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Running Head: BUDDHISM & INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 Running head: BUDDHISM & INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 Buddhism and Individual Psychology: A Literature Review A Master’s Project Presented to The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School ____________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for The Degree of Master of Arts in Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy ____________________________ By Michael Cain ____________________________ Chair: Louise Ferry PhD Reader: Jill Sisk PhD ____________________________ July 2018 BUDDHISM & INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 2 Abstract Western psychotherapy has been influenced greatly by both Adlerian psychology and Buddhism. This thesis explores the commonalities between Adlerian psychology and Buddhist psychology with the purpose of forming a comprehensive theoretical perspective. The existing literature linking Individual psychology and Buddhism is reviewed as well as the literature focused on topics from Buddhism and Individual Psychology. The two psychologies are introduced as complementary theoretical frameworks to enhance the practice of psychotherapy in context of the trending mindfulness techniques prevalent in modern psychotherapeutic practice. BUDDHISM & INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 3 Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2 Buddhist Psychology ...................................................................................................................... 4 Mindfulness ................................................................................................................................. 7 Adler’s Individual Psychology ..................................................................................................... 14 Social Interest ............................................................................................................................ 14 Inferiority Feelings .................................................................................................................... 18 Empathy and Compassion............................................................................................................. 19 Holism ........................................................................................................................................... 21 Well-Being ................................................................................................................................ 24 Insight, Suffering, and Psychopathology ...................................................................................... 30 Intention, Striving, and Behavior Change ..................................................................................... 34 Buddhism, Adler, and Ellis ........................................................................................................... 36 Mindfulness in Current Psychotherapy ..................................................................................... 38 Adlerian Psychology as a Theoretical Bridge ........................................................................... 39 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 39 References ..................................................................................................................................... 40 BUDDHISM & INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 4 Buddhism and Individual Psychology: A Literature Review Combining Adlerian and Buddhist concepts can help clients to develop a sense of connection with themselves and others, as well as develop insightful awareness tools for emotional wellness. The Adlerian concepts of social interest, holism, and mistaken beliefs have significant conceptual correlations to Buddhist philosophy and psychology. For example, compassion, cultivated as part of Buddhist meditation practice is congruent with the Adler's concepts of striving for improved empathy and social interest (Ansbacher, & Ansbacher, 1964). Social interest as a feeling of connection with life and a determinate of wellbeing is a major premise of Adler's Individual Psychology (Ansbacher, 1991). Social interest could be enhanced through the practice of mindfulness as well as through cultivating an understanding of Buddhism. Although there has been some research investigating the correlation between Adlerian ideas and Buddhism, this project proposes that Adlerian theory can be used as an underlying theoretical framework that is congruent with Buddhist ideas and techniques currently used in successful therapeutic interventions. Buddhist Psychology Buddhism was started in India around 2500 years ago (Sandhu, 2017). The Buddha was born Siddhattha Gotama (Pali language) in north India in the sixth century B. C. (Rahula, 1974). He was a prince whose father ruled a part of India that is now Nepal (Rahula, 1974). Siddhattha lived a sheltered life until realizing the suffering of existence and decided to leave his leisurely life to find a way out of that suffering (Rahula, 1974). For many years the Buddha lived as an ascetic with others until he left the ascetic life finding it unsatisfactory and left to discover his own path (Rahula, 1974). Siddhattha eventually achieved enlightenment meditating under a Bhodi tree after which he spent the rest of his life teaching what he had learned (Rahula, 1974). BUDDHISM & INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 5 Michalon (2001) wrote that Buddhist ideas had made their way into the Western healing culture including psychology and psychiatry. Although Freud was a skeptic of Buddhism, subsequent psychoanalysts have found value in Buddhist ideas and its concepts (Michalon, 2001). In the history of Western psychology, Jung was the most identified with having an affinity for Eastern psychology and philosophy (Michalon, 2001). A significant difference between Jungian psychology and Buddhist psychology is that Jung encourages the development of the individuated self for ego- transcendence or broadening, whereas, Buddhism views the ego as a barrier to the awareness of anatta or no-self (Lee, 2016). The commonality is that Jungian psychology and Buddhism investigate the "subliminal mind or the unconscious" to transcend the ego consciousness (Lee, 2016, p. 282). In Adlerian psychology, the focus of attention is towards the benefit of and sense of belonging with others to achieve self-transcendence (Ansbacher, & Ansbacher, 1964). Michalon (2001) wrote that Buddhism is a psychologically, cognitive philosophy that is not based on one's "blind faith," but an analytical, experiential process of realization (p. 203). Michalon (2001) explained that although there are many schools of Buddhist theory and practice, the core of Buddhist teachings has remained consistent. The Four Noble Truths which are central to Buddhism are: There is suffering dukkha, the cause of suffering is attachment, there is freedom from suffering, and the way to end suffering is through the eight-fold path (Michalon, 2001). The “middle way” of Buddhism is encouraged through adherence to the eight-fold path which includes: “right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration” (Desilva, 1990, as cited in Christopher, 2003, 287). Dukkha, translated as "suffering", "uneasiness", "unsatisfactoriness", "conflict" or "discomfort" is caused by the desire for phenomena to remain permanent in an existence that is BUDDHISM & INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY 6 always changing (Lee, 2016, p. 281; Pandita, Duit, & Jayasili, 1988/1993; Rahula, 1974). Regarding the self, Buddhists see that suffering comes from having a delusional, permanent sense of self that creates a false dichotomy between self and other (Lee, 2016). The Buddha discovered the “middle path” that was a rejection of both an overindulgence of the self and its sense pleasures affecting “spiritual progress” and the ascetic way of life that restricted one’s thinking (Pandita, et al., 1988/1993, p. 2). The Buddha is not a god nor is Buddhism a monotheism, and furthermore, the teachings of the Buddha are to be tested out by oneself (Pandita, et al., 1988/1993). The Dhamma or teaching of the Buddha is not taken on faith but to be understood experientially through Buddhist practices (Rahula, 1974). According to the Abhidhamma model of mental health in the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, delusion (moha in Pali) is one of the significant perceptual obstacles to mental health (Rana, 2015). Wallace and Shapiro (2006) described the Buddhist perspective on suffering to be related to a subjective mental imbalance. Individual Psychology holds that mistaken beliefs found in one's private logic are a significant impediment to mental health which is not unlike the Buddhist concept of moha (Ansbacher, & Ansbacher, 1964; Rana, 2015). The “three pillars of Buddhism” are dukkha, Annica and anatta or suffering, impermanence and no-self respectively (Michelon, 2001, p. 206). Michelon (2001) wrote that Dr. N Colhart, a psychoanalyst discovered that the concept of no-self was the hardest for Westerners to understand. The typical western understanding of self would consider the ego absolute instead of in relativistic terms, and therefore, be unable to easily conceive of a reality that did not include a self (Michelon, 2001). Michalon (2001) noted the west understanding the self as being fixed was the most prominent difference between western and eastern cultures. The western view of the self was affirmed
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