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the to Page 1 THE GEORGETOWN UNiVERSITY JOURNAL OF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume 1• Issue 1 Editor’s Introduction

Welcometo the inaugural issue of Georgetown University’s Journal of the Environment. In recent years, the environment has received tremendous attention from students, scholars, scientists, public policy analysts, businesses, and governments. In response, Georgetown has taken great strides in environmental education. To support this outgrowth of environmental interest, we have created this journal. As students at Georgetown University, we have undertaken rigorous educational training inside Healy’s hallowed halls. In our classes, students do not work in isolation on their studies. In fact, they often take a genuine interest in the work of their peers. Seminar courses in particular allow students to encourage each other, offer research aids such as source material and contacts, and critique their work. Unfortunately, we rarely find the opportunity to nurture our academic work with other students outside the classroom. Thus, we have established this journal to support the formation of peer networks and provide an outlet for student research and writing. The Journal of the Environment aims to bring together the disparate environmental interests of the Georgetown community. It publishes papers from both graduates and undergraduates, targeting students interested in the environment through classes, extracurricular activities, and work experiences. We draw from a diverse intellectual community, including SFS environmental studies majors, environmental science students in the College, nursing and business students interested in the environment, and graduate students. The journal also depends upon Georgetown professors for their expertise in a variety of environmental disciplines. Wehope you enjoy the wide range of topics addressed by our authors. In this issue, solid scientific research and in-depth policy analysis represent different styles and intellectual approaches that are both crucial to the environmental field. We hope that this issue promotes consideration of different perspectives as well as the inter-disciplinary nature of environmental studies. This publication would not have been possible without the hard work of students, the encouragement from faculty, and the funding and support of the administration. Thanks to you all.

We welcome all comments, suggestions, and questions!

Please address them to: Journal of the Environment do Dr. Timothy Beach SFS Dean’s Office, ICC 301 Georgetown University Washington, DC 20057 Jeffrey Horn Interview with William Butler Pane 2 worldwide influence (both literally and figuratively) that no Interview with Wiffiam Butler other nation can match. Jeffrey Horn 3) What direction do you see environmental policy in the United States moving toward in the 21st century? William A. Butler, an adjunct professor at both Georgetown I think risklbeneflt and costlbenefit analysis will play University and Georgetown Law Center, currently serves as an even larger role, as well as market incentives as compared Counsel to the law firm of Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering. He with command and control regulation. I also think that for has taught courses in environmental policy & politics and the most serious — and intractable — environmental environmental & natural resources law. Among his many problems like global warming, the international sphere will distinctions, he was General Counsel and Acting Executive become increasingly important. Director of the Environmental Defense Fund, Vice President for Government Relations and Counsel of the National 4) How didyoupersonally get interested in the environmental Audubon Society, a recipient of the National Wildlife field? Federation Resources Defense Award, and a Marshall Scholar I personally became interested in birds and butterffies at Oxford University. He graduated from Stanford with a (not bees!) before I was five because of the hobbies of older Bachelor’s in Political Science, received his J.D. from Yale friends and because of where I grew up, a suburb of Detroit Law School, and earned his Ph.D. in Government from where ponds and fields in which I played were rapidly being Harvard University. transformed into housing and shops. Family members encouraged these interests once established and we traveled 1) How would you describe the evolution of the a lot, allowing me to see what now would be called different environmental movement since you began working with it? ecosystems, which in turn heightened my interest in “Natural I began working in the environmental movement (the History.” Environmental Defense Fund) in 1970. Environmental groups at that time (e.g. the Sierra Club, National Audubon Society,National WildlifeFederation) were small, and largely focused on what we now would call conservation issues. “I think a certain intellectual curiosity, Employees were generally wildlife and/or public land diligence, and professional restlessness specialists; few had experience in political advocacy. have brought me to where I am today.” Obviously, the situation now is totally changed. National environmental groups are multimillion dollar businesses, employing lawyers, Ph.D. scientists, mass media experts, experienced fundraisers, and the like. Even smaller, local 5) Which accomplishments in the environmentalfield have environmental organizations or chapters of national ones now brought you the greatest satisfaction? are much more skilled and sophisticated on issue advocacy In retrospect, I am proud of individual roles I have and political influence than when I started. Even more played in the efforts to get rid of broad spectrum persistent important than organizational growth and sophistication, pesticides like DDT, as a counsel in the early legal efforts to however, is the role played today nationally and locally of protect porpoises (dolphins) from death in tuna fishermen’s environmental groups as acknowledged stakeholders and nets, and various other landmark legal team efforts. More respected participants in a broad range of societal decisions. generally, I am pleased how many students of mine have Back then, the “little old lady in tennis shoes” stereotype entered environmentally related careers, although I am not was widely believed and in many instances, a characterization honestly sure whether encouraged by or despite my efforts! not far off the mark. Environmentalists were often not taken seriously. 6) Could you tell us a little about the formation of the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF)? 2) Do you see the US. as a leading environmental actor in EDF was formed in Long Island by biology teachers the global theater? concerned with the aerial spraying of DDT on Long Island Surely the U.S. is the leading environmental actor in marshes. They hired a local lawyer (not me) in 1967, and the global theater by dint of its current position as the world’s went after DDT in New York, Wisconsin, and nationally. lone superpower. By this I do not mean that we are ahead of When I hired on, I was the third employee, being the D.C. all other nations in all areas of environmental protection. office; the other two plus volunteers and part-timers operated For example, EU nations and Japan currently lead the way out of an old Long Island farmhouse. My first office was in areas such as energy efficiency, greenhouse gases issues, two rooms rented for three months for a total of $150 and and recycling. But because of our size, diversity, economic which I had to renovate: the women’s bathroom and furnace power, and the communications revolution, what the U.S. room of another fledging public interest law firm in awooden does — and doesn’t do — on environmental protection has house on M Street long since demolished. Page 3 THE GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume 1, Issue 1 7) How involved have you been with the development of environmental law? 11) Whatdo you think is the importance of having students As an individual, I think I have been most involved in study in the environmentalfield? the development of environmental law both in the early Environmental questions are some of the most pesticide cases, establishing citizen rights to challengeagency importantour country,and globe, facenow andin the future. actions — and inactions — in court, and in publicizing a They exist in or are connected to a very broad range of variety of environmental problems through the media and professionsandfields. Both in a student’sfutureprofessional Congressional“education” effortswhich until that time had andpersonallife,a basicknowledgeat leastofthe importance not been done much. Later roles as general counsel for and complexity of environmental questions seems to me nationalenvironmental organizations or as a teacher mayalso essential. Whether it be a business person determiningthe have influencedthe developmentof environmentallaw in a most cost effectiveway to deal with an air or water pollution general sense, but somehow those early “hands-on” problem, a voter wondering how to cast a ballot on an experiencesare the ones that stick in my memory. environmentally-relatedreferendum, or a parent answering a child’squestions about household recycling, some degree 8) What are the greatest challenges in teaching of environmental education at the college level seemsto me environmental policy and environmental law? essentialtoday. By farthe greatest challenge in teaching environmental policy and law today is to simplify what has become an 12) Anyfinal words of advice for aspiring students in the unbelievably complicated subject. The underlying statutes environmental field? are hundreds of pages long, the implementing regulations I think the field of “pure” environmentalism is thousands of pages, the underlying science complex and narrowing,just as the field of “pure” civil rights narrowed a subjecttovaryinginterpretations.Studentsmayinitiallyhave decade or more before it. This is by no means because the an intensiveinterest,but this canbe drownedin detail. As it interest area is less important. Far fromit, likethe civilrights is, I am always criticized for providing too much: issues, movementbefore it, the environmentalmovementhas been readings,etc. But sincesomanyofthe issuesareinterrelated, successful in infusing its values into so many professions and so many academicfields involved (science, economics, now that environmental impact has become a natural and politicalscience,etc.),to simplifyenoughto catch andretain unquestioned elementof decision-makingin many different student interest is no easy task. fields,just ashave issuesof socialequity. Therefore,I advise students to gain expertise in environmental matters and 9) How receptive have students been to environmental anotherfieldaswellto makethemmoreflexibleandversatile courses? in the job market. If a “pure” environmentaljob appears, Presumably students enrolling in the classes I teach, thenthe environmentallyinterestedstudentcan grabit. More whetherundergraduateor at law or business school,are self- likely, however, is a position in which environmental selectedfor an interest in the subjectbecause the classes are knowledgeability,like sensitivityto civiljustice issues, is a electives. I have never had trouble getting students in such part, but not the whole. Therefore, prepare yourself with courses, although to be honest I think some get more than environmental course(s) for sure, but also recognize that, they bargained for and may have second thoughts halfway except for a few,ultimately a student will be making use of through the semesterregrading the wisdom of their original environmental knowledge through another professional choice. Becauseenvironmentalissuesspilloverinto somany expertise. otheracademicandprofessionalspheresofendeavors,I think many studentsbelieve, and rightly,that they ought to know something about environmental issues whether or not they intend to specializein the field.

10) How well does Georgetown match up with comparable universities in terms of environmental courses? Georgetown is ahead of some, but well behind other universities in its environmental offerings at the undergraduatelevel. I think Georgetown’sadministrationis awareof the opportunityto enlargeits offeringsin this field, their importance,and their popularity. I certainlyencourage such efforts, and hope personally to assist in making them happen. There are models at other top notch universities which Georgetowncouldstriveto emulate. In the meantime, interdisciplinaryeffortsinvolvingexistingresourcesprovide plenty of opportunities for Georgetown to strengthen its offeringsin the environmentalfield. The Effects of WaterManagementon Vegetation JenniferManiscalco and Fauna in the Florida Everglades Page 4

settle the southern portion of the Florida peninsula (Light The Effects of Water and Dineen 1994). The United States SwampLandsAct of Management on Vegetation and 1850 allowed states to reclaim 20 million acres of swamp and overflowed land, making them productive through Fauna in the florida Everglades drainage and levee construction (Abt and Finger 1989). In 1865, Florida state legislature passed an act creating the Jennifer Maniscalco Internal ImprovementBoard to manage the newly acquired land (Light and Dineen 1994). Plagued by financial difficulties,the Board ultimatelyfailed. Thispiece was written as a senior undergraduate thesisfor Georgetown Light and Dineen (1994) categorize the subsequent Universty Biology Llepartment. Jenntfer Maniscalco graduated from the College of Arts and Sciences in 1996. attemptsat reclamation into two distinctperiods, Cut n’ Try and Green Lines to Red. The former period began in 1907 Introduction with the creationof the EvergladesDrainageDistrict(EDD) The Everglades system represents the largest single by Governor Broward, consisting of 7150 2mi of land. By marsh system in the United States (U.S. Department of the 1917,fourmajor canalsranginginlengthfrom42to 81miles Interior 1994) and is characterized by a mosaic of were cutacrossthe EvergladesconnectingLakeOkeechobee physiographic landscapes. The vast expanses of sawgrass to the Atlantic Ocean. The total length of canals was up to marshes, dominated by Cladium jamaicense Crantz, are 440 miles by 1931. Hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 influenced mainly by fluctuating levels of precipitation demonstratedthe inadequacyof the canals for flood control creatingdistinct wet and dry seasons. The heterogeneityof (Abt and Finger 1989), leading to the construction of a 47 the Evergladeslandscapehosts a diversespectrumof aquatic mile longsandand muck levee,the HooverDike, aroundthe birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, including 56 southern rim of Lake Okeechobee. Financial difficulties federally listed endangered or threatened species and 29 related to the Great Depression led to the abandonmentof candidate species (US. Department of the Interior 1994). construction and the cessation of maintenance of the EDD, Periphyton,a complexassociationof varioustypes of algae, with the dike being completed and supplemented with occupiesthe base of the foodweb. Highertrophic levelsare hurricanegatesbytheUnitedStatesAnny CorpsofEngineers filled by macroinvertebrates,fishes, alligators and wading (the Corps) later in the decade. birds. Every species in the Everglades ecosystem depends The era of turning Green Lines to Red began in 1948 on the annual fluctuation in precipitation, surface water with thepublishingof the ComprehensivePlan by the Corps depths, and surface water flows. and the authorization by congress for a massive endeavor In the middle of the nineteenth century, efforts called the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood commenced to reclaim the vast expanses of wetlands for Control and Other Purposes. Water management was developmentalandagriculturalpurposesin southernFlorida. consolidated into one entity,the Central and South Florida More than a century of human interventionhas resulted in Flood Control District (FCD), with the primary goal of thereductionofthe historicEvergladesto one-fifthitsoriginal protectingandenhancingtheEvergladesregionandthelower size. Alterationsto the natural flow and nutrient loading in east coast of Florida (Abt and Finger 1989). The FCD,later agriculturalrunoff over the past several decade has led to the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD), the deterioration of the Everglades ecosystem. Nutrient- was responsible for implementing the federal plan and enriched areas have experienced a shift in the periphyton overseeing the operation and maintenance of the water communities,altering food webs and levels of production management facilities, and the Corps for their design and on all trophic levels (Browder et al. 1994). In many areas, the construction. Four principal technologies were used: sawgrass is being overgrown by cattails (Davis 1994). construction of levees, creation of water storage areas, Reproductive success of the American alligator has also improvementof existing channels, and installationof water declineddueto unpredictablefluctuationsinwater level,and pump stations. the wading bird population has declined by 75-80% since The structural changes mandated by the FCD lead the I930s (Mazzottiand Brandt 1994,Ogden 1994). directly to the current compartmentalization of land and Thefollowingsectionswill discussthehistory of water methods of water management in southern Florida. From controland agriculturein the EvergLadesand the ecological 1952-1954, an eastern perimeter levee, stretching effects of current water managementpractices on flora and approximately 100 miles, was constructed parallel to the fauna of the Everglades. coastal ridge in order to prevent sheet flow from the Evergladesfrom flooding the urbanizing coastal areas. For History of Water Control and Agriculture in the thenext fiveyears,pumpstationsandwatercontrolstructures Everglades were built and existing canals deepened to provide better WaterControl in the Everglades floodcontrolandadequatedrainageofthe landdirectlysouth Drainage of the wetlands in southern Florida beganin ofLakeOkeechobee,designatedtheEvergladesAgricultural the late nineteenthcenturyas part of a populistmovementto Area (EAA). TheEAA, encompassing2800 2km of drained wetlands, is the largest single body of organic soils in the world marshes Areas

canals. Page

total National habitats, are the addition, Biscayne Everglades, season recognized for nutrient associated the water led EN?. to first from 3 has Regulation, At Plan (Abt most the authorized modification Act methods Memorandum, sanctioning to Everglades

regime Plan, utilizing southern Water stations, reestablishing River attempt week’s slough evaporation,

Slough 1994).

and

reduce

the

both the to next

managed

been east

half Corps

of

in Between

to and 5

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notably

the a Currently,

deliveries (Abt

(WCAs) first The improved

insistence

provisions

EN?

decline

and

3400 divert Slough

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The

is enrichment 1987

system sixteen

the

coast, of and in created

Finger

discharge.

to Park

of

and BAA Aquifer

the

tip

managed

compartmentalization 1900

proposed Save nonpoint-source

and alteration

the

not

had

the

but currently maximize

their (Scheidt

amount

provide WCAs and the the

physical

delineated

km2

serve

for

of

the of and

stormwater

(Abt

212

WCAs

1960-1963,

in eighties, (ENP).

with

which Finger crucial

only

years in Everglades also to and

Our

that

1989).

is

structures water with published purchase miles

Florida of SFWMD

Florida,

the water the

operation.

into

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THE

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order the

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1989).

storage overland of Several

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species

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1989,

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provide the

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passed,

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Taylor 1989).

being at

areas

of 1983, made

Shark 1990,

in

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wet

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JOURNAL an

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the and of 75,000 (Snyder Everglades the improvements and Agricultural and predominantly composition Davidson Soil EAA

alone dollars, of (Coale lagrass

1990

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only

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Davidson was Tony

million

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1994).

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annual 1994).

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1994).

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histosois many concluding and

ENVIRONMENT and

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about

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I The Effects of WaterManagementon Vegetation JenniferManiscalco and Fauna in the Florida Everglades Page 6 production,andprovidesnearly18,000jobs (Buzzanell1990 stations and decreasingtrends in the total N/P ratio at seven as in Snyder and Davidson 1994). out of nine experimentalstations. Recently, concern over the impact of nutrient-laden ThespatialpenetrationofphosphoruswithineachWCA runoff from the EAA has heightened with the accelerated and the ENP is influenced by the extentof overland flow eutrophicationofLake Okeechobeeandthe shiftfromnative across the marsh and phosphorus retention in the marsh vegetationto cattailsin the adjacentwetlands.Thesechanges (Davis 1994). Craft and Richardson (1993) showed that inthe WCAshave beenattributedto the disruptionofnatural phosphorus accumulation is dependent on the phosphorus hydroperiods due to their use as water storage sites and the concentration in the water column. Gradients from high increased influx of nutrients from drainage of agriculturaI phosphorus concentrationsat or near the inflowpoints from lands(Izunoet al. 1991). Walker(1991)examinedbiweekly drained agricultural runoff to nearly nondetectable samples of water from inflows to both Shark River Slough concentrations within the interior marshes are established, and Taylor Slough for a twelve and six year period, with most marshes capable of reducing the surface water respectively. Results indicate significant increasing trends phosphorus concentrationto low levelswithin 7.0 km of the in total P concentrationsand decreasing trends in total NIP inflowpoint (Davis 1994). Urban et al. (1993) documented ratiosat ENP inflow points as a result of nutrient loadingin ahighermeanannualsurfacewaterphosphorusconcentration agricultural runoff. Accelerated eutrophication of the in eutrophic areas, reflecting the increased temporal ecosystem results, altering the unique water quality and variability in phosphorus concentrations at sites near the ecology of the Everglades. inflowstructures.TheassimilativecapacityoftheEverglades sawgrass marsh can accommodate temporal variation in Nutrient Accumulation, Water Management, and rainfallphosphorusinputs,butthis capacitymaybe exceeded Vegetative Sensitivity In the Everglades by the extent of anthropogenicphosphorus inputs resulting The historic Everglades developed as organic matter from agriculturaldevelopment. accumulatedwithina limestonedepression,leadingto a lack Periphyton Communities of inputsfrommineralsedimentdeposition. The ecosystem Periphyton in the Everglades is adapted to water was oligoirophic,withprimarynutrient inputsfromperiodic containing low levels of nutrients,particularly phosphorus, overflowsof Lake Okeechobee and rainfall (Lodge 1994). and grows on shallow submerged substrates (Lodge 1994, Walkeret al. reportedthat communitychangeresultingfrom Raschke1993). Browder et al. (1994) listshydroperiodand nitrogen enrichmentalone was less than that resulting from water depth, aspects of water chemistrysuch as major ion simultaneous phosphorus and nitrogen enrichment or concentrations, and phosphorus concentration as phosphorusenrichmentalone. Highphosphoruslevelsinhibit environmental gradientsthat influence the composition of drymatterproduction,shootelongation,andshootproduction theperiphytoncommunity.Watermanagementactivitiesalter in sawgrassseedlings,indicatingthepotentialadverseeffects the spatial variation of periphyton mats. Because the of phosphorus enrichment(Steward and Ornes 1983 as in taxonomic composition of the algal mat reflects the local Davis 1994). Theseresults indicatethat phosphorusmaybe water chemistryand hydrological conditions and changes more importantthan nitrogen as a limitingmacronutrientin rapidly in response to pollutants, periphyton communities the Everglades ecosystem, hence the focus on phosphorus are indicators of environmentaldegradation(McCormicket here (Davis 1994). al. 1994). Responses of periphyton communities to In most years, concentrated atmospheric inputs of anthropogenic alterations of hydrology and nutrient phosphorusoccurredduringthe wet seasonmonthsfromJune concentrations are the forerunner of undesirable changes to October,withlowerinputsandhigherratesofregeneration experienced in the sawgrassmarshes where cattailis taking occurringduring the dry season (Duever et al. 1994). Davis over (Raschke 1993). (1994)estimatesthat underpredrainageconditions,the mean Periphyton communitiesin oligotrophicenvironments annual atmosphericinput of phosphorus to the 500,000 ha consist of three main groups of algae: Myxophyceae(blue- freshwatermarshwithinthe WCAsandEN? was 196tonnes, green algae),Bacillophyceae(diatoms),andChlorophyceae or 36 /yr.mg/m Phosphorusinputsto the WCAsalonehave (green algae) (Browder et al. 1994). Green algae in the increased2 nearlythreefoldto 376 tonnes dueto inflowsfrom families Mesotaeniaceae and Desmidiaceae, referred to as agriculturalrunoff.PhosphorusinputstoBNPhaveincreased desmids, consist of species that occur together under lessdramaticallyfrom88tonnesbeforedrainageto 89tonnes environmentalconditionsthat differfromthoseunderwhich currently. Four major pumps and several smaller pumps other types of green algae are found (Browder et al. 1994). deliveran averageof 258 tonnes ofphosphorusto the WCAs Variationsin ash mass, a rough esthnate of calcite content, and Il tonnes to the EN? annually (SFWMD 1992). distinguishes between calcareous and noncaicareous Prolonged assimilationto nutrient loading (from the 1950’s periphyton.Gleasonand Spackman(1974)identi1 twoblue- to thepresent)explainsthe currentrelativelylowphosphorus greenalgaespeciesastheprimaryencrustingtaxa:Scytonema inputsintothe ENP despitehigher inputs intoth.emarsh and hq/Inanniiand Schizothrixcalcicola. Browder et al. (1994) canals(Davis1994).However,Walker(1991)analyzedwater summarizesthe various categorizations of the dominant or qualityat inflowstoEN? and foundincreasingtrendsintotal representative taxa as described by different authors with phosphorusconcentrationsat eight out of nine experimental respect to water chemistry, hydroperiod, or nutrient Page 7 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSiTY JOURNAL OF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume1, Issue 1 availability. periphyton biomass. Lodge (1994) gives a general classification, making Raschke (1993) examined the response of the diatom only two major divisions in the types of perip]yton communityto phosphorus enrichment at an inflow to EN?. communitiesthat occur under oligotrophic conditions. In The number of diatom taxa and diatom communitymean more acidic water, with little dissolved calcium, the algal diversity increased from the phosphorus-deficient interior mat containsa thin association of mostly green algae. This towards the more phosphorus-enriched inflow point. The desinid-rich periphyton usually occurs over peat soils in occurrence of particulardiatom.groups is closely associated sloughs and deeper wet prairie communities. In more basic with water chemistry,with a specific group indicating each waler, which contains calcium fromthe limestonebedrock, of the following conditions: (1) low nutrient/low mineral, the algal mat consists of a greater number caicareous blue- (2) low nutrient/high mineral, and (3) high nutrient/high green algae species. Yellow-brownin color,it has a spongy mineral conditions (Swift and Nicholas 1987). McCormick texture dueto the calciumcarbonatecrystalsthat areformed et al. (1994) recommend development of taxonomic as the algae remove carbon dioxide from the water during indicators based on diatoms. photosynthesis. It usuallyoccursin wetprairiecommunities Sawgrass and Cattail Communities occurring over marl soil. Sawgrass (Cladiumjamaicense) dominated marshes Browderet al. (1994) givesa moreprecise summaryof nearanthropogenicphosphorusinputsintheEvergladeshave the relationship between hydroperiod and periphyton been invadedby cattail (Typhadomingensi.). Davis (1994) community composition, indicating the potential for the reviews the distribution of major cattail strands in the taxonomiccompositionof algalmatsto serveas an indicator Everglades as of September 1990. Cattail dominates ofthe localhydrologicalregime. Calcareousperiphytonwith approximately2000ha of the perimeterof WCA-1and more more than 50 percent Scytonemaby cell volumeindicates a than 8100ha of WCA-2A. Significantstands of cattailhave short hydroperiod, probably less than six months. also been,documented along the western border of WCA Hydroperiods longer than six months are typically yield 3A. Tothe south,this band continues along canal L-67 as it calcareousperiphytoncommunitieswith 20percent diatoms extendsinto EN?. by cellvolume,atleastduringthe latterpartofthewet season. In the Everglades, cattail is an early colonizer of Finally, areas that are flooded year-round have calcareous naturally disturbed oligotrophic sites and occurs naturally periphyton with a diatom and green algae component that where soil fires have removed other marsh plants or in and exceeds 50 percent of the cell volume. around depressions such as alligator holes (Davis 1994, Anthropogenic disruption of the natural oligotrophic Lodge 1994). Cattailis a deepwater speciesthat is enhanced environmenthas resulted in a shift in periphytontaxonomic by nutrient additions in medium to deep waters (>58 cm to compositionfromcalcareousblue-green,green, diatom-rich <105 cm) but not in shallow water (<58 cm) (Grace 1988, anddesmid-richcommunitiesto filamentousblue-greenalgae Grace1989). A six-yearstudyon the fluctuationsin sawgrass Microcoleuslyngbyaceus(Browderet al. 1994,Davis 1994). andcattaildensitiesin WCA-2Aby Urban et al. (1993)found Grimshaw et al. (1993) reported significant correlations thatdeepwater,fire,andnutrientenrichmentworkedtogether betweenthemeandissolvedphosphorusconcentrationinthe to stimulatecattailgrowthin freshwatermarshcommunities. water column, the mean phosphorus content and the mean Cattaildensity increasedmore rapidly than sawgrassduring relative abundance of eutrophic algae in periphyton wetyears. Bothnutrient enrichedsitesandlow nutrientsites communitieswithinWCA 2A and WCA 3A and 3B. Swift experienced increases in cattail densities following fire,yet and Nicholas (1987) found that Microcoleuspredominated fire and nutrient enrichment together induced greater at siteswithhighphosphorusavailabilityinthewatercolumn. increases in cattaildensities. Totalphosphorus loadingbest Blue-greenalgaeScytoneinaand Schizothrixdominatedthe explained plant density fluctuations at sites closest to the low nutrient,highdissolvedmineral sites,but werereplaced levee, and hydrology best explained fluctuations at the site by Microcoleusat the high nutrient,high dissolvedmineral most distant from the levee. sites. Despite the evidence for frequent fires and varying Nutrientdosing experiments conducted by Scheidt et hydrological regimes in the Everglades, cattail remains a al. (1987) showed that increases in phosphorus eliminated minor component of oligotrophic vegetative communities the periphyton mat and altered the taxonomic composition (Davis 1994). The extensive occurrence of cattail stands to include more pollutant-tolerant species. Winazal et al. adjacent to nutrient inflows into the Everglades can be (1994) studied the effect of phosphorus and nitrogen on explained by the differential response of each species to periphyton growth in sawgrass and mixed (sawgrass and nutrients. Sawgrass is a low nutrient status species that is cattail)communities.At the sawgrasssites,highphosphorus competitiveonlyin oligotrophicenvironments,and cattailis andmediumto highadditionsof nitrogenand phosphorusin ahighnutrientstatusspeciesthat iscompetitivewhennutrient combination resulted in higher periphyton biomass. supplyis increased(Davis1994). StewardandOrnes(I975a, Phosphorus additions increased the number of diatom and 1975b as inDavis 1994)reported that sawgrasshasa limited blue-greenalgae species at these sites. At the mixed sites, potential for phosphorus uptake, indicating that the low all additions resulted in lower number of species and a nutrient requirements of sawgrass are an adaptation to the disappearanceof most green algae resultingin a decreasein oligotrophic conditions under which the ecosystem The Effects of WaterManagementon Vegetation Jennifer Maniscalco and Fauna in the Florida Everglades Page 8 developed.Davis(1989)foundthatbothsawgrassand cattail As a result, the food value of periphyton may decrease, showed an increase in annual production in response to disrupting the overallproductivity of the Everglades. phosphorusincreases. Sawgrassproductiondidnot varywith The effectofperiphyton communitychangeand cattail interannual changes in phosphorus concentrations. Cattail prolitèrationonmacroinvertebrates,and inturnonfoodwebs, was more opportunistic and increased production during is not clear. Davis (1994) reports on unpublished data years of high phosphorus concentrations. collected by N. H. Urban who found that cattail litter Theannualallocationof phosphorusto leavesin cattail supported only half the number o:fmacroinvertebrate taxa was three times that in sawgrass(Davis 1991). Cattailhas a compared to the oligotrophic site. Differences in the shorterplantlongevityandmorerapid leafturnoverrate(ratio macroinvertebratecommunitiesinclude near eliminationof of annual production to mean annual biomass) relative to snails,eliminationof isopods, and a doubling of the nwnber sawgrass, resulting in fhster formation of new leaf tissue or annelidworms. In contrast,Rader and Richardson(1992, (Davis 1989,Davis 1991). This rapidturnover allowscattail 1994) found that species richness, the number of unique to varyits allocation of phosphorus to leaves in response to species, and the density of invertebrates and small fish all the temporal variation in.surfhre water phosphorus levels increased in enriched open water habitats as compared to (Davis 1991). Tracer experiments employingphosphorus- oligotrophic sloughs. Further studies, incorporating 32 indicatedthe important role of adventitious roots, those systematic research methods, need to be conducted to growing upward into the water column between dead leaf determineif andhow themacroinvertebratecommunitiesare sheathsofsawgrassor cattail,atnutrientuptake sitesby both adverselyaltered in response to nutrient proliferation. species (Davis 1982). Both species used this pathway to Largediurnalchangesin dissolvedoxygen(DO)reflect takeupnutrientsfromthewatercolumn.However,utilization the high biological activity of the periphyton community of this pathway by cattail was higher at the eutrophic site, (Browder et al. 1994). The periphyton complexmakes an whileutilizationby sawgrasswas greater at the oligotrophic important DO contribution to the water column,providing site. an oxygenatedhabitat for aquatic organisms(Browderat al. Davis(1991)reportedthat sawgrassand cattailretained 1994). Theproliferationof cattailin nutrient-enrichedareas phosphorus in detritus resulting from,plant growth,,death, and mixed dense sawgrass and cattail sites decreases the and 2 years of decomposition. Phosphorus retention biomass of periphyton communities and may excludethem increasedin both specieswith nutrient enrichment. Nutrient altogether (Davis 1994, Vymazalet al. 1994). Reeder and loss through translocation and leaching from dying leaves Davis (1983) demonstrated that at nutrient-rich sites, the and retention in dead leaves all increased with nutrient diurnalfluctuationsin DOweredampened. Themidmorning enrichmentin surice water (Davis 1990). The rate of each levelsat these siteswerebelow 0.2mg/Lcomparedto values processwasgreaterfor cattailthan sawgrass,but theretention averaging approximately2.0 mglL at the non-enriched site. of phosphorus increased only up to a moderate level of Davis (1991) found that the organic sedimenttexture enrichment before leveling off in both species. Sawgrass in soils shifted fromcompact,fibrous sawgrasssedimentsat has limitedcapacityto retainhighernutrientinputs,andplant oligotrophic locations to fine, flocculent cattail sedimentat detritus accumulation functions as a nutrient sink in the eutrophic sites. Amador and Jones (1993) sampled three Everglades(Davis 1990). Dying cattailleavesrelease much peat soils,formedpredominantlyfrompartialdecomposition of the nuthents they accumulatedduring growth, indicating of sawgrass. Each had similar total nitrogen content, but that cattail leaf production functions more as a recycling different total phosphorus content. Addition of phosphate mechanismthan as a nutrient sink (Davis 1984). Recycling stimulated the microbial respiration rate in low and wasaccomplishedby organiccompoundsbeingleachedfrom intermediateTP soil,buthad no effecton the respirationrate leaves back into the surface water and translocation of ofhigh TP soils,suggestingthatphosphorusenrichmentmay nutrients from dying leaves to below-ground roots and have a long-term effect on microbial respiration in organic rhizomes. Toth (1987, 1988) reports a slightly greater soils with low TP content. utilizationofbelow-groundrootsandrhizomesin cattailthan Evapotranspirationishighestin the wet seasonsummer in sawgrassto take up phosphorus. months when water is readily available for surface CommunityImplications evaporation or vegetative transpiration. Annual A shiftinperiphytontaxonorniccompositionmayhave evapotranspiration rates account for the exportation of adverseeffectson food webs in the Everglades. Periphyton approximately 70-90 percent of the rainihll entering the is an important primary producer, and many microscopic undisturbedwetlandsin theEverglades(Dueverat al. 1994). animalslive in or on its surthce (Browder et al. 1994). The Koch and Rawlik (1993) found that cattailpossessedhigher periphyton complex is consumed by a wide variety of transpiration and conductance rates than sawgrass. herbivores and omnivores, such as apple snails and small Vegetationshifts and nutrient enrichment have to potential fish. In turn, these are fed upon by wading birds, alligators, to alter waterbalancesin the Evergladesby exacerbatingthe andlargerfish. Animalsthat forageonperiphytonmayprefer diminishedwater flows and hydroperiods that haveresulted diatoms,desmids,and othergreenalgae,whichdecreasewith from current water managementpractices (Davis 1994). shorterhydroperiodsandnutrientenrichment,overpollutant- tolerant species such as Microcoleus(Browder et al. 1994). Page 9 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSiTY JOURNAL OF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume1, Issue 1

Effects ofWater Management on Fauna in the Everglades 350 Americanalligatorsin northcentralFloridato determine TheFloridaEvergladeshost a varietyof animalspecies foodhabits.Juvenilesconsumedprimarilyinvertebratessuch including invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, as apple snails (Pomacea paludosa) and crayfish mammals and birds. Each species plays a vital role in the (Procambarus penninsulalus), supplementedby small fish ecologicalli.mclioningof the Everglades ecosystem. The andfrogs. Largersizeclassesconsumedprimarilyred-bellied relative importance of the American alligator and several turtles (Pseudemys nelsonz, Florida gar (Lepisosteus wadingbird species,as well as their closerelationshipto the platyrhincus), and other vertebrates including birds and hydrologic regimes in south Florida, makes these species mammals. The associationofprey preferenceswithageand important indicators of the adverse effects of current water class groups helps reduce competition for food among both managementpractices in southern Florida. individual animals and groups of animals. Alligator eggs The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is and young are subjectto predation by raccoons, otters, and the keystone species in the freshwater marshes of the somebird species,butappearsafefrompredationwhenupon Evergladesecosystem. Courtshipbehavior,mating,nesting, reaching six feetin length (Lodge 1994). and habitat use of the American alligator are all dependent Spatial and temporal separation of alligators in the on the marshwater levels, which determinethe availability marshesthroughout most of the year helps reduce agonistic of food and the patterns of growth and survival (Mazzotti encounters, the incidenceof cannibalism,and competition and Brandt 1994, Lodge 1994). Similarly,the timing and forfoodandspace(MazzottiandBrandt 1994).Malesremain the location of colony formation for fourteen species of in open, deep waters, becoming extremelyterritorialduring breedingwadingbirds in the Everglades are correlatedwith the mating season (Lodge 1994). Females, hatchling, and surface water recession rates during the dry season, which yearlingstendtoremainin smallmarshponds,or gatorholes, directly affectthe food availability(Frederick and Spalding constructed by the females, while juveniles and subadults 1994). Decreasesin the sizeof the prey base are aggravated are transient (Mazzotti and Brandt 1994). During natural by erraticwatermanagementpractices,deleteriouslyaffecting dry downs, alligators become concentrated in areas that the wadingbird populations in southern Florida (Frederick remain wet, thus increasing the incidence of agonism and andSpalding1994). Both the alligatorandthe wadingbirds competitionbetween individuals. were historicallyabundant,are counted easily,and respond ThelifecycleoftheAmericanalligatoris directlylinked quickly to changes in the hydrologic regime of the to the environmental variability characteristic of the Everglades. Everglades. Femalesarereceptive near the beginningofthe TheAmericanAlligator summer wet season in late April or May (Lodge 1994). The American alligator is found in fresh and brackish Elaborate courtship rituals synchronize ovulation and water habitats throughout the southeastern United States. spermatogenesisand peak 6-8 weeksbefore nesting occurs Alligatorshavebeennoted alongthe coastalplain fromNorth (Mazzotti and Brandt 1994). Deep, open water is required Carolinato southernFlorida, west througheastern Texasto for the male to mount the female during mating (Mazzoth the Rio Grande River, north to Mississippi, southern and Branch 1994). The female clears a circle 5-6 m in Arkansas, and southeast Oklahoma (Mazzotti and Brandt diameter and builds a nest approximately2 m wide and 1 m 1994, Neill 1971). In the historical Everglades, alligators tall (Neill 1971).Thefemalelays 20-60 eggsin a depression weremostabundantinthe peripheralmarshes. The drainage at the top of the mound after the rains have reflooded the of wetlands south of Lake Okeechobee for agricultureand marshes in late June and July (Mazzotti and Brandt 1994, along the eastern fringe for residential development have Lodge 1994). The exacttiming of nestingis correlatedwith causedthe alligatorsto relocate almostentirelyto the central spring air temperatures and rising surface water levels sloughsand canals (Kushlan1990, Lodge 1994). (Kushlan and Jacobsen,1990). Eggs hatch from late July Population size of the American alligator in the through September(Mazzotti and Brandt 1994). Everglades has fluctuated throughout the past century The alligator’s nest is menaced by the possibility of Mazzotti and Brandt 1994, Lodge 1994, Jacobsen 1983). flooding, drying, or overheating during the two month In the 1930’s,over-harvestingof the reptile for its hide and incubation period (Neil 1971, Mazzotti and Brandt 1994). meat causedthe population to plummet in most areas of the As a result, the nest is placed in an areathat remaincool and UnitesStates. Withthe creation of the EvergladesNational damp, yet above the level of flood waters (Neill 1971). Park in 1947, and subsequent government regulationwith Kushlan and Jacobsen (1990) found that the elevation at the Endangered Species Preservation Act (1966) and the which the eggsare placed in the nest is positivelycorrelated Endangered SpeciesAct (1973), the population rebounded. with the water level at the time of nesting. Furthermore, The animal is no longer on the endangered species list, but under predrainage conditions, the increment of water level continues to experience population declines due to rise was predictably correlated with water level at the time hurricanes, natural droughts, water management, and ofnest construction. Alligators successfullychosenest sites poaching. that decreasedthe likelihoodof flooding based on the water The American alligator is the top predator in the levels at the time of nesting. Evergladesecosystem(MazzottiandBrandt 1994). Delaney Themanipulationofnaturalhydrologicregimesinsouth and Abercrornbie(1986) examinedthe stomach contents of Florida has adversely affected the reproductive success of

diatoms, environments

beginning

stands

mangrove

understanding

are

Craighead

maintaining

shaping 24

I pond

mixture

pond

the

the

vegetation actually

season wetland

connecting by

I 20

bayheads

accentuates

Mazzotti

and

The

of

gator

fitness

animal predictability,

alligator

constrained

ability

from

nesting these

eggs Jacobsen higher but nesting

current by

1968a), flooding

May

under the

968b).

968b,

Jennifer

in

digging

the

ft

natural

bank

colonized heavy

American

are

construction

many

Gator

Alligators

free

Gator

laid during

The

wide

(Craighead in

holes,

of

management

are

water

predrainage

may

Kushlan

of

Everglades

communities

flows

of

Further decreases

of

(Craighead

exaggerated

pull

(Lodge

conditions,

fkilure

aborescent

diameter

algae,

under

was

and plays

Maniscalco

of

killed

postponed

the

banked

and

reproductive

of

are

bayheads,

1968b).

1990).

rainfall

marl

aquatic

up

movement

holes

holes

(Craighead the induce

rooted

the

migration

a by

by

level

the

the

in

alligator

Brandt

Iimitedto

the

indicating

natural

vegetation

and

alligator.

other

of

by

pond

tree American

flowering

the

normal

an

is

study

by

southern

and 1994).

1974).

plants

transition

also

are and

most

(Craighead

the

contain

1 in

creeks

Kushlan

widespread

and

correlated

species and

increased

ferns

968a). plants

flooding

important

When

altered

conditions.

1968a,

species

are

roots

population

the

practices

vegetative

with

organic

into

by

maintenance

(Mazzotti

to

willow

1994).

of

succession

affect depression

(Kushlan

of

trails,

important

2-4

alligator

the subsequent

loose

success

1968b). Flooding

homes

the

vital

Accentuated

management

that

alligator

of the

Florida.

and

and

a

(Kushlan

with

an

abandoned,

alligators

plants,

a

Lodge

periphery

(Lodge

hydrologic

from

Both

mature

ft

forming

and

adjacent

freshwater

water annually

variety

heads,

matter,

incubation

average

I

water

approximately

vegetative

and

to with

soil

deeper

role

changes

968a,

swamp

of

exceed

an

and

size

communities,

of courtship

Jacobsen

The

and

the

sawgrass

These

the

holes

emergent

losses

cause

1994).

protozoans,

from

carry

of

to

in

entrance

level

the

in

the

alligator

1994,

increases

Brandt

resulting

1974),

cypress

throughout

tree

levels,

Lodge

nests

of

to

create

alligators.

the

Jacobsen

ofthe

ecological

marshes,

increased

The

diying

practices

compared

than

of

gator

structuring

American

regime.

within

trees,

will the

the

loss

fluctuations

areas

aquatic

the

of

fresh

trails

are

period

islands

limestone

27.9

There

period

communities Craighead Effects

and

(1990)

nest

the

swamps

pond

perimeter the

1994).

a

1994,

provide

beneath

accommodative

thicker

especially

and

holes caused

domes,

of

in

can

from

6

pond

(Lodge the

in

to

wading

influence ponds,

marking

percent

alligator

and

crustaceans, late

and

1990).

in

hydrological

failure

surrounding The

are

that

Kushlan

incidence

Because

the

(Craighead

organisms:

to

(Craighead

submerged

has

water

maintain

success

salt

ecosystem.

alligator

of

Craighead

found

and

deep

plant

Although decreased

Fauna

4

that April

2-3

naturally

a

muck,

to resulting

bedrock

alligator

marshes

a

result

and

the

Water

reduced

percent

tanned

den

I

water

better

of

1994,

birds,

trails

968a,

solid

under

trails

of

when

may

flow,

is

and

the

wet

the

the

the and

that

and

and

by

the

in

6-

in

all

of

of

in

a

a is

Management

the

populations

water

the

Nesting

experienced

(Eudocimus the

thula),

Ciconilformes)

(Lodge

occurring

southern

ecosystem. Everglades,

suitable

periods

in

this

the

as management,

large refligia

1974). reproductive

(1974) Reduction

increased

(Bancroft

holes

wading Historically, mineral

concentration ponds,

Craighead

birds progression wet

overflow

spreads

Mazzotti

droughts

the

also

level. that

species

level

as

aquatic

dry

amphibians,

Florida

structuring refugia

great

pond

1930’s

water

pond

habitat.

season downs

Close

during

alligators

Under

increases

Some

drops,

management and

the

into

concludes This

Because

in

either

1994).

due

egret

wading

life,

habitat throughout in

Everglades

Florida,

habitats

bird

from

(Craighead

on

specifically

nutrients

and level

and

habitat

tricolored

et

many

due

mammals

I

are

of

to

the

under

albus),

the

968a).

a

of

increase

in

the

decrease to

aquatic

wading

al.

both

fitness, Vegetation

As

of

natural becoming

reptiles,

400

(Casmerodius

decline

the

Brandt

seed

directly

have

of

surrounding

species

exacerbated

plant

Wading

to breed necessary

pond

the

May

drainage

falls

and

1994).

adjacent

the

with

of

Fourteen

a

dry

areas

bird

predrainage

diversity

with prey

habitat number

that

the

species

result,

have

and

the

Furtheimore,

marshes,

new

subsequent

rainy

along

the

altered

heron

birds

(Ogden

season

or

(Lodge

organisms

in I

increase

results

to

and or

of

number

conditions,

falling

1994).

within

968a).

in

populations

canals

importance

and

the

Bfrds:

and

approximately from

in

this

increasingly

June

in

approximately

derive

marshes life

effects

by

pre-existing

and

alligator to

alteration,

of wetLands

animal the

follow

wood

with of

season,

species

and

(Egretta

the fish

waters.

large

region by

maintain

albus),

birds

these as

from

cycles

preying

the

the

presently

large

the 1994).

This

(Craighead

conditions water

water

Ciconiformes

1994,

ponds

to

of

maintained

increased

the

rainfall

decreasing

their

Everglades

(Craighead

stork

the

are

that

fish

abundance ponds

a

the

Everglades

alligators

as

have

the

communities

phenomenon

of

populations

(Lodge pond

the

relationships.

peak

of

alligators

the

increasingly

with

The

breeding

in

tricolor),

(Bancroft

management

wetland

the

levels

Zaffke migrants

able

the

concentrated

sustenance

during

them.

and

Kushlan

(Mycteria

movement

penetrate

ponds

wading

350

snowy

upon

south

American

been

serve

75-80

decreases

number

serve

banks

averaged American

at

the

life

drainage

the

1

to

function

1994),

968a).

species

of

the

have

(Kushlan

Both

1

documented

the

first

of

outnwnber season

is

1984). 968a).

National survive

as

multiplies

drainage,

and

number

Florida

one

egret

the

percent

from

these

as

birds

(1974)

of

lowest

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245,000birds,comparedto thepeak of approximateLy50,000 Frederick and Collopy 1989). birds in 1976(Ogden 1994). Ogden(1994)identifiesfive subregionsof wadingbird Wadingbird activityusuallycoincideswith thepattern colony locations: (1) lower Ten Thousand Island, (2) of dccliningwater levelsand increasingprey density(Zafike northwestern Florida Bay, (3) southern, mainland, (4) 1984). The drying conditions following the wet summer headwaters,and 5) interiorEverglades. Under predrainage months force large concentrations of prey, mainly fish and conditions, 90 percent of nesting colonies occurred in the aquatic invertebrates, into shallow ponds and depressions headwater regions of the rivers emptying into Whitewater (Lodge 1994). Each species demonstrates different prey Bay and the Gulf which created a mangrove-freshwater preferences,andbirds stand or wade in shallowwaterto stab, ecotone at the lower end of Shark River Slough (Ogden grasp, or filter out their prey using a species-uniquetouch- 1994). Thenumber ofnestingcoloniesinrecentyears (1974- oriented or a visually-orientedfeeding style(Hoffman et al. 1989) has declined in the estuaries and headwaters and 1994,Lodge 1994). For example,wood storks,which prefer increased in the Water Conservation Areas of the interior fish 2-10 in long, often feed in cooperative groups. Wood Everglades (Ogden 1994). The shift in colony locations storksuse a technique termed groping that involvesprobing results fromthe increasein frequencyof chyoutsin the lower its long, partially opened bill into the water while walking portionof SharkRiverSloughandtherelocationofthe long slowly. Sensitivereceptors on the inside of the bill detect hydroperiodpool northwardinto the southernend of WCA prey organisms, snapping shut by reflex action when 3A (Ogden 1994). somethingis caught In addition,wood storksmay use their Ogden(1994)reportsthatunderpredrainage conditions feet to stir up any motionlessfish. more birds nested in normal or wet years when the large Hoffman et al. (1994) report that differences in prey areas of the marsh Landflooded, providing a better range of preferences and foraging behavior of each species are options for foraging. In very wet years, too much of the reflected in the current distribution of each species within habitat was deeply flooded during the normal months of the various foraging habitats. All species tended to avoid colonyformationfromFebruary to March. In dryyears,the areas densely covered by sawgrass, cattail, or similar reduced attractiveness of the foraging habitats of higher vegetation. Most species, particularly the great blue heron elevationmarshesfromOctoberto Decemberinfluencedthe (Ardea herodias) and white ibis, preferred marsh habitats pre-nesting conditions such that nesting birds concentrated dominated by tree islands which break up the marsh into in other areas. In contrast, the dry years of the 1970’s smaller pockets of available food. The great blue heron, experienced the largest number of nesting birds. High feedingmainlyon largerfish,tendedto foragein wetterareas elevation marshes were partially or fully drained, and low wherethey can wade in deeper water. Great egrets, who eat water in the central sloughs made prey available earlier in smallerprey and need higher prey densities for successful the season. However, the 1980’swere characterized by a foraging,tendedto spread out and foragealoneintransitional reduced effort overall, particularly in dry years relative to areas with less surface water. the slight increase during wet or nonnal years. This most Successfulwading bird colony sitesmust be located in recent shift indicatesthat the wadingbirds respond to more areas thatprovideadequatefoodforthe 10-14weekbreeding complex environmentalvariables than water depth. cycle of the wading birds (Bancroft et al. 1994). Wading The shift in the timing of nest initiation (Ogden 1994) birdsintheEvergladestypicallyinitiatenestingnear foraging further explains the response of wading birds to aggregations,characterizedby many birds feeding on large environmental variables. Under predrainage conditions, and concentratedprey bases near the colony site (Bancroft wadingbirdsbegan nestingin earlyDecemberthroughearly et al. 1994, Ogden 1994). Under natural conditions, the March,withpeak activityoccurringbetweenMarch to May. season and the presence of pre-existing colonies may also In recent periods, nesting initiation has occurred from mid- providecues concerningthe potential successof a particular January to late March. Wood storks in particular have location (Bancroftet al. 1994). undergone a dramatic change. Wood storks initiated and Compartmentalizationand current water management completednesting from early Decemberto late April under practices in south Florida have resulted in shifts in the predrainage conditions and from late January to early June location, hydrodynamic conditions, and timing of nesting in the recent period. Differences in the timing of nesting initiation as well as increased rates of colony failure. The initiation are due to variations in hydrologicalpatterns and percentageof fullysuccessfulcolonieshas dropped from 80 prey concentrationsthat occur between regions and years. percent to 43.7 percent, while the percentage of fully The shift in the timing of nesting initiation indicates successful colonies and partial failures combined has that it is the locationand the rate of recession of the “drying decreased from 86.6 percent to 69.7 percent (Ogden 1994). edge”ofthetransitionalwetland,rather thanthe timeofyear, Although disease agents, mercury contamination, and that determines where wading birds will forage and predation account for some degree of nestingfailure among subsequently establish colonies (Bancroft et aT. 1994). wading birds (Frederick and Collopy I989a, Frederick and Frederickand Collopy(1989b) found that nest successwas Spalding 1994, Spalding et al. 1994), abandonmentrelated related to early nesting and rapid rates of surfce water to the availabilityand quality of food is the most common recession. Abandonments of white ibises and wood storks cause of nesting failure (Frederick and Spa[ding 1994, were directly linked to changes in the rate of water level _____

The Effects of WaterManagement on Vegetation Jennifer Maniscalco and Fauna in the Florida Everglades Page 12 fluctuation which affect prey availability (Frederick and because they either reflood and disperse food resourcesor Collopy1989b,RamoandBusto 1992). Rateof surfacewater they thy out completely (Bancroftet al. 1994). There is a recession contributes to the degree of nesting success of strong associationbetween fecundity and the production of wadingbirds,but theunderlyingmechanismscontrollingthe youngwithfoodsupply(FrederickandSpalding 1994). The success and abandonment are through food availability growthrates of nestling tricolored herons and snowyegrets (Frederickand Spalding 1994). is correlatedwiththe density of fishprey in nearbywetlands Alteredhydrologicalregimesandthe subsequenteffect (Frederickand Spalding 1994). Furthermore, undercurrent onthepreybase explainthe decliningsuccessratesofwading conditions, wood storks had a high probability of colony birds colonies since the institution of water management failure in 10 out of 15 years due to nest initiation as late as practices. Ogden (1994) hypothesized that the increased March (Ogden 1994). Ideally,wood storks shouldcomplete frequency of dry outs in the 1980’swithin the Everglades the nesting cycle(110-150days) before the beginningofthe NationalPark andthe WaterConservationAreas resulted in summerrainy season when, fledglingscan forage in a low a loss of surface water during the mid and late dry seasons water, high food concentration habitat. Delayed nesting which contributedto the degradationof thepreybase. Water produced fledglingsin June or July when the food resource conditionsin southFloridainfluencethe sizeand thenumber environmentis very hostile (Ogden 1994). of aquaticpreyin a specificarea. Marsheswithhydroperiods Bancroftet at (1994) summarizesthe four maineffects oflessthan 9-10monthsshow lessinternalreproductionand ofwatermanagementon thenestingsuccessof wadingbirds long term survival of fishes than do marshes with longer in the Everglades. Altered hydrological regimes and hydroperiods(LoftusandEklund 1994). Prolonged periods compartinentalization of wetlands interferes with colony without surface water may result in complete die-offs of formationand nest initiation, induces increased nesting in certain prey species, followed by slow recolonization the Water ConservationAreas, magnifies the effects of the (FrederickandCollopy l989b). Theshortenedhydroperiods dryseasonrainfall,andaffectstheproductivityofthemarshes throughoutthe Evergladesas a result of water management by making less food available. Reductions in population have resulted in a chronic pattern.of declining production and changes in colony location correlate with the decrease and survivalof the primary prey species (Ogden 1994). intotalareaofwetland foraging habitats,increasedfrequency Furthermore, most small fish might move toward the ofdiyouts inthe lowerSharkRiverSlough,andthe relocation deeper sloughs when water levels are dropping in the of longer hydroperiodmarshes into the WaterConservation peripheral marshes, resultingin an increase in fish biomass Areas (Ogden 1994). Changes in timing of wood stork in the central sloughs. The Evergladeshas experienceda 50 nestingandthereductionin reproductiveeffort ofwoodstorks percent reduction in total area (Davis 1994), and loss of correlate with the loss of food resources in the early dry peripheralmarshesreduces the numberof fish available for season habitats (Ogden 1994). migration. Compartmentalization of the wetlands would create a barrier effect, resulting in the decreased ability of Conclusion fishto migrate,especiallyintothe deeper sloughsduringthe Humanshaveattemptedto alterthenaturalhydrological thy season (Bancroftet al. 1994, Loftus and Ekiund 1994). regime of the Everglades in order to facilitate both The productivity of these areas would decline sharply. As urbanization and the growth of agriculture in southern prey becomesscarcer,the wadingbirds becomeincreasingly Florida. The impact of human induced changes has dependent upon the mechanical concentration of prey for dramatically affected both the vegetation and the fauna of reproductive foraging. The increased dependency on the the region. The environmental degradation resulting from waterrecessionrate is an indicator of the degradationof the manipulation of natural systems indicates that a major prey base (Frederickand Spalding 1994). restructuring of the water control managementpolicies and Aggravatingthe situation is the increasedseverityand works will be necessary to repair the Everglades as well as duration of diy season reversals resulting from structural provide for the humanneeds of the region in the future. modifications to the Everglades wetlands. Under natural conditions,dry seasonrainfaiicausedreversalsin the drying Literature Cited trendsofthe surfacewaterlevelswhichmayhavepotentially Abt,R.C.andWi. Finget 1989.‘ResourcepolicyintheEverglades affectedthe rates of colony success (Bancroft et al. 1994). AgriculturalArea:ahistoricalandeconomicperspective.”Journal Currentwater managementregimes have resulted in pulsed ofEnvironmentalManagement29:83-93. regulatoryreleasesandreducedwaterlevelssothat dryseason Allen,liE., andJ.R.Kramer.eds.1972.Nutrientsin rainfallhas a greaterdilutingeffecton thepreybase(Bancroft Natural Watetc. NewYork:JohnWileyand Sons. etal. 1994). Tricoloredherons,snowyegrets,andgreategrets tend to abandon their colonies during winter stormsdue to Amador,J.A. and R.D. Jones. 1993.“Nutrient limitationson the reversals in the drying trends (Frederick and Spalding microbialrespirationin peatsoilswith differenttotalphosphorus 1994). content.”SoilBiologyand Biochemistry25: 793-801. Traditional colony sites are no longer adequate indicatorsof nesting success. They do not provide suitable G.H.Richanyand RD. Jones. 1992.“Factorsaffecting foraginghabitats long enough to completethe nesting cycle phosphateuptakeby peat soilsof the Florida Everglades.”Soil ______. _____

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Science 153: 463-470. Energy,Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

Bancroft, G.T.,A.M. Strong, R.J. Sawicki, W.Hoffman,and S.D. 1990. “Growth, decomposition, and nutrient retention of Jewell. 1994.“Relationships amongwading bird foragingpatterns, sawgrass and cattail in the Everglades.” TechnicalPublication 90- colony locations, and hydrology in the Everglades.” Pages 615- 03. West Palm Beach: South Florida WaterManagement District. 658 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: The Ecosystemand its Restoration. Defray Beach: St. Lucie Press. 1991. “Growth, decomposition, and nutrient retention of Cladiumjamaicense Crantz and Typha domingensis Pers. in the Bennetts, RE., M.W. Collopy, and J.A. Rodgers, Jr. 1994. “The Florida Everglades.” Aquatic Botany 40: 203-224. snail kite in the Florida Everglades: a food specialist in a changing environment.”Pages 507-532 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. ‘Phosphorus inputs and vegetation sensitivity in the 1994.Everglades:TheEcosystemand itsRestoration.DefrayBeach: Everglades.” Pages 357-378 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. St. Lucie Press. 1994. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. Defray Beach: St. Lucie Press. Bowman,R, G.V.N.Powell, LA.Hovis,N.C. KlineandT.Wilniers. 1989. “Variationsin reproductive success between subpopulations L.H. Gunderson, WA. Park, J.R. Richardson, and J.E. of the Osprey (Pandion Haliaetus) in south Florida.” Bulletin of Mattson., 1994. “Landscape dimension, composition, and function Marine Science 44: 245-250. in a changingEvergladesecosystem.”Pages 419-444 in S.M.Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Brenner,M., M.W.Binford, and E.S. Deevey 1990.“Lakes.”Pages Restoration. Defray Beach: St. Lucie Press. 364-391 in R.M. Myers and J.J. Ewel, eds. 1990. Ecosystems of Florida. Orlando: University of Central Florida Press. and J.C. Ogden. 1994. “Toward ecosystem restoration.” Pages 769-796 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Browder, J.A., P.3.Gleason, and D.R. Swift. 1994. “Periphyton in Everglades: TheEcosystemand its Restoration. DefrayBeach: St. the Everglades: spatial variation, environmental correlates, and Lucie Press. ecological implications.” Pages 379-418 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystemand its Restoration. DeAngelis, D.L. 1994. “Synthesis: spatial and temporal DefrayBeach: St. Lucie Press. characteristicsof the environment.” Pages 307-322 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Brown, R.B., E.L. Stone, V.W.Carlisle. 1990. “Soils.” Pages 35- Restoration. Defray Beach: St. Lucie Press. 69 in R.M. Myers and 3.3.Ewel, eds. 1990.Ecosystems ofFlorida. Orlando: University of Central Florida Press. DeBuslç,W.F.,K.R Reddy,M.S. Koch andY. Wang. 1994.“Spatial distributionof soil nutrients in a northern Everglades marsh: Water Coale, F.J., F.T. Izuno, and A.B. Bottcher. 1994a. “Sugarcane Conservation Area 2A.” Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal production impact on nitrogenand phosphorus in drainage water 58: 543-552. from an Everglades histosol.” Journal of Environemental Quality 23: 116-120. Deuver,M.J., J.F.Meeder,L.C. Meeder,and J.M. McCollom. 1994. “The climate of southFlorida and its role in shapingthe Everglades 1994b. “Phosphorus in drainage water from sugarcane in ecosystem.” Pages 225-248 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. the Everglades Agricultural Area as affected by drainage rate.” 1994.Everglades:TheEcosystemand itsRestoration.DefrayBeach: Journal of Environmental Quality 23: 121-126. St. Lucie Press.

Craft, C.B. and C.J. Richardson. 1992. “Peat accretion and N, P, Diaz, O.A., Dl. Anderson and E.A. Hanlon. 1993. ‘Phosphorus and organic accumulation in nutrient-enriched and unenriched mineralizationfromhistosolsoftheEvergladesAgriculturalArea.” Everglades peatlands.” Ecological Applications 3: 446-458. Soil Science 156: 178-185.

and 1993. “Peat accretion and Durako,IvLJ.1994.“Seagrassdie-offinFloridaBay((JSA): changes phosphorus accumulation along a eutrophication gradient in the in shoot demographic characteristicsand population dynamicsin northern Everglades.” Biogeochemistry 22: 133-156. Thalassia testudinum.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 110: 59- 66. Davis, S.M. 1982. “Patterns of radiophosphorus accumulation in the Everglades after its introduction into surface water.” Technical Fennema, R.J., C.J. Neidrauer, RA. Johnson, T.K. MacVicar,and Publication 82-2. West Palm Beach: South Florida Water W.A. Perkins. 1994. “A computer model to simulate natural Management District. Everglades hydrology.” Pages 249-290 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystemand its Restoration. 1984. “Cattail leaf production, mortality, and nutrient flux DefrayBeach: St. Lucie Press. in water conservation area 2A.” Technical publication 84-8. West Palm Beach: South Florida WaterManagement District. Field, J.M. and M.J. Butler. 1994. “The influence of temperature, salinity,andpostlarvaltransportonthe distributionofjuvenile spiny 1989.“Sawgrassand cattailproductionin relationto nutrient lobsters, Panulorus Argus (Latreille, 1804), in Florida Bay.” supply in the Everglades.”Pages 325-341 in R.R. Sharitzand J.W. Crustaceana 67: 26-45. Gibbons, eds. 1989. Freshwater Wetlandsand Wildljfe.Office of Science and Technical Jnformation, United States Department of Fourqurean,J.W.,G.V.N.Powell, W.J.KenworthyandJ.C.Zieman. ______,and

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1995.“The effectsof long-termmanipulation of nutrient supply on Isphording, W.C., and J.F. Fitzpatrick, Jr. 1992. “Geologic and competition between the seagrasses Thalassia testudinum and evolutionary history of drainage systems.” Pages 19-56 in C.T. Halodulewrightii in Florida Bay.” Oikos 72: 349-358. Hackney, S.M. Adams, and W.H. Martin, eds. 1992. Biodiversity ofthe Southeastern UnitedStates:Aquatic Communities.New York: Frederick, P.C. and M.W. Collopy. 1989. “Nesting success of five John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Ciconiform species in relation to water conditions in the Florida Everglades.” TheAuk 106: 625-634. Jzuno,F.T.,CA Sanchez,F.J. Coale,A.B. Bottcher andD.B. Jones. 1991. “Phosphorus concentrations in drainage water in the andM.G. Spalding.1994.“Factorsaffectingthereproductive Everglades Agricultural Area.”Journal of Environmental Quality success of wadingbirds (Ciconiiforines) in the Everglades.” Pages 20: 608-619. 659-692 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: TheEcosystem and its Restoration. Defray Beach: St. Lucie Press. Jones, RD. and J.A. Amador.1992. “Removal of total phosphorus and phosphate by peat soils of the Florida Everglades.” Canadian Gleason, P.J. and W. Spackman, Jr. 1974. “Calcareous periphyton Journal of Fisheries andAquatic Science 49: 577-583. and water chemistry in the Everglades.” Pages 146-181 in P.J. Gleason, ed. 1974. Environments of South Florida: Present and Koch, M.S. and P.S. Rawlik. 1993. “Transpiration and stomatal Past, MemoirNo. 2. Coral Gables: Miami Geological Society. conductance of two wetland macrophytes (Cladiumjamaicense Crantz and Typhadomingensis)in the subtropicalEverglades.”The and P. Stone. 1994. “Age, origin, and evolution of the American Journal ofBotany 80: 1146-1154. Evergladespeatland.”Pages 149-198in S.M.Davis and J.C.Ogden, eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystemand itsRestoration.Delray and K.R. Reddy. 1992. “Distribution of soil and plant Beach: St. Lucie Press. nutrients along atrophic gradient in the Florida Everglades.” Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal 56:1492-1499. Grace, J.B. 1988. “The effectsof nutrient additions on mixtures of Typhalatifolia L. and Typhadomingnsis Pers. along a water-depth Koch-Rose, M.S., K.R. Reddy and J.P. Chanton. 1994. “Factors gradient.”Aquatic Botany 31: 83-92. controlling seasonalnutrient profiles in a subtropicalpeatland of the FloridaEverglades.”Journal ofEnvironmentalQuality23:526- 1989.“Effects of water depth on Typhalatifolia and Typha 533. domingensis.”American Journal of Botany 76: 762-768. Kurata, A. 1983. “Effects of agricultural wastewater on benthic Gosselink, J.G., and R.E. Turner, 1978. “The role of hydrologyin algae in ditchesin theNetherlands.”Pages 305-310in R.G.Wetzel, freshwater wetland ecosystems.” Pages 63-78 in RE. Good, D.F. ed. 1983. Perzvhyton of Freshwater Ecosystems. The Hague: Dr. Whigham, and R.L. Simpson, eds. 1978. Freshwater Wetlands: W.Junk Publishers. Ecological Processes and Managment Potential. New York: AcademicPress. Kushlan, J.A. 1990. “Freshwater marshes.” Pages 324-363 in R.L. Myers and J.J. Ewel, eds. 1990. Ecosystems of Florida. Orlando: Grimshaw,RJ., M. Rosen, D.R. Swift,K. Rodbreg, and J.M. Noel. University of Central Florida Press. 1993.“Marsh phosphorusconcentrations, phosphoruscontentand speciescompositionofEvergladesperiphytoncommunities.”Archiv T. Jacobsen. 1990. “Environmental Variabilityand the fuerHydrobiologie 128: 257-276. Reproductive Success of Everglades Alligators.” Journal of Herpetology 24: 176-184. Gunderson,L.H. 1994.“Vegetationofthe Everglades:determinants of communitycomposition”.Pages 323-340 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Lapointe,B.E. 1989.“Macroalgalproduction and nutrientrelations Ogden, eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystemand Its Restoration. in oligotrophicareas of Florida Bay.” Bulletin of Marine Science DefrayBeach: St. Lucie Press. 44: 312-323.

and J.R. Snyder. 1994. “Fire patterns in the southern Larkum, A.W.D., A.J. McComb, and S.A. Shepherd, eds. 1989. Everglades.” Pages 291-306 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. Biology of Seagrasses. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 1994. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. Defray Beach: St. Lucie Press. Lee, C. 1996. “The glades: much accomplished,much more to be done.” Florida Naturalist 69: 6-7, 18. Hoffman, W., G.T. Bancroft and RJ. Sawicki. 1994. “Foraging habitat of wading birds in the water conservation areas of the Light,S.S. andJ.W. Dineen. 1994.“WatercontrolintheEverglades: Everglades.” Pages 585-614 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. ahistoricalperspective.”Pages47-84 in SM. Davis andJ.C. Ogden, 1994.Everglades:TheEcosystemand itsRestoration.DefrayBeach: eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystem and Its Restoration. Defray St. Lucie Press. Beach: St. Lucie Press.

Holling, C.S., L.H. Gunderson, and C.J. Walters. 1994. “The Livingston, R.J. 1990. “Inshore marine habitats.” Pages 549-573 structure and dynamics of the Everglades system: guidelines for in R.L. Myers and J.J. Ewel, eds. 1990. Ecosystemsof Florida. ecosystem restoration.” Pages 741-756 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Orlando: University of Central Florida Press. Ogden, eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystemand itsRestoration. Delray Beach: St. Lucie Press. Lodge, T.E. 1994. TheEvergladesHandbook: Understandingthe Ecosystem.Delray Beach: St. Lucie Press. ______,and _____

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Loftus, W.F,and A.M. Ekiund. 1994. “Long-term dynamics of an Reeder, P.B., and S.M. Davis. 1983. “Decomposition, nutrient Everglades small-fish assemblage.” Pages 461-484 in S.M. Davis uptake and microbial colonization of sawgrass and cattail leaves in and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: The Ecosystem and lis water conservationarea2A.” Technicalpublication83-4.WestPalm Restoration. Delray Beach: St. Lucie Press. Beach: South Florida Water Management District.

Mazzotti, F.J. 1989. “Factors affecting the nesting success of the Robblee, I.B., T.R. Barber, P.R. Carlson, Jr., M.J. Durako, J.W. American Crocodile, CrocodylusAcutus, in Florida Bay.” Bulletin Fourqurean, L.K. Muehistein, D. Porter, L.A. Yarbro and R.T. ofMarine Science44: 220-228. Zieman. 1991. “Mass mortality of the tropical seagrass Thalassia testudinumin FloridaBay (USA).”MarineEcologyProgress Series L.A. Brandt. 1994. “Ecologyofthe American affigator 71: 297-299. in a seasonally fluctuating environment.” Pages 485-506 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: TheEcosystemand Robertson,Jr.,W.B.andP.C. Frederick. 1994.“Thefaunal chapters: its Restoration.DefrayBeach: St. Lucie Press, Florida. contexts, synthesis, and departures.” Pages 709-737 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its McCormick, 3. 1978. “Ecology and the regulation of freshwater Restoration. Defray Beach: St. Lucie Press. wetlands.” Pages 341-356in R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham, and R.L. Simpson, eds. 1978. Freshwater Wetlands:Ecological Processes Roos, P.3. 1983. “Dynamics of periphytic communities.” Pages 5- and ManagementPotential. New York:Academic Press. lOin R.G. Wetzel,ed. 1983.Periphyton ofFreshwaterEcosystems. The Hague: Dr. W.Junk Publishers. McMormick, P.V.and J. Cairns, Jr. 1994. “Algae as indicators of environmentalchange.”Journal ofAppliedPhycology6:509-526. Ryding, S.-O., and W. Rast, eds. 1989. The Control of EutrophicationofLakes and Reservoirs.Park Ridge: TheParthenon Mclvor, C.C., J.A. Ley and R.D. Bjork. 1994. “Changes in Pblishing Group. freshwater inflow from the Everglades to Florida Bay including effects on biota and biotic processes: a review.” Pages 117-146 in Sand-Jensen,K. 1983.‘Physical and chemicalparametersregulating S.M.Davis andJ.C. Ogden, eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystem growth of periphytic communities.” Pages 63-72 in R.G. Wetzel, and lis Restoration.DefrayBeach: St. Lucie Press, Florida. ed. 1983.Periphyton of Freshwater Ecosystems.The Hague: Dr. W.Junk Publishers. McRoy, C.P., and C. Heliferich, eds. 1977. Seagrass Ecosystems: A ScientificPerspective.New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc. Scheidt, D.J., M.D. Flora, and D.R. Walker. 1989. “Water quality managementfor EvergladesNational Park.” In D.W.Fisk, ed. 1989. Neill, WT. 1971. The Last of the Ruling Reptiles: Alligators, Proceedings of the Symposium on Wetlands: Concerns and Crocodiles,and TheirKin.New York:Columbia University Press. Successes.American Water Resources Association.

Ogden, J.C. 1994. “A comparison of wading bird nesting colony Sloey,W.E.,F.L. Spangler,and C.W.Fetter, Jr. 1978.“Management dynamics(1931-1946and 1974-1989)as an indicationof ecosystem of freshwaterwetlandsfor nutrent assimilation.” Pages 321-340in conditions in the southern Everglades.” Pages 533-570 in S.M. R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham, and R.L. Simpson, eds. 1978. Davis and J.C. Ogden, eds. 1994. Everglades: TheEcosystemand Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Management Its Restoration.Delray Beach: St. Lucie Press. Potential. New York:Academic Press.

Phillips, R.C., and C.P.McRoy, eds. 1980. Handbook ofSeagrass Smith, ifi, T.J., J.H. Hudson, M.B. Robblee, G.V.N. Powell and Biology:An EcosystemPerspective. New York: Garland STPM P.J. Isdale. 1989. “Freshwater flow from the Everglades to Florida Press. Bay: A Historical Reconstruction based on fluorescent banding in the coral Solenastrea bournoni.” Bulletin of Marine Science 44: Porter, P.S. and C.A. Sanchez. 1992. “The effect of soil properties 274-282. on phosphorus sorptionby Evergladeshistosols.” SoilScience154: 387-398. Snyder, G.H., and J.M. Davidson. 1994. “Everglades agriculture: past, present, and future.” Pages 85-116 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Rader, R.B. and C.J. Richardson. 1992. “The effects of nutrient Ogden,eds. 1994.Everglades: TheEcosystemandlis Restoration. enrichment on algae and macroinvertebrates in the Everglades: a DefrayBeach: St. Lucie Press. review.” Wetlands12: 121-135. Snyder, N.F., S.R. Beissinger, and R.E. Chandler. 1989. 1994. “Response of macroinvertebrates and small fish to “Reproduction and demography of the Florida Everglade (Snail) nutient enrichmentin the northern Everglades.” Wetlands14: 134- Kite.” TheCondor 91: 300-316. 146. South Florida Water Management District. 1992a. “Draft surface Ramo, C. and B. Busto. 1992. “Nesting Failure of the Wood Stork water improvement and management plan for the Everglades.” in a neotropical wetland.” The Condor 94: 777-781. SupportingInfonnationDocument.WestPalmBeach: SouthFlorida WaterManagement District. Reddy, K.R., R.D. Delaune, W.F.DeBusk and M.S. Koch. 1993. “Long-term nutrient accumulation rates in the Everglades.” Soil 1992b. “ENR: Everglades Nutrient Removal Project.” ScienceSocietyofAmericaJournal 57: 1147-1155. November. West Palm Beach: South Florida Water Management

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Zieman, Everglades:

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Walters,

Ward, Davis

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control National

Walker, Everglades.”

Aquatic

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Urban,

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Federal

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of Engineering

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Storch,

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South

Spalding,

Wildltfe

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Restoration.

plant

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Secretary

nutrient

Plants.

Press.

2A

Beach:

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757-768 L.A.

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Botany

C.J., 1994.

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H.R.,

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44:

16 292- Page 17 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITYJOURNALOF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume1, Issue 1 Environmental Security as The rise in importance of the environment during the last decade has been nothing short of meteoric. From the National Security BrundtlandCommissionReportOurCommonFuturein 1987 to the Rio Conference in 1992, the role of environmental James Story issues in international policy making, foreign policy, and nationalsecurityhas increaseddramatically. This shiftaway fromthe correlationof forces(as wellas an economicsbased Thispiece was writtenfor a National Security Studies of Latin America perspective), to a security paradigm incorporating the course taught byProfessor Mujal-Leon. James Storyisa graduate student environment as central to a country’s foreign policy and in the SchoolQfForeignService. national security interests,is nowhere better illustratedthan in statements Introduction madeby officialsfromtheUS StateDepartment overthe lasttwo years. In veryun-Fukiyaznafashion,Strobe ThecountriesofLatin America and the Caribbean recognize Talbott emphatically asserted that not only has history the imperative need to strike a balance between not ended,butthatwe are onlynow beginningto understand socioeconomicdevelopment and envfronmentalprotection the complex interdependenceof human and natural history.’ and conservationthroughtheproper managementofnatural Similarly,WarrenChristopher,in an April 9, 1996speechat resources and control of environmentalimpacts as a source StanfordUniversity,admittedto the increased awareness of ofcommonconcern to the countries of theregion having the the importanceoftheenvironmentin US foreignpolicywhen utmostpriority. Such a recognition is a statement about the he revealed his desire to “put environmental issues where indissolublerelationship that existsbetween envfronmental theybelong:inthemainstreamof Americanforeignpolicy.” fairs and socioeconomicdevelopment. In fhct,Christopherelucidatedthat the environment2impacts -The Declaration of Brasilia national interests in two fundamental ways: first, Article 1, March 30-31, 1989. environmental problems are transboundary problems and second, “addressing natural resources is frequently The definition of national security, commonly critical to achievingpolitical and economicstabilityand topursuing understood as a state’s ability to maintain its territorial our strategicgoals around the world.’u integrityand viability in the fhce of threats, has evolved Thisnew emphasisonthe complexinterdependenceof substantially over time. Before the advent of the nation- environmental, economic, and foreign policy factors on state, the ancient empires of antiquity saw access to salt national security as proffered by Jessica Mathews in resources and materials for metallurgy as integral to their “Redefining Security,” illuminates a new definition existenceandthusnecessaiy for statesurvival. Withthe rise of national security that takes into account environmental of industrializationin Europe, domestic coal resources and degradation as a driving force in conflict. Mathews argues overseasterritories and markets became paramount for the that the traditional realist interpretations of conflict and the security of the state. Under European fascists such as Nazi functions of internationalrelations and national security to Germany,the concept of Lebensraum (“living room’) for a provide for the integrity of the state, are unable to address people was seen as a necessaiy ingredient of state security. environmentalproblems,many of which do not conformto And during the Cold War, fighting forces and power national boundaries. Her thesis is that as environments projectionbecamethe cornerstonesofnationalsecurity,while decline, there are downward pressures on the economic in the post Cold-warworld, internationaleconomicsplay an underpinningsofsocietiesand this inturn leadsto instability. increasinglyimportantrole innationalsecurity.Thehistorical The resulting poverty and instability in some nations are definitions of national security are inexhaustible and they merely the outward expression of the environmental illustrate the fact that the national security paradigm is a degradationthat liesat theroot oftheseproblems. Mathews mutable construct. Its chameleonic nature is now being continuesthis lineof reasoningto suggest4 that not only does shownthrougha body of scholarshipthat seeksto onceagain environmental stress lead to conflict, but as it transcends transform the concept of national security from a simple nationalborders it is “beginning to break down the sacred model of the ability to bring force, both for defense and in boundaries of national sovereignty.” If this is true, then order to obtain certain foreign policy objectives,to a model perhaps she is correctin statingthat “our accepteddefinition that encompassesenvironmental degradation and how this 5 of the limits of national sovereignty as coinciding with affectsa statebothdirectlyandindirectly.Throughanalyzing national borders is obsolete.” the argumentsfor and against incorporating environmental Whetherornot6this last assertionis accurate,economic security into national security,this paper will show that not performance and social stability are inextricably linked. Tf only areUS foreignpolicy objectivesinLatinAmericabeing the thesis that environmental degradation leads to dismal underminedby environmentaldegradation,but US national economic performance as outlined by the Bruridtiand securityis contingentupon a new notion ofnational security Commissionis alsotaken as sound,then thelinkagesbecome and foreignpolicy that incorporates the environment as an clear. But if b=cand doesit trulyfollowthat importantvariable. ab ac? Taken * as authentic the contentionthat economicdecline leads to frustration,unrest, instabilityand perhapscivil conflictand James Story Environmental Security As National Security Page 18 that economicdeclineis precipitatedby or coincidentalwith has led to immigration beyond a nation’s borders with environmentaldegradation,thenthe casethat environmental negative political repercussions. In El Salvador the result vitiationmayresult in instabilityis thirly strong. According was the 1969 Soccer War and in Haiti the result included to Mathews, this instability can make countries candidates boat loads of Haitian refugees seeking asylumin the United for authoritariangovernmentsor external subversion. Ifthe States. 9 * cornerstones of US foreign policy in Latin America are stability and democracy, then the case can be made that Although it would appear that the thesis posited by environmentalabasement leads to a host of economic and Jessica Mathews and others such as Robert Kaplan in “The political factors that may undermine US foreign policy ComingAnarchy” is rather intuitive,there are those that do objectivesand thus national security concerns. not believe Aristoteliansyllogisticreasoning appliesin this The core environmental and political issues that case; in other words that just because ab and bc it does according to Mathews cause this instability are population not necessarily follow that ac. Daniel Deudney and Marc growth, land degradation, internal economic inequality Levy are the chief critics of this thesis, Daniel Deudney (especially as seen through land tenure), and the growing claimsthat environmentaldegradation shouldbe a concern; problemofenvironmentalrefugees. Theseproblemsin Latin however,he arguesthat cloakingsuch a concernbeneaththe America have been particularly acute. With a population mantle of national security confuses the issue. Similarly, growthlevelofroughlytwo percent, LatinAmericamay not MarcLevyisnot aproponentofincorporatingenvironmental have the population explosionproblem faced by Africa, but securityinto the definition of national security. WhileLevy its growth level is still unsustainable as is evidenced by goes so far as to assert that environmental problems may population growth outstripping economic growth and food constitute security risks, he claims that this assertion is “of production. Thesecountriesfindthemselvesinthe untenable very little importance”to the larger debate.’° situation of having to invest more capital in providing a Deudney attemptsto show that the linkagebetweenthe modicumofservicesfortheirburgeoningpopulationsleaving environment and national security is tenuous at best. He them little left for savings and investment. The results of bases his arguments against tethering environment and such policies are manifest through7 decreasing economic, security on three points: 1) It is analytically misleadingto environmentaland political sustainability. see environmental degradation as a national securitythreat The social and political realities of many Latin because environmentaldamagehas little to do with directed Americancountriesalsopoint to futureinstability.As argued violence, 2) thinking of environmentaldegradationin these byMathews,the landtenuresysteminthesecountriesdirectly tenns may undermine the environmental agenda because it contributes to instability and indirectly contributes to engenders an us versus them mentality which is counter environmental degradation by forcing the disenfranchised productive to global environmental problems and their poor and indigenous peoples onto marginal lands that are amelioration,and 3) interstate war is unlikelyto result from easily eroded. A typical example of the concentration of environmental degradation.” In effect, this argument landintothehandsof an empoweredeliteis Guatemalawhere contendsthat environmentalscarcityand degradationdonot in 1980,80 percent of the land was in the hands of only two constitute a direct threat to the state. As Deudney argues, percent of the population. Even Costa Rica, which boasts “national security has been centered upon organized someof the most progressive and liberalpolicies in Central violence” and in this Hobbesian view of achieving security Americaand has a large middle class,has 54 percent of land from violence as paramount for national security, concentrated in the hands of a mere three percent of its environmentalproblemsandtheirsolutionscannotjustifiably landowners. Th.isinequitabledivisionofthe basic resource be considered such a 2threat.’ 8of survivalfor many in developingnations- arable land- has Deudney characterizes environmental problems as resulted in high levels of soil erosion and an increase in being distinct from traditional, violent national security migrationand immigration. threats. The claims that he advances lay the analytical The environmentalrefugee problem has been directly frameworkforthe contentionthat environmentaldegradation linkedto politicalinstabilityinsidecountriesaswellasoutside andnationalsecurityare separatephenomenon. Chiefamong of countries. SinceWorldWarII, insurgencieshave erupted theseishis beliefthat environmentaldegradationandviolence in Latin America over the inequitable land tenure situation. arenot only fundamentallydifferenttypesofthreats,butthat Many of these movementshave been labeled “Communist” they are divergent in scope and degree of intention.’ because they have proposed land redistribution as a means In addition to offering this framework3 for why these to disaggregatethe concentrationofwealthfromtheminority problemsaredissimilarandshouldnot beconsideredbeneath rich. Establishedmovementssuchas SenderoLuminosoand the same rubric, he offers an explanation for de-linldng the TupacAmaru RevolutionaryMovementin Peru, as well environmental degradation and war. The explanation asnew socio-politicalmovementsin Chiapas,Mexico,aptly proffered relies on the notion that the “contemporaryworld illustrate that instability can be partially generated by order” makes international conflict as a result of withholding land from the majority population in largely environmentaldegradationa dubiousproposition. Thetheory subsistence-baseddeveloping economies. Externally,both is that, because of the world trade system of the late 20th the landtenure systemandthe degradationof marginallands century,statesarenot asresourcedependentfortheirmilitary Page 19 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITYJOURNALOF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume1, Issue 1 security. Second, invasions of territories in order to secure and Deudneyharbor; that delineating environmentalthreats resources are extraordinarily expensive (Russia in asnationalsecuritythreatsforcesabroadeningofthe concept Afghanistan) and unlikelyto succeedinlightof international of national securitythat theyboth see as ultimatelycounter cooperation (Iraq in Kuwait). Finally, the 20th century is productive. The reason Levy is able to maintainthat some seen as the “age of substitutability” in which virtually environmentalproblems can be considered direct threats to anythingneeded can be fashioned fromthe most ubiquitous national security and therefore treated as such is that some andbasenatural14resources. Thefact that commodityprices environmental damages, for example the thinning of the have been steadily falling since the 1970s points to this ozone layer, constitute a, “direct physical argument [that] elasticityof demand for natural resources. rests on conceptionsof US interestthat arenot contested.” Finally,Deudneyattacksthepremisethat environmental That is to say that certain environmentalproblems2 present degradation makes countries susceptible to a rise in direct, physical threats to the citizens of the United States authoritarian regimes and that this has national security and canthereforebe crediblycategorizedwithinthenational implications. After arguingthat natural resourceshave little security paradigmwithout a drasticredefinition of national to do with the wealth and stability of a nation (by offering security. Japan as the null hypothesis case), he continues to While Levy acknowledgesthat linking some forms of conceptualize that an economically weakening and even environmental degradation to national security is disintegratingcountxywill quickly lose the capacity of war definitionallysound,he believesthat theyaretIindamentaliy making and thus not be a national security 15threat. In disserved by being linked through this national security conclusion, Deudney postulates that there is little need to paradigm. In the caseof ozonedepletion,he statesthat while couple the concept of national security to environmental there is this clear linkage between security and this securityas this would be tantamountto putting a square peg environmental phenomenon, “there is no evidence that in a round hole. labeling the problem as a security threat adds any value to Similarly,Marc Levy has endeavored to debunk the our abilityas a societyto respond effectively.” In fact,he conceptof environmentaldegradation as a securitythreat to concludes that the only reason2that this problem was theUnitedStates. Inhis analysis,the“indirect,politicalthreat eflbctively“solved”wasthatitwas’notpresentedasanational from environmentaldegradation (involving environmental securityproblem but rather as a “low politics” problemthat refugees,resourcewars,andso on)isat onceboththeweakest could brokered out of the sight of public 22scrutiny. He substantive threat to U.S. security and the strongest contends that by keepingthis issue out of the limelight,we intellectualchallengeto the field of securitystudies.” His eventually reached an agreementthat provided the highest allegationisnotthatenvironmentaldegradation6 isnot a strong level of cooperation in reducingthe production of 23CFCs. causal factor in conflicts, but rather that these conflicts are Levy is similarly hesitant to place the issue of global ofno directconsequenceto US national security.Eventhose climate change into the category of national security. Here macro, transboundaiyenvironmental issues such as ozone hisreasoningfornotmakingglobalclimatechangea national depletion and global warming that are direct threats to his security issue revolves aroundthe high degree of difficulty definitionofUS national security,would be better servedby in assessingwhat the welfarelosses will be and the length of remainingoutsideofthe national securityparadigm. In fact, the time horizon for addressing this issue. Therefore his his conjecture is that, “although it makes sense to consider argumentis not over whether or not there will be negative climate change a security threat because of potential economicimpactsfromglobalclimatechange,butratherover economic upheaval and potentialloss of American lives, it howmuchthe avertingbehaviorwillcosttheUnited 24States. is less clear how doing so enhances the way we think about Sinceit is not currentlyclear what the costsand benefitsare, the threat.” nor what type of carbon reduction programs should be 7 Levy’s analysis of the current “debate” over followed,wrappingthis problem in,the languageof national environmentalsecuritycentersaroundthe phenotypeofhow securitymay not be appropriateat thistime. However,Levy this debate has been 18illuminated. He proposes that the also contends that perhaps it will be best to handle this connections between the environment and security are in problem in the same manner as the Montreal Protocol to three distinctforms: existential,physical, and political. He reduce CFCproduction;that is, outofthe spotlightandaway dismisses out of hand the existential argument as being a from the “high politics” of national security. He concludes mererhetoricaldevice“aimedat dnunmingupgreatersupport by intimatingthat when this issue was first seen by many in formeasuresto protectthe 19environment.” He characterizes theBushadministrationas a national securitythreat, nothing the political or indirect threats from environmental happened to obviate the impending global warming and degradation as an intellectual challenge for further therefore any attemptto make this a national security issue scholarship rather than a credible threat to US national in the future may meet with similarresults. security. Finally, he does see some merit in the argument * that there is a direct physical link between environmental WhileDanielDeudneyand MarcLevyofferinteresting degradationand US national security. analyses of the debate surrounding linking the concept of In concedingthis finalpoint,Levy doesnot move away environmental security and national security, they fail to from the often-timesnot so sub-silent messagethat both he capture the essence of what proponents of environmental

economic transboundaiy

to

expectation

low). environmental Deudney

warming

a

in

of be

climate

would

some regulations.

pressures,

govern problems to

countiy

either

with

as

internally,

away

blackmail

to

costly

international transition

Although

unknown. and through

policy

shut the

and

issues provided

to

for while

between

that

as both

either

the

one

James

offering

Thomas

security

consideration

the

environmental

deforestation,

or

unable

outlined

project

situations

security

United

making

structure

Mexico

the

A

more side

other

case.

merit

These

state

cause

fruit,

The

through

from

As

to

still

probably

for

change can

makers

further

reason

such

Story

and

reveals

to

the

decline,

empirical

F.

can

continued

what

to is

that

the

environmental may such

to

or

steeped

immediate

definitions

they

is

for These

but

by they

their

States,

The

the

where

still

countries

economic

Homer

speaking

some

CFC

fulfill

Levy’s

are

developed

the

against

for

comply

as

where

lead

environmental agreement

of

far

problems

the

disaster

Mathews

a

agreemeni.

a

these

for

lead

United

of

do

either

ability

be

as

Chernobyl

examination

Mexico may

similar agreement,

do

dampen

the

rise

problems

example-to

long-term

power

could

and

definition

countries

from

production

the

to

environmental

are

the

in

not

her

the

made.

Jessica

not

to

Dixon

evidence

contention

current

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environmental

political

indirect

the

in

production

break

immigration,

current

of

problems directly

time

economic side

a

obligations with

coming

to

see

offered

States.

of

concessions help

lead

long-term

states.

that

authoritarian

situation over

illustrates

realist

citizens

through apples

currently

or

direct,

phase

only

degradation

Unable

within

the

are

For of

frame

type

may

Brazil

for Mathews,

of

developing

the

debate

in in

international

to

effectively

pressures

agreements

debate

turmoil.

and

and

this

threatened

becomes

of

Montreal

security

from attempting

a making

Furthermore,

school,

by

example

that

example,

nature.

are

the

and

(i.e.

agreement have

physical

exigencies.

few

of

out

where

the

problems

of

the

a

flaws. analysis

to of

provides

ideological

the

to

can

how

both

the

also

needs

the

one

security.

direct

Latin

form

technologically the

is

problems.

perform

countries.

they

an

countries-China,

Environmental

CFCs

regimes

the

CFC

arguments

effects

This

a

can

no

future

is

Norman

couid

a

dissolution

leads

these

countries

demonstrably

lack

international the

an

other

Levy

countzy,

void

too

Protocol

The

definitive

meant

(At

ability

unlike

physically,

conflict Will

to

America

longer

of

to

be

threats

seek

by

overall

political

production,

funding

national

government

in

environmental

of be

is

costly

convey.

if

the

to

It

environmental

issue

force accepted.

environmental

this

to

this

is

oranges, Homer-Dixon,

or

and

become

divide

order

understanding

the

would

tremendous.

The

addressed.

to

US

Most

in

for

instability, Levy,

obligations

Myers,

completely

effectively subversive

in

contribute

may

agreement

reduction

apply

made as

of

time

transition

the

becomes

Brazil

Deudney,

of

national is

statement

scenario

for this

turmoil, to

driven)

signing

security

the

to

being

global

rather

global

defines

Brazil

of

linked

Before

appear

future

India,

Securil.v

have many

them

more

these

while

Even

deal

the

of

only

the

case

case

by

the

and

to

a

If

a

of that

arising

to

factor

really

also

state’s

is

through

harm

cause

intentionally

considerations

deciding matters

of

system

environmental,

a problems.

quicker economies,

degradation

degradation and

be

entirety. 25 international”

are

equally

scope

can they

above

degradation

international through

CFCs.

some another

state the

long-term

question same

effects

in

form holding

indirectly

that

declaring security

tightly

As

the

of

be

environmental

Brazil

in

international

misleading

be

true

little

Finally,

Montreal

global

considered

National

Similarly,

that

organized

also

argument

in

damage

Deudney

sets

attacking

today’s of

over

states as

action

and

the

examples,

of

the

of

determining

of

suspect.

linked

than

state

factor

violence

that

but

increased

those

might

slowly

is

consequence.

complex

if

out

differ

these

same

through

a

Besides

internal

intention

results

simple-scarcity

indirect

as

and

attributed

The there

warming

are

the

and

sets

situation

of

or

definition

at

to

environmental

in

with

“new

well

and the

in

system

Protocol

from

for

Security

in it not

also

economic,

violence

political

and

very

as

another

actions

a

inaction any unwilling

arguments

in

one

make

in

to

high

violence

national

makes

out

Although

the

national

against

whether

is

well-being

current

directed

linking

from

the

as be

interdependence.

incidents

the scope

character environmental

immigration

forces

concern

world

argues

call

if

killing

a

blow direct,

time

arguments

little

environmental

to

organized,

results

in

an to

outlined

as

fundamental

themselves

aim

obvious

level

result to

state,

harm instability

which

little

Deudney’s

environmental

against

agreement

the

environmental,

are

a

most

and

the

scope

that

in

security. different

order” or

environmental

and be

or

security

importance. 26

or

issues

physical

of

national

posited

that

Deudney

organized

several

agreements

environmental is

history. of

of

if

slowly

what

unable

of

state.

the

not

harming either

sense

and

the

in

intention.

lead

these

stability

one

examples

counterintuitive

environmental

skin

not

above,

interdependence

are

of

the

environmental

but

harm

misses standard,

the

to

environment

also

degradation evident.

national due

environmental

should

to

issue.

by

considers

types

thousand

violence

to

through

assertion

difference Cutting

overtime,

only

state

Whether

equally

include

problems

systems,

security

causing

again,

to

cancer

likelihood

claims

instability

violence.

against

Deudney

Characterizing

look

result

the

problems

follow

to

condition

deforestation, degradation

not

banning

of

Drawing

is

are

degradation

of

The

environment”

be

environmental

the

the

ozone

we

at

security

Deudney

degradation

only

caused

down

direct

environmental

threats

interesting

in

the

that, overtime.

environmental

translates threat.

the

that.,

or

the

inhabitants

the

the

cross

the

through

threats

international

between

evolve

results

key

and

degradation

can

of

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at a Page 21 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITYJOURNAL OF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume1, Issue 1 national securitybut is built on thultyreasoning. Whileit is 3° As of 1982theU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment true that many of the developed nations of the world have seemed to think so. In their assessmentof the countrythey entered into the age of “substitutability” and the prices of stated,“the fundamentalcauses ofthe present conflictare as most primary goods have fallen, developing countries still much environmental as political, stemming from problems rely uponprimarygoods forthe bulk of their export earnings of resource distributionin an overcrowded31land.” Indeed, and do not possess the infrastructure necessary to engineer E:l Salvador has, “suffered more environmental substitutes fur natural resources. (For example, in Central impoverishmentthan any othercountry,notablysoil erosion, America,one-halfof allemploymentand one-quarterofgross deforestation,and depletion of water 32supplies.” domestic product derives from exploiting natural The linksbetweenthetwo becomemoreapparentwhen 27resources. Although some soil types may respond to viewed in light of the Jessica Mathews’ thesis. Population capita] intensive remediation in the United States, there is growth is among the highest in Latin America and its no) such fall back position for developing countries, Fish population density exceeds India’s at over 650 people per stocksthat arepursuedto economicextinctionby inadequate square 33mile. The problems facing the land tenure system flsheiy management regimes cannot be substituted for by are equallyalarming. Only2 percent ofthe landownersown fish farmingor high-seasexploitationof under-fishedstocks. 60 percent of the land and a full one-half of farmers are There simply does not exist the capital for such ventures. relegatedto only5percentofthe ambleland. Thisinequitable Thereforetheimplicationthatconflictswillnot occurbecause land tenure system has resulted in the movement of this of tradingsystemsand substitutabilityis ill-suitedto explain largelylandless class of people onto marginallands. These the considerationsof developing nations. marginal areas, forests and steep sloped areas, are fragile * andthesoilshavebeenerodingatalarmingrates. Soilerosion Theoreticalconsiderationsaside,the empiricalevidence and population growth have combined to create a country provided by Homer-Dixon points to a causal link between unable to feed itself. environmental degradation and increased conflicts and In the 1960s when El Salvador had 400 people per instability. In attempting to prove this overall hypothesis, squaremile, largeout migrationsensued. By the late 1960s, Homer-Dixon looked for situations where environmental one out of eight Salvadorans had moved into neighboring degradationand conflictwere occurringin order to see what countries and by 1982, a full 500,000 had found their way types of links, if any, were present. He tested three to the United 34States. According to Myers, “tensionsover hypotheses:1)Decreasingphysicalsuppliesofresourceslead thismigrationeruptedin 1969inthe so-calledSoccer35War.” to “simple-scarcity” conflicts or resource wars, 2) Homer-Dixonsees this conflict as a result of the “ecological Environmentalscarcity leads to large population migration marginalizationof Salvadoranpeasants andtheir subsequent which in turn leads to ethnic conflict, and 3) Environmental migration into Honduras” and as proof of the second and scarcity leads to economic deprivation, institutional third hypotheses that he 36outlined. This internal anarchy disruption.and civil 28strife. Although his first hypothesis has continued since 1969 with a civil war that would kill found little empirical support, both of the other two 75,000 people during the 1980s and force 25 percent of hypothesesfound a good degree of evidence to support the Salvadoransto internally or externally migrate. proposition that environmental degradation (scarcity) Haiti also supplies an example where environmental contributesto instabilityand conflict. This empiricalsupport degradation led to economic and political turmoil followed does not necessarily point to enviromnental degradation by mass inimigrations. Once known as the “Pearl of the working in a vacuum and being the sole fuctorthat affects Antilles,” Haiti has been almost completely denuded with security,butrather that conflict,“resultsfromthe interaction only 2 percent of its original forest cover remaining? The of many variables. Resource scarcity is one of these, and ecological result of deforestation and intense7 agricultureis needs to be addressed specifically because of its increasing soil erosion. According to the United Nations, topsoil loss presence in the causal chain that often erupts in civil and has left a full 50 percent of the country’s land resources, international29violence.” “unreclaimableat the farm 38level.” The examplesthat Homer-Dixonprovides from Latin This incredible level of soil erosion has directly led to America,(whicharesupportedbyNormanMyersin his book large scale immigration. According to Myers. over one in Ultimate Security) are illuminating. In particular, the case seven Haitianshave left the country and since 1981,at least of the 1969Soccer Warbetween El Salvador and Honduras 122,000 have made their way to the United States. This shows the linkage between environmental degradation, situationhas becomeso drastic as to cost the stateof Florida domesticunrest,andinternationalconflict. Thisconflictwas more money in providing for these refugees than the entire fueled in part by environmental degradation that led to US foreign aid package to 39Haiti. In addition to this cost. immigrationand eventuallyto conflict. the United Statesgovernmentrecently sent troopsto Haitito While it may be true that El Salvador, “has endured reinstate a democratically elected President, Aristide, who more civil strife, political upheaval, military activity, and had been deposedby a military coup. Thisaction was done pervasive violence than any other country in Central in part to restore democracyand stabilityin Haiti but also to America,”does it necessarilyfollowthat this environmental quellthetide ofrefugeesseekingto cometo theUnitedStates degradationwas a central elementin causingthis upheaval? in order to get away fromthe environmental,economic,and

political

conflicts,

being by

this

America

undermining

statistical

this.” 44

of years

conflict

measured

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supply “countries

between

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civil

degradation

and

growth,

methodology

with

warming population.

effects.” 4 ’

with base

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done

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immigration.

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complex

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suffer

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connections”

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America.” 47

of as

technology

that

fit

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land

Homer-Dixon

out

extremely concert,

this,

concept

security and

of

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important

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and

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Security

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of

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2)

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risks

they

degradation. 45

security

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these include

empirical

be

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security

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States

There

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environmental

these,

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parochial

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into

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as

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In

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as to Page 23 THE GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume 1, Issue 1

Whether or not the United States makes environmental 221 put the term solved here in quotations to show that considerations a formal part of national security, it is clear there is still a great degree of skepticism over whether or not that environmental issues are making their way where they this environmental agreement solves the problem. As I will belong, “in the mainstream of US foreign policy.” While show later in this essay, it may ultimately fail or be forced there are anumber of variables that lead to political instabffity, into an issue of national security prominence. economic misfortune, and conflict, there is ajustifiable claim Supra note 10 at p. 50-51. that environmental degradation is one of these core variables. 24Levy’s arguments for this can be found in Supra note If we continue to formulate US foreign policy and national 10 at p. 51-54 although his information on p. 51 over the securitypolicy without taking this variable into consideration, estimated degree of global warming is in error. The estimated we are running the risk of creating and following policies increase in temperature for a doubling of CO2 emissions is that do nothing more than alleviate the symptoms of the between 1.5-4.5 degrees Centigrade, not Fahrenheit. disease while leaving the cancer to grow. 25Supra note 12 at p. 266. 26Supra note 12 at p. 266. Endnotes 27Norman Myers, “Environment and Security” in ‘Strobe Talbott, “The Global Environment and the Foreign Policy 74, p. 24. National Interest”, US Department of State, 1994. 28Thomas F. Homer-Dixon, “Environmental Scarcities Warren Christopher. “American Diplomacy and the and Violent Conflict: Evidence from Cases” in International 2 19, 1994 as in Green Blues Global Environmental Challenges of the 21st Century.” Security reprinted Planet Ken Stanford University, April 9, 1996, p. 1. Conca et. al. eds. University of Maryland, College Park: 3Supra note 2 at p. 1. Westview Press, 1995, p. 248-250. 4Jessica Mathews. “Redefining Security” in Foreign 29Richard Matthew, “Environmental Security: Affairs, Spring, 1989, p. 166. Demystifying the Concept, Clarifying the Stakes” in 5lbid, p. 162. Environmental Change and Security Project The Woodrow 6lbid, p. 174. Wilson Center, Spring 1995, p. 18. 7Supra note 4 at p. 164. 30Norman Myers, Ultimate Security. New York: WW 8Supra note 4 at p. 166. Norton & Company, 1993, p. 122. Jessica Mathews uses the Haitian example very 31Ibid,p. 123. effectively9 illustrating because the high levels of 122-123. by that of 32Ibid,p. soil erosion,many Haitian farmers actually believe that stones 33Supra note 27 at p. 34. grow in their fields. Supra note 4 at p. 168. 34Supra note 30 at p. 124-25. ‘°Marc Levy. “Is the Environment a National Security 35Supra note 27 at p. 34. Issue?” in International Security 20:2, 1995, p. 60. 36Supra note 28 at p. 249. 11Daniel Deudney from Geoffrey and David Dabelko 37Supra note 30 atp. 132. “Environmental Security: Issues of Conflict and 38Supra note 28 at p. 252. Redefinition” in Environmental Change and Security Project 39Supra note 30 atp. 132. The Woodrow Wilson Center, Spring, 1995, p. 6. 40Wenche Hauge and Tanja Ellingsen “Environmental Daniel Deudney. “The Case Against Linking Change and Civil War: A Multivariate Approach,” NATO Environmental‘2 Degradation and National Security” from Advanced Research Workshop, Conflict and the Millennium: Journal of International Studies 19, 3 (winter Environment, Bolkesjo, Norway, June 1996, p. 1. 1990) as reprinted in Green Planet Blues Ken Conca et.al., 41Supra note 40 at p. 6. University of Maryland at College Park: Westview Press, 42Ibid,p. 11-12. 1995, p. 264. 43Ibid,p. 14. 3lbid, p. 266. ‘“Ibid, p. 23. ‘Supra note 12 at 269-70. Peter Gleick, “Environment and Security: The Clear 4 p. 45 5‘lbid, p. 270-71. Connections” in The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists April 6‘Supra note 10 atp. 36-37. 1991. Supranote‘ 10 at p. 53. M46 taken from Richard Matthew, “The Greening of 7Ij8 place debate here in quotations because Levy insists American Foreign Policy” in Issues in Science and that there‘ really is no debate about environmental degradation TechnologyXIII (Fall 1996), no. 1, p. 39-47. and national security. Instead, there is a general consensus 47Heraldo Munoz, ed. “The Environment in Inter- that there is a causal link between environmental degradation American Relations” in Environment and Diplomacy in the and conflicts and thus with national security. However, he Americas. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992, p. 9. finds that the proposition has no place in the “high politics” of national security consideration. 9Supra note 10 at p. 36. 20Supra‘ note 10 at p. 46. lji,j 2 p. 47. Kelly Kirschner Infectious Disease as a Security Threat: A Case Study on Cholera Pane 24 spreadintroductionofAIDSinthe late-70sandearly-80s,the InfectiousDiseaseas a Security publichealthcommunityawoketo an incurablediseasethat, Threat A CaseStudyin Cholera in a shortperiodof time,wasendemicto everycountryin the world. We have recently discoveredhow correct Charles KellyKirshner Darwinwas, as we are findingincreasinglystronger,more resistantformsofbacteriaandmicrobesthathavearisenoutof theuncontrolledandinappropriateuseofantibiotics.Different This article was originally written and published as a case study In strainsof the hepatitisvirus, herpesvirus,tuberculosis,and collaboration with Rohit Burman and Elissa McCarter under the title of cholerarepresenta fewofthesenew andevolvingdiseases. “InfectiousDisease and Environmental Degradation: A Threat to Global Securi4” The other cases examined AIDS in India and Thberculans in Usedtoooftentotreatthewrongkindofinfections,with SouthAfrica. Thispaper was writtenfor Professor Mathews in thefall of the wrong dosage and for incorrect periods of time, the 1996for EnvironmentalIssues inlnternationoiRelallons. It willalso appear antibioticsweresenttobattlewithoutthe propertools,giving in a condensed version in the WoodrowWilsonQuarterly. Spring 1997 the enemytimeto evaluateits foe and regroup. Millionsof edition Kelly Kirschner is a grathaite student in the Schod of Foreign dollarsandyearsofworkthatwerespenton theresearchand Service, development of past antibiotics are ignored by mutating Introduction microbes,as they find successfuladaptations. Resistanceto antibioticsspreadsandthe drugsgrowobsolete. In addition, Weare standingon the brink of a global crisis in infectious previouslyunknowninfectionsare appearingin humans(29 diseases. Nocountryissqfefrom them. No countrycan any new diseasessince 1973)who are livingor workingamidst longeraffordto ignoretheir threat.’ neworchangingecologicalconditions. Theseenvironments —Dr.HfroshiMakajima,WorldHealthOrganization areexposingtheindividualto4 novelpathogens,aswellasnew andnumerousanimalandinsectcaniers. Poorhospitalsand At the closeofthe twentiethcentury,the worldandthe healthfacilitiesinthelessdevelopedworldarealsobeingused healthofitscitizensareunderattackbythescourgeofinfectious bythesemicrobesaslaunchinggroundsintoprospectivehosts. disease. Despitethe promisesof modem medicine,disease These under-funded,unsanitaryfacilitiesoften do more to andpoorgovernmentalpolicyarepushingmanyareasof the disseminatethe diseasesratherthancontrolthem. worldto the brink of crisis. Infectiousdiseaseskill over 17 Urbanizationalsoenhancesthe presenceof diseaseas a millionpeoplea year,9 millionof whomareyoungchildren. securitythreattoday. Inthe next 20years,nineofthetopten Almost50,000men,womenandchildrendieeveiydayfrom megacitieswillbehidevelopingnations. Thistypeofgrowth these diseases. The microbes which cause the plagues leadsto the spreadof urbanslums5 and shantytowns.These transcend2 people,cultures,andbordersand the phenomenon areasusuallydonothaveanyrunningwater,electricityorany is not onlyone that is isolatedin the developingworld,but semblanceofa sewagesystem.Withimmunesystemsthatare rather,itisa globalmenacethatis a dangerto allcivilizations. alreadyweakenedbymalnutritionandtheoverallpoorsanitary As a primaiynationalsecurityconcernforanynation,it conditionsinwhichtheylive,thesepeoplearehighlysusceptible istheobligationofallgovernmentstomeetandanticipatethis aspreyto new diseases. Overcrowdingwithincitiespermits threatbyprovidingandprotectingthe safetyandwell-beingof diseaseto spreadrapidly. Rapidcommerce,internationalair theircitizens.Tothe extentthatthisobligationisnotfulfilled, travel,andmassrefugeemovementsallensurethatno country itis logical,thatdissatisfactionamongpeoplewillgrowtowards is safe from the spread of disease. With disease, risk is theirrespectivegovernments,leadingto conflictanddemands internationalized.Countriesin the developingworldare, at forchange.Thisarticleaddressesonespecificconflict,Peru’s present, being hit the hardest. The economic losses from 1991 cholera epidemic, and shows how it was indeed a decliningtourismanddecliningdemandduetopossiblyinfected menacingsituationfornationalandglobalsecurity. products,can disruptfragileeconomies.This,alongwiththe With the discovery of penicillin and other major degradationof these countries’young,workingpopulations, pharmaceuticalandmedicalinnovations,publichealthofficials leadsto economicand institutionalbreakdown. The risk is had longbelievedthatthe Obliterationof viral,bacterial,and internationalizedand in a globalmarketplace,its disturbing parasiticfoesandtheinfectiousdiseasestheycausewasa goal effectswillbe feltthroughouttheworld. withintheirreach.Foraperiod,therewasa generalconsensus Robert Kaplan’sHobbesianview of the world in the thatbytheturnofthecenturywewouldachievesuchamastery comingyears is ominouslytakingshapein the globalhealth over the majorityof infectiousdiseasesthat we could then arena.Itemsinthemedia,suchasKaplan’spiece,“TheComing devoteourentireenergiestoresearchthe intricaciesofhuman Anarchy,”aswellascallsfrompop-culture,suchastherecent genetics,cancer,andheartdisease. Unfortunate1 thisoverly movie, “Outbreak,”and the best-sellingnovel by Richard optimisticsentimentrested on two false assumptions:that Preston,TheHotZone,all haveattemptedto frightenus into diseasecouldbegeographica]iyisolatedandthatmicrobeswere actionby detailingspecificinfectiousdiseasehorrorsof the biologicallyunchangingorganisms,whichcouldbeeliminated day or throughexploring“what-it”scenarios. Thisarticleis withthe developmentof one drug? notacontinuationonthattheme,butratheritisasoberreflection Todaythere is a much different,pessimisticoutlookon ononecaseintheworldwhichunfortunatelyreflectsthistheme the futureof the burialof infectiousdisease. Withthe wide- in today’sworld. Luckily,the Peru case demonstratesone Page 25 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITYJOURNALOF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume 1, Issue I incidenceof statesurvivalin the face of immensechallenges. variablesandthefactorsrelatedtotheproliferationandeventual controlofthe diseasewithinPeru. It providesan analysisof a Case Study diseaseand regionwhereall indicatorsseeminglypointedto a People needto understandthat as in militaiyconfrontations, securitydilemma,but throughrapid and efficientrecognition we came to understand that oceans afforded America no and responseto the disease,the problemwas solved. At the protectionfrom armiesthat now usemissilesinstead ofsailing sametimethat it addressesthe meritsof this caseas a success, ship that with the spread of diseasestoday, we are not safe it also analyzesthe roots fromw]ere this diseasewas ableto from thepovertyofLatin America or 6Africa. spring. it istheseroots,that aremi ch likethosein manyother —Honorable Robert Torr’celli(I), NJ), “The Cholera partsoftheworld,that,inmanyways,continueto laydormant Epidemic in Latin America: Hearing before the belowPeru’ssocialsoil. As othercasesdemonstrateaswell,it Subcommitteeon WesternHemisphereAffairs” is these roots which are present throughout much of the developing world. Cholera and a host of other infectious Inlate Januaryofl99l, cholerawasreinlroducedtoPeru diseases are pointing and, indeed, are leading the global and LatinAmericafor the first time in ninety years. Within communityinto a more difficultage. These diseasesare the months,Peru faced a spreading“medievalplague” that had manifestationsofthe ill-healthof societyand its environment, accountedformorethan 160,000casesand over 1,500deaths. aridthe choleraepidemicin Peru is only one exampleofthis. Health-watchgroupsconvergedonPeru,asthe world’shealth Thiscasestudyis dividedintothe followingsections:an communitytearedthat thediseasewouldbecomeendemicand analysison choleraanditshistory,amacro-leveldiscussionof spreadthroughoutthe entirehemispherewithinoneyeac Many Peru’ssocial,economicandpoliticalenvironmentspresentin experts believed that by 1992 the number of cases in the 1991,which allowedthe disease to reach its overwhelming hemispherewould reach 6 million, with a possible 40,000 levels in such a short period of time; an examinationof the 7deaths. epidemicandhowmanynationalandinternationalactorscame Peruvian exports of fish, fruit, and other horticultural togetherto addressthe disease;and finally,an analysisof the productswerevirtuallyshutdown. Tourismto Peru,aswellas presentsituationinPeru,addressingthebeneficialinstitutional itsneighboringcountriesin SouthAmerica,wasrelegatedto a changes, while also noting some of the contributingfactors slowcrawl. In 1991alone,economiclosseswere estimatedat that led to the epidemic,which have not changed. In noting $1 billion, equivalentto almost half of Peru’s 1989 export these ongoing factors,policy recommendationsare made in earnings. Peru’seconomyhadbeenin a severecrisisfromthe conclusion. beginningof 1982andthisplaguecouldnothavehitthenation at a worse time. Social expenditureson health, education, Facts About Cholera housing,and employmenthad been reducedtremendously— Cholera is defined as: “an acute enteritischaracterized in 1990,socialspendingwas equivalentto only 28% of 1980 by a superficialsloughingnecrosis of the epithelialliningof levels,asthenationtriedto cometo termswiththestrictmacro- the9gut” Cholerais a devastatingdiarrhealdiseasewhichis stabilizationpolicies of the World Bank and International broughtonby thespiralmicroorganism,J’ibriocomma,which MonetaryFund (T)8 is canied inthe victim’sfeces,urineandvomitus. Thedisease During the same period, Peru was facing a political is spread through contact with contaminateddrinking-water upheavalwiththeentranceofnewlyelectedpresident,Alberto (includingice); foodcontaminatedduringor afterpreparation Fujimori,aswellassustainedfightingandterroristattacksfrom through contact with hands soiled by feces; seafood and theMaoist,guerrillagroup,SenderoLuminaso (ShiningPath). especiallyshellfishtaken fromcontaminatedwater and eaten There is a shaip divide between Peru’srich and poor, not to raw or insufficiently cooked; and, finally, with fruit and mention the systematicracism experienced by the nation’s vegetablesthatwerefertilizedwithcontaminatedhumanwaste indigenouspeoples. Theintroductionofcholeraatthisperiod orwithcontaminatedwater. Inavoidingthe disease,theCDC’s was a veryheavystrawto be placingon analreadyburdened, rule of thumbis, “Boilit, cookit, peel it, or forgetit”10 camel’sback. Cholera’ssymptomsbeginto appearanytimefromafew The purpose of this case studyis to examinehow Peru hours to five days after contact, with the normal incubation didnot breakdownin the face ofthistenible epidemicwhich period being three days. The disease is characterized by raged throughmost of the county in 1991 and 1992. The constantdiarrheaand vomitingto the extentthat dehydration menaceof cholera,seen at this time in Peru’shistory,was a occursvery rapidly,which leads to painfulmuscularcramps definitesecuritythreat,when one notes the many variablesit throughoutthebody. Ifnot treatedimmediately,apersonwith affectedandto whichitwasrelated. Thenationaleconomy,in a severecasecandiewithinfivehours. Untreatedcholerais terms internal 1 of and externalconsumptionof Peruvianagri? associatedwith a mortalityrate’of 30 to 50%. Withina few aquaculturalgoods;Peru’snationalworkforce;the healthcare weeksin 1994,40,000Huturefugeesdied from choleraasno system;urban/ruralsanitationanddrinkingwater;andcontinued health care treatment much less safe drinking water, was depressionof Peru’spoor were all variablesupon which this availabletothemassofpeople.’ It is thereforea prerequisite epidemicput an added strain. Nonetheless,the diseasewas that the cholera victim2 see a health expert immediatelyafter containedandviolenceandchaosdidnotencroachfurtherinto noticingitssymptoms.ThePanAmericanHealthOrganization Peru. Using a formal model, this case study examines the (PATIO)believesthat of the 1,354,453choleracasesreported Kelly Kirschner Infectious Disease as a Security Threat: A Case Study on Cholera Pane 26

uptoAugust,1996,almostallofthesecasesreceivedtreatment most cases,providedthat the diseaseisrecognizedas suchin atamedicalfhcffity,whilenearlyhalfrequiredhospitalization. time, the person can be administeredlarge amountsof oral Whilethesenumbersput a tremendousstrainon the Peruvian rehydrationsolution(arnixtureof sugar,saltandwater)which health care system, in particular, which then affected the costno morethan a fewdollarsandwill bringthe victimback Peruvian economyand host of other variables, conservative to normalhealth. estimatessaythatadequatetreatmentreceivedatthesefacilities and in these hospitals saved at least 100,000 persons who Cholera in Peru otherwisewouldhave died.’ Tounderstandhowcholerawasableto wreaksuchhavoc Cholerahas sweptthroughthe world in sevenrecurrent in Peru upon its arrivalin Januaryof 1991,it is importantto pandemicssince1817.Duringthel9thcentuiy,sixpandemics understand the macro-context of the Peruvian economy, spreadfromAsiatoEuropeto theAmericas,causinggreatsocial political situation, and social situation at this time. It was and political turmoil and a high number of deaths. An throughthis context that cholera was allowed to spread so Englishman,JohnSnow,wasthefirsttodiscoverthatthedisease rapidly and pose the securitythreatto Peru, its surrounding was waterborne, when he traced the epidemic in 1854 to neighborsandto the world,at large. consumptionofwaterfroma specificpumpin London.’ The In 1982,thenationofPeruunderwenta severeeconomic diseaselingeredthroughouttheworldformuch4ofthecentury, and institutionalcrisisfrom which it would not emergeuntil butafterSnow’sdiscovery,alongwithwidespreadimprovement 1992. Duringthisperiod,povertybecamemuch more acute in sanitation, as well as for other reasons which remain andwidespread,whilerealper capitaproductionwasno better unknown, the disease retreated. The seventh and ongoing in 1992than it had been in 1960,meaningthat in 30 yearsit pandemicbegan in 1961 when the El Tor biotype of Vibrio had actually 16declined. When President Alberto Fujimori cholerae 01 emerged in Jndonesia. This pandemicspread assumedpower hi 1990,inflationhad reacheditspeak at an throughAsia and Affica and finally,through Latin America astounding7,650%andPeru’stotaldebtwasequivalenttomore withitsintroductioninPeruinlateJanuaiyofl99l. Thedisease thanfourtimesitsannualexportsofgoodsandservices.’ The now affects at least 98 countries throughoutthe world. As nationcontinuestobe oneofthemostheavilyindebted7 countries with many other infectious diseases, cholera cannot be in the world, owing $22 billion,with debt servicepayments, preventedfrombeingintroducedto a countryduetothesimple thatin 1993,absorbed63.7%ofexportearnings.’ ByJanuary, factof itsthree day averageincubationperiod. Nonetheless, 1991, Peru was effectively bankrupt8and isolated from the itsspreadwithinacountrycanbecontainedthroughappropriate world’sfinancialcommunity Fujimoriwasforcedtoresortto controlmeasures. ashort-termdraconianeconomicstabilizationprogramin 1990 The introduction of cholera in Peru is a good case torestoreeconomicorderandreduceinflation.Theelimination illustratingtherapidglobaltransferofpathogens,aswellasan oftariffsandsubsidiesbroughtaboutmassiveprivateandpublic instance of microbe evolution. The disease has spread sectorlayof. By 1991,unemploymentandunder-employment throughoutmostofLatin Americawithina few years,almost had reachedall timehighs. It wasreportedin 1991that only coveringthe entireWesternHemisphere. (Cholerafrom the 9% ofthe adultpopulationin Limawas fullyemployed.’ PeruvianepidemichasreachedtheUnitedStatesandCanada, Asa resultofthiscrisis,livingconditions9plummetedand butmodernsewageandwatertreatmentsystemshavekeptthe Peruvianslivingin povertyincreasedexponentially.A 1991 diseaseisolatedtomainlyreturningtouristsandtheirfamilies.) Standard of Living Survey found that 21.7% of the total Theepidemicpeakedbetween1991and1996inLatinAmerica, population was Livingin extreme poverty (total per capita withitsheartin Peru. expenditurebelowtheper capitacostofthebasicfoodbasket), Molecularcharacterizationof Vcholerae01strainsfrom while a frightening53.7% of the populationwas in a stateof Peruhas shownthatthey donotmatchstrainsfromanywhere criticalpoverty(totalper capita expenditurebelow the basic elsein the world,leavingthe sourceofthe epidemicPeruvian shoppingbasket,includingfoodand nonfooditems). strainsunknown.Inaddition,otherstrainshavesinceappeared Illiteracydroppedfroma 1981level 18%2 to 10.7% of ° for inLatinAmerica. Oneofthese,a strainwhichhasevolvedand 1991,althoughhighpercentagesremainedintheruralareasof isresistanttomultipleantimicrobialdrugs,was firstidentified Peni, thcluding Apurimac(36.6%),Ayacucho(34.4%),and inMexicoinnrid-1991andhas sincewidelyspreadthroughout Huancavelica(30.2%). In 1991, school enrollmentwas not CentralAmerica.’ keepingin line with the rise in population,as more andmore As5it has beenalludedto, cholerais a diseaseofpoverty. poor adolescentswere forcedto drop out of school,tryingto It doesnot affectthe Westernizedworld,but ratherhits at the findworkto supplementthepoor family’sstaggeringincome. core of the less developedworld, where sanitationis poor, In facing the economiccrisis, the Peruvian governmentwas sewagesystemsarenon-existent,safedrinking-waterisscarce, continuallyforcedtocutbackon socialspending,withrealper povertyisrampant,and education,in general,isnot available. capitasocialexpendituresfallingfroman equivalentof$49.50 The loss of life due to cholera is, in today’s modem age, in 1980to $9.lOin 1991(in 1985dollars).Theexpenditureon intolerable. Hospitalizationis only neededto treat the victim nationalhealthcare as a percentageof GDPfell from1.2%in of cholera as a Lastresort, when the person is sufficiently 1980to0.5%in 1990.21 A resultofthiscanbe seenin thefact dehydratedto requireemergencymedical treatmentand the thatin 1990alone.50,000childrendiedofmalnutritioninPeru, use of IV fluids. Althoughthere is no vaccinefor cholera,in which,atthistime,hadthehighestinfantandmaternalmortality Page 27 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITYJOURNALOF THEENVIRONMENT Volume1,Issue 1 ratesinLatinAmerica,witharound140deathsforevery1,000 globalcrisesand which,as a still-fragile,developingnation, births. shouldnotbe forgottenas quicklyas it wasrecognized. Peru is endowedwith a relativelyyoungpopulationof On January29, 1991,the PeruvianMinistryof Health 22,453,000,48%ofwhomwereunder the ageof 20 in 1992. (MOH)receivedreports that there had been an increase in Rural-urbanmigration.the samephenomenonwhichmostof gastroentetitis(associatedwith voluminouswaterydiarrhea, the developing world faces today, brought about the vomiting,andmusclecramping). Investigationidentifiedthe establishmentof shanty-townsor villasmiserias(“villagesof outbreak of diarrheal illness began on January 23 and misery”)ontheoutskirtsofPeru’slargestcities.Between1965 examinationof patients’stoolsfromthe districtsof Chancay and 1988,the urban populationof Peru rose from 52% to and Chiinboterevealedthat, indeed, cholera had re-entered 69%? Linia,Peru’scapital,in 1993wasestimatedto behome the WesternHemisphere. BetweenJanuary 24 andFebruary to 6.4 million inhabitants, or nearly 30% of the national 9, the diseasehad spreadfromthe citiesof Chimbote,Piura, population,whichis equivalentto the entireestimateof rural Trujillo,andChiclayoall alongthe northerncoastofPeru. In population24nationwide. this sameperiod,1859peoplerequiredhospitalizationand66 Contributingto Peru’sseeminglydesperatesituationon deathswerereportedto the MOFLAlthoughit is not known the brink, guerrillaactivityof the SenderoLuminoso Maoist how the disease was reintroduced, many say that the groupwasgrowingstrongerandmoresuccessfulindisrupting microorganismwasreleasedintoPeruviancoastalwaterswiien Peruviansociety.Duringtheir15-yearreignofteirorthroughout a Chinesefreighterdumpedits contaminatedbilge. Peru,the groupclaimedan estimated30,00025lives. Abject ByAprilof 1991,cholerahad spreadto allbut threeof povertyisthebestrecruiterforarmedstruggleagainstthestatus Peru’stwenty-sixprovinces,having infectedan incredible quo and at thispoint duringthe economiccrisis,Sendero,as 170,000citizens,with64,500hospitalizationsand1,244deaths. well as otherarmedgroups,had a massivepool of depressed At this point, the security dilemma was evident. The citizenstosway.Beyondthis,intheruralareasofPeru,where “Fujishock”or President Fujimori’sdraconian, neoliberal healthcareandeducationaremostmeager,livethemajorityof reformcampaign,endorsedby the WorldBankand1MF,was, the nation’s indigenous peoples. These people not only inthefaceofthiscrisis,seeminglyunbearableforthemajority experiencedthe economiccrisisof the decade,but they had of Peru and its economy. Rapid responseby the Peruvian experiencedan economiccrisisfor muchof the fivehundred government,community-basedprograms,bi-lateraltreaties, yearsaftercolonization.Thesystematicracismrelatedtothese internationalorganizations,andtheglobalvillage,atlarge,were indigenousgroupshasbeenwidelydocumentedandtheyhave requiredtoprecludethe furtherfallofPeruanditsstability.In been precluded from entering the national market. These terms of U.S. interests, James Michel, the Assistant people, along with the rising numbers in poor, not only Administratorfor LatinAmericaand the Caribbean,for the representedpotentialrecruitsfor armed struggleagainstthe AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(AID),sawthedilemma state,but they also were, and continueto be, the potential intermsofpovertythreateningtheUnitedStatesaswellasthe workforceforthedrugindustry,whichhasmadePeruthecenter loss of an opportunity. “The benefits of collaboration, of cocaleafproductioninLatinAmerica. cooperation,commerce,withourneighborsinthishemisphere becauseofthedegreeofpovertythatexistscoststhiscountrya Variables That Contributed ToThe Crisis greatdeal.Wehaveanenormousinterestinseeingdevelopment Theeconomic,socialandpoliticalsettinginPeruin late 27occur” Januaryof 1991was alltoo conduciveto the rapid expansion In analyzingthe list of variablesthat led to the cholera of a cholera epidemic. In looking at this initialonslaught,it epidemic,Peru seemsto fillthe “grocerylist.” in the model canbeseenhowacomplexwebofvariablesledtotheepidemic, which detailshow the emergenceof a particulardiseaseis whichthentaxedothervariablesaffectingthe securityof Peru broughtabout,the CDChas detailedseven,broadvariables: andtheglobalcommuni Kaplan’sDarkAges’scenariowas societalevents,healthcare,foodproduction,humanbehavior, unfoldingin Peruin 1991,with all of the warningsignsthere environmentalchanges,microbialadaptionandchange,public for an imminent security crisis: extreme poverty, large health infrastructure. Under each variable, Peru was proportion youth relative to total population, and rapid unfortunately28 “prepared.” These variablesare of incorporated urbanization,coupledwithadiseaseepidemic.Thenextphase intoa generalmodelondiseaseandsecurity.Inpromotingthe ofcollapseandviolentconflictseemedimminent.Nonetheless, explosionof cholerain Peru, there is a set of demographic peacewasmaintainedandPeruhas emergedfromthe crisisin variables,socialvariablesand environmentalvariableswhich a statethat is, in manyways,betterthanwhenthe diseasehad ledtotheoutbreak.Withitsentrance,choleraexacerbatedthe struck InaninterviewwithDr.JulioSotelo,nationalpresident variableswhichiedtoitsemergenceandpresentedatremendous of the Peruvian-AmericanMedical Society, he muses in threatto nationalandinternationalsecurity. retrospect,“Idon’tknowthereasons,but a countrydevastated Demographic Variables by terrorism, hyperinfiation and lacking the appropriate The decade-longinsurgencyof SenderoLuminosohad infrastructure,could not have done better [in addressingthe broughtaboutincreasedwavesof migrationfromrural areas 26crisis].” As anexampleto other developingnationsandthe to the urbancentersof Peru,mostnotably,to Lima. In their developedworld at large,the Peruvianexampleservesas an questto avoidthe violence,thousandsof citizenspickedup instance of successwhich should be re-examinedfor future and settledon the outskirtsof theselargecitiesandcolonized Kelly

the

events

forovertenyeandforcedthenationtocurtailsocialspending and to lending development the

knowledge had Beyond developed city on hit with to people located people previously, of expenditures never had in the the susceptibility arena,

everything effective the fertilized continued The domestic dishes, massive which consumed the 27 in beveragestothepublic. too economy There

soiled the are

spread

basic how

1980

1991 shanty-towas hardest 1991

municipalities

disease,

not

public

in adopt street conditions

been epidemic mostly epidemic.

often

close

Unfortunately

National

fish

There

In Kirschner

heard.

also but

using

died, had

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hands

institutions.

in ?°

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there consists

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this,

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unemployment.

leadership putting

vendors

avoid and

and economically

has in

the

the to

transportation unsanitary. no in

health

0.5% then to

been

in

within The include

in

the

else

as

whereas

was

established

actuality,

ore also

terms 40%

on

the

be

public export

In boomed the rural had

all was

at neoliberal

to shellfish many

health

under

areas

nation’s

cholera contractingthe services.

consumed

health

However, infected, that

throughout

which in theory fed

populated of no

the

out represented

of were

lead

infrastructure a overview

who

of most

Environmental been

of

introduced,

1990. the areas

the for

cholera

to

raw national

in economy. agencies or

the

the of warnings

Peruvians

which

time mortality.

care

a

Social

as

dumping to in be sell

the

Contaminated

Peru,

economic bacteria

withdrawal nation’s are

Peru,

poor.

The and despite of

55,000

industry with

population

freshened”

nation

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Peru while

system of fish reforms

the

one

The

percentage isolated the ceviche, One by

Infectious in so

Peru’s of

coastal

of they

Peru people

most in

epidemic,

one

Variables a human

investment sale

the vegetables

which susceptible

1991 of

and

public the the and

disease.

since

practice, majority way

Ceviche, prior these 320

part people

visit

their contaminates

of For

was

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work

the

ensured

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is of

of

crisis

mandated

contextual Variables

of

district Pent MOH its outbreak

shellfish

who areas.

preparedmeals,

of

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was

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example,

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regulate raw relatives

facing,

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urban

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of

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which seafood,

affordable

and

infected, Disease this

Simple but

died?9 buy

having

country. which was

mid-1970’s

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of

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sewage

and

to in

engines the contaminated Finally, important came especially

of in

prepare

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this

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in cities

from

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cholera

the Cajamarca,

which Linta In

the of not fending.

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public non-existent,

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into ready warning

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Peru’s alternatives.

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for

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were

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Societal

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includes shellfish in national result

USAJD

food

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to

access norms

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Peru’s to

drinks. health

Peru’s

stated

6,000 water.

well-

poor, April

ocean being Peni

little were 1.2%

26

were able

once

with

face

was

150

the

and and and

are of

of

of

of

Health population and population’s explosion the

sewage Threat: and 01 is strain in microbial from inMexico proliferation which Central in global affected systems. default the damaging the systems could variables industry, The were In nation from spending production, shortly, was Further and tainted precipitated shortly variables affected Security economy. ethnic treatment

resistant

Latin

a

strains

tenns

epidemic

ground.

disrespect

finished

change.

position

clams.

further

Dumping

tremendous

Related

anywhere

All

is forced

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Cholera

In possibly

The

security

it

and

tensions,

unknown.

systems

on sewage America, America. Organization

after

microbial

would

A

the

sprang,

preying terms

cholera of

of

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Dilemma

from adaption. Once

inmid-l991

fragile to had

include:

and

1991

$22

its

Case

In

number

In

degraded. health

the to the Not ranging product

security

the these

to drinking of

of

introduction, multiple Since

to

public

for terms

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be would

of

water

prevention

spread

was

also

Peru

not

of billion

1991,

breakdown

added cholera else

cholera

has the

epidemic epidemic

environmental allowed but

long-term

and

on

raw

only the

devoted

increase posing Study

economic

One

In

had

national

adaption

variables

care

only

molecular

bring

health

of the not

security

in able

health

it

has

of addition, from throughout

integrity

social

service of

also sewage

the

antimicrobial

throughout water

to environmental

also

The ofthese,

were andhas

the in

concluded a

a helpless

yet epidemic. in

security

as Peru’s

farther

shown

collapse

the

on

it an overhaul

dramatic

about

to

loans, come farther was to

cabbage

Peru

forced

after a world,

of in

mix plan posed

to inlhastnzcture.

of

been and

strife.

and

markets even

the

variable, 24 Cholera was beverage’s of

expenditures reflect

therefore

into

the proliferate mandatory other

of

the

characterization a

sincewidely

social,

a of Pent further

under hours

that in change poor

epidemic, spreading that exacerbate international change catastrophe

the

the

as

addressed.

variables Peruvian strain

damaged

ofPeru’s

coastal

deemed to

a greater

the

South drinking

national

1991. In of

to

strains

well threat that

effect

water

drugs, they

they developed

dramatically

back that

for would

changes, the

1994,

the

attack, source

a

all

political

penetration

which

allowed

took

day,

is

already

labor, and

as only waters,

water, in

may do harvesting

threat

of were

In

national

to

have

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social to microbial

social unsafe.3’

the

negatively was

on water

on

which

economy, with the

a the

spreadthroughout

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be the

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place

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Mexico.

number

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have

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ailing

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world.

Pent’s

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sanitation and compromised,

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factors

match

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for

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with

all

evolved water the

be cholera Pae28 increase,

V

95%

health in by could

of had

American getting

identified

economic

the

led the

economy. of economic epidemic exporting discussed

America, cholerae appeared

adaption

potential the

Despite

of

the

cholera-

care poverty,

content.

national

Peru’s

cholera

strains on

oysters

which supply

for

nation of to

ways.

rapid

These of

strain

from

drug food

have

was

and care

that and

the that the

the

the off

but

its

for Page 29 THE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITYJOURNALOF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume1,Issue 1 the Peruvian tourism and agrilaquaculturaiindustrieswere thetimeoftheoutbreakuntilheresignedinlate-Marchof 1991, broughtto their knees. Within fourmonthsof the outbreak, was instrumentalin mobilizing Peru’s scant resources to Peruhadlostapproximately$700milhioninfishandagricultural confrontcholera.Peru’sMinistryofHealthwasa keyactorin exportsandanother$300millionto32tourism. Withindaysof the Peruvian government’sresponse to the epidemic and the disease’sappearance,the developedworldhad imposed wieldedmuchweight,makingindependentdecisionson how 100%inspectionon allPeruvianproductswith quarantinesin to confrontcholeraas thst as possible,with little assistance mostforeignports,whilesomenationsrefusedtheiradmittance, fromPresidentFujimori? Theywerefucedwiththedilemma altogether.Internalconsumptionof these products also was of a nationalsanitation4 systemthat only serviced8% of the greatly reduced. Travelerswere advisednot to go to Peru population24 hoursa daywithdrinkingwater,95% ofwhich becauseof the epidemic. Many listened. Dr. Soteloof the wasunsafeforhumanconsumption.Anoverhaulofthenation’s Peruvian-AmericanMedicalSocietyrecallsinAugustof 1991 sewageandsanitationsystemsremainstobe oneoftheMOH’s whenhisorganizationhadaconferenceinPeru’sheartofIncan long-termgoals,butinthefeceofthisepidemic,itwasvirtually heritageandtourism,Cusco.Theannualmagnetforthousands impossibletoaccomplish.Therefore,theirsuccesscamefrom of touristswasmore like a desertedghost33tov. With the their abilityto mobilizerapidly,set up efficientsurveillance resultinglackininternationalandnationaldemandforPeruvian teams throughoutthe country,and throughnational,public goodsandservices,domesticproductivityfurtherdeclined. informationcampaignsviatelevision,radio,posters,brochures The link between the economy and more pervasive and word of mouth,the Peruvianpublic slowlylearnedhow povertyisobvious.Withdemanddownandproductivitydown, notto contractcholera.TheMOHwasinstrumentalincoopting employmentwasevenmorescarcewithcholera.Alargeportion the poor and marginalizedpeople of Peruvian society,by ofthe laborforcewasinflictedwiththe diseaseandalsoupset offeringtreatmentfreeofchargeatpublichealthIhcilities.Their the nationaleconomicsystem. Peoplewho were laid off or presencein these communitiesof extremepovertyandtheir couldnot go to work becauseof their illnessstillneededto abilityto give these people quick remediesto the disease, earn an income and the numbers in the informal, service keeping the incidence of death at very low levels, was economyrosefurther.Withthisrise,camea proportionalrise undoubtedlyimportantinthepreventionofa securitycrisis.In incholeracasesasthereisno surveillanceoverthesecurb-side addition,theMOHwasinstrumentalintheirrole as arbiterof industries.Beyondthissector,manyotherswerecontinuedto Peru’s internationalhealth diplomacy. Their initiative in betemptedby thealluresofthe drugindustty,attractedbythe engaging and working with the United Nations, the Pan relativelyhighwagesandconsistentsourceofwork. American Health Organization, the CDC, surrounding Choleraasa diseaseofpovertyfurtherheightenedethnic countries,theUnitedStatesandtheEuropeanUnion,brought tensionsbetweenPeru’smostlyrural,indigenouspopulation desperatelyneeded expertise and funding into Peru. The and the urban Peruviansof mixed,Spanishdescent. In the MOWs actions should be looked at as strong exampleof ruralareaswherehealthcarewasscarce,mortalityratesreached, meetingthe introductionof a devastatinginfectiousdisease. on average,above5%,whilein Peru’surbanareas,ithovered Their independent, non-political actions allowed them to near 1%orbelow. Choleraonlyaddedto the stereotypesthat efficientlyaddressthe problemand, asa representativeofthe manyPeruviansperceivedasbeingrepresentativeofthisgroup. Peruviangovernment,theywereableto maketheirpresence Finally,theseethnictensions,coupledwiththe grievancesof knownthroughoutthe countryduringthe epidemic. the largegrouphi Peruviansocietythat was extremelypoor The individualresponseat a grass-rootslevel,in Peru, (shanty-towndwellers),the possibilityof social strife was was alsoveryimpressive.Dr. Sotelobelievesthatthepeople greatlyenhanced.Theseareasweresoftspotsthat couldhave ofPeruralliedaroundthe causeanddemonstratedtheirwillto easily been manipulatedby rebel groups such as Sendero notletthediseaseovercomethem,whichwasvery35important. Luminosoand TupacAmaru. Inurbanshanty-townsandruralvillagesalike,health,women’s, andneighborhoodcommitteeswereformedinresponsetothe Successin Peru epidemic,but alsoin responseto the nation’sdire economic 1991was an occasionJor societalbreakdownin Peru stateandwide-spreadinfiltrationof drugs. Thesecommittees baseduponthe introductionof cholera. As has been shown, independentlyassistedPeruineducatingthepublic,aidingthe Peruwasnot preparedfor the introductionof this diseaseat MOHwhereinsufficientfundsdid not allowthemto go. In thispointintimeinthecotnitiy’shistoz Nonethelessthrough areaswhichcouldhavebeen hot-bedsfor rebel insurrection competentdomesticleadershipin the MON. assistanceof andrecruitment,thepeoplechoseratherto optfortheirhealth domesticNGOs and community-basedorganizations,and and stability. At the same time, Sendero Luminoso never effectiveuse of internationalhealth diplomacyin garnering garneredpopularsupportthroughoutthe country,duein large supportfrominternationalorganizations(lOs),neighboringand parttoitsdifferentloyaltiesto ainessianicleader,thenarcotics developedcountries,Peru was able to quickly addressthe industry,andperhaps,finally,thepoorofPeru. diseaseandbringitundercontrol.Beyondthis,theywereable By Aprilof 1991,the UN DisasterReliefOrganization tobringdirelyneeded,internationalattentionto Peru, which reportedtotalassistanceat $5.5million,with21 governments in more ways than one, helpedpush the nation back into a andtheEUdonatingmorethan$4.5million;PAHO,UNICEF, positivedirection. andtheInter-AmericanDevelopmentBankprovidedmorethan CarlosVida],Layseca.the PeruvianHealthMinisterat $1.5million,while15NGO’shad givennearly$1 36million. Kelly Kirschner Infectious Disease as a Security Threat: A Case Study on Cholera Page 30

TheUnitedStatesviewthat the choleraepidemicwasindeeda Americas I (Washington. D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, security threat is evidenced by the convening of the 1994), 165. Carl Dauer, Robert Konis, Leonard Schuman, ed., Infectious Congressional hearing on the epidemic on May 1, 1991. 4 Diseases‘ (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968),21. Following that hearing, aid flowed into Peru through the 5Eric Mintz, Robert Quick, and Robert Tauxe, “Epidemic auspices USAID, Cholera‘ in the New World: TranslatingField Epidemiology into New of the CDC,and federally supported NGO’s suchasCatholicReliefServicesand CARE. Bi-lateraltreaties Prevention Strategies;” available from http://www.columbia.net/phys epi.htm. with Brazil also provided Peru with more funds, as well as 16Pan American Health Organization, Health Conditions in the more surveillancepowersfor the isolatedAmazonian region. Americas II, 349. By August of 1991, a senior UN official officiallydeclared 7lbid. Quest‘ Economics Database: Peru, Americas Review1997 that the spreadof cholerahad been controlledwithinPeru. 8 (Janet Matthews‘ Information Services, August 1996), 94. 9Curt Schaeffer in The Cholera Epidemic in Latin America: Conclusion Hearing‘ before the Subcommittee on WesternHemisphereAffairs, 64. Theswiftand effectiveactionofthePeruviangovernment, 20Pan American Health Organization, Health Conditions in the anditsMinistry ofHealth, inparticular,preventedPeru’s1991 Americas II, 349. cholera epidemicfrom slidinginto a catastrophiceconomic, 22lnter Press Service, “Peru: Poor Hygiene Caused Cholera political and social crisis. The Peruvian example not only Epidemic, WorldBody Says.” 19 June 1991. providesaninstancewhereallof thevariableswerepresentto Carmela Mesa-Lago, Health Carefor the Poor in Latin America allowfor the emergenceof a raging,infectious disease, but it and the Caribbean (WashingtonDC: PAHO/Inter-AmericanFoundation, 1992), 130. alsodemonstrateshowanationaddressedacrisisandprevented 24Quest Economics Database: Peru, Americas Review1997, 94. it fromescalatinginto a nationaland globalsecurity conflict. 25p Out of the epidemic,many positive externalities have been 26Dr. Julio Sotelo, National President, Peruvian-American affordedto Peru. These includethe overalleducationof the Medical Society,interview, 26 October 1996. James Michel in The Cholera Epidemic in Latin America: Peruvianpopulationon proper hygiene and the necessityto 27 Hearing before the Subcommittee on WesternHemisphereAffairs, 73. cleanand cookallfoodsthoroughly,includingdrinking water. 28Center for Disease Control (CDC); available from http:// The international attention brought to Peru as a result of the www.cdc.gov/ncidod/publicationsleidjlanlbkground.htm. epidemicwasvery beneficialinfinanciallyalleviatingsomeof 29The Cholera Epidemic in Latin America: Hearing before the Subcommitteeon WesternHemisphere Affairs, 79-80. the burden of the disease, as well as addressing Peru’s 3°Ibid, 52. unrelentingpoverty. Theattentionthat choleraraisedendures 31Pan American Health Organization, Health Conditions in the in Peru today as international aid has remained strong in an Americas II, 355. attempttoimprovethenation’ssewageand sanitation systems, 32Schaeffer, 62. Sotelo, Interview, 26 October 1996. as well as to mitigatesome of the fictors of poverty. There 33 34Layseca fonnally resigned from the MOH after Fujimoriwent remainsmuchto be doneinPeru,nonetheless,andwhoknows on national tv. to appease the demands of the domestic seafood industry, when the next crisis may come. However,their experience appealingto the public that they could continue to eat the raw fish and with cholerahas giventhem amplepreparationof which the shellfish stew, ceviche. A few weeks prior to this, Layseca had asked Peruvians to stop eating ceviche. Layseca responded to Fujimori’s rest ofthe developingworld shouldtake note. claim that the ceviche was again safe to eat by saying, “There is one ceviche for the poor and another ceviche for the rich. Endnotes 35Sotelo, Interview,26 October 1996. 1World Health Organization, WorldHealth Report 1996 36The Cholera Epidemic in Latin America: Hearing before the (WashingtonDC: WorldHealth Organization, 1996). Subcommitteeon WesternHemisphere Affairs, 18. 2World Health Organization, “Infectious Diseases Kill Over 17 Million People a Year;”available from http://www.who.chlwhr/1996/ press1.httn. 3Laurie Garret, “The Return of InfectiousDisease,” Foreign Affairs, January-February 1996:66-67. 4lbid, 73. Chicago Tribune,“Experts: City Slums Breeding Deadly Diseases,”5 7 June 1996, C7. 6Robert G. Torricelliin The Cholera Epidemic in Latin America: Hearing before the Subcommitteeon WesternHemisphere Affairs, Congress,House, 102nd Cong., 1 May 1991, 73. 7lbid. 8Pan American Health Organization, Health Conditions in the Americas II (WashingtonDC: Pan American Health Organization, 1994), 354. Encyclopedia and Dictionary ofMedicine and Nursing (Philadelphia:9 WB. Saunders Company, 1972). ‘°Centerfor Disease Control, “Cholera Prevention;” available from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/publications/brochures/cholera.htm. “Ibid. Stephen Buckley, “In Zaire, Good Intentions YieldTragic Effects,”‘2 WashingtonPost, 10November 1996, A33. ‘3Pan American Health Organization,Health Conditions in the Page

Program. graduating

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superior that them developing

responsibility term.”31

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asked a

justice,

environment,

biosphere.”29

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consensus

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by attainment legitimacy” only claims degree highest spiritual.34 international

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sovereign order sovereign

rights preservation.37 Membership

national national policing, functions external

states

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gives

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of of Page 35 ThE GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITYJOURNALOF ThE ENVIRONMENT VolumeI, Issue 1 the principle of non-interferencein the internal affairs of doctrinewhich allowsthemto exploitnaturalresources. The sovereign39states. Thisautonomymeansthat all sovereign developing world championedUN resolutions during the states, regardless of their size or political strength, are decolonization period that, although not legally binding, independentandself-governing“withrespectto internaland arguethat PSNR is a “basic constituentof the right to self- external problems,” determination” and is necessary to secure economic States4 usethenon-interventionprincipletoprotecttheir independence. Furthermore, the 1962 PSNR resolution interests°against intrusionsby more powerful states. This declares: association of sovereignty with autonomy and non [t]he free and beneficial exercise of the interferencerights became particularly pronounced in the sovereignty of peoples and nations over their developing world in the 1950’s and 1960’s during the naturalresourcesmustbe furtheredbythe mutual decolonizationperiod. Sovereigntyinthisinstancewasoften respectof Statesbasedontheir sovereignequality “understoodinthecontextofthe effortsofnewlyindependent • . . Violationof the rights ofpeoplesand nations countriestorestructureinequitableand onerousconcessions to sovereignty over their natural wealth and grantedduringthe colonialperiod.” Developingcountries resourcesiscontrarytothespiritandtheprinciples have made similar efforts “in relation to post-colonial of the Charterof the UnitedNationsand hinders arrangements with transnational corporations and other the developmentofinternationalcooperationand foreigninvestors.” Assertingthenon-interventionprinciple the maintenanceof 47peace. thus became4 a way for developing countries to promote Somedevelopingcountrieshave used PSNRto supportthe distributive’ justice claims. Although PSNR originally nationalization of foreign industries and multinational developedtoprotectjustice claims,manytheoristsalsonote corporations,a right affirmedby the 1962UN Resolution. that authoritarianregimes in the developingworld regard More recently, developing states have inserted clauses “the legalrequirementof strict respect for sovereignrights reaffirming PSNR in declarations and texts on the [as]ausefuldoctrinalshieldagainstinternationalinvolvement 48environment. in their domestic42practices.” Givenmoderateenvironmentalscarcity,statesmayneed to surrender portions of PSNR in order to protect the Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 49environment. Negotiations and internationalconferences Internationallaw grants states the “rightto exclusive in the past decade reveal that developing countries are controloverterritory.. . Moreover,theexistenceofaterritory reluctanttotakethis°5step. Indeed,asPatriciaMlschepoints under governmentcontrol is one of the juridlicalcriteria of out, developingcountrieshave been: 43statehood.” Today,sovereignstates comprisealmostthe pressing for greater national sovereignty. The apparent entiretyof the earth’slandmassexcept for Antarctica. The contradiction is not a failure in logic, but a pragmatic notion that sovereigntyand territory are necessarilylinked recognitionof the globalforcesbesiegingthemand making is entrenched in current internationaLrelations discourse havoc of their developmentgoals. In light of the colonial because state actors “are [u]nableto think politics outside and neo-coloniallegacythat continuesintothe presentday, this discourseand space. . .“.44 inwhichtheirresourcesareplundered,theirlaborexploited, Implicitin territorialsovereigntyis the right of states their cultures eroded, and their environmental health toexploitnaturalresourcesfoundwithintheirterritories.This degraded, the attraction of national sovereignty is principle,referredto asPermanentSovereigntyoverNatural understandable. Resources(PSNR)isfirmlyentrenchedininternational45law. TheinternationalcommunitycreatedPSNRtopromote PSNR was firstrecognizedin the UN GeneralAssemblyin 5equityclaimsof developingworld countries. Becausemost 1952asa solutiontounfairrelationships“betweenhoststates ’of these countries were createdin the 1960sand were weak and transnationalcorporationsengaged in the exploitation and vulnerable to exploitation by external forces, the of natural resourcesin their territory. Developingnations developingcountriesmade a justice claim (unfair external continuallyreassertPSNRtojustit’ replacingtheexploitation exploitation of natural resources) and shielded it in the ofratural resourcesby foreigncountriesand multi-national language of legitimacy(sovereignty)to bolster a stronger corporationswithmoreequitablerelationships: legitimacyclaim— PSNR. BecausePSNRblockssolutions The principle of permanent sovereigntyhas thus to global environmental degradation, the international, provedto bea seminalsourceofrules fromwhich communityshould find new (and probablymore effective) stateshavederiveda widerangeofpowers aimed ways of promoting the distributive justice claims of the at securingeffectivecontrolover their resources developingworldininternationalenvironmentallawin order and maximizingbenefit from their exploitation. to convincedevelopingcountriesto surrenderPSNRwhen At the core of the concept of permanent it conflictswith the goal of fair international,environmental sovereigntyis the inherent and overridingright protection. of a state to control and dispose of the natural wealthandresourcesinitsterritoryforthebenefit Sovereignty and the Commons of its own46people. Currently,nearlyseventypercentoftheplanetis“either Developingstates view PSNR as much more than a commons or not yet subject to undisputed sovereign through worldthat the controL”52

of like jurisdiction norm.53 international heritage, international other proceed are

on Shelby right for generations.”54 then ensure behavior commonly International ethic. powers under sectors demonstrates well. Sovereignty opinions promoting

sovereign of community, These community. doctrine: because

extra-territorial debates anything counters citizens

mankind

international political equity

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peaceful the

agree

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Absent

Under

responsibility the

citizens under Sovereignty address on obligation

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responsibility

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of allocational

governments

community

claim has purposes, space

heritage

shared

Thus,

management, what global

state be used coexists areas

various

The such

community

welfare

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relationship

assumption: sovereignty.55 states

resources

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damage.

of

actors or

of confers

used

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of

States

form

presupposes these

of

states

to emphasis

sovereignty fairly.

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customary

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orbits

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as

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“to

that doctrine

responsibilities Responsibility the concepts

to with humanity.

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obligations receive governing,

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assumes

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obligation first-come,

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unsustainable,

minimal

state within in

given community.”56 mineral

global for activities not all

are always

in

international “certain the legal developed

of

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heritage

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protections borders

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in declaration

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resources not principles

commons rights

borders

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directly sovereign

that state claim

law,

and heritage

doctrine

doctrine International

1960’s,

or to

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of require

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The

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ignore doctrine responsibility commons. environmental intensifies peoples community national Formal economic

formal can Keohane,

status and exercise supremacy may resources agreements, governmental freedom obligations themselves convince because furthermore, requirements. of

powers sovereignty rights fear violated in As claims between is international principle international easily

formal self-preservation, carefully agreement agreement freedom loss

to

international

to action.”60 Environmental

Fowler

agree

is

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sloppy

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and

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export

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to privileges

distinction

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over

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operational

action,”

states action, iting.”62 do

they is clean

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Operational

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agreements environmental

this they limit

losing

international

actors important

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by states

Since not

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industrial

to

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challenges legitimacy

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When its do

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on damage “[ijncreasingly...

of

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Influence

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must

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at

of

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and

law.”59 If

sovereign

small states

emissions outside prerogatives.58

states’ object

rights the

sovereignty,

easier

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sovereignty protests

international stake

formal

concede

sovereign

states states

that

of

of

own

sovereignty

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and

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sovereignty

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to

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of

a

a Page 37 THE GEORGETOWNUNWERS1TY JOURNALOF THE ENVIRONMENT Volume1,Issue 1

intact. At this point, statesshouldthen considerthe impact the RioEarth Summit. Becausethe eventualoutcomeof the of a loss of operationalsovereigntyfor the state. Can the climate negotiationsis so important for humanity,several state surrenderthis freedom of action and still maintain a policymeasuresareconsideredthatwouldfacilitatefairness minimumlevel of subsistencefor a state’scitizens? How discourse if adoptedby the developedcountries. does oneweighthe valueof the internationalagreementfor Finally,drawingonthisrichnetworkof environmental the environmentagainst a state’s interest to maintain its texts,treaties,declarations,and policyproposals,the thesis freedom of action to, say, set its own national fossil fuel proposesa set of gatekeeperassumptions. Theseprinciples emission targets? Is the state asserting its operational shouldguidethe internationalcommunityin negotiationson sovereigntymerelyprotectingpoliticallysensitivedomestic findingfair solutionsto globalenvironmentaldegradation. interests? and how can the international community encouragestatesto cede operationalsovereigntyin the first Commons Pollution place? Fairnessdiscoursegoes a longway in helpingstates Manykindsofpollutiondamagethe“globalcommons” answerthese difficultquestions,but to rephrasethe general which cover some 70 percent of the earth’s surface. The argument of this thesis, states are more likely to cede globalcommonsinclude,“thoseportions of the earthandits operationalsovereigntywhendoingso doesnot seemunfair. surroundingspacethat lie aboveandbeyondthe recognized territorialclaims of any nation,” such as the high seas, the Fairness Discourseand International Environmental Law oceanseabed,Antarctica,andthe 65atmosphere. Commons in Practice pollution is more difficult to regulate than transboundary Humanactivitiescontinueto alterthe environmentin pollutionbecausethe sourcesofthis type ofpollutionare so waysthat threatenthe health of the planetaryecosystemas varied, and because most states pollute the commons well as the health and survival of the human species. As themselves. Commonspollutionalso tendsto occuron a ChristopherStoneobserves,“pressuresfromthe swellingof muchlargerscalethanpurely transboundarypollutionwith theglobe’shumanpopulation,compoundedbythebacklashes a much greaterimpacton the planetarybiosphere. of industrialization,appear to be blightingthe elementson Lawrence Susskind writes, “In the same way that which a healthy earth and decent life 63depend.” Stone communitiesofpeopleformgovernmentsandin theprocess continues: giveup a measureofautonomyin exchangefor security,the [W]e cannot fail to note that the environmental nationsof the worldmust,whenthey cometogetherto work pressures are fraught with the potential to pit outwaysofhandlingglobalproblems,surrendersomedegree human against human. In the ancient world, of 67sovereignty.” Regulating commonspollution proves prolongedand severe climate change led to the difficult for international law because allowing states to uprooting of whole populations. But today, protestspecificcases of commonspollutionoftenproduces populationsaredenserandmassmigrationswould competing claims and conflicts over how to allocate transgress political boundaries and exacerbate reparationsforcommons68damage. Whilesomeofthenorms culturaltensions— withallthe ominousfrictions regulating transboundary pollution apply to commons suchconflictsportend. Whatrespectforanybasic pollution,these protectionsare weak at best since no state notions of property,boundaries, and civil order has a direct ownership interest in the 69commons. shall we expect to survive, if environmental Environmentalproblemsthat occur in the global commons degradationweretoimposeincreasingstresseson mightofferstatesopportunitiesto extendstateresponsibility food and water supplies,if arable zones were to to areasbeyondsovereignjurisdiction,suchasthe oceansor shift and traditionalpopulation centers were to theatmosphere. However,stateshavenot“soughttoassert sinkbeneathrising64tides? a legal7 rightto act on behalfof the internationalcommunity If Stone’swarningsare evenpartiallycorrect,then solutions as a°whole in the protectionof environmentalissueson the to environmentalproblemsneed to be foundnowto prevent basis of customary law or national law.” This analysis calamitiesthat couldrender the notion of sovereigntyitself suggestsstateswill remainunlikelyto “enforceobligations irrelevant. owed to the global commons,the violation of which may Thissectionaddressestwo examplesofenvironmental onlylead to indirectharmto the 7state.” damagethatresultfromcommonspollution:ozonedepletion ’ and climate change. The international response to each Ozone Layer Depletion problemisthenexamined.Theozonecaseisstudiedbecause Ozone layer depletion is an example of commons the ozonenegotiationsare largelyregardedas a successand pollution. A particular group of chemicals called as a possiblemodelfor negotiationson otherenvironmental chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs),used in coolants,propellants, problems. The climatechangecase is interestingbecauseit householdproducts, pharmaceuticals,cleaners, insulators, isanexampleofanon-goingfairnessdiscourse.International anda wide-rangeofplasticmaterials,isresponsibleformost negotiatorshavenotyet agreedonhowto reversetrendsthat ozone depletion. CFCs react with and destroy naturally- will causeglobalwarming,and stateshavenot yet acted on occurringozonemoleculesin the 72atmosphere. norms of fairness and state responsibility that were The ozone layer absorbs extra ultra-violet radiation promulgatedinthe 1992ClimateChangeConventionandat fromthe sunthat otherwisewouldpenetratethe atmosphere Shelby Guilbert Fairness Discourse in International Environmental Law Pane 38 andharmterrestriallife. The USEnvironmentalProtection for all substancesregulatedby the Conventionwithin the Agency predicts that ozone depletion resulting from next fewyears. Therefore,“increasingglobal ozonelosses “unrestrictedCFCgrowthwould result in 180millionnew arepredicted...fortheremainderofthe decade,withgradual casesofskincancerand3.5millioncancerdeathsbythe end recoveryin the 21St82century.” of the next century in the United States 73alone.” Ozone Onekey elementof the successin securingagreement depletionwillalsoincreasecataractandblindnessrates,lower to the Montreal Protocol is the allowance the instrument the body’sresistancetoinfectiousdiseases,anddamagecrops makesfordevelopingcountries. Thetreatyspecificallycalls and marinelife,therebyreducingthe globalfood supply. forthetransferofenvironmentallysafetechnology,subsidies, The international response to ozone depletion aid, and credit to the developing countries who sign the representsthe mosteffectiveglobalresponseto a commons 83treaty. These stipulationsreflectthe recognitionthat: problemtodate. Representativesof43nationsfirstconvened in the longerrun, the developingcountries,with to discussozonedepletionin Viennain March, 1985. Later their huge and growing populations, could that monththe parties agreedto the ViennaConventionfor undermine efforts to protect the global the Protectionof the OzoneLayer. Althoughthe treaty did environment. As a consequence of the ozone not identi&any pollutantsas the cause of ozone depletion, issue, the richer nations for the first time US Ambassador Benedick argues the treaty itself is a acknowledgedaresponsibilityto help developing significantaccomplishmentbecauseit “representedthe first countries to implement needed environmental effortof the internationalcommunityformallyto deal with policies without sacrificing aspirations for an environmentaldangerbefore it erupted.”” improved standards of living. 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Where laggard states’ lack of concern is due to a TheViennaConventionalso calls for cooperationon ozone misunderstanding of their own interests, normative research and for an ongoing conferenceof the parties that pronouncements (reduce transborder air pollution, stop meets78regularly. destroyingthe ozone layer) accompaniedby collaborative In 1987 the international community agreed to the scientificreviewscan contributeto a shift fromlow to high Montreal Protocol on Substancesthat Deplete the Ozone concern. The collaborativereviews of scientificevidence Layer. 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