applied sciences

Review Additive Manufacturing and Textiles—State-of-the-Art

Dereje Berihun Sitotaw 1 , Dustin Ahrendt 2, Yordan Kyosev 2,* and Abera Kechi Kabish 1

1 Ethiopian Institute of Textile and Fashion Technology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar 1037, Ethiopia; [email protected] (D.B.S.); [email protected] (A.K.K.) 2 Institute of Textile Machinery and High Performance Material Technology, Chair of Assembling Technology for Textile Products, TU Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]



Received: 29 April 2020; Accepted: 19 June 2020; Published: 22 July 2020


Abstract: The application of additive manufacturing, well known as 3D printing, in textile industry is not more totally new. It allows is giving significant increase of the product variety, production stages reduction, widens the application areas of textiles, customization of design and properties of products according to the type of applications requirement. This paper presents a review of the current state-of-the-art, related to complete process of additive manufacturing. Beginning with the design tools, the classical machinery building computer-aided design (CAD) software, the novel non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) based software and parametric created models are reported. Short overview of the materials demonstrates that in this area few thermoplastic materials become standards and currently a lot of research for the application of new materials is going. Three types of 3D printing, depending on the relation to textiles, are identified and reported from the literature—3D printing on textiles, 3D printing of flexible structures and 3D printing with flexible materials. Several applications with all these methods are reported and finally the main advantages and disadvantages of the 3D printing in relation to textile industry are given.

Keywords: state of the art; 3D printing; textiles; textile industry; additive manufacturing; materials; adhesion

1. Introduction Three dimensional printing (3DP); also called additive manufacturing (AM) represents a method to create objects via step by step layering used for pre-production or production. By creating a 3D model with a computer-aided design (CAD) program [1] and slicing, the object can be created without additional tools and waste of material [2]. A 3DP is the opposite of traditional, subtractive manufacturing, which cuts away unnecessary material to create the desired shape [2,3]. Since the introduction of additive manufacturing in the 1970s, a wide array of technologies has emerged from few key patents [4]. For example: material extrusion [5], binder jetting [6], directed energy deposition [7] and laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [8] (see Figure1). Emergent 3D printing technologies are being built upon these fundamental methods by incorporating multi material printing to produce complex structures [9], bio-printing with various soft and biocompatible materials [10], optimizing the AM technology with higher speeds, improved resolution and lower costs [11,12] and combining AM with traditional manufacturing [11,13–16]. Additive manufacturing has recently found its way into the field of the textile industry and promises to revolutionize the textile supply chain [17]. Due to their potential to significantly improve both the geometric complexity and functionality available from conventional fiber-based textiles, AM presents an opportunity for development of novel solutions for conventional and high-performance textile applications [17,18].

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033; doi:10.3390/app10155033 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 2 of 21 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24

FigureFigure 1.1. PrinciplesPrinciples ofof commoncommon additiveadditive manufacturingmanufacturing (AM)(AM) technologies:technologies: ((aa)) fusedfused depositiondeposition modelingmodeling (FDM),(FDM), ((bb)) directdirect inkink writingwriting (DIW),(DIW), ((cc)) directeddirected energyenergy basedbased depositiondeposition ((dd)) binderbinder jettingjetting process,process, ((ee)) vatvat photophoto polymerization,polymerization, ( (ff)) powder powder bed bed fusion fusion with with a a laser laser sintering sintering process. process.

AnalysisEmergent of 3D the printing research technologies papers, related are to being “3D printingbuilt upon of textiles” these fundamental and registered methods in Scopus by showsincorporating that after multi the firstmaterial record printing in Scopus to produce from 1988 complex (the data structures base first [9], record bio-printing in Scopus) with until various 2012 theresoft and constant biocompatible but minimal materials amount [10], of optimizing publications the perAM yeartechnology in this with area. higher Starting speeds, from improved 2012 the publicationsresolution and per lower year increasecosts [11,12] rapidly and from combinin 5 to 50—andg AM with keeps traditional that level manufacturing for the last years [11,13–16] [19], where. it hasAdditive to be taken manufacturing into account thathas recently year 2020 found is not its over way [20 into]. This the increased field of the number textile of industry high quality and publicationspromises to revolutionize after 2012 can the be explainedtextile supply with chain the significantly [17]. Due to increasedtheir potential availability to significantly of 3D printers improve at acceptableboth the geometric prices after complexity this period, and which functionality allowed available to more researchersfrom conventional to start fiber-based making research textiles, in thisAM areapresents (see Figurean opportunity2). The real for number development of publications of novel solutions in the area for of conventional AM is significantly and high-performance higher, because thetextile contributions applications to [17,18]. various conferences, exhibitions, web-blogs, student thesis and other events are not registeredAnalysis inof Scopus.the research Furthermore, papers, related there is to large “3D number printing of of research textiles” focused and registered on the AM in processScopus itself,shows the that materials, after the software first record etc., in but Scopus not related from to1988 textiles, (the data so they base are first not record considered in Scopus) in this until diagram. 2012 thereThis constant paper hasbut theminimal aim to amount present reviewof publications about the per current year state in this of the area. art ofStarting the application from 2012 of thethe additivepublications manufacturing per year increase in combinations rapidly from with 5 to textiles 50—and or forkeeps textile that like level applications. for the last years [19], where it has to be taken into account that year 2020 is not over [20]. This increased number of high quality publications after 2012 can be explained with the significantly increased availability of 3D printers at acceptable prices after this period, which allowed to more researchers to start making research in this area (see Figure 2). The real number of publications in the area of AM is significantly higher, because the contributions to various conferences, exhibitions, web-blogs, student thesis and other events are not registered in Scopus. Furthermore, there is large number of research focused on the AM process itself, the materials, software etc., but not related to textiles, so they are not considered in this diagram. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 3 of 21 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

60 50 40 30 20 Documents 10 0 1988 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2007 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Year

Figure 2.2. ListedListed inin Scopus Scopus research research documents documents on 3Don printing3D printing of textiles of textiles [20] (source:[20] (source: Scopus, Scopus, key word: key 3Dword: printing 3D printing of textiles). of textiles). Remark—the Remark—the real number real number of not listed of not in listed Scopus in publications,Scopus publications, web reports, web conferencereports, conference papers and papers else and is significantly else is significantly larger. larger.

TheThis paperpaper ishas structured the aim to into present several review sections. about Sectionthe current2 gives state overview of the art about of the theapplication design or of preprocessingthe additive manufacturing of the geometry in combinations for printing.Section with textiles3 presents or for overview textile like of theapplications. printing methods for productionThe paper of flexible, is structured “textile into like” several structures sections. by 3D Section printing. 2 gives Section overview4 is dedicated about the on design printing or onpreprocessing textiles including of the geometry the adhesion for printing. issue, examples Section 3 and presents 4D printing overview as of extension the printing of this methods principle. for Theproduction following of sectionsflexible, are“textile concentrated like” structures on the printing by 3D printing. of flexible Section structures 4 is anddedicated printing on with printing flexible on materials.textiles including The paper the finishes adhesion with issue, overview examples of the and current 4D printing applications as extension and analysis of this of theprinciple. advantages The andfollowing disadvantages. sections are concentrated on the printing of flexible structures and printing with flexible materials. The paper finishes with overview of the current applications and analysis of the 2.advantages Preprocessing—Design and disadvantages. of the Geometries for Additive Manufacturing The 3D printing process begins with designing the product using CAD software. This can be 2. Preprocessing—Design of the Geometries for Additive Manufacturing NURBS based software as Rhino [2,21,22], or a classical CAD package like Solidworks, PTC Creo [22], Blender,The Autodesk, 3D printing Netfabb process [17 begins], and so with on. designing Each design the software product has using its own CAD features, software. for exampleThis can thebe classicalNURBS based CAD forsoftware machine as Rhino design [2,21,22], like Solidworks or a classical or Autodesk CAD package Inventor like are Solidworks, a hybrid solid PTC and Creo surface [22], modeler,Blender, Autodesk, where the Netfabb geometry [17], is created and so onon. basisEach ondesign some software main basic has 3Dits own bodies features, with regular for example form, theirthe classical combinations, CAD for cutting machine holes design and somelike Solidworks algorithms or for Autodesk sweeping Inventor cross section are a hybrid along or solid around and axes.surface Rhino modeler, 3D uses where non-uniform the geometry rational is created B-spline on (NURBS) basis on insome surface main modeling, basic 3D whichbodies make with itregular easier toform, work their with combinations, complex curved cutting surfaces. holes In and such some software, algorithms the 3D for surface sweeping can becross quickly section modified along byor motionaround ofaxes. just Rhino one control 3D uses point non-uniform of the NURBS rational surface. B-spline Similar (NURBS) options in aresurface added modeling, during the which last make years init easier the CAD to softwarework with Autodesk complex Fusion curved 360 surfaces. product, In too. such software, the 3D surface can be quickly modifiedAnother by motion way of of building just one control the 3D point model of isthe using NURBS parametric surface. Similar models options with scripting are added language during withinthe last 3D years CAD in softwarethe CAD forsoftware design Autodesk of complex Fusion shapes. 360 Changing product, too. one or more parameters generates alternativeAnother forms way and of hencebuilding achieves the 3D unique model individualized is using parametric design andmodels mass with customization scripting language [23–25]. withinEmerging 3D CAD 3D software body scanning for design technology of complex is another shapes. tool Changing adopted one to produce or more a parameters perfectly body generates fitting garmentsalternative by forms capturing and hence the body achieves size andunique body individualized form. The designer design can and perform mass customization design of accessories [23–25]. directlyEmerging on the virtual3D body body scanning contour technology using CAD is software another [tool22,26 adopted]. to produce a perfectly body fittingSeveral garments researchers by capturing try to producethe body textiles-like size and body geometries, form. The where designer interlaced can orperform interloped design solid of elementsaccessories build directly 3D printed on the virtual knitted body or woven contour structures. using CAD For software example [22,26]. braided structures for ropes or medicalSeveral braids researchers can be generated try to produce using parametric textiles-like algorithms geometries, reported where in interlaced [27–29] and or interloped implemented solid in professionalelements build CAD 3D like printed [30] fromknitted where or woven the generated structures. 3D geometriesFor example of braided ropes,structures braided for ropes medical or stents,medical warp braids and can weft be knittedgenerated pattern, using woven parametric structures algorithms can be reported exported in to [27–29]and STL (stereolithography) implemented formatin professional and send CAD to the like 3D [30] printer from directly. where the generated 3D geometries of braided ropes, braided medicalAnother stents, way warp of creation and weft of textile-like knitted structurepattern, iswoven the uses structures of connected can closedbe exported profiles, to named STL “links”(stereolithography) are used. For format the design and send of connectedto the 3D printer crossed directly. profiles (links), the single link is generated usingAnother conventional way of CAD creation software of textile or parametric-like structure modeling. is the uses After of connected that several closed substances profiles, of named it are copied“links” multipleare used. timesFor the and design translated of connected at calculated crossed profiles distances, (links), so that the thesingle links link remains is generated connected. using conventional CAD software or parametric modeling. After that several substances of it are copied multiple times and translated at calculated distances, so that the links remains connected. The final Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 4 of 21

The final array of the links sends for the printing processing [18,19,31]. The generated body is then communicated to the printer, which develops the 3D product by each divided layer [2,22,32].

3. Materials Used for 3D Printing The type of material used for AM directly affects the objects dimensions, durability, characteristics and possible applications as well as the willingness to wear as the cloth-like structures [32,33]. Light-weight polymers or polymer composites are the main materials used as printing materials allowing flexibility of the printed items [34,35]. The most current materials used for AM textile structures are usually not flexible enough to provide suitable comfort for daily use [22]. Their selection is limited from the printing technique [36]. For providing thermo-physiological comfort, natural textile fibers on cellulosic or protein basis still would be ideal materials [37]. Some researchers try to use wool as printing material [38,39] to overcome the limitation of plastic materials, but in this case the process is related to needle punching of wool yarns for production of 3D forms, and precisely speaking do not present 3D printing using polymer deposition. Because wool and cellulosic fibers have no melting point, their direct use for 3D printing by melting is not possible; only solution based methods could be solution for them. In general, the raw material for printing can be in all three aggregate state as solid/powder, liquid and gas. The type of the material can be very different like polymers, metals, ceramics, waxes, sand, resins and a composite of two or more materials [2,32,40]. The polymers are the dominating materials used in 3D printing in the last five years (from 2015 to 2019) which is followed by resins and metals [36]. Polymers provide a great variety of properties, which is why they are used for a wide range of applications from adhesives to medical and more advanced technologies within large industries [2]. The main type of the used polymers are the thermoplastic polymers like PLA (polylactic acid), ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), PLA (Polylactide), PETG (polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified), nylon (polyamid), and TPU (Polyurethane). Their properties as melting point, required extrusion temperature and main mechanical properties are widely published in internet for instance at www.3dnatives.com, https://all3dp.com/ and many other pages. According the predictions of several researchers [37,41] more textile related materials will be used in the near future For example, a textile company named TamiCare Limited (www.tamicare.com), has already developed an AM technology called CosyFlexTM that prints fabrics using liquid polymers, including natural latex, silicon, polyurethane, and Teflon, as well as textile fibers like cotton, rayon and polyamide [2,22,42]. Electro-loom (http://www.electroloom.com/) was another company trying to wearable fabrics using electro-spinning method, where the liquid polymers was sprayed out from the nozzles and then dried to form the cloth on the 3D mold of the shape [43]. The company closed in 2016 because of missing financing and of technological difficulties ([44] and https://medium.com/ electroloom-blog/thanks-and-farewell-b0c128c3043f#.c52nk8a2h). The electro spinning is modern method for production of fibrous surfaces with very fine materials, which can be suitable for tissue engineering and other special areas, but their productivity is still very low for conventional clothing. Cellulosic materials are applied using solution based methods as modification of existing surfaces applications [45]. Another trend in the materials is building the composite filaments, based currently on two components. These can be split into two groups depending on the fiber length:

- Short fiber content materials—in this case very short fibers, for instance carbon fibers are mixed within the thermoplastic polymer. The company Markforged (www.markforged.com) provide for instance; Ony material, which consist of chopped carbon fiber reinforced with nylon, with flexural Strength 81 MPa, Onyx FR (flame resistant) which higher flame retardant [46]. These materials combine all advantages of the short fiber composites and the 3D printing—and allow production of complex 3D parts with better properties based on the reinforcement of the short fibers. - Continuous filaments—in such case a core with multifilament from glass, aramid or carbon is covered for instance by nylon. Provided again from Markforged with their 3D printers Mark One Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 5 of 21

and Mark Two—such filaments require integrated scissors device close to the nozzle in order to be able to cut at the predicted places. These types of materials can provide significantly efficient part design because the filaments can be placed in the required directions and places and the remaining part can be printed with lower density pure polymer solution.

The materials for additive manufacturing based on electro-spinning are not discussed here, because they cover large set combinations of materials and solvents and are object of investigations in several electro spinning related papers.

4. Production Methods Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is the dominating printing technology in the last five years (2015–2019) state of 3D printing and followed by selective laser sintering (SLS) and stereo lithography (SLA), respectively [36] These are the main types of 3D printing technologies used in relation to textile context: FDM for printing onto a textile fabric, SLS for producing textile-like structures and SLA types used to form a fabric-like stiff textiles which can be rolled and seamed to shape [47,48]. Table1 gives brief description of them with the materials, textile products, advantages and disadvantages.

Table 1. A brief description of additive manufacturing techniques for 3D printing techniques for printing in the textile industry.

Techniques Mechanism Materials Advantage Disadvantage Polyethylene, Photopolymer resin, Requires support polypropylene, ABS, and an ultra-violet rafts, additional polycarbonate casting Fast printing (UV) laser to cure and time, sanding and and molding material A process [49]. More harden individual reduces the quality Stereo lithography flexible, elastomeric flexibility and layers to form objects of the product due (SLA) [49] material can be texture; offers a [21,50]. Rigid parts to sanding; combined with stiff and high-quality and connective joints expensive material hard polymer [34]. 3D surface finish [52]. can be printed together and no color printed textiles are stiff at one time [49,51]. variety [49,50]. and not flexible [48]. A computer-controlled only use one material per laser traces the layer, model; multi-material Allows designers heating the powder to models printed to create delicate, just below its boiling separately and joined yet highly It does not produce point to fuse the afterwards [21,54]. Glass, functional and a high-quality Selective laser particles into a solid plastic, metals, ceramics, durable products, surface finish sintering (SLS). object [49,50]. After the or nylon, stainless steel, requiring less compared to first layer is created, titanium alloy, nickel sanding of the SLA [49,50]. the building platform alloy, aluminum, copper object than drops, exposing the [50]. Dresses, bathing SLA [49,60]. next layer of suits, shoes, single and powder [53] double face knits [55–59] FDM offers a variety of Wax, metals, ceramics, low-cost desktop acrylonitrile butadiene printers [61]. Based on styrene (ABS), polylactic Visible seam lines heating a filament in acid (PLA), polyethylene between layers and Capable of printing an extruder nozzle and terephthalate (PET), delamination from FDM (Fused flexible, glossy, depositing the molten aramid, onyx, glass and temperature deposition lace-like fabrics material line by line on carbon fibers are changes, influence modeling). with soft PLA a printing bed where it some [22,50,63]. Shoes, the strength of the polymers [55]. hardens. The next skirt, dress, jacket, soles, bond between layer is printed on top yarn, knit structures and layers [50]. of the previous printing on and with layer [62] textiles [47,55,59,64–66] Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 6 of 21

5. Printing on Textiles 5.1. Method 5.1. Method The special case of polymer deposition over a textile structure becomes more intensively The special case of polymer deposition over a textile structure becomes more intensively investigated because this method allow enrichment of the classical textiles with additional functions, investigated because this method allow enrichment of the classical textiles with additional functions, like rigidity in selected regions, mounting of additional devices, decoration and others. Figure3 like rigidity in selected regions, mounting of additional devices, decoration and others. Figure 3 demonstrates the steps for this case and principally it does not differ from the main workflow of normal demonstrates the steps for this case and principally it does not differ from the main workflow of FDM printing process, except the step 5. normal FDM printing process, except the step 5.

Figure 3. The 3D printing steps of textiles [35,67–69]. Figure 3. The 3D printing steps of textiles [35,67–69].

A success first first layer is known to be a crucial factor for producing 3D prints free of errors [[34]34] during thethe layer-by-layer layer-by-layer print print of the of series the ofseries 2D layersof 2D till layers the designed till the 3D designed product is 3D finished product [35,68 is]. finished[35,68].At Step 5, polymer deposition onto textiles occurs. Its success depends on the aspects of material science,At Step material 5, polymer compatibility, deposition polymer–textile onto textiles occurs adhesion. Its success and the depends printing on conditions the aspects [70 of]. material In order toscience, bond material effectively compatibility, the polymer polymer–textile must be compatible adhesion with and the fiberthe printing substrate. conditions They have [70]. to In contact order fullyto bond in ordereffectively to develop the polymer the maximum must be adhesive compatible bond with strength the fiber [71, 72substrate.]. Deep investigationThey have to ofcontact these conditionsfully in order is givento develop in [65 the]. For maximum applications adhesive that bond specifically strength will [71,72]. stress Deep the shear investigation or peel behavior, of these researchersconditions is advise given to in perform [65]. For a shearapplications or peel test,that afterspecifically determining will stress the optimal the shear printing or peel setting behavior, with theresearchers perpendicular advise tensileto perform test [a17 shear,73–75 or]. peel test, after determining the optimal printing setting with the perpendicular tensile test [17,73–75]. 5.2. Adhesion between Textile and the Deposited Polymer 5.2. Adhesion between Textile and the Deposited Polymer Few methods have been investigated by researchers to improve the adhesion between the textile and theFew deposited methods polymer.have been For investigated example, coatingby researchers fabrics to with improve different the polymersadhesion between before 3D the printing textile withand the ABS deposited or PLA onpolymer. them, resultedFor example, in a significantcoating fabrics increase with of different adhesion polymers between before the polymer 3D printing and textilewith ABS fabric or [PLA76]. on them, resulted in a significant increase of adhesion between the polymer and textileThe fabric distance [76]. between the nozzle and the printing bed is a crucial factor for the adhesion on textile substrates.The distance With decreasing between distance,the nozzle the and adhesion the printing force increases bed is untila crucial the minimum factor for distance the adhesion is reached on intextile which substrates. the filament With does decreasing not clog distance, the nozzle the so ad thathesion the nozzle force increases presses the until 3D the printing minimum polymer distance with higheris reached forces in intowhich the the open filament pores of does the fabric not clog [67]. the As nozzle shown so in Figurethat the4, thenozzle temperatures presses the of the3D printing bedpolymer and thewith nozzle higher affects forces the adhesion,into the i.e.,open temperatures pores of the of the fabric[67]. bed and nozzleAs shown increased, in Figure the adhesion 4, the betweentemperatures the twoof the materials printing increased bed and [the67, 73nozzle,77]. Theseaffects results,the adhesion, and those i.e., oftemperatures Figure5 are of obtained the bed according [77] at the following parameters: FDM printer Orcabot XXL, producer Prodim, nozzle Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24 and nozzle increased, the adhesion between the two materials increased [67,73,77]. These results, and those of Figure 5 are obtained according [77] at the following parameters: FDM printer Orcabot XXL, producer Prodim, nozzle diameter 0.4 mm, filament: polylactic acid; textile: polyester woven fabric with thickness 0.55 mm and areal density 114 g/m2; dimensions of the printed rectangles 250 mm × 25 mm. The thickness of the printed layer of 0.4 mm was reached by printing two layers. Nozzle temperature 200 °C, bed temperature 60 °C, printing velocity 30 mm/2, polymer flow 100%, and extrusion width—0.4 mm. The adhesion tests depicted there were carried out according to DIN 53,530 and evaluated with respect to DIN ISO 6133.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 7 of 21 and nozzle increased, the adhesion between the two materials increased [67,73,77]. These results, and those of Figure 5 are obtained according [77] at the following parameters: FDM printer Orcabot XXL, producerdiameterFigure Prodim, 0.4 4. mm,Example nozzle filament: of the diameter dependence polylactic 0.4 mm, acid;of the filament: textile: adhesion polyester polylactic force on woventhe acid; temperature textile: fabric withpolyester of nozzle thickness woven(left) 0.55and fabric mm withand arealthickness density 0.55 114 mm g/ mand2; dimensionsareal density of 114 the g/m printed2; dimensions rectangles of 250the mmprinted25 rectangles mm. The 250 thickness mm × bed (right) [77] at the specific conditions and materials reported in [77], tested ×according DIN 53,530 25of themm.and printed The evaluated thickness layer according of 0.4of the mm DIN printed was ISO reached6133. layer of by 0.4 printing mm was two reached layers. Nozzleby printing temperature two layers. 200 ◦NozzleC, bed temperaturetemperature 200 60 ◦ C,°C, printing bed temperature velocity 30 60 mm °C,/ 2,printing polymer velocity flow 100%, 30 mm/2, and extrusionpolymer width—0.4flow 100%, mm.and extrusionThe adhesionGenerally, width—0.4 tests the depicted mm.dependencies The there adhesion were found carried tests can depicte out be according dattr thereibuted were toDIN to carried 53,530physical, out and according that evaluated is, toform-locking, with DIN respect53,530 andtoconnections, DIN evaluated ISO 6133. while with no respect indications to DIN for ISO chemical 6133. bonding were found [78].

The influences of textile physical and chemical surface properties such as weaves, surface roughness and plasma treatment or washing were investigated and it is found that the adhesion strength is mostly influenced by both the form locking connections of the thermoplastic and the textile material (textile surface energy) [75]. Textile properties such as the weave pattern or the weft density will have an influence on the overall adhesion properties [65]. The washing process significantly decreased the initial adhesion strength of 3D printed material and therefore, a pretreatment such as plasma, corona or chemical finishing are advised to be applied to guarantee better washing resistance and adhesion properties [79] by enhancing intermolecular interactions like hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole interaction between the molecules of the polymerFigure and 4. Examplethe textile ofof thethe surface dependencedependence before of of thethe the adhesion printadhesion [75,80]. force force on Inon the addition,the temperature temperature 3D of printing nozzleof nozzle (left speed ()left and) and bedand the polymerbed(right ( flowright)[77 )]were [77] at the at investigated specificthe specific conditions conditio and it and wasns and materials found materials that reported reportedthere in is [77 noin], [ testedsignificant77], tested according according influence DIN DIN 53,530 (see 53,530 Figure and 5) [77]. andevaluated evaluated according according DIN DIN ISO 6133.ISO 6133.

Generally, the dependencies found can be attributed to physical, that is, form-locking, connections, while no indications for chemical bonding were found [78].

The influences of textile physical and chemical surface properties such as weaves, surface roughness and plasma treatment or washing were investigated and it is found that the adhesion strength is mostly influenced by both the form locking connections of the thermoplastic and the textile material (textile surface energy) [75]. Textile properties such as the weave pattern or the weft density will have an influence on the overall adhesion properties [65].

The washing process significantly decreased the initial adhesion strength of 3D printed material and therefore,Figure 5. Example a pretreatment of the dependence such as plasma, of the adhesion corona orfo forcerce chemical on the printingfinishing speed are advised (left) and to polymer be applied to guaranteeflowflow (right better)[) [77],77], at washing the specific specific resistance conditions and and adhesion materials properties reported in [77], [[79]77], tested by enhancing according intermolecular DIN 53,530 interactionsand evaluated like hydrogen according DINbonding ISO 6133. or dipole-dipole interaction between the molecules of the polymer and the textile surface before the print [75,80]. In addition, 3D printing speed and the polymerGenerally,Thermal flow wereconductivity, the dependencies investigated roughness and found it was canand be foundporosity attributed that of there tothe physical, textileis no significant materials that is, form-locking, influenceare other (see main connections, Figure factors 5) [77].whilewhich noinfluence indications the maximum for chemical adhesion bonding strength. were found Because [78]. of stronger mechanical interlocking and higherThe Van influences der Waals of forces textile created physical on a andwarmer chemical and larger surface surface properties area, lower such thermal as weaves, conductivity, surface roughness and plasma treatment or washing were investigated and it is found that the adhesion strength is mostly influenced by both the form locking connections of the thermoplastic and the textile material (textile surface energy) [75]. Textile properties such as the weave pattern or the weft density will have an influence on the overall adhesion properties [65]. The washing process significantly decreased the initial adhesion strength of 3D printed material and therefore, a pretreatment such as plasma, corona or chemical finishing are advised to be applied to guarantee better washing resistance and adhesion properties [79] by enhancing intermolecular interactions like hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole interaction between the molecules of the polymer and the textile surface before the print [75,80]. In addition, 3D printing speed and the polymer flow wereFigure investigated 5. Example and of it the was dependence found that of there the adhesion is no significant force on the influence printing (see speed Figure (left)5 and)[77 polymer]. flowThermal (right conductivity,) [77], at the specific roughness conditions and porosity and materials of the reported textile materialsin [77], tested are according other main DIN factors 53,530 which influenceand evaluated the maximum according adhesion DIN ISO strength. 6133. Because of stronger mechanical interlocking and higher Van der Waals forces created on a warmer and larger surface area, lower thermal conductivity, higher Thermal conductivity, roughness and porosity of the textile materials are other main factors roughness and mean flow pore size of the textile material could significantly enhance the adhesion which influence the maximum adhesion strength. Because of stronger mechanical interlocking and strength [79]. higher Van der Waals forces created on a warmer and larger surface area, lower thermal conductivity, Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24 Appl.Appl. Sci.Sci. 20202020,, 1010,, 5033x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 8of of 24 21

higherhigher roughness and mean flowflow porepore sizesize ofof thethe textiletextile materialmaterial could could significantly significantly enhance enhance the the adhesionadhesionIn summary, strength the [79]. factors affecting the adhesion of 3D printing of textiles are presented well in the sourceInIn[ 81summary,summary,] and can the be factors summarized affectingaffecting in to thethe three adhesionadhesion groups: ofof 3D 3D printing printing of of textiles textiles are are presented presented well well in in thethe sourcesource [81] and can be summarizedsummarized inin toto threethree groups: groups: (a) Filament material and its composition; a) Filament material and its composition; (b)a) PrintingFilament settingsmaterial with and subgroupsits composition; of; b)b) PrintingPrinting settings with subgroups of;of; -- - Platter—distancePlatter—distance between between thethe the nozzlenozzle nozzle and and and the the the pl platform, platform,atform, bed bed bed temperature, temperature, temperature, type type type of of the of the theplate; plate; plate; -- - PrintPrint settings—like settings—like layer layer height,height, height, printingprinting printing speed, speed, speed, extrusion extrusion extrusion width, width, polymer width,polymer polymerflow flow and and extruder flow extruder and settings;settings;extruder settings; c)c) TextileTextile substrate over which toto bebe printed—inprinted—in the the meaning meaning of of type type of of fibers, fibers, their their morphology morphology (c) Textile substrate over which to be printed—in the meaning of type of fibers, their morphology andand topology, surface properties andand chemicalchemical treatment. treatment. and topology, surface properties and chemical treatment. 5.3.5.3. ExamplesExamples and Applications 5.3. Examples and Applications DepositionDeposition of rigid forms overover classicalclassical softsoft tetextilesxtiles allows allows the the design design of of combined combined structures structures Deposition of rigid forms over classical soft textiles allows the design of combined structures with withwith additional properties (Figure(Figure 6).6). TheseThese cancan havehave forfor instanceinstance stablestable structure structure with with good good additional properties (Figure6). These can have for instance stable structure with good permeability permeabilitypermeability and wearing comfort oror auxeticauxetic behaviorbehavior [82]. [82]. For For seve severalral textile textile nets, nets, the the connection connection and wearing comfort or auxetic behavior [82]. For several textile nets, the connection between both betweenbetween both materials, generated byby thethe printedprinted materialmaterial surroundingsurrounding the the single single textile textile threads threads materials, generated by the printed material surrounding the single textile threads (Figure7), is found (Figure(Figure 7),7), is found to be sufficientsufficient forfor utilizationutilization inin garmentsgarments and and appears appears promising promising for for use use in in to be sufficient for utilization in garments and appears promising for use in technical textiles [65]. technicaltechnical textilestextiles [65].

FigureFigureFigure 6.6.Microscopic Microscopic pictures pictures of the ofof auxetic thethe auxetic shapeauxetic printed shapshape one printedprinted a double-face onon a a fabric double-facedouble-face from acrylic fabricfabric/polyester, from from relaxedacrylic/polyester,acrylic/polyester, (left panel relaxed) and stretched (left(left panel)panel) (right andand panel stretchedstretched)[82]. (right (right panel) panel) [82] [82]

Figure 7. Polylactic acid (PLA) strips with different warp knitted mesh structures as inlays: fishing Figure 7. Polylactic acid (PLA) strips with different warp knitted mesh structures as inlays: fishing Figurenet produced 7. Polylactic from 100% acid (PLA) polyamide strips 6 with (left dipanel),fferent an warpd sunscreen knitted meshnet, by structures Karl Mayer, as inlays: produced fishing from net net produced from 100% polyamide 6 (left panel), and sunscreen net, by Karl Mayer, produced from produced100% polyester from 100%(right polyamide panel) [65] 6 (left panel), and sunscreen net, by Karl Mayer, produced from 100% polyester100% polyester (right panel(right )[panel)65]. [65] Another application of the printing rigid parts over the textiles is the mounting of connectors, buttonsAnotherAnother [83,84] applicationapplication of thethe printingprinting rigid parts over the textilestextiles is the mountingmounting of connectors, buttonsbuttons [[83,84]83,84]. TheThe art-designersart-designers apply apply the additivethe additive manufacturing manufacturing for development for development of personalized of personalized decorations, wheredecorations,The each art-designers customer where each can customerapply print overthe can theadditive print fabrics over manufa by the of cotton,fabricscturing by wool, offor cotton, viscosedevelopment wool, fabrics viscose andof polyesterpersonalizedfabrics and net didecorations,polyesterfferent forms net where different (see Figureeach forms customer8, left-to-right).(see Figure can print 8, left-to-right). over the fabrics by of cotton, wool, viscose fabrics and polyester net different forms (see Figure 8, left-to-right). Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 9 of 21 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

Figure 8. Floral pattern printed on cotton, wool, viscose fabrics and a polyester net (left to right) [[65]65]. Figure 8. Floral pattern printed on cotton, wool, viscose fabrics and a polyester net (left to right) [65] The combinationcombination ofof rigid rigid and and soft soft materials materials during during the the 3D 3D printing printing over over textiles textiles demonstrates demonstrates the The combination of rigid and soft materials during the 3D printing over textiles demonstrates advantagesthe advantages of such of such system system very very well well in the in the orthopedic orthopedic devises. devises. The The quick quick 3D 3D printing printing process process can can be the advantages of such system very well in the orthopedic devises. The quick 3D printing process can integratedbe integrated in thein the process process chain chain from from the the design design stage stage and and allows allows production production of novel of novel personalized personalized and be integrated in the process chain from the design stage and allows production of novel personalized customizedand customized orthopedic orthopedic devices devices to support to support and restore and rest theore mobility the mobility of a joint of a (see joint Figure (see 9Figure). This 9). device This and customized orthopedic devices to support and restore the mobility of a joint (see Figure 9). This isdevice applicable is applicable in sport in/training sport/training purposes, purposes, preventive prev treatmententive treatment or rehabilitation or rehabilitation after injury after of theinjury joints of device is applicable in sport/training purposes, preventive treatment or rehabilitation after injury of inthe the joints hand in andthe hand knee byand limiting knee by the limiting movement the movement in the joints in [the85– joints87]. [85–87]. the joints in the hand and knee by limiting the movement in the joints [85–87].

Figure 9. Combination of additive manufactured element with a knitted fabric for movement Figure 9. Combination of additive manufactured element with a knitted fabric for movement Figurelimitation 9. Combination and rehabilitation of additive after manufacturedinjury of joints element [85,86]. with a knitted fabric for movement limitation andlimitation rehabilitation and rehabilitation after injury after of joints injury [85 of,86 joints]. [85,86]. Because the additive placement of polymer material is possible over almost each type of textile- knitwear,Because woven the the additive fabrics, additive placementnon-woven, placement of composites ofpolymer polymer material an materiald plastic is possible is parts, possible over made almost over from almost eachboth type synthetic each of typetextile- and of textile-knitwear,knitwear,natural materials woven woven [88],fabrics, can fabrics, non-woven, be summ non-woven,arized, composites that composites this an methodd plastic and can plastic parts, be considered parts, made made from as from bothexcellent bothsynthetic extension synthetic and andnaturalor 3D natural materialsfunctionalization materials [88], can [88 ],bemethod can summ be arized,for summarized, the that classical this that method textiles. this methodcan Thebe considered cancombination be considered as excellent enhances as extension excellent of the orcharacteristics 3D functionalization and the functions method of forthe materialsthe classical give textiles.new appearance The combination and dimensional enhances stability of the of characteristicstextiles in accordance and the with functions new end of theuse materials applications. give new appearance and dimensional stability of textiles in accordance with new end use applications. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 10 of 21 extension or 3D functionalization method for the classical textiles. The combination enhances of the characteristics and the functions of the materials give new appearance and dimensional stability of

Appl.textiles Sci. 2020 in accordance, 10, x FOR PEER with REVIEW new end use applications. 12 of 24

5.4. 4D Printing 5.4. 4D Printing As 4D printing is named a method of manufacturing where the 3D form additional have some As 4D printing is named a method of manufacturing where the 3D form additional have some functionality which changes in the time or changing temperature or else, which is the 4th dimension [89] functionality which changes in the time or changing temperature or else, which is the 4th dimension (Figure 10). The additional function can be obtained by using some sophisticated 3D geometry designs, [89] (Figure 10). The additional function can be obtained by using some sophisticated 3D geometry or materials, which change their shape [90]. The idea is that the change of the form or color is based on designs, or materials, which change their shape [90]. The idea is that the change of the form or color programmed triggers like heat, light, moisture, pH-value. Further, 4D printing can be used in soft is based on programmed triggers like heat, light, moisture, pH-value. Further, 4D printing can be robotic systems, smart textiles, drug delivery or biomedical devices [91,92]. used in soft robotic systems, smart textiles, drug delivery or biomedical devices [91,92].

Figure 10. AA 4D 4D printed printed dress dress with with colors colors [89] [89] (Sourc (Sourcee https://juliadaviy.com/category/future-of-https://juliadaviy.com/category/future-of- fashion/).fashion/).

The main parameters, which which currently currently are are tried tried to to be be changing changing are are the the stiffness, stiffness, permeability, permeability, color, andand degree degree of of water water absorbency absorbency [93 ,94[93,94].]. The The polymer polymer penetrates penetrates in the poresin the of pores the knit of structurethe knit structureafter 3D printing after 3D and printing can be and used can for be controlling used for co ofntrolling the permeability of the permeability of the structure of the [structure95]. [95] The 3D printing on textiles allows hybrid materials of fabric and printed polymer create a 4D textile with form and functions functions change. For For example example [95], [95], the the 3D 3D printed printed elements elements are are placed placed directly directly on to pre-strained textiles,textiles, whereinwherein the the textile textile is is used used as as an an energy energy storage storage device. device. The The shape shape of theof the 3D 3Dprinted printed with with the the flexible flexible textile textile is changed is change afterd after heating heating at di atff erentdifferent temperatures temperatures [95]. [95]. Another similar work with 3D printing over te textilextile for getting material, which transform into differentdifferent shapes with time in response toto externalexternal stimulistimuli isis reportedreported [[96,97]96,97].. These fewfew examples examples demonstrated demonstrated that that the 3Dthe printing 3D printing with goodwith selected good selected material andmaterial geometry and geometrycombinations combinations can be used can for be production used for production of structures of structures with changing with formchanging or properties, form or properties, which can whichbe one can of thebe one future of the directions future directions of new, better of new, integrated better integrated in our clothing in our clothing and environment and environment sensors sensorsand actuators. and actuators.

6. 3D 3D Printed Printed Flexible Flexible Structures Structures According [33] [33] the 3D printed structures are classified classified in to six six main main categories categories as as Meso, Meso, Linked, Linked, Hinged, Flexible, Generative and Hy Hybridbrid which varies in material de dependingpending on the properties of the structures whether it be knit, woven, or non-woven. Hybrid Hybrid structure structure according this classification classification is the printed printed over textile textile case, case, described described in the the previous previous section. section. Table Table 22 summarizessummarizes thethe threethree methodsmethods for productionproduction ofof flexible flexible structures structures with with 3D printing.3D printing. In all In three all three cases, cases, thin layers thin (sheets)layers (sheets) are printed, are printed,but the cases but the di ffcasesers in differs the orientation in the orientation of the single of the sheet single pieces. sheet pieces. In the first In the case first the case connected the connected sheets sheetsare oriented are oriented perpendicular perpendicular to the to product the product surface. surface. Because Because of the of low the thickness low thickness of the of sheets the sheets their their connection lines still allow some freedom for rotations and they move as kinematic chains, which gives flexibility of the structure. The second case “mesh like structure” is based on printing of sheet with holes—so that the bending rigidity is reduced because of the missing material and thus the lower mass moment of inertia. The third variant is copied from the historical protection clothing and is based on linked rings or other closed profile forms. The single links have enough degrees of freedom to rotate and the resulting structure remains flexible with very good drape ability. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 11 of 21

connection lines still allow some freedom for rotations and they move as kinematic chains, which gives flexibility of the structure. The second case “mesh like structure” is based on printing of sheet with holes—so that the bending rigidity is reduced because of the missing material and thus the lower mass Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW moment of inertia. The third variant is copied from the historical protection clothing and is based on13 of 24 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW linked rings or other closed profile forms. The single links have enough degrees of freedom to rotate13 of 24 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24 andTable the resulting2. 3D printed structure flexible remainsstructures flexible and their with features. very good drape ability.

Structure Principle Table 2. 3D printed flexible structures andFeatures their features. Example Table 2. 3D printed flexibleTable structures 2. 3D printed and their flexible features. structures and their features.

Structure Principle Features Example Structure Principle Structure PrincipleFeatures Features ExampleExample

Thin layer nearly parallel plates, oriented Thin layer nearly parallel Thin layer plate kinematics 90° to the nominal surface, connected at the plates, oriented 90 to Thin layer nearly parallel plates, oriented These structure can have out-of-plane◦ and in-plane bending and (Example: Mesostructure of A. Thinends layer allow nearly flexibility parallel in plates, different oriented the nominal surface, These structure can have Thin layer plate kinematics 90° to the nominal surface, connectedThin atlayer the plate can have auxetic behavior, if well designed. Thin layerBastian plate [88]) kinematics directions.90° to the Becausenominal ofsurf theace, low connected thickness at the the These structureconnected can have out-of-plane at the ends and in-planeout-of-plane bending and and (Example: Mesostructure of A. ends allow flexibility in differentkinematics (Example:These structure can have out-of-plane and in-plane bending and (Example: Mesostructure of A. bendingends allow moments flexibility are negligible.in different can haveallow auxetic flexibility behavior, in if wellin-plane designed. bending and can Bastian [88]) directions. Because of the low thicknessMesostructure the of A. can have auxetic behavior, if well designed. Bastian [88]) directions. Because of the low thickness the bending moments are negligible. different directions. have auxetic behavior, if Andreas Bastian bending moments are negligible.Bastian [88]) Because of the low well designed. Meso-structured [98] AndreasAndreas Bastian thickness the bending Andreas Bastian Meso-structuredMeso-structured [98] [98 ] moments are negligible. Meso-structured [98]

Thin plate, with several openings. The No cutting requiredThin plate, and les with material several used, 3DNo printing cutting in-place required and Mesh like thin sheet openings extend the bending flexibility openings. The openings les material used, 3D Thin plate, with several openings. The possible, work straight out of the machine [99]. Thin plate,and with the formability.several openings.Mesh The like thin sheetNo cutting requiredextend and the les bending material used, 3D printingprinting in-place in-place Mesh like thin sheet openings extend the bending flexibility No cutting required and les material used, 3D printing in-place Mesh like thin sheet openings extend the bending flexibility possible,flexibility work straight and out the of the machinepossible, [99]. work straight and the formability. possible, work straight out of the machine [99]. Kinematics dress [99] and the formability. formability. out of the machine [99]. Kinematics dress [99] Kinematics dress [99] Kinematics dress [99]

Each element has Rings or other closed profiles connected Rings or other closed Linked elements (rings, Linked elementsEach (rings, element has enough degrees of freedom to enoughmove in the degrees local of together. Normally printed using profiles connected triangles, squares, complex Rings or other closed profiles connectedtriangles, squares, range and rotate, which gives veryfreedom good to move in the Linked elements (rings, Rings or supportingother closed material profiles connected Each element hastogether. enough degrees Normally of freedom to move in the local closedLinked curved elements shapes) (rings, together. Normally printedcomplex using closed curvedEach element has enoughdrape degrees characteristics. of freedom local to move range in the and local rotate, triangles, squares, complex together. forNormally the gaps. printed using rangeprinted and using rotate, supporting which gives very good triangles, squares, complex supporting material shapes) range and rotate, which gives verywhich good gives very good closed curved shapes) supporting material materialdrape for characteristics. the gaps. Jiri Evenhuis Chainmail closed curved shapes) for the gaps. drape characteristics. drape characteristics. Jiri Evenhuis Chainmail dress. for the gaps. dress. Perepelkin (2013), Perepelkin (2013), cited from [18] Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW Jiri Evenhuiscited fromChainmail [18] 14dress. of 24 Jiri Evenhuis Chainmail dress. Perepelkin (2013), cited from [18] Perepelkin (2013), cited from [18] Similar to the linked rings, directly completed single-faced and double faced weft knitted structures Similar to the linked rings, directly completed single-faced and double faced weft knitted (Figure 11) can be formed by selective laser sintering of nylon powder [56]. The demonstrated products structures (Figure 11) can be formed by selective laser sintering of nylon powder [56]. The can be easily compressed, extended, stretched and folded [57]. demonstrated products can be easily compressed, extended, stretched and folded [57].

Figure 11.Figure Samples 11. ofSamples the 3D printed of the 3D textile printed structures textile structuresand clothes and [57,58,66,100] clothes [57, 58,66,100].

7. 3D Printing of Elastic Materials There are two approaches for production of elastic shapes with 3D form with textile-like properties:

− Printing full layer elastomers, which have enough good elasticity [101]. This method can be classified to the “classical” type of 3D printing, where the material is coming from one (or more) nozzles and is solidified at the moment of the placement on the surface based on the different temperature, drying process or other (UV-hardening, chemical reaction) processes. − Printing or placing fibers over 3D mandrel. Such processes were developed in the past and are known with other names, but not directly as 3D printing. Because here the material is added to the existing surface can be arranged to it, too. For instance electro-flocking technique [102] has the potential to place fibers over 3D form and build such surfaces, Meltblown nonwoven production can be applied for the case of continuous fibers, too. The company TamiCare uses the process for customizing of 3D printing with textile fibers in which the fabric is built up in layers by a spray jet. It is capable of working with liquid polymers such as natural latex, silicon, polyurethane and Teflon as well as textile fibers like cotton, viscose and polyamide. Some of TamiCare products are disposable towels, women underwear, swimwear, bandages and sportswear [42]. Several reports for innovative works are done here in the area of electro spinning because at this process the produced nano-fibers are naturally softer, based on their small diameter. The 3D printing process via electro-spinning applies a moving nozzle connected to a high voltage and a syringe that delivers the nozzle a polymeric solution (Figure 12, left) [66]. The melt-blowing die can be placed on a robot which moves in the space around collector with 3D form (Figure 12, right) [66] and produce directly parts with 3D form.

Figure 12. Illustration of a 3D electro-spinning setup (left) and robotic fiber assembly and control system (RFACS) (right), the integration of a six-axis robot with melt blowing system [66]. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24

Similar to the linked rings, directly completed single-faced and double faced weft knitted structures (Figure 11) can be formed by selective laser sintering of nylon powder [56]. The demonstrated products can be easily compressed, extended, stretched and folded [57].

Appl. Sci.Figure2020 ,11.10, Samples 5033 of the 3D printed textile structures and clothes [57,58,66,100] 12 of 21

7. 3D Printing of Elastic Materials 7. 3D Printing of Elastic Materials There are two approaches for production of elastic shapes with 3D form with textile-like properties:There are two approaches for production of elastic shapes with 3D form with textile-like properties: − - PrintingPrinting fullfull layerlayer elastomers,elastomers, whichwhich havehave enoughenough goodgood elasticityelasticity [101[101]].. ThisThis methodmethod cancan bebe classifiedclassified toto thethe “classical”“classical” typetype ofof 3D3D printing,printing, wherewhere thethe materialmaterial isis comingcoming fromfrom oneone (or(or more)more) nozzlesnozzles andand isis solidifiedsolidified atat thethe momentmoment ofof thethe placementplacement onon thethe surfacesurface basedbased onon thethe didifferentfferent temperature,temperature, dryingdrying processprocess oror otherother (UV-hardening,(UV-hardening, chemical chemical reaction) reaction) processes. processes. − - PrintingPrinting oror placingplacing fibersfibers overover 3D3D mandrel.mandrel. SuchSuch processesprocesses werewere developeddeveloped inin thethe pastpast andand areare knownknown withwith otherother names,names, butbut notnot directlydirectly asas 3D3D printing.printing. BecauseBecause herehere thethe materialmaterial isis addedadded toto thethe existingexisting surface surface can can be be arranged arranged to to it, it, too. too. For For instance instance electro-flocking electro-flocking technique technique [102 [102]] has thehas potentialthe potential to place to fibersplace overfibers 3D over form 3D and form build and such build surfaces, such Meltblown surfaces, Meltblown nonwoven productionnonwoven canproduction be applied can for be the applied case of for continuous the case of fibers, continuous too. The fibers, company too. TamiCareThe company uses TamiCare the process uses for customizingthe process for of 3Dcustomizing printing with of 3D textile printing fibers with in which textile the fibers fabric in iswhich built the up infabric layers is bybuilt a sprayup in jet.layers It is by capable a spray of jet. working It is capable with liquid of working polymers with such liquid as naturalpolymers latex, such silicon, as natural polyurethane latex, silicon, and Teflonpolyurethane as well asand textile Teflon fibers as likewell cotton, as textile viscose fiber ands like polyamide. cotton, viscose Some ofand TamiCare polyamide. products Some are of disposableTamiCare towels,products women are disposable underwear, towels swimwear,, women bandages underwear, and sportswear swimwear, [42]. bandages and sportswear [42]. Several reports for innovative works are done here in the area of electro spinning because at this Several reports for innovative works are done here in the area of electro spinning because at this process the produced nano-fibers are naturally softer, based on their small diameter. The 3D printing process the produced nano-fibers are naturally softer, based on their small diameter. The 3D printing process via electro-spinning applies a moving nozzle connected to a high voltage and a syringe that process via electro-spinning applies a moving nozzle connected to a high voltage and a syringe that delivers the nozzle a polymeric solution (Figure 12, left) [66]. The melt-blowing die can be placed on a delivers the nozzle a polymeric solution (Figure 12, left) [66]. The melt-blowing die can be placed on robot which moves in the space around collector with 3D form (Figure 12, right) [66] and produce a robot which moves in the space around collector with 3D form (Figure 12, right) [66] and produce directly parts with 3D form. directly parts with 3D form.

FigureFigure 12.12. IllustrationIllustration ofof aa 3D3D electro-spinningelectro-spinning setupsetup ((leftleft)) andand roboticrobotic fiberfiber assemblyassembly andand controlcontrol system (RFACS) (right), the integration of a six-axis robot with melt blowing system [66]. Appl. Sci.system 2020, (RFACS) 10, x FOR ( PEERright ),REVIEW the integration of a six-axis robot with melt blowing system [66]. 15 of 24

A similar method was applied by the former company Electro-Loom, as mentioned in the Materials A similar method was applied by the former company Electro-Loom, as mentioned in the section [44,103] (Figure 13), which demonstrated the possibility to produce larger pieces for clothing, Materials section [44,103] (Figure 13), which demonstrated the possibility to produce larger pieces for but did not succeed to find suitable economically efficient application area. clothing, but did not succeed to find suitable economically efficient application area.

FigureFigure 13. 13.Products Products manufactured manufactured by by Electro-Loom Electro-Loom (white (white color color products products without without decorations) decorations) [103 ]. [103]

8. Current and Future Applications Apparel manufacturers, retailers and designers have been using 3D-printers for different functions—to create prototypes for testing, for customization of the products, creating of artistic pieces and spares [2]. Popular are becoming3D-printed bikinis, shoes, dresses [35,104], where normally using combination of printing from solid soft material and creating flexible structures are used. The main point here is the personalization—where the process allow creation of [32]. Manufacturing of footwear, its specific parts and customizable insoles for everyday use, sports or specialized tasks is one of 3D printing’s fastest growing segments [100,105]. Large apparel companies including Nike and Adidas shoes companies have already integrated 3D printing into their manufacturing processes to print parts like soles (Figure 14) and clothes [17,100].

Figure 14. 3D printed sneakers [100].

The 3D printed garment has currently more sculptural or decorative effects and will probably not be used in the near future as main replacement of the clothing [33]. Figure 15 demonstrated such decorations created by inspiration of the well-known Plauen lace [55].

Figure 15. Multi-layer lace pattern, depicted in “netfabb” (left panel), and the resulting 3D print (right panel) [55].

It is not very common, because of the not common size for the normal 3D printing, but some people apply 3D for creating body sculptures, which can be used for garment fit and drape testing [1] (Figure 16). Actually, here the amount of material and work for creation of such figure is large and the modern CAD software can perform the fit and drape tests based on simulations. For this reason, Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24 A similar method was applied by the former company Electro-Loom, as mentioned in the A similar method was applied by the former company Electro-Loom, as mentioned in the Materials section [44,103] (Figure 13), which demonstrated the possibility to produce larger pieces for Materials section [44,103] (Figure 13), which demonstrated the possibility to produce larger pieces for clothing, but did not succeed to find suitable economically efficient application area. clothing, but did not succeed to find suitable economically efficient application area.

Appl. Sci.Figure2020, 10 13., 5033 Products manufactured by Electro-Loom (white color products without decorations) 13 of 21 Figure 13. Products manufactured by Electro-Loom (white color products without decorations) [103] [103] 8. Current and Future Applications 8. Current and Future Applications 8. CurrentApparel and manufacturers, Future Applications retailers and designers have been using 3D-printers for different Apparel manufacturers, retailers and designers have been using 3D-printers for different functions—toApparel manufacturers, create prototypes retailers for testing, and designers for customization have been of theusing products, 3D-printers creating for ofdifferent artistic functions—to create prototypes for testing, for customization of the products, creating of artistic piecesfunctions—to and spares create [2]. prototypes Popular are for becoming3D-printed testing, for customization bikinis, shoes, of the dresses products, [35,104 creating], where of normally artistic pieces and spares [2]. Popular are becoming3D-printed bikinis, shoes, dresses [35,104], where piecesusing combinationand spares [2]. of printingPopular fromare becoming3D-p solid soft materialrinted and bikinis, creating shoes, flexible dresses structures [35,104], are where used. normally using combination of printing from solid soft material and creating flexible structures are Thenormally main using point herecombination is the personalization—where of printing from solid thesoft process material allow and creationcreating of flexible [32]. Manufacturing structures are used. The main point here is the personalization—where the process allow creation of [32]. used.of footwear, The main its specific point partshere andis customizablethe personalizat insolesion—where for everyday the process use, sports allow or specialized creation of tasks [32]. is Manufacturing of footwear, its specific parts and customizable insoles for everyday use, sports or Manufacturingone of 3D printing’s of footwear, fastest growing its specific segments parts [and100, 105customizable]. Large apparel insoles companies for everyday including use, sports Nike and or specialized tasks is one of 3D printing’s fastest growing segments [100,105]. Large apparel companies Adidasspecialized shoes tasks companies is one of have3D printing’s already integratedfastest growing 3D printing segments into [100,105]. their manufacturing Large apparel processes companies to including Nike and Adidas shoes companies have already integrated 3D printing into their printincluding parts Nike like soles and(Figure Adidas 14 )shoes and clothescompanies [17,100 have]. already integrated 3D printing into their manufacturing processes to print parts like soles (Figure 14) and clothes [17,100]. manufacturing processes to print parts like soles (Figure 14) and clothes [17,100].

Figure 14. 3D printed sneakers [100]. Figure 14. 3D printed sneakers [100]. [100]. The 3D printedprinted garment has currently more sculpturalsculptural or decorative eeffectsffects and will probably The 3D printed garment has currently more sculptural or decorative effects and will probably not be used in the near future as main replacement ofof thethe clothingclothing [[33].33]. FigureFigure 15 demonstrated such not be used in the near future as main replacement of the clothing [33]. Figure 15 demonstrated such decorations createdcreated byby inspirationinspiration ofof thethe well-knownwell-known PlauenPlauen lacelace [[55].55]. decorations created by inspiration of the well-known Plauen lace [55].

Figure 15. Multi-layer lace pattern, depicted in “netfabb” (left panel), and the resulting 3D print (right Figure 15. Multi-layer lace pattern, depicted in “netfabb” (left panel), and the resulting 3D print (right Figurepanel) [55] 15. Multi-layer. lace pattern, depicted in “netfabb” (left panel), and the resulting 3D print (right panel)panel)[ [55]55].. It is not very common, because of the not common size for the normal 3D printing, but some It is not very common, because of the not common size for the normal 3D printing, but some peopleIt isapply not very3D for common, creating because body sculptures, of the not wh commonich can size be used for the for normal garment 3D fit printing, and drape but testing some people apply 3D for creating body sculptures, which can be used for garment fit and drape testing people[1] (Figure apply 16). 3D Actually, for creating here body the amount sculptures, of material which canand bework used for for creation garment of fitsuch and figure drape istesting large and [1] [1] (Figure 16). Actually, here the amount of material and work for creation of such figure is large and (Figurethe modern 16). Actually,CAD software here thecan amountperform of the material fit and anddrap worke tests for based creation on simulations. of such figure For isthis large reason, and the modern CAD software can perform the fit fit and drap drapee tests based on simulations. For For this this reason, reason, such kind prototyping based on 3D printed manikin will be applied in the future probably only for sophisticated products. One growing area of application of the 3D printed flexible parts is the health care. The generated meshes can seamlessly interact with the body (Figure 17), and thereby improve the lives of countless patients suffering from conditions ranging from ankle or other joint sprain to hernia and tremors [106]. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24 Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24 such kind prototyping based on 3D printed manikin will be applied in the future probably only for such kind prototyping based on 3D printed manikin will be applied in the future probably only for sophisticated products. sophisticated products. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

Appl.such Sci. kind2020 prototyping, 10, 5033 based on 3D printed manikin will be applied in the future probably only14 of for 21 sophisticated products.

Figure 16. Testing garment fit over real body model (a) and the scaled 3D printed body model (b) [1]. Figure 16. Testing garment fit over real body model (a) and the scaled 3D printed body model (b) [1]. One growing area of application of the 3D printed flexible parts is the health care. The generated One growing area of application of the 3D printed flexible parts is the health care. The generated meshes can seamlessly interact with the body (Figure 17), and thereby improve the lives of countless meshes can seamlessly interact with the body (Figure 17), and thereby improve the lives of countless patientsFigure suffering 16. Testing from garment conditions fit over ranging real body from model ankle (a) and or theother scaled joint 3D sprain printed to body hernia model and (b)[ tremors1]. patientsFigure suffering 16. Testing from garment conditions fit over ranging real body from model ankle (a) and or theother scaled joint 3D sprain printed to body hernia model and (b ) tremors[1]. [106]. [106]. One growing area of application of the 3D printed flexible parts is the health care. The generated meshes can seamlessly interact with the body (Figure 17), and thereby improve the lives of countless patients suffering from conditions ranging from ankle or other joint sprain to hernia and tremors [106].

FigureFigure 17. 17. TheThe drape drape dress dress and and joint joint recovery recovery supports/covers supports/covers [93,100]. [93,100]. Figure 17. The drape dress and joint recovery supports/covers [93,100]. An exampleexample ofof ankle ankle brace brace was was developed developed that that shows shows the potentialthe potential of controlled of controlled nonlinear nonlinear tensile An example of ankle brace was developed that shows the potential of controlled nonlinear tensileresponse response by letting by theletting ankle the move ankle freely move unless freely it invertsunless it to inverts an excessive to an extentexcessive as well extent as aas glove well withas a tensile response by letting the ankle move freely unless it inverts to an excessive extent as well as a glovean embedded with an embedded mesh designed mesh to designed conform to to conform the hand to (see the Figure hand (see18)[ Figure17]. 18) [17]. glove with an embeddedFigure 17.mesh The designeddrape dress to and conform joint recovery to the hand supports/covers (see Figure [93,100]. 18) [17].

An example of ankle brace was developed that shows the potential of controlled nonlinear tensile response by letting the ankle move freely unless it inverts to an excessive extent as well as a glove with an embedded mesh designed to conform to the hand (see Figure 18) [17].

Figure 18. A 3D printed glove: (A) sewing pattern printed from two materials, (B) surface design of glove, (C) flexible sewing pattern with inner lining, and (D) pattern pieces sewn together to three-dimensional garment [17].

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

Figure 18. A 3D printed glove: (a) sewing pattern printed from two materials, (b) surface design of Appl. Sci.glove,2020 ,(10c) ,flexible 5033 sewing pattern with inner lining, and (c) pattern pieces sewn together to three-15 of 21 dimensional garment [17].

OneOne wayway of of the the improvement improvement of of the the drape drape ability ability of theof the solid solid parts parts is modification is modification of the of tool the path tool so,path that so, the that fiber the coolfiber down cool down before before it touch it touch the previous the previous placed placed fiber in fiber some in areassome [ 106areas]. The[106]. so The build so filamentbuild filament path are path not are connected not connected and can and slide can relative slide relative to each otherto each which other results which noticeably results noticeably greater drapegreater (10 drape mm scale(10 mm bar) scale (Figure bar) 19 (FigureA). The 19a). conformal The conformal mesh is printedmesh is (Figureprinted 19(FigureC) and 19c) sewn and on sewn to a gloveon to [a106 glove] (exerts [106] a (exerts restoring a restoring force on theforce fingers on the when fingers the when fist is clenched)the fist is asclenched) is commonly as is commonly necessary innecessary stroke rehabilitation. in stroke rehabilitation.

FigureFigure 19.19. AdditionalAdditional capabilitiescapabilities of of mesh mesh printing: printing: (A(a) modulation ofof fiber–fiberfiber–fiber bonding,bonding, ( (Bb)) aa meshmesh (scale(scale bar bar 10 10 mm) mm) with with locally locally patterned patterned negative negative Poisson’s Poisson’s ratio unit ratio cells, unit which cells, featuring which anisotropic featuring mechanicsanisotropic and mechanics showing and its showing ability to its conform ability to to conform a knee. to (C a) knee. Printing (c) Printing of conformal of conformal meshes meshes onto a templateonto a template [106]. [106].

9.9. AdvantagesAdvantages andand DisadvantagesDisadvantages

9.1.9.1. AdvantagesAdvantages AdditiveAdditive ManufacturingManufacturing allows allows new new levels levels of of mass mass customization customization of of fabrics fabrics products products [ 65[65].]. ItIt cancan significantlysignificantly enhanceenhance productionproduction timestimes ofof smallsmall partsparts producedproduced inin smallsmall numbersnumbers andand givesgives thethe possibilitypossibility toto createcreate partsparts thatthat wouldwould bebe impossibleimpossible toto produceproduce withwith conventionalconventional techniquestechniques [[17,55].17,55]. ComparedCompared withwith regularregular textiles, textiles, studies studies have have presented presented several several advantages advantages of of 3DP 3DP such such as: as: X CustomizationCustomization and and an an accelerated accelerated design design process process [49 [49,107],,107], X PerfectPerfect fit, fit, unique unique structure structure and and patterns patterns [22 [22,34]],,34], X CheaperCheaper [50 [50,108],,108], X Convenient,Convenient, rapid rapid prototyping prototyping and and less less lead lead time time [2 [2,106],,106], X MoreMore sustainable sustainable [2 [2],], X LessLess waste waste of of raw raw material material because because cutting cutting fabric fabric leads leads to to leftover leftover scrapes scrapes [109 [109],], X CostsCosts less less energy energy to to produce produce [110 [110],],  Lower costs related to inventory, warehousing, packaging, and transportation [2], and; X Lower costs related to inventory, warehousing, packaging, and transportation [2], and;  Provides the possibility for costumers [111,112] to produce objects by themselves by buying X Provides the possibility for costumers [111,112] to produce objects by themselves by buying garment designs from fashion brands [2,22]. garment designs from fashion brands [2,22]. 9.2. Disadvantages 9.2. Disadvantages The biggest disadvantage of 3D printing is the copyright problem. Scanning existing pattern and reproducing it by 3D printing can be done today in short time. Many copyright holders will have a hard time protecting their rights and businesses producing unique products will suffer [113,114]. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 16 of 21

Another main current disadvantage is that comfort and flexibility that a 3D printed only parts are expected to provide. The most current materials do not absorb moisture at all. For several cases, probably unexpected for some people, but the real problem is the price, based on the low productivity. Currently, the 3D printed products can be more expensive option than textile products made with traditional methods [115].

10. Outlook and Conclusions This review demonstrated that the additive manufacturing already influences the textile production in three directions. The most used one is the 3D printing on textiles, where additional features to the existing textiles can be added and customized and personalized products can be quickly created. The important point at that technology is the adhesion between the both products, where a lot of investigations are already done. Based on the combination of the soft, comfortable textile and rigid, individually placed, in some cases controllable additively placed materials we can expect that in the future this kind of products will replace the current one in the rehabilitation supporting devices and probably in personalized protection equipment for different sports and working conditions. The printing of flexible structures based on rigid materials is another area, where the structures try to have some “textiles like” properties, and will definitively find their application areas for complex structures in robotics, fashion, architecture and will replace some of the existing heavier and solid products, but they are not real competitor to textile products, they can be effectively combined with such. In the last analyzed area—printing with flexible materials—the development is currently in a very early stage. Here we can expect in the future rapid development of new elastic materials, which can be solidified on the printing surface in some given form and at the same time provide good air—and moisture permeability through them. Here, both printing with fiber based materials glued together with some additional material, and the use of direct production of membrane structures form polymers can be expected to change the business games in the future. Here, several tasks have to be solved near the properties, which are required for thermo-physiological control, to stabilize printing conditions—and additionally—high production speed and lower costs have to be reached, in order to become really competitors to textiles.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation: D.B.S., Conceptualization and resources: D.A., Writing—review and editing, supervision: Y.K., funding acquisition and supervision: A.K.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) trough the EECBP Home Grown PhD Scholarship Program 2019. The APC was funded by the publication found of the TU Dresden and Saxon State and University Library Dresden (SLUB). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Spahiu, T.; Grimmelsmann, N.; Ehrmann, A.; Shehi, E.; Piperi, E. On the possible use of 3D printing for clothing and shoe manufacture. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference of Textile, Tirana, Albania, 10–11 November 2016; pp. 10–11. 2. Vanderploeg, A.; Lee, S.-E.; Mamp, M. The application of 3D printing technology in the fashion industry. Int. J. Fash. Des. Technol. Educ. 2016, 10, 170–179. [CrossRef] 3. Berman, B. 3-D printing: The new industrial revolution. Bus. Horiz. 2012, 55, 155–162. [CrossRef] 4. MacDonald, E.; Wicker, R. Multiprocess 3D printing for increasing component functionality. Science 2016, 353.[CrossRef] 5. Marián, H.; Milan, V.; Jaroslav, M.; Milan, S.; Filip, D. Influence of the Shape of the Test Specimen Produced by 3D Printing on the Stress Distribution in the Matrix and in Long Reinforcing Fibers. J. Mech. Eng. 2019, 69, 61–68. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 17 of 21

6. Brody, H.D.; Haggerty, J.S.; Cima, M.J.; Flemings, M.C.; Barns, R.L.; Gyorgy, E.M.; Johnson, D.W.;

Rhodes, W.W.; Sunder, W.A.; Laudis, R.A. Highly textured and single crystal Bi2CaSr2Cu2Ox prepared by laser heated float zone crystalization. J. Cryst. Growth 1989, 96, 225–233. [CrossRef] 7. Gibson, I.; Rosen, D.; Stucker, B. Additive Manufacturing Technologies 3D Printing, Rapid Prototyping, and Direct Digital Manufacturing, 2nd ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2015. 8. Kuhn, R.; Minuzzi, F.B. The 3D printing’s panorama in fashion design. Mem. Des. 2015, 2, 1–12. Available online: https://silo.tips/download/the-3d-printing-s-panorama-in-fashion-design (accessed on 21 July 2020). 9. Kokkinis, D.; Schaffner, M.; Studart, A.R. Multimaterial magnetically assisted 3D printing of composite materials. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 8643. [CrossRef] 10. Do, A.V.; Khorsand, B.; Geary, S.M.; Salem, A.K. 3D Printing of Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration Applications. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2015, 4, 1742–1762. [CrossRef] 11. Guo, Y.; Chang, C.-C.; Halada, G.; Cuiffo, M.A.; Xue, Y.; Zuo, X.; Pack, S.; Zhang, L.; He, S.; Weil, E.; et al. Engineering flame retardant biodegradable polymer nanocomposites and their application in 3D printing. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2017, 137, 205–215. [CrossRef] 12. Kwon, Y.M.; Lee, Y.-A.; Kim, S.J. Case study on 3D printing education in fashion design coursework. Fash. Text. 2017, 4.[CrossRef] 13. Noakes, M.W.; Lind, R.F.; Jansen, J.F.; Love, L.J.; Pin, F.G.; Richardson, B.S. Development of a Remote Trauma Care Assist Robot. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Louis, MS, USA, 10–15 October 2009; IEEE: New York City, USA, 2009. 14. Ngo, T.D.; Kashani, A.; Imbalzano, G.; Nguyen, K.T.Q.; Hui, D. Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications and challenges. Compos. Part Eng. 2018, 143, 172–196. [CrossRef] 15. Farahani, R.D.; Dube, M.; Therriault, D. Three-Dimensional Printing of Multifunctional Nanocomposites: Manufacturing Techniques and Applications. Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, 5794–5821. [CrossRef] 16. Macdonald, E.; Salas, R.; Espalin, D.; Perez, M.; Aguilera, E.; Muse, D.; Wicker, R.B. 3D Printing for the Rapid Prototyping of Structural Electronics. IEEE Access 2014, 2.[CrossRef] 17. Uysal, R.; Stubbs, J.B. A New Method of Printing Multi-Material Textiles by Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM). Tekstilec 2019, 62, 248–257. [CrossRef] 18. Bingham, G.A.; Hague, R. Efficient three dimensional modelling of additive manufactured textiles. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2013, 19, 269–281. [CrossRef] 19. Crookston, J.J.; Long, A.C.; Bingham, G.A.; Hague, R.J.M. Finite-element modelling of mechanical behaviour of rapid manufactured textiles. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part L J. Mat. Des. Appl. 2008, 222, 29–36. [CrossRef] 20. Sitotaw, D.B. Search Results on 3D Printed Textiles. 2020. Available online: https: //www.scopus.com/term/analyzer.uri?sid=b1f1e96c6f645f217e752a596ba7d0e&origin=resultslist&src= s&s=TITLE-ABS-KEY%283d+Printing+of+textiles%29&sort=plf-f&sdt=b&sot=b&sl=38&count=290& analyzeResults=Analyze+results&txGid=d2f72804c289d6d07029a21cb86dc0c9 (accessed on 1 March 2020). 21. Hoskins, S. 3D Printing for Artists, Designers and Makers; Bloomsbury Publishing: London, UK, 2013. 22. Yap, Y.L.; Yeong, W.Y. Additive manufacture of fashion and jewellery products: A mini review. Virtual Phys. Prototyp. 2014, 9, 195–201. [CrossRef] 23. Atkinson, P.; Univer, E.; Marshal, J.; Dean, L.T. Post Industrial Manufacturing Systems: The undisciplined nature of generative design. In Proceedings of the Undisciplined! Design Research Society Conference 2008, Sheffield, UK, 16–19 July 2008. 24. Hermans, G. A Model for Evaluating the Solution Space of Mass Customization Toolkits. Int. J. Ind. Eng. Manag. (IJIEM) 2012, 3, 205–214. 25. van der Zee, A.; de Vries, B. Design by Computation. In Proceedings of the GA2008, 11th Generative Art Conference, Milan, UK, 16–18 December 2008. 26. D’Apuzzo, N. 3D body scanning technology for fashion and apparel industry. In Proceedings of the Electronic Imaging 2007, San Jose, CA, USA, 28 January–1 February 2007. 27. Kyosev, Y. Generalized geometric modeling of tubular and flat braided structures with arbitrary floating length and multiple filaments. Text. Res. J. 2016, 86, 1270–1279. [CrossRef] 28. Kyosev, Y. Topology-Based Modeling of Textile Structures and Their Joint Assemblies; Springer: Heidelberg, Germany, 2019. 29. Renkens, W.; Kyosev, Y. Geometry modelling of warp knitted fabrics with 3D form. Text. Res. J. 2011, 81, 437–443. [CrossRef] Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 18 of 21

30. Kyosev, Y. TexMind Software Braider and TexMind Warp Knitting Editor. 2020. Available online: http: //www.texmind.com (accessed on 21 July 2020). 31. Mellor, S.; Hao, L.; Zhang, D. Additive manufacturing: A framework for implementation. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2014, 149, 194–201. [CrossRef] 32. Noorani, R. 3D Printing Technology, Applications, and Selection; Taylor & Francis Group: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2018. 33. Grain, E. Textiles, Identity and Innovation: Design the Future. Surface, Digital and Virtual Textiles—An Analysis of 3D Printed Textile Structures; Montagna, G., Carvalho, C., Eds.; Taylor & Francis Group: London, UK, 2019. 34. Partsch, L.N.; Vassiliadis, S.; Papageorgas, P. 3D Printed textile fabrics structures. In Proceedings of the Innovative Technologies “Inspire to Innovate”, Istanbul, Turkey, 11–12 September 2015. 35. Valtas, A.; Sun, D. 3D Printing for Garments Production: An Exploratory Study. J. Fash. Technol. Text. Eng. 2016, 4.[CrossRef] 36. Moreau, C. The state of 3D Printing; Sculpteo: Villejuif, France, 2019. 37. Rosenau, J.A.; Wilson, D.L. Apparel Merchandising: The Line Starts Here; Fairchild Books: New York, NY, USA, 2014. 38. Hudson, S. Printing teddy bears: A technique for 3D printing of soft interactive objects. In Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 26 April 2014–1 May 2014; pp. 459–469. 39. Perry, A. 3D-printed apparel and 3D-printer: Exploring advantages, concerns, and purchases. Int. J. Fash. Des. Technol. Educ. 2017, 11, 95–103. [CrossRef] 40. Kruth, J.P.; Leu, M.C.; Nakagawa, T. Progress in Additive Manufacturing and Rapid Prototyping. CIRP Ann. 1998, 47, 525–540. [CrossRef] 41. Nayak, R.; Padhye, R. Garment manufacturing technology. In Product Development in the Apparel Industry; Senanayake, M., Ed.; Woodhead: Waltham, UK, 2015. 42. TamiCare. Speedy Additive Manufacturing of Fabrics with Your Specs & Our Performance. 2019. Available online: https://www.tamicare.com/manufacture (accessed on 1 January 2020). 43. Cooper, D. 3D Printing Your Own Clothes Just Became (Kinda) a Reality; Verizon Media: New York, NY, USA, 2015. 44. Doris Electroloom—Gibt es bald schon tatsächlich tragbare Kleidung aus dem 3D-Drucker? 2016. Available online: https://3druck.com/drucker-und-produkte/electroloom-gibt-es-bald-schon-tatsaechlich-tragbare- kleidung-aus-dem-3d-drucker-1934423/ (accessed on 1 May 2020). 45. Tenhunen, T.-M.; Moslemian, O.; Kammiovirta, K.; Harlin, A.; Kääriäinen, P.; Österberg, M.; Tammelin, T.; Orelma, H. Surface tailoring and design-driven prototyping of fabrics with 3D-printing: An all-cellulose approach. Mater. Des. 2018, 140, 409–419. [CrossRef] 46. Markforged. Material Datasheet-Composites. 2019. Available online: https://www.mark3d.com/de/wp- content/uploads/2020/03/Material-Datenblatt-Markforged-Composites-Verbundfasematerialien-Mark3D. pdf (accessed on 22 July 2020). 47. Kim, S.; Seong, H.; Her, Y.; Chun, J. A study of the development and improvement of fashion products using a FDM type 3D printer. Fash. Text. 2019, 6, 9. [CrossRef] 48. Aashman, G. SLA Textile 3D Print. Available online: https://www.instructables.com/id/SLA-Textile-3D-Print/ (accessed on 24 February 2020). 49. Sclater, N. Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2011. 50. Huang, S.H.; Liu, P.; Mokasdar, A.; Hou, L. Additive manufacturing and its societal impact: A literature review. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2013, 67, 1191–1203. [CrossRef] 51. Meisel, N.A.; Elliott, A.M.; Williams, C.B. A procedure for creating actuated joints via embedding shape memory alloys in PolyJet 3D printing. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2014, 26, 1498–1512. [CrossRef] 52. Murugesan, K.; Anandapandian, P.A.; Sharma, S.K.; Vasantha Kumar, M. Comparative evaluation of dimension and surface detail accuracy of models produced by three different rapid prototype techniques. J. Indian Prosthodont. Soc. 2012, 12, 16–20. [CrossRef] 53. Reilly, L. The shift from 3D body scanned data to the physical world shapeshifting. In Proceedings of the A Conference on Transformative Paradigms of Fashion and Textile Design, Auchland, New Zealand, 14–16 April 2014. 54. Bogue, R. 3D printing: The dawn of a new era in manufacturing? Assembl. Autom. 2013, 33, 307–311. [CrossRef] Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 19 of 21

55. Melnikova, R.; Ehrmann, A.; Finsterbusch, K. 3D printing of textile-based structures by Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) with different polymer materials. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2014, 62, 012018. [CrossRef] 56. Beecroft, M. Digital interlooping: 3D printing of weft-knitted textile-based tubular structures using selective laser sintering of nylon powder. Int. J. Fash. Des. Technol. Educ. 2019, 12, 218–224. [CrossRef] 57. Beecroft, M. 3D printing of weft knitted textile based structures by selective laser sintering of nylon powder. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 137, 012017. [CrossRef] 58. Beecroft, M.; McPherson, L. English Researchers Use 3D Printing to Produce Flexible and Fine Textile-Like Structures; 2014. Available online: https://www.3ders.org/articles/20141109-english-researchers-use-3d- printing-to-produce-flexible-and-fine-textile-like-structures.html (accessed on 12 December 2019). 59. Takahashi, H.; Kim, J. 3D Printed Fabric: Techniques for Design and 3D Weaving Programmable Textiles. In Proceedings of the32nd Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, New Orleans, LA, USA, 20–23 October 2019; pp. 43–51. 60. Venuvinod, K.P.; Ma, W. Rapid Prototyping: Laserbased and Other Technologies; Springer Science and Bussiness Media: New York, NY, USA, 2004. 61. Leigh, S.J.; Bradley, R.J.; Purssell, C.P.; Billson, D.R.; Hutchins, D.A. A Simple, Low-Cost Conductive Composite Material for 3D Printing of Electronic Sensors. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e49365. [CrossRef] 62. Marcincinova, N.L. Application of fused deposition modelling technology in 3D printing rapid prototyping area. Manuf. Ind. Eng. 2011, 11, 35–37. 63. Evans, B. Practical 3D Printers: The Science and Art of 3D Printing; Springer Science and Business Media: New York, NY, USA, 2012. 64. Malengier, B.; Hertleer, C.; Cardon, L.; Van, L. 3D Printing on Textiles: Testing of Adhesion. J. Fash. Technol. Text. Eng. 2018, s4.[CrossRef] 65. Sabantina, L.; Kinzel, F.; Ehrmann, A.; Finsterbusch, K. Combining 3D printed forms with textile structures—Mechanical and geometrical properties of multi-material systems. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2015, 87, 012005. [CrossRef] 66. Chatterjee, K.; Ghosh, T.K. 3D Printing of Textiles: Potential Roadmap to Printing with Fibers. Adv. Mater. 2019, 32, 1902086. [CrossRef] 67. Spahiu, T.; Al-Arabiyat, M.; Martens, Y.; Ehrmann, A.; Piperi, E.; Shehi, E. Adhesion of 3D printing polymers on textile fabrics for garment production. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 459, 012065. [CrossRef] 68. Perry, A. Consumers’ purchase intention of 3D-printed apparel. J. Glob. Fash. Mark. 2016, 7, 225–237. [CrossRef] 69. Gu, B.K.; Choi, D.J.; Park, S.J.; Kim, M.S.; Kang, C.M.; Kim, C.H. 3-dimensional bioprinting for tissue engineering applications. Biomater. Res. 2016, 20, 12. [CrossRef][PubMed] 70. Singha, K. A Review on Coating & Lamination in Textiles: Processes and Applications. Am. J. Polym. Sci. 2012, 2, 39–49. [CrossRef] 71. Pei, E.; Shen, J.; Watling, J. Direct 3D printing of polymers onto textiles: Experimental studies and applications. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2015, 21, 556–571. [CrossRef] 72. Holme, I. Adhesion to textile fibres and fabrics. Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 1999, 19, 455–463. [CrossRef] 73. Hashemi Sanatgar, R.; Campagne, C.; Nierstrasz, V. Investigation of the adhesion properties of direct 3D printing of polymers and nanocomposites on textiles: Effect of FDM printing process parameters. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2017, 403, 551–563. [CrossRef] 74. Kozior, T.; Döpke, C.; Grimmelsmann, N.; Juhász Junger, I.; Ehrmann, A. Influence of fabric pretreatment on adhesion of three-dimensional printed material on textile substrates. Adv. Mech. Eng. 2018, 10, 1–8. [CrossRef] 75. Korger, M.; Bergschneider, J.; Neuss, J.; Lutz, M.; Mahltig, B.; Rabe, M. Functionalization of textiles using 3D printing -add-on technology for textile applications testing new material combinations. Int. Congr. 2016, 3, 1–6. [CrossRef] 76. Unger, L.; Scheideler, M.; Meyer, P.; Harland, J.; Gorzen, A.; Wortmann, M.; Dreyer, A.; Ehrmann, A. Increasing adhesion of 3D printing on textile fabrics by polymer coating. Tekstilec 2018, 61, 265–271. [CrossRef] 77. Spahiu, T.; Grimmelsmann, N.; Ehrmann, A.; Piperi, E.; Shehi, E. Effect of 3D printing on textile fabric. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference “Engineering and Entrepreneurship”, Tirana, Albania, 11–17 November 2017. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 20 of 21

78. Grimmelsmann, N.; Kreuziger, M.; Korger, M.; Meissner, H.; Ehrmann, A. Adhesion of 3D printed material on textile substrates. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2018, 24, 166–170. [CrossRef] 79. Eutionnat-Diffo, P.A.; Chen, Y.; Guan, J.; Cayla, A.; Campagne, C.; Zeng, X.; Nierstrasz, V. Optimization of adhesion of poly lactic acid 3D printed onto polyethylene terephthalate woven fabrics through modelling using textile properties. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2019.[CrossRef] 80. Korger, M.; Bergschneider, J.; Lutz, M.; Mahltig, B.; Finsterbusch, K.; Rabe, M. Possible Applications of 3D Printing Technology on Textile Substrates. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 141, 012011. [CrossRef] 81. Loh, G.; Pei, E. Design for Material Extrusion on Mesh Fabrics. In Design; Brunel University Research Archive: London, UK, 2019; p. 12. 82. Grimmelsmann, N.; Meissner, H.; Ehrmann, A. 3D printed auxetic forms on knitted fabrics for adjustable permeability and mechanical properties. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 137, 012011. [CrossRef] 83. Mikkonen, J.; Myllymaki, R.; Kivioja, S.; Vanhakartano, S.; Suonsilta, H. Printed material and fabric. In Proceedings of the Nordic Design Research Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 27 February 2013. 84. Rivera, M.L.; Moukperian, M.; Ashbrook, D.; Mankoff, J.; Hudson, S.E. Stretching the Bounds of 3D Printing with Embedded Textiles. In Proceedings of the CHI ’17: Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Denver, CO, USA, 6–11 May 2017; pp. 497–508. 85. Ahrendt, D.; Karam, A.R.; Krzywinski, S. CAE-Supported process for additive manufacturing of orthopaedic devices. In Proceedings of the Aachen-Dresden-Denkendorf International Textile Conference, Dresden, Germany, 28–29 November 2019. 86. Ahrendt, D. Combination of additive manufacturing and textiles. In Carbon Composites Magazin Production & Processing; Carbon Composites e.V.: Augsburg, Germany, 2017. 87. Ahrendt, D.; Krzywinski, S.; Schmitt, F.; Krzywinski, J. Combination of Additive Manufacturing and Joining Processes for Novel Customized Orthopaedic Devices. In Proceedings of the Aachen-Dresden-Denkendorf International Textile Conference, Dresden, Germany, 24–25 November 2016. 88. Laperre, J. Additive manufacturing. In Newsletter for the Textile and Plastics Processing Industry Edition; Centexbel-VPC: Belgium, 2018. 89. Daviy, J. 4D Printing: Building Smart Fashion of the Future Today. Available online: https://juliadaviy.com/ 4d-printing-fashion-of-the-future/ (accessed on 22 July 2020). 90. Avinc, O.; Yildirim, F.F.; Yavas, A.; Kalayci, E. 3D Printing Technology and its Influences on the Textile Industry. Int. J. Ind. Electron. Electr. Eng. Bhubaneswar, India, 2017, 5, 37–43. 91. Radacsi, N.; Nuansing, W. Fabrication of 3D and 4D Polymer Micro- and Nanostructures Based on Electrospinning. In 3D and 4D Printing of Polymer Nanocomposite Materials; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Nederlands, 2020; pp. 191–229. [CrossRef] 92. Zapfel, D. How 3D Printing in the Textile Industry Is Leading Into a New Era; Lead Innov. Manag.: Wien, Austria, 2019. 93. Momeni, F.; Liu, X.; Ni, J. A review of 4D printing. Mater. Des. 2017, 122, 42–79. [CrossRef] 94. Pei, E. 4D Printing: Dawn of an emerging technology cycle. Assem. Autom. 2014, 34, 310–314. [CrossRef] 95. Schmelzeisen, D.; Koch, H.; Pastore, C.; Gries, T. Narrow and Smart Textiles. In 4D Textiles: Hybrid Textile Structures that Can Change Structural Form with Time by 3D Printing; Kyosev, Y., Mahltig, B., Schwarz-Pfeiffer, A., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018. 96. Joshi, S.; Rawat, K.; Karunakaran, C.; Rajamohan, V.; Mathew, A.T.; Koziol, K.; Thakur, V.K.; Balan, A.S.S. 4D printing of materials for the future: Opportunities and challenges. Appl. Mater. Today 2019, 100490. [CrossRef] 97. Joshi, A.; Goh, J.K.; Goh, K.E.J. Polymer-Based Conductive Composites for 3D and 4D Printing of Electrical Circuits. In 3D and 4D Printing of Polymer Nanocomposite Materials; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Nederlands, 2020; pp. 45–83. [CrossRef] 98. Bastian, A. Mesostructured Cellular Materials: Early Prototypes. Available online: http://www.thingiverse. com/thing:289650 (accessed on 24 February 2020). 99. Systems, N. Kinematics Collection. Available online: https://n-e-r-v-o-u-s.com/shop/line.php?code=15 (accessed on 24 February 2020). 100. Elmelegy, N.A. 3D Printing: The Future of Innovative Shapes and Materials in Women Fashion Design. Eurasian J. Anal. Chem. 2017, 13, 151–173. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5033 21 of 21

101. Tritech 3D Produce Large and Complex Elastomer Parts. Available online: https://www.tritech3d.co.uk/ materials/elastomer (accessed on 12 December 2019). 102. Mironova, V.S.; Parkb, M. Electroflocking technique in the fabrication and performance enhancement of fiber-reinforced polymer composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2000, 60, 927–933. [CrossRef] 103. Electroloom. Electroloom—The World’s First 3D Fabric Printer. 2016. Available online: https: //www.kickstarter.com/projects/electroloom/electroloom-the-worlds-first-3d-fabric-printer (accessed on 1 May 2020). 104. Mpofu, T.P.; Mawere, C.; Mukosera, M. The impact and application of 3D printing technology. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2014, 3, 2148–2152. 105. Lee, B.L.; Walsh, T.F.; Won, S.T.; Patts, H.M.; Song, J.W.; Mayer, A.H. Penetration Failure Mechanisms of Armor-Grade Fiber Composites under Impact. J. Compos. Mater. 2016, 35, 1605–1633. [CrossRef] 106. Pattinson, S.W.; Huber, M.E.; Kim, S.; Lee, J.; Grunsfeld, S.; Roberts, R.; Dreifus, G.; Meier, C.; Liu, L.; Hogan, N.; et al. Additive Manufacturing of Biomechanically Tailored Meshes for Compliant Wearable and Implantable Devices. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2019, 29, 1901815. [CrossRef] 107. McDonell, A. 3D Printing Could Serve as Solution for Ill-Fitted Clothing. Available online: http: //dailyorange.com/2015/01/fashion-3d-printingcould-serve-as-solution-for-ill-fitted-clothing/ (accessed on 12 December 2019). 108. Campbell, T.; Williams, C.; Ivanova, O.; Garrett, B. Could 3D Printing Change the World?: Technologies, Potential, and Implications of Additive Manufacturing; Atlantic Council: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. 109. Parker, C.J.; Wang, K.; Wang, Y.; Strandhagen, J.O.; Tao, Y. The Human Acceptance of 3D Printing in Fashion Paradox: Is Mass Customisation a Bridge too Far? WIT Press: Hampshire, UK, 2016. 110. Gebler, M.; Uiterkamp, A.J.M.S.; Visser, C. A global sustainability perspective on 3D printing technologies. Energy Policy 2014, 74, 158–167. [CrossRef] 111. Harding, X. Feed Your 3D Printer Recycled Plastic; PopSci: New York, NY, USA, 2016. 112. Zwart, B. How to Make Your Own Filament by Recycling Old 3D Prints; 2015. 113. Theme, A.W. 3D Printing: Know its Advantages and Disadvantages. Available online: https://blog. inktonestore.com/3d-printing-know-its-advantages-and-disadvantages/ (accessed on 12 December 2019). 114. Petrick, I.J.; Simpson, T.W. 3D Printing Disrupts Manufacturing: How Economies of One Create New Rules of Competition. Res. Technol. Manag. 2015, 56, 12–16. [CrossRef] 115. Thompson, C. The Rise of the DIY Consumer; CNBC: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 2015.

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).