Non-Bantu Lan§ua§es; Wi Bantu intermixed with non- Bantu Lan^ua^es., aoi,ie[» S* -^u^ti.'ti A comparative" GRAMMAR OF THE SOUTH-AFRICAN BANTU LANGUAGES COMPRISING THOSE OF ZANZIBAR, MOZAMBIQUE, THE ZAMBEZI, KAFIRLAND, BENGUELA, ANGOLA, THE CONGO, THE OGOWE, THE CAMEROONS, THE LAKE REGION, ETC.
    [Show full text]
  • A Linguistic Description of Mbugwe with Focus on Tone and Verbal Morphology
    ACTA UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS Studia Linguistica Upsaliensia 20 A Linguistic Description of Mbugwe with Focus on Tone and Verbal Morphology Vera Wilhelmsen Dissertation presented at Uppsala University to be publicly examined in Ihresalen, Engelska parken Thunbergsv. 3H, Uppsala, Saturday, 2 June 2018 at 10:00 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The examination will be conducted in English. Faculty examiner: Professor Maarten Mous (Leiden University). Abstract Wilhelmsen, V. 2018. A Linguistic Description of Mbugwe with Focus on Tone and Verbal Morphology. Studia Linguistica Upsaliensia 20. 262 pp. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. ISBN 978-91-513-0318-5. Mbugwe is an endangered Bantu language spoken in north central Tanzania. This PhD dissertation is a description of the Mbugwe language with a focus on tone and verbal morphology, based on the author’s fieldwork. This is the first detailed description of the language. Thus far, only a short grammatical sketch of Mbugwe has been available. Mbugwe is a tonal language with a rich verbal system. Therefore, the focus of this dissertation is on tone and verbal morphology. The dissertation also contains a brief description of the phonology of Mbugwe as well as a description of the nominal system. Mbugwe has 7 vowels; length is distinctive. There are 21 consonant phonemes, not counting the NC sequences, which are analysed as clusters in this study. Mbugwe has 17 noun classes and the adnominals that agree with the noun are described and exemplified. The tones of the language are presented in detail. Mbugwe has two tones, high and low, and the low tone is considered the default tone.
    [Show full text]
  • The Rock Art of Kondoa District, Tanzania
    The Rock Art of Kondoa District, Tanzania: Approaches Toward Understanding Authorship and Meaning Emmanuel James Bwasiri Thesis submitted to fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies at the University of The Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Declaration I declare that this research is my own and independent work. It is being submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any examination or degree in any other University. Emmanuel James Bwasiri December, 2016 ii Dedication To my parents Masanje Bwasiri and Nyawahega Charamba. Their commitment to my education helped me to achieve my dreams. iii Acknowledgments There are number of institutions and individuals who made this thesis possible. It would take half the pages of this thesis to thank them all properly, but allow me to use the first two pages to bid a fitting acknowledgement to them. I start by thanking all those who supported me financially: the Africa World Heritage Fund (AWHF); the Rock Art Research Institute and the School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand; and the Antiquities Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism in Tanzania. I cannot overemphasise how I feel today, but suffice it to say I feel permanently connected to them all. Thanks go to my supervisor Prof. Benjamin W. Smith and Prof Sarah Wurz for their time, energy, criticism as well as the encouragement in the final stages of this thesis.
    [Show full text]