The Relationship Between the Psychology of Religion and Buddhist Psychology

Home , Asian psychology, Buddhism and psychology

Japanese Psychological Research doi: 10.1111/jpr.12121 2016, Volume 58, No. Suppl. 1, 70–84 Commemoration of ICP2016 Review History of Psychology in Japan The Relationship between the Psychology of Religion and Buddhist Psychology

HIROKI KATO* Komazawa University

Abstract: The psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology have deep historical connections. However, there has been a lack of discourse between these ﬁelds of study. Therefore this paper focuses on the relationship between the psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology as well as the history and research trends of each ﬁeld. Recently, studies on the psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology have attracted attention based on the concepts of “spirituality” and “mindfulness.” More- over, there have been a number of psychotherapeutic techniques developed that are based on mindfulness meditation. The relationship between the psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology is complex and often the subject of confusion. The complexity results from the fact that Buddhism could be seen as an alternative to psychology in the analysis of the mind; and moreover, Buddhism also contains aspects of psychotherapy that bring peace of mind. Key words: psychology of religion, Buddhist psychology, spirituality, mindfulness.

Studies on the psychology of religion began at to Dharmapala: “Take my chair, and I shall sit almost the same time that the ﬁeld of psychol- with my students. You are better equipped to ogy itself was established as a science by lecture on psychology than I am.” Dharmapala prominent psychologists, such as Wilhelm outlined some elements of Buddhist doctrine, Wundt, William James, Stanley Hall, Sigmund after which James turned to his students and Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, and Gordon Allport, remarked, “This is the psychology everybody in the 18th century. However, after some ini- will be studying 25 years from now” (Guruge, tial studies during this period, research on the 1965, p. 681). However, James’ prediction did psychology of religion decreased dramatically not come to pass in such an immediate fashion. and there were very few notable studies for Nevertheless, in recent years, studies on the many years, in part due to the development of psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology J. B. Watson’s theories on behaviorism. have attracted attention, particularly in terms An important event in terms of Buddhist psy- of the concepts of “spirituality” and “mindful- chology was William James’ invitation to the ness.” For example, the name of American Psy- monk Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), chological Association (APA) division known as Father Dharmapala of Ceylon (now 36, “Psychology of Religion,” was renamed Sri Lanka), to speak to one of James’ classes “The Society for the Psychology of Religion when Dharmapala was in attendance at Har- and Spirituality” in 2012. Even in non-religious vard University in December 1903. James said areas of psychological study, there is attention

*Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to: Hiroki Kato, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Letters, Komazawa University, Komazawa, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 154-8525, Japan. (E-mail: katohiro@ komazawa-u.ac.jp)

© 2016 Japanese Psychological Association. Published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. The psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology 71 being paid to these ideas. For example, the An empirical study of the growth of religious January 2015 issue of Developmental Psychol- consciousness by Edwin Diller Starbuck, a stu- ogy was a special edition entitled “Mindfulness dent of William James and Stanley Hall and Compassion in Human Development.” (Starbuck, 1899). In this book, Starbuck pre- Moreover, since the late 1980s, a number of sented results from questionnaire surveys he psychotherapies mainly or partly making use of conducted of religious phenomena in which he mindfulness meditation have been developed; asked respondents about their age of conver- these are discussed in more detail later in the sion, their motivation for conversion, and their article. Mindfulness meditation is originally a mental and physical conditions at the time technique unique to Theravada Buddhism they adopted a new religion. The results were (Southern Buddhism) and was used to attain summarized in 13 figures and 32 tables. This peace of mind. Until the 1970s, Zen Buddhism book contributed greatly to the field, as it was the main interest of study in the United demonstrated that it was possible to quantify States and Europe among persons interested religious feelings and experiences through in Oriental thinking and techniques related questionnaires using psychological methods. to psychology. After this initial inquiry into In contrast, William James used documents, Zen and its relationship to psychology, which such as biographies, autobiographies, and dia- further included studies on the physiological ries, recording religious experiences; he also psychology of Zen, attention began to be found information on this topic from books, focused on mindfulness meditation. In those letters, magazines and press clippings. James days, few studies had addressed this topic. then detailed these religious phenomena, add- Even when looking at events solely in Japa- ing some of his own mystical experiences in his nese Buddhist psychology, one can see remark- book, The varieties of religious experience: A able developments in the research environment study in human nature (James, 1902). This in recent years. One is the foundation of the book of qualitative research and Starbuck’s Japanese Association for the Study of Bud- volume of quantitative reporting represent two dhism and Psychology in 2008, and in line with of the most remarkable studies on the psychol- this, the encyclopedia Keywords for Buddhism ogy of religion in terms of scale and quality. and psychology was published (Inoue, Kasai, & Moreover, Stanley Hall’s books, Adoles- Kato, 2012). Another important development cence: Its psychology and its relations to physi- was the establishment of the Japanese Associa- ology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime and tion of Mindfulness in 2013. These events show religion and education (Hall, 1904) and Jesus, a trend in letting research develop as an the Christ, in the light of psychology (Hall, evidence-based approach independent from 1917), also contributed greatly to the field dur- study based in a particular religious or sectarian ing this period. area. However, so far, there has been less inter- In this way, the study of psychology of reli- change or discussion between the fields of psy- gion originated with studies examining individ- chology of religion and Buddhist psychology. ual personality before and after conversion, Therefore this article focuses on the relation- the development of religious faith, and atti- ship between the psychology of religion and tudes towards Christianity. However, modern Buddhist psychology, taking into account the research on the psychology of religion has histories and research trends of both fields. mainly concerned topics connected to Bud- dhism, in particular mindfulness meditation, discussed later in this article. The percentage Beginnings of the Psychology of of Buddhist worshippers in the United States Religion is estimated to be approximately 3,000,000 people, a 15-fold increase over the past The term “psychology of religion” was first 30 years (Tanaka, 2010). Reasons for a shift in used in the book, The psychology of religion: emphasis in the psychology of religion from

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. 72 H. Kato primarily focusing on Christianity to including expectations for psychologists to reveal human Buddhism and other religions range from factors from other academic fields. Psycholo- increased interest in Asian thought and prac- gists can often only reveal scientific aspects of tice to criticism of materialism in the United human nature through experiments using psy- States. Moreover, the increase in mindfulness chological methodology to elucidate a cause practice may reflect a desire among individuals and effect relationship or employ a survey to not to be constrained by privatized religion. show correlations between various psychological phenomena. Therefore, conclusions based Differences between the Psychology of on quantitative data are considered to be sig- Religion in the Field of the Study of nificant in psychological research. In contrast Religion and the Study of Psychology to traditional psychological study, in the psy- The study of the psychology of religion, in chology of religion, this call for strict method- fact, is an interdisciplinary field consisting of ology does not pose the same problems. the study of religion and the study of psychol- Research done on the psychology of religion ogy. Unfortunately, both approaches have had seeks to gain a greater understanding of the little interaction with one another. Some rea- human factors in religious phenomena, and sons for the lack of dialogue between these not focus on social, cultural, geographical, or two areas are firstly, that both approaches historical factors (see Figure 1). Therefore, in may have a common goal, but their methods the psychology of religion, religious scholars are different. One factor here is that the are not bound by specific research methods, as results of psychological studies on religion psychologists. What is popular in the under- using experimental or questionnaire methods standing and interpreting of human factors in are often very technical, so a limited number natural religious phenomena are the theories of people can understand and adopt results and principles taken from the psychoanalytical found in research using psychological method- approach, the psychopathological approach, ology. Another reason is that there is a gap or and the qualitative psychological approach. estrangement between the contribution to psy- Specifically, the object relational approach and chology of religion by psychologists and the the Jungian approach have led to some

Comparative Religion Clinical/Counseling Psychology

Sociology of Religion Traffic Psychology Psychology Religious Anthropology of Health Psychology

Religious Folklore Religion Criminal Psychology

Geography of Religion Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Science of religion Applied Psychology in the field of the study of religion in the field of the study of psychology

Psychoanalytical approach Experimental approach Psychopathological approach Survey approach Qualitative psychological approach

Figure 1 Psychology of religion in the ﬁelds related to religion and psychology.

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. The psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology 73 original views on psychology and spirituality the psychology of religion, examining the work (Jones, 1991; Pargament, 2013, pp. 147–168; of psychologists as well as social scientists, phi- Spiegelman & Miyuki, 1985). losophers and clergy; however, there is no Sugiyama (2001) summarized Japanese analysis of Buddhism in his work. research on the psychology of religion. She describes both the psychology of religion in Development of the Psychology of religious studies and the study of religion in Religion in Terms of the Keywords psychology. Her work examines the back- “Spirituality” and “Mindfulness” ground of religious circumstances and contains Recently the keywords “spirituality” and a detailed review and list of books and journal “mindfulness” have become common in the articles concerning psychology and religion in study of the psychology of religion. In January each era. Sugiyama noted that the main pro- 1998, the following draft amendment of the blems of the study on psychology of religion definition of “health” was submitted to the are found in both the research itself and the 101st World Health Organization Executive researchers. In both cases these were seen to Board meeting. The results were 22 votes of be problems with methodology. Kaneko agreement, 0 objections, and 8 votes of absten- (2001a) recounts the methodology of psychol- tions. “Health is a dynamic state of complete ogy of religion in detail; the author insists that physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being a combination of both laboratory experiments and not merely the absence of disease or infir- and quasi-experimental research is desirable mity” (Ministry of Health, Labour and Wel- and notes the lack of theoretical background fare, 1999). It should be noted that the words and the questionable validity of data as rea- “dynamic” and “spiritual” in the definition sons for a lag in the study on the psychology above were added to the text during the Exec- of religion. Imada (1947), Matsumoto (1979) utive Board meeting. and Kaneko (2001b) have all written books Additionally the 36th division of the APA, outlining the psychology of religion. The dif- which covers issues of religion and psychology ference between the psychology of religion in and became an official part of the APA in religious studies and the study of psychology 1976, has undergone numerous name changes. was previously documented in Matsumoto It was first called “The American Catholic (1979). Kaneko (2001b) is a more recent book Psychological Association” in 1949 when it outlining the psychology of religion. The was created as a separate group. It was author looks at both similarities and differ- renamed as “Psychologists Interested in Reli- ences in religion and spirituality, the main sub- gious Issues” in 1970, then “Psychology of ject of debate being whether spirituality and Religion” in 1993, and finally in 2012, “The religion are the same thing or essentially differ- Society for the Psychology of Religion and ent issues. Although this debate is not settled, Spirituality” (Piedmont, 2013). Here we can Kaneko states it is necessary to make a clear see the key term “spirituality” has become an definition of spirituality and there is greater essential part of recent views on the psychol- need for social contribution in this area. The ogy of religion. APA Handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality is widely circulated, and the pro- The trends of the psychotherapies using blems with the psychology of religion have mindfulness meditation. The term “mind- been well documented (Pargament, 2013). fulness” has gained common usage in the field However, there have only been a few articles of the psychology of religion. Beginning in the published on Buddhism covering areas such as late 1980s, some new psychotherapeutic tech- Zen, the Jodo-Shin sect, the Nichiren school, niques using “mindfulness” meditation were the Tendai sect and the Shingon esoteric sect developed. Ron Kurtz (1934–2011) developed (Pargament, 2013). For example, Wuff (1996) Hakomi therapy in the early 1980s. This might stated the classic and contemporary views of be the first type of psychotherapy that applied

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. 74 H. Kato mindfulness meditation in conjunction with is a detriment as it reinforces negative feelings. Buddhism with Loving Presence and thera- In contrast, mindfulness thinking seeks to cre- peutic physical exercise. ate a feeling of well-being without evaluation A landmark in psychotherapy using the con- and acts to free individuals from automatic cept of mindfulness is Jon Kabat-Zinn’s thought. As a result, it has been said that Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) mindfulness is the keyword of the next genera- in 1979, which was developed at the Univer- tion of psychotherapy, as it lacks the above sity of Massachusetts Medical Center (Kabat- adverse effects. Zinn, 1990). This book will be remembered as Zindel V. Segal, J. Mark G. Williams and the publication that first introduced the con- John D. Teasdale studied mindfulness medita- cept called “mindfulness” to cognitive behav- tion under Kabat-Zinn and subsequently ior therapy. MBSR began as an alternative developed Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Ther- medicine for chronic pain and during its first apy (MBCT) in 1987 (Segal, Williams, & Teas- decade of use achieved reduction of various dale, 2002). This program is effective in symptoms, which has been documented in prevention of reoccurring depression. clinical research. MBSR contains 8 weeks of Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), devel- Buddhist mindfulness meditation; however, oped by Marsha M. Linehan, uses techniques the program uses a scientific approach and from both mindfulness meditation and psycho- therefore is regarded as evidence-based cogni- analytical therapy (Linehan, 1987). Similarly, tive behavior therapy. Clients still continued Mark Epstein integrated the use of Buddhism daily meditation after finishing the 8 weeks and psychoanalysis in coping with trauma in his program. Therefore the MBSR program book Thoughts without a thinker: Psychotherapy became not simply an application of medita- from a Buddhist perspective (Epstein, 1995). tion technique for therapy but rather a part of Osamu Ando sought to combine Buddhism and these individuals’ lifestyle. Because the three transpersonal psychiatry (Ando, 1993), and also important symbols of Buddhism—Buddha, indicated that Buddhism could be used as psy- teachings of Buddha and Buddhist monks—do chotherapy (Ando, 2003). David Brazier first not appear in this practice, clients may not looked at these topics in his book Zen therapy feel a religious connection on this program. (D. Brazier, 1995). Subsequently he combined However, according to an instructor, clients psychotherapy, early Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, maintaining a daily meditation practice may and Jodo-shin (pure land) Buddhism and constitute the modern face of Buddhism. That founded the Amida Trust as a charity group in is, this is a practice of engaged Buddhism for England, and the activities of this group have members of society who do not choose to reached Spain, Canada and Korea. In the same become monks. This is reflected in the For- vein, Caroline Brazier published a book entitled ward to the book by Thich Nhat Hanh, who Buddhist psychology: Liberate your mind, used the term “engaged Buddhism” for the embrace life (C. Brazier, 2003). first time. In 1999, Steven C. Hayes developed The action mechanism of mindfulness is Acceptance & Commitment Therapy (ACT), complex and paradoxical. The second wave of based on behavior therapy and applied behav- cognitive behavior therapy aims to change ior analysis. Later, Hayes and his colleges pub- cognitions of irrational beliefs like “there is no lished Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding excuse for failure” or “don’t do it unless it is the cognitive-behavioral tradition (Hayes, Foll- perfect.” However, changing one’s cognition ette, & Linehan, 2011). in this manner often means remembering a These modern psychotherapies using mind- past trauma and causing a rehearsal of that fulness meditation are known as the third memory, which may cause an unconscious wave of cognitive behavior therapies, follow- automatic reaction when remembering trag- ing the second wave of cognitive behavior edy. In this case, the psychological treatment therapy, which did not include mindfulness,

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. The psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology 75 and the first wave of behavior therapy, which were laid down by Gautama Buddha about applied respondent and operant conditioning. 2,500 years ago. At least since the era of sec- The third wave of cognitive behavior therapy tional Buddhism (Abhidharma Buddhism), has a common point of watching one’s feelings this Buddhist psychology has been the subject plainly and not adding any evaluation by using of professional study by monks. This ancient mindfulness. Buddhist psychology is still learned and prac- However, psychotherapy integrating early ticed primarily in Theravada Buddhism. Buddhist concepts or other Oriental thinking The middle era of Mahayanist Buddhism, and practices does not have a deep history in which took place from about the 3rd to 5th Asia. Zen therapies based on the study of century BC, was a period when another Zen psychology by Yoshiharu Akishige ancient Buddhist psychology, known as (1904–1979) and Koji Sato (1905–1971) were Vijñanav ada (consciousness-only doctrine put forward, but were not widely adopted in Buddhism), gained popularity. The concept of Japan. Buddhist counseling originated by 阿頼耶識 alaya-vijñ ana in this type of Bud- Toshio Kikawa urging persons not to depend dhist teaching is often compared to the idea of on denomination as well as Jodo-Shin (Pure the unconscious in psychoanalysis. Land) counseling developed by Gisho Saiko In contrast, modern psychological studies on (1925–2004) were both advocated but gained Buddhism, which represent a new type of only slight popularity. The most popular Buddhist psychology, began at almost the method of psychotherapy based on Buddhism same time as psychology itself began to be has been Naikan therapy, which uses intro- studied in Japan. Yujiro Motora (1858–1912) spection applying Jodo-Shin Buddhism and is considered to be the first modern psycholo- was developed by Ishin Yoshimoto gist in Japan, and he also studied under Stan- (1916–1988). Naikan therapy is used by coun- ley Hall. Motora had a chance to experience selors in correctional institutions, educators Zen meditation under the Zen master Shaku looking to address attendance problems, doc- Soen (1860–1919) at the Engaku-ji Temple of tors and psychologists specializing in alcohol the Rinzai Zen sect in Kamakura. Thereafter dependence, as well as by individuals who he described his personal experience of this desire deeper introspection. Zen practice through the psychological Masatake Morita’s (1874–1938) Morita ther- method of introspection developed by Wundt apy has been said to be influenced by Zen in his Sanzen niishi [A diary of practicing Zen Buddhism (Kora & Sato, 1958). His pupil, Usa meditation] (Kato, 2014; Motora, 1895). This Shinichi (1927–), subsequently combined Mor- text detailed the process in which one gains a ita therapy and Zen Buddhist concepts (Usa, small enlightenment in Zen meditation with a 2004). Currently, Morita therapy is also popu- koan, which in the Rinzai Zen sect is a riddle lar in China as can be seen from the establish- with no solution. Later Motora presented “An ment of the China Congress of Morita essay on Eastern philosophy (Idea of ego in Therapy and the Morita Foundation Eastern philosophy)” at the 5th International (Wen, 1997). Congress of Psychology in Rome, Italy (Motora, 1905). Tomosada Iritani (1887–1957), who was a Buddhist Psychology government official in the Ministry of Educa- Buddhist psychology has a very long history. tion, and later a professor at Komazawa Uni- Its beginnings date back to the classification of versity, a school run by the Soto Zen sect, was the mind as 五蘊 pañcak-khandha in the Pali the first person to conduct an investigation on language: the five aggregates (色 rupa: body enlightenment in Zen Buddhism using a ques- or physical phenomenon; 受 vedana: sensa- tionnaire in a fashion similar to that done by Á tion; 想 sañña: perception; 行 sankhara: men- Starbuck (1899). Iritani (1920) investigated the tal fashionings; and 識 viññanÁ a: consciousness) mental and physical conditions of respondents

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. 76 H. Kato before they stated they reached enlightenment Thus, we can see that scientific psychological and then surveyed physical and psychological studies on Buddhism have focused almost changes, including different intellectual, emo- exclusively on Zen Buddhism. tional and expressed aspects, in the respondents after they reached enlightenment. His methods comprised a questionnaire given to Buddhist psychology or other oriental 43 out of 345 Zen practitioners and interviews philosophies by modern philosophers and with 15 Zen monks at the local temples; addi- psychologists. In addition, there have been tionally, he included an interpretation of Bud- a number of modern philosophers and psy- dhist sermons, Zen sayings, and Zen speeches chologists devoted to early Buddhist psychol- in order to present a greater understanding of ogy or other oriental philosophies. Enryo – enlightenment for ancient and modern Zen Inoue (1858 1919) is one such philosopher; he monks and a detailed picture of practice in a published a large number of books in the fi Zen meditation hall. elds of basic and applied psychology on a The first attempt to apply a physiological variety of topics, including dreams, sleep and approach, including respiratory movement and hypnosis, altered states of consciousness, opti- whole body exercise, to Zen meditation was cal illusions, mnemonics, heredity, intelligence, made by Noboru Ohtsuka (1905–1989) under personality, parapsychology and psychother- the direction of professor Ryo Kuroda apy (Toyo University, Inoue Enryo Memorial (1890–1947) at Keijo Imperial University (now Center, 1999). However, Inoue was concerned Seoul University in Korea; Kuroda, 1937, not only with these concepts taken from West- pp. 57–113). More recently, Tomio Hirai ern psychology but was also interested in the (1927–1993) and his teacher Akira Kasamatsu subject of oriental psychology, writing two conducted a famous study using electroence- books, Oriental psychology (Inoue, 1894) and phalographic measurement during Zen medi- Buddhist psychology (Inoue, 1897), as well as “ ” tation (Hirai, 1960; Kasamatsu & Hirai, 1963), an article entitled Psychology of Zen-sect and this research was initially based on a (Inoue, 1893) on this topic. In Oriental psy- hypothesis by the psycholinguist Kanae chology (Inoue, 1894), he argued that this type Sakuma (1888–1970). Hirai also considered of psychology is a comparative study of the Zen to be a method for psychotherapy (Hirai, theories of different philosophies, such as 1975). Taniguchi (1992) conducted an over- SamÁ khya (one of the six schools of classical view of psychophysiological approaches to Indian philosophy that created the idea of meditation in Japan. Taniguchi insists that it is dualism), VaisesÁika (one of the six schools of necessary to pursue long-term change in order classical Indian philosophy that sought to to measure the effect of ascetic practices. Chi- explain the real world through natural philoso- hara (1989) revealed an underestimation of phy) and Buddhism. However, in this book, in time in looking at Zen meditation, insisting terms of Buddhist thought, he only described that we should consider the body rhythm, the Abhidharma-kosa-Abhidharma Buddhism influence of the circadian rhythm in the physi- developed by 世親 Vasubandhu (c. 320–c. 400). ological measurement, during Zen meditation. Subsequently, Ryo Kuroda, an animal Unfortunately, these findings have not been psychologist, planned a trilogy of books on incorporated into the study of mindfulness. oriental psychology: Vijñanav ada psychology Finally, as of the year 2000, there were more (consciousness-only school), History of Chinese than 707 books and journal articles, excluding psychological thoughts and Zen psychology abstracts of the presentations at annual psy- (Kuroda, 1944; Ohtsuka, 1948, pp. 450–457). chological conferences, published on the sub- However the third book, Zen psychology, was ject of Zen psychology (Kato, 2002). An never completed. article by Kato (2005) presents a detailed Koji Sato (1905–1971) began the publication overview of this research on Zen psychology. of the journal, Psychologia: An International

Journal of Psychology in the Orient in 1957 the study of religion as a science. The study of with the aim of providing a channel between religion as a science in a narrow sense means the East and the West in cooperation with viewing religion through a scientific perspec- Asian psychologists (Sato, 1957). Jerome tive and includes not only the psychology of S. Bruner (1915–), a “New Look” psychologist, religion but also comparative religion, the Erich S. Fromm (1900–1980), a Neo-Freudian, sociology of religion, religious anthropology, and Wolfgang Metzger (1899–1979), a Gestalt religious folklore, the geography of religion, psychologist, contributed to this journal. A con- the ecology of religion, and so on. versation and letter between Carl G. Jung In this classification, ancient Buddhist psy- (1875–1961) and Shin-ichi Hisamatsu chology as handed down by Guatama Buddha (1889–1980), a Buddhist philosopher, were also and his followers is located in the same posi- included (Bruner, 1959; Fromm, 1959,1967; tion as Christian theology (Figure 2, upper Jung, 1960; Jung & Hisamatsu, 1968; Metzger, left). But because Buddhist psychology Murphy, Nuttin, & Russell, 1971). involves analyzing the mind itself, as men- In 1972, Yoshiharu Akishige (1904–1979) tioned above, ancient Buddhist psychology commented on Asian psychology at the 20th will involve a part of the philosophy of religion International Congress of Psychology in (Figure 2, lower left). Modern psychological Tokyo, Japan (Akishige, 1973). He spoke studies on Buddhism are located in the lower about Persian psychology, Hindu psychology, right position of Figure 2. Moreover, Kasai Chinese psychology, and Zen psychology. (2011) regards Buddhist psychology as a Seirou Kitamura (1908–2005) investigated movement focusing on the interchange holistic psychology, Vijñanav ada psychology between Buddhism and psychology and psy- (consciousness-only school), karma and self- chotherapy, similar to the psychology and reli- lessness (Kitamura, 2001). gion movement outlined by Homans (1987). Therefore, the third course of Buddhist psy- The Relationship between the chology will be an interchange between Bud- Psychology of Religion and Buddhist dhism and psychology and psychotherapy, Psychology such as in socially engaged Buddhism pre- Belzen and Hood (2006) indicated the rela- sented by Thich Nhat Hanh, a Vietnamese tionship between the psychology of religion monk. In short, there are three types of Bud- and general psychology. They also outlined dhist psychology. First, ancient and middle three types of research. The first type limits Mahayana Buddhist psychology by Guatama itself to using or adapting standard research Buddha and his monks; second, modern psy- methods (such as questionnaires, scales, tests, chological studies on Buddhism; and third, the and experiments). The second type includes movement involving an interchange of research methods from a broader social- research and practice between Buddhists and scientific range generally used in sociology and psychologists or psychotherapists. This last anthropology (such as interviews, observation, ethnographies, and biographical analysis). The Subjective Standpoint Objective Standpoint third type relies on data and insights from other disciplines (such as history, theology, lit- (Christian) Theology History of Religion erature, and cultural studies). Religion Philosophy of Specifically in the psychology of religion, Science of Religion Religion the study of religion is, in a wide sense, Study of Religion divided into four groups as shown in Figure 2 as a Science (Kishimoto, 1961, p. 8, Figure 2 adapted by Study of Religion the author). Kishimoto also referred to the Figure 2 Classification of the study of religion as a study of religion in a narrow sense (Figure 2, science (Kishimoto, 1961, p. 8, this figure adapted by lower right). Figure 2 shows this concept of the author).

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. 78 H. Kato type calls for a contribution to society through religion in such moves as The American Cath- psychology, psychotherapy, and Buddhism. I olic Psychological Association being renamed would rather the recent movement and social as The Society for the Psychology of Religion contribution involving the interchange of Bud- and Spirituality. Originally, meditation itself dhism and psychology or psychotherapy be has carried a psychological element, as it called “Buddhism-based psychology” to distin- employs first-person psychology through intro- guish it from the ancient and middle Maha- spection. That is why meditation has become yana Buddhist psychology (see Figure 3). The not only a simple effective clinical technique clinical application and social support of mind- but also may influence psychological method- fulness must be involved in Buddhist-based ology in future. However, the basic use of psychology. The efforts of supporting people meditation techniques, without a deeper reli- in this, the psychological aspect from each sect gious connection, may have a limit. To lose of Buddhism, will define what should be the religious context may indicate this type of known as Buddhist-based psychology. meditation has a small effect on those who At a minimum, mindfulness meditation in practice it and the increase in meditation is a early Buddhism has begun to have a great boom that will soon subside. Therefore, quan- influence on the field of the psychology of reli- titative or empirical approaches should be gion, which is now unable to be ignored and is used to investigate mindfulness meditation in gaining wider recognition. Similarly, mindful- order to assess the motivations behind indivi- ness meditation has even been used recently duals using this technique. At the same time, in company training and has begun to have a it is desirable to perform measurements exam- large influence on daily life (Hanh, 2015). As ining the effectiveness of spiritual practice on for the study of religious techniques, such as the cognitive style and subjective well-being mindfulness, there need not be an emphasis for persons in different religious sects without on faith, doctrine, and religious background. regard to technique. To do this, it is necessary We can see that in the future, spirituality will to present and publish data collected from play a much larger part in the psychology of studies on each religion or each sect in English

Psychology

Psychotherapy

Vijñanavada buddhist Psychology (Consciousness-only School)

Ancient Buddhist Psychology

Buddhism- Based Psychology

Psychological Aspects in Society

Figure 3 Classiﬁcation of the study of Buddhism-based psychology.

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. The psychology of religion and Buddhist psychology 79 so that this information can be shared across known as the “Society for the Study of Psy- different countries. Dudley-Grant, Bankart, chology of Religion” was established within and Dockett (2003) raised the possibility that the Japanese Psychological Association in Buddhism contributes to alleviation of suffer- 2003, and workshops or open calls for partici- ing at the individual, community, and global pant symposiums have been performed at levels after events such as the 9/11 attacks in annual conferences since that time. In fact, New York, and proposed that this could have there are some societies for the study of reli- a positive effect on Buddhist practice. gion, oriental thought, and Buddhism else- Figure 4 shows the relationship between psy- where in Japan. The Japanese Psychological chology of religion, Buddhist psychology and Association (established in 1927), the Japan psychological study of mindfulness meditation. Association of Applied Psychology (1931), the If Buddhism in itself has a function that allows Japanese Association for Humanistic Psychol- for self-analysis and brings peace of mind, ogy (1982), the Japan Transpersonal Associa- Buddhism could be seen as a type of alterna- tion (1996), and the Japan Association for tive psychology, such as ﬁrst-person psychol- Transpersonal Psychology/Psychiatry (1998) ogy, which employs introspection. Futhermore, do not have formal objections to presentations it could be said that Buddhism carries aspects on the study of the psychology of religion or of self-psychotherapy. For these reasons, the Buddhist psychology. relationship between the psychology of reli- In terms of specialized groups devoted to gion and Buddhist psychology is complex and the study of religious aspects of psychology, subject to confusion. both the Japanese Society of the Transna- tional Network for the Study of Physical, Research Organization on the Psychological and Spiritual Well-being (1989) Psychology of Religion and Buddhist and the Association for Oriental Philosophy Psychology and Psychotherapy (1999) were active or still There is not yet an independent society for are in this area. Above all, the former func- the psychology of religion in Japan, whereas tions as a network between researchers who in the APA, there is a formally dependent and are involved in the study or practice of ori- functionally independent division called “The ental religion or philosophy as individuals in Society for the Psychology of Religion and both foreign and domestic locales. The foun- Spirituality.” However, a dependent group dation of such societies or groups, their

Psychology of Religion Psychology of Religion

In the Field of the Study of Religion In the Field of the Study of Psychology

Early Psychological Study of Buddhist Psychology Mindfulness Meditation

Figure 4 The relationship between psychology of religion, Buddhist psychology and psychological study of mindfulness meditation.

Table 1 Societies or groups, conferences and publications Year founded Society and conference Publications and special issues in other journals

1905 Yujiro Motora, “An essay on Eastern philosophy: Idea of ego in Eastern philosophy,” 5th International Congress of Psychology, Rome, Italy 1957 Erich Fromm, Daisetsu Suzuki, & Koji Sato, Publication of “Psychologia: Richard De Martino “Zen Buddhism and An International Journal of Psychology Psychoanalysis,” Cuernavaca, Mexico in the Orient”, Kyoto University 1958 Zen philosopher Shinichi Hisamatsu of Kyoto University pays a personal visit to Carl G. Jung in Zürich, Switzerland 1959 Special Issues in Psychologia: Psychotherapies in East and West 1960 “Psychology and the self” 1961 “The problem of unconsciousness” “Self” 1977 Akishige, Y. (Ed.). Psychology of Zen I. Psychological studies on Zen I. Komazawa University. Tokyo: Maruzen. Akishige, Y. (Ed.). Psychology of Zen II. Psychological studies on Zen II. Komazawa University. Tokyo: Maruzen. 1979 Jon Kabat-Zinn’s mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program was developed at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center 1989 Shoji Nakamura and Yutaka Haruki, the foundation of the Japanese Society of the Transnational Network for the Study of Physical, Psychological and Spiritual Well-being and yearly workshop or symposium at the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association 1992 Special Issue: “Eastern techniques for mental and physical health around the world” and “Eastern approaches to mental and physical health,” in Japanese Health Psychology, 1(1) “Psychology of Oriental practice,” in Japanese Psychological Review, 35 1998 “Gathering to regard the point of contact between Buddhism, Psychology and Psychotherapy,” Kofuku-ji, Nara, Japan 1999 Kouzo Shimosaka, the foundation of the Association for Oriental Philosophy and Psychotherapy Polly Young-Eisendrath and Shoji Muramoto, the “Zen Buddhism and

Table 1 Continued Year founded Society and conference Publications and special issues in other journals

psychotherapy conference,” Myoshin- ji in Kyoto and Rinsoin in Shizuoka, Japan 2002 Special Issue: Psychological approach to Buddhism. In Japanese Journal of Transpersonal Psychology/Psychiatry 2003 The foundation of the Society for the Study of Psychology of Religion and yearly workshop or symposium at the Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association 2005 Special Issue: “New currents of Zen and Modern Psychology I,” in Japanese Journal of Transpersonal Psychology/ Psychiatry 2006 Dale Mathers, Melvin E. Miller and Osamu Ando, the “Kyoto 2006 conference on self and no-self in psychotherapy and Buddhism,” Hanazono University, Kyoto, Japan 2007 Special Issue: “New currents of Zen and Modern Psychology II,” in Japanese Journal of Transpersonal Psychology/ Psychiatry 2008 Vimala Inoue, Moriya Okano and Kenneth Tanaka, general meeting for the establishment of “Japanese Association of Buddhism and Psychology,” Musashino University, Tokyo, Japan 2010 Journal of the Japanese Association for the Study of Buddhism and Psychology in the Japanese Association for the Study of Buddhism and Psychology The book of Keywords for Buddhism and psychology 2014 Fusako Koshikawa, the foundation of the “Japanese Association of Mindfulness,” Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

main academic conferences, and any publica- associations on Oriental thought and spiritual tions or special issues are shown in Table 1. technique in Japan. Additionally, since many One reason for the delay in establishing reli- sects of Buddhism have existed and thrived gion associations in Japan as compared to the simultaneously in Japan, each sect has made United States may be because the primary efforts to help people in their own way. How- religions in Japan are Shinto and Buddhism. ever, there has not been a movement toward However, this fact has led to a variety of original elements of Buddhism, such as

© Japanese Psychological Association 2016. 82 H. Kato mindfulness. Meanwhile, since the establish- Buddhist practitioners and psychologists ment of the Japanese Association of Mindful- might have areas in common that would ben- ness, this organization has seemed to focus on efit from interchange of ideas. It is assumed, applying meditation as a clinical technique and as Akishige (1973) noted, that future psycho- excluding the characteristics of faith and reli- logical research will examine oriental religions gious rituals. On the other hand, the Japanese and practices, such as Persian psychology, Association for the Study of Buddhism and Hindu psychology, Confucian psychology, and Psychology appears to focus on combining the Taoist psychology. Therefore, interchange psychological and religious in the various sects. between societies or groups studying both the One positive aspect of the establishment of psychology of religion and Buddhist psychol- societies or groups exclusively devoted to the ogy will greatly help members of these groups study of the psychology of religion or Buddhist gain greater understanding of their own areas psychology is that these groups help promote of focus. This type of interchange should a deeper discussion of issues related to both comprise exchange of information, collabora- religion and psychology. However, there are tion at symposiums, as well as knowledge also some drawbacks. One problem is that an sharing through encyclopedias, dictionaries, increase in the number of these organizations bibliographies or reviews. Moreover this type may force researchers to belong to many of interchange will allow researchers to sys- societies in order to follow the trends of each tematize or visualize a comprehensive picture group; this may prove to be time-consuming of research in each domain. The relationship and a financial burden. Additionally, a larger between the psychology of religion and Bud- number of specialized societies may inhibit dhist psychology is complex, and as noted sharing of the knowledge if no efforts are above, can also be the subject of confusion. made to promote intentional interchanges. Moreover, Buddhism might be considered an Multiple groups might also result in the need- alternative form of psychological analysis, less duplication or overlap of study and such as first-person psychology, as Buddhism research activities. One solution would be to has elements of psychotherapy that allow it to make an umbrella design in the Japanese Psy- bring us peace of mind. chological Association for integrating these groups. References

Akishige, Y. (1973). Asia Shinrigaku no tokushitsu Conclusion to konnichiteki igi [Characteristic and contem- fi The study of the psychological aspects of reli- porary signi cance in Asian psychology]. Asahi Asia Review, 4,80–86. (In Japanese, translated gions, such as Christianity and Buddhism, by the author of this article.) began at the end of the 19th century; this Ando, O. (1993). Psychiatry of meditation: An intro- type of research was known as either the psy- duction to transpersonal psychiatry. Tokyo: chology of religion or Buddhist psychology, Shunjusha Publishing Company. (In Japanese.) depending on the area of focus, and used psy- Ando, O. (2003). Buddhism as psychiatry: Psycho- chology, which was at the time a new scien- logical approach to zen meditation and Bud- tific methodology. Because research on the dhism. Kyoto: Hozokan. (In Japanese.) Belzen, J. A., & Hood, R. W. (2006). Methodologi- psychology of religion and Buddhist psychol- cal issues in the psychology of religion: Toward ogy developed separately, there was not a another paradigm? Journal of Psychology, great deal of interchange between these 140,5–28. fields. If researchers in these domains had Brazier, C. (2003). Buddhist psychology: Liberate been familiar with the research trends in both your mind, embrace life. London: Constable & fields, each of these areas of study might have Robinson. Brazier, D. (1995). Zen therapy. London: Constable. developed more quickly. Similarly, because Buddhism itself has a psychological element,

Bruner, J. S. (1959). The art of ambiguity: A conver- Inoue, V., Kasai, K., & Kato, H. (Eds.). (2012). Key- sation with Zen master Hisamatsu. Psychologia, words for Buddhism and psychology. Tokyo: 2, 101–106. Shunjusha. (In Japanese.) Chihara, T. (1989). Zen meditation and time-experi- Iritani, T. (1920). Zen no shinriteki kenkyu [Psycho- ence. Psychologia, 32, 211–220. logical study on Zen]. Tokyo: Shinrigaku Ken- Dudley-Grant, G. R., Bankart, C. P., & kyukai Shuppanbu. (In Japanese, translated by Dockett, H. K. (Eds.). (2003). Psychology and the author of this article.) Buddhism: From individual to global commu- James, W. (1902). The varieties of religious experi- nity. London: Springer. ence: A study in human nature. London: Long- Epstein, M. (1995). Thoughts without a thinker: Psy- mans, Green. chotherapy from a Buddhist perspective. Jones, J. W. (1991). Contemporary psychoanalysis New York: Basic Books. and religion: Transference and transcendence. Fromm, E. (1959). Psychoanalysis and Zen Bud- London: Yale University Press. dhism. Psychologia, 2,79–100. Jung, C. G. (1960). On the conversation with Fromm, E. (1967). Memories of Dr. D. T. Suzuki. Dr. Hisamatsu: Letter to the translator. Psycho- Psychologia, 10, 118–120. logia, 3, 82. Guruge, A. (Ed.). (1965). Return to righteousness: A Jung, C. G., & Hisamatsu, S. (1968). On the uncon- collection of speeches, essays and letters of the Ana- scious, the self and the therapy: A dialogue. garika Dharmapala. Ceylon: Government Press. Psychologia, 11,25–32. Hall, S. (1904). Adolescence: Its psychology and its Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using relations to physiology, anthropology, sociology, the wisdom of your body and mind to face sex, crime and religion and education. stress, pain, and illness.NewYork:Delacorte New York: Appleton. Press. Hall, S. (1917). Jesus, the Christ, in the light of psy- Kaneko, S. (2001a). Methods of researching religion chology. New York: Doubleday. in psychology. Studies in the Humanities, Osaka Hanh, T. N. (2015). Intent, insight and innovation. City University, 52, 517–532. (In Japanese.) Samgha Japan, 19,10–24. (In Japanese.) Kaneko, S. (Ed.). (2001b). Psychology of religion. Hayes, S. C., Follette, V. M., & Linehan, M. M. Kyoto: Nakanishiya Shuppan. (In Japanese.) (2011). Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding Kasai, K. (2011). Buddhist psychology as a move- the cognitive-behavioral tradition. New York: ment. Journal of the Japanese Association for Guilford Press. the Study of Buddhism and Psychology, 2, Hirai, T. (1960). An electroencephalographic study 21–31. (In Japanese.) of Zen meditation (Zazen): EEG changes dur- Kasamatsu, A., & Hirai, T. (1963). Science of zazen. ing concentrated relaxation. Psychiatria et Neu- Psychologia, 6,86–91. rologia Japonica, 62,76–105. (In Japanese with Kato, H. (2002). Bibliography on Zen psychology in English abstract.) Japan (-2000). Komazawa Annual Reports of Hirai, T. (1975). Zen meditation therapy. Tokyo: Psychology, 4,23–43. (In Japanese.) Japan Publications. Kato, H. (2005). Zen and psychology. Japanese Psy- Homans, P. (1987). Psychology and religion move- chological Research, 47, 125–136. ment. In M. Eliade (Ed.), Encyclopedia of reli- Kato, H. (2014). A diary of practicing Zen medita- gion (Vol. 12, pp. 66–74). New York: Macmillan. tion. In H. Ohizumi (Ed.), Drafts of a thesis Imada, M. (1947). Shukyo shinrigaku [Psychology of (1890–1900): Society (2), Philosophy, ethics, religion]. Tokyo: Bunsendo-shobou. (In Japanese, religion (pp. 349–357, T. Oyama, Series Ed.). translated by the author of this article.) Motora Yujiro collection (Vol. 6). Tokyo: Kress Inoue, E. (1893). Zensyu no shinri [Psychology of syuppan. (In Japanese.) Zen-sect]. Tetsugaku Zasshi, 8, 1173–1181. Kishimoto, H. (1961). Syukyo-gaku [Science of reli- (In Japanese, translated by the author of this gion]. Tokyo: Taimeido. (In Japanese, translated article). by the author of this article.) Inoue, E. (1894). Toyo shinrigaku [Oriental psychol- Kitamura, S. (2001). Zenjinteki shinrigaku [Holistic ogy]. Tokyo: Tetsugakukan. (In Japanese, psychology: Learning from Buddhist philoso- translated by the author of this article.) phy]. Sendai: Tohoku University Syuppankai. Inoue, E. (1897). Bukkyo shinrigaku [Buddhist psy- (In Japanese, translated by the author of this chology]. Tokyo: Tetsugakukan. (In Japanese, article.) translated by the author of this article.) Kora, T., & Sato, K. (1958). Morita therapy: A psychotherapy in the way of Zen. Psychologia, 1, 219–225.

Kuroda, R. (1937). Zen no shinrigaku, Zen no Piedmont, R. L. (2013). A short history of the psy- kouza, Zen no gaiyou [Psychology of Zen: A chology of religion and spirituality: Providing series of lectures on Zen, outline on Zen]. growth and meaning for division 36. Psychology Tokyo: Syunyodo. (In Japanese, translated by of Religion and Spirituality, 5,1–4. the author of this article.) Sato, K. (1957). Editorial. Psychologia: An Interna- Kuroda, R. (1944). Yuishiki shinrigaku [Vijñanav ada tional Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 1,1. psychology]. Tokyo: Oyama Syoten. (In Japanese, Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. translated by the author of this article.) (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for Linehan, M. M. (1987). Dialectical behavioural ther- depression: A new approach to preventing apy: A cognitive behavioral approach to para- relapse. New York: Guilford. suicide. Journal of Personality Disorders, 1, Spiegelman, J. M., & Miyuki, M. (1985). Buddhism 328–333. and Jungian psychology. Tokyo: Japan Uni Matsumoto, S. (1979). Shukyo shinrigaku [Psychol- Agency. ogy of religion]. Tokyo: Tokyo University Starbuck, E. D. (1899). The psychology of religion: Syuppan-kai. (In Japanese, translated by the An empirical study of the growth of religious author of this article.) consciousness. New York: Charles Scribner’s Metzger, W., Murphy, G., Nuttin, J., & Russell, R. W. Sons. (1971). Messages in memory of Professor Doctor Sugiyama, S. (2001). Japanese study of the psychology Koji Sato. Psychologia, 14,126–128. of religion. Japanese Psychological Review, 44, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (1999). 307–327. (In Japanese with English abstract.) WHO kensyo niokeru kenkono teigino kaiteian Tanaka, K. K. (2010). American Buddhism: Bud- nituite [About the reform bill of the deﬁnition dhism is changing, America is changing. Tokyo: of “health” in the WHO charter]. Ministry of Musashino University. (In Japanese.) Health, Labour and Welfare. Retrieved from Taniguchi, Y. (1992). An overview: Psychophysio- http://www1.mhlw.go.jp/houdou/1103/h0319-1_6. logical approach to meditation in Japan. Japa- html (June 30, 2015) (In Japanese, translated by nese Health Psychology, 1,45–50. the author of this article.) Toyo University, Inoue Enryo Memorial Center Motora, Y. (1895). Sanzen nisshi [A diary of practi- (Ed.). (1999). Yokaigaku-kogi 5 shinrigaku- cing Zen meditation]. Japanese Religion, 1, bumon. Yokaigaku Zenshu, 2. Tokyo: Kashiwa 91–94. (In Japanese, translated by the author of Shobo. (In Japanese.) this article.) Usa, S. (2004). Zen-teki Morita Ryo-hou [Morita ther- Motora, Y. (1905). An essay on Eastern philosophy: apy with Zen]. Kyoto: Sanseikai. (In Japanese, Idea of ego in Eastern philosophy. Leipzig: translated by the author of this article.) R. Voigtländers Verlag. Wen, Q. (1997). Morita therapy in China. Mental Ohtsuka, N. (1948). Kuroda Ryo hakasewo omou News: The Mental Health Okamoto Memorial [Memory of Dr. Ryo Kuroda]. In R. Kuroda Foundation, 15,1–6. (In Japanese.) (Ed.), Shina shinri shiso-shi [History of Chinese Wuff, D. M. (1996). Psychology of religion: Classic psychological thoughts] (pp. 450–457). Tokyo: and contemporary views. New York: John Wiley Koyama Shoten. (In Japanese, translated by the and Sons. author of this article.) Pargament, K. I. (2013). APA handbook of psychol- (Received July 22, 2015; accepted January 23, 2016) ogy, religion, and spirituality. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.