CHAPTER 4 The First Friends of Veterinary Medicine

IN CONSIDERING THE SOURCES of information it is not until the publication of the first on animal disease prior to 1800, it is evi­ volume of its Memoirs in 1808 that we have dent that these were at best intermittent, any record of its advocacy of veterinary desultory, or merely incidental. In the ab­ medicine. It is significant that practically sence of a regular medium for the report­ all of the pioneer advocates of veterinary ing of disease - animal or human - this medicine in America were members of, or is not so surprising as it is unfortunate. associated with, the Society. In particular, The reports of travellers, undoubtedly hon­ three of its members, Judge Richard Peters, est souls at heart, frequently are colored by and the physicians, Benjamin Rush and imagination, or distorted by inadequate James Mease, can be accounted the first observation. Most of the books on veteri­ staunch friends of the yet unborn veteri­ nary subjects were either frank British re­ nary profession. The contributions of each prints, or "tainted" by British thinking in of these men, therefore, will bear examina­ the sense that they did not reflect the actual tion at some length. situation in America. And while some al­ truism can be ascribed to the authors of RICHARD PETERS, JUDGE native works, none are entirely devoid of Richard Peters, a prominent patriot, commercialism. No single writer, George lawyer, and country gentleman, was the Washington excepted, produced any sub­ first public figure to call for the establish­ stantial volume of first-hand observations ment of a veterinary profession in America. on animal disease and related matters, and In 1805 he became president of the Phila­ it must be accepted as fact that he did not delphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, give overt thought to veterinary medicine and a year later was responsible for the per se as a necessity in the expanding econ­ Society offering a gold medal: omy of the New World. Credit for the first recognition of veteri­ for the best essay and plan, for promoting nary medicine as an essential force in veterinary knowledge and instruction, both scientifically and practically, under the cir­ America, and for the first conscientious re­ cumstances of our country.... Aid to schools porting of animal disease, must go to the and establishments for this, among other agri­ Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agri­ cultural purposes, ought to be given by the culture. This group, which numbered national and state legislatures. . . . Animals among its membership such luminaries as are abandoned, when diseased, to all the calam­ ities attended on ignorance of their maladies, Washington, Franklin, Noah Webster, and or cure. Pretenders and empirics, of the most Benjamin Rush, was founded in I 785, but contemptable character, prey on the necessities [ 81 ] 82 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE and credulity of those who are compelled to veterinary matters. In 1805 he read a paper apply to them on this subject. . . . If it "On Hoven Cattle," in which he attributed [veterinary medicine] has held an inferior rank in the classification of science and knowledge, the recent increase of this ailment to the it is entirely owing to the unmerited neglect replacement of "worn out and sterile" pas­ with which it has been unaccountably treated. tures with clover. The latter, he considered It is time it should be rescued from obscurity, good for agriculture, but when hungry cows and placed among the most commendable and are turned into lush pastures, it is "most necessary branches of medical education. productive of this disease." After recogniz­ How much earlier he had this interest is ing the symptoms, Peters directs: suggested by his statement in 1807, at the age of 37: Immediately stab the animal, on the left side, between the hind rib and the hip bone For a great portion of my life, I have occa­ ... be not nice as to this. The disease will cer­ sionally endeavored to prevail on professional tainly be mortal, unless instantly relieved, men, to assist the business of agriculture, by therefore think not any remedy too daring.... devoting part of their time and talents to veteri­ I can vouch on my own experience, for the nary subjects. It is truly unfortunate, that efficacy and little danger of the operation. veterinary knowledge is so rare, and so little Let nature cure the wound. valued by medical characters, that necessity compels, and accident alone favours experi­ Other remedies he suggests include: for­ ments, in the hands of those, who have no cible withdrawal of the tongue: "raking the assistance from professional attainments. beast ... often practised by farriers"; and Until Benjamin Rush responded to the So­ drenching with oil or salt water. He warns: ciety proposal, Peters commented, concern­ ing his own efforts: Some will suppose the beast poisoned . . . some, astonished at the suddenness, hideous I have never succeeded .... Whatever may symptoms and rapid progress of the malady, be thought by others, of this first compliance will pronounce, very gravely, that it is the ef­ [by Rush], with my long continued endeavours, fect of madness, or secret mischief and witch­ I deem it the cornerstone of some future valu­ craft. However absurd they may appear to per­ able building. sons of intelligence, I have been present when such causes have been seriously assigned .... Rush's lecture delivered before the So­ The knife is the surest remedy for, and antidote ciety in 1807, calling for medical men to against, this imaginary poison. It instanta­ pay more attention to veterinary medicine, neously dissolves the fancied spells of the ideal practitioner in witchcraft. It banishes from the however, evoked no immediate response. brains of those who prove themselves no con­ Commenting on a paper on sheep diseases jurors, all apprehensions on this score; more by a Dr. Petrikin in 1811, Peters noted: decidedly and promptly than even the old horse shoe, nailed on the door sill. until this communication we have had no in­ stance of the good effect produced on medical A case of "croup" in a calf in 1812 gave men, by the important example set in that lecture. So our domestic animals are either, Peters the occasion to extol the virtues of from necessity placed in the hands of ignorant post-mortem examination - something for and fraudulent quacks, and low pretenders to which his treatment, if carried on exten­ veterinary knowledge, or abandoned to their sively, would provide ample subjects. Pe­ fate. The latter is in most cases, the safest alternative. ters relates:

Hoven Cattle I had the calf copiously bled; and directed castor oil to be thrown down the throat, Peters himself, however, did not sit idly through the neck of a bottle; after opening by, expecting others to provide the mate­ the passage of the windpipe with a flexible rial he called for. In fact, in addition to twig.... It finally died, by suffocation, in a spasmodic, or convulsion, fit .... I had it dis­ being a pillar of the Philadelphia Society, sected (not very neatly) by my old farmer ... he may be considered the first substantial a sort of ill digested greyish pus, filled up the contributor of first-hand observations on passage. Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 83

The trocar was recommended for bloat (hoven) in cattle as early as 1805 by the prominent ag­ riculturalist and Philadelphia judge, Richard Peters, who also was the first proponent of veteri­ nary education in America. American Agriculturalist

On the subject of post-mortem examina­ Haws in Horses tion, Peters urges: In a paper "On the Haws, or Hooks, (so Every fact relating to accidents or diseases called) in Horses," in 1813, Peters blames of our stock, is interesting, in the present dearth much of his misfortunes with horses on: of veterinary information. Those who neglect "a conceited driver of my carriage, who be­ to attend to such facts, deeming them trifling lieved himself exclusively acquainted with and unimportant, are either culpably careless, the management of the affairs of the or reprehensibly fastidious. Let every farmer and owner of stock, inform of any uncommon stable." This wretch: occurrences or diseases in domestic animals, stopped every crevice in the stable, through happening under his observation; and a body which air could be admitted; and fed unspar­ of facts and information will be accumulated, ingly, contrary to my frequent injunctions. The which may, by men of medical science, and in­ consequences were, that several of my horses telligence on such subjects, be turned to the were seized with violent fevers, and particularly greatest advantage. It has always been my habit in morbid affections of the eyes .... My servant Lo cause to be opened, and examined, every knew, as he believed, effectual remedies. "My beast which could furnish instruction, for my horses had the hooks," as the haws are vulgarly own, or the benefit of others, when, on my denominated. - "These must be cut out of the farms, the animal had died by disease, or ac­ eyes." cident. Every farmer should follow this prac­ tice; and note the appearances, or probable But Peters, who earlier had had a horse causes, occasioning, or supposed to have pro­ ruined in this manner, would not permit duced, the loss of the animal. A knowledge of disease will point to remedies; and both him­ the operation (excision of the third eyelid), self and his neighbours may derive future ad­ and substituted bleeding and purging. vantages from his present misfortune. Peters also mentions lampas, or congested 84 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE palatal mucosa, for which "burning is usu­ of four horses affected with the disease in ally practiced ... but I never suffer it to 1799; the constitution of the fourth horse be done.'' "vanquished both his disease, and the reme­ On the subject of servants, Peters blames dies," and was living 20 years later. Al­ himself for: though he admits: "I am not scientifically informed," he is satisfied that a "violent unusual remissness in frequent visits to my remedy must be pursued." This included stables. Such negligence every owner of horses bleeding - a gallon at first, and half a gal­ should cautiously avoid. True, we cannot con­ trol or command servants in this country; in lon daily for several days ("Few know the which Saturnalia are celebrated every day in great quantity of blood, a tolerable sized the year. Among the ancients, the servants were horse can lose, without injury.") and strong satisfied with one annual, but short, term of purges. A drench of three or four ounces equality. of nitre daily, injections of snake root and peach leaves, with shad pickle, salt, soap, He mentions the exemplary conduct of and molasses in various combinations, George Washington, who: brewers yeast, rowelling, blistering, and commenced every day with a visit to his stables: back-raking "are very efficacious." in which he minutely examined and directed A friend who had used "immediate and every necessary arrangement: and no person plentiful bleeding and nitre," had lost of his day knew better how to treat the horse. none, "though the horses, very generally, through the neighboring country, died of In a paper "On Sheep-killing Dogs," read this disease. He took, at various times, in 1810, Peters urges: from 6 to 8 gallons of blood from an horse." And while it is evident that Peters is con­ We owe to the community, to be assistant in every way; and particularly to the execution vinced of the utility of copious bloodlet­ of the laws on the subject.... Death is the only ting, he says: effectual remedy.... If numbers were lessened, those retained would be well fed; and few or I shall not enter the lists, for or against none compelled to wander in search of prey. plentiful blood letting. The lancet is held by ... It should be made disgraceful and uncivic some, in human subjects, to be the magick . . . [to] keep supernumerary, worthless, or wand of Hygaeia; and by others, the minister starved dogs. of death. So may they deem the fleam, applied to horses. Commenting on the recently enacted Penn­ On the matter of contagion, in which he sylvania dog law, Peters says: "Our dog law notes disagreements of opinion, he says: is a good one." This imposed a light tax "The wisest course, is not to risque a well on one dog, but increasingly heavier as­ horse, among the sick." sessments on additional dogs kept by one On symptoms, which he says he cannot owner as "a check on the unreasonable accurately describe, Peters is quite precise: multiplication of the numbers of dogs." these include dullness of the eyes, with the Owners of dogs which had killed sheep whites being jaundiced; pendant ears: tail were required to kill the dog, and indem­ projected horizontally; inclination, but in­ nity was paid the owner of the sheep from capacity to eat or to stool; flanks tucked the tax funds in proportion to the value of and hollow; frequent shivering; and high the sheep. fever, as indicated by a pulse rate above 45 - the pulse was neglected by most far­ Yellow Water riers. Also: "The hind legs are stiff, and From the veterinary standpoint, the con­ straddling wide; but finally all the limbs tribution of Peters that merits him lasting fail," whereupon the horse writhes in cir­ recognition is his article: "On the Yellow cles on the ground: "hence some country Water of Horses," read before the Philadel­ people call the disorder 'the circles.' " Only phia Society in 1807. Peters had lost three the livers were seen to be affected: Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 85

Urinary problems were common - or at least frequently diagnosed - throughout the nineteenth century, "yellow water" of horses being a common complaint during the first decade. The straddling posture was considered an unfailing diagnostic sign. Manning: Stock Doctor parts of the liver were hard and scirrhous ... eenth century and later, for a Dr. F. B. dry and friable .... The disease appears to be Sayre, in the Medical Repository for 1800, an highly malignant bilious fever. The secre­ entitles a communication: "Observations tion of the bile is obstructed by the morbid state of the liver and the gall is retained in of the Disease Commonly Called Yellow­ the blood: and thus tinging that and the urine, Water in Horses." According to Sayre, the possibly gave the name to the disease, of the disease was first seen in New Jersey in 1793, yellow water. and was characterized by loss of appetite, Peters continues with full details of feed­ highly colored urine, and swellings about ing, and notes that "exercise excited the the throat. It was believed to be conta­ lurking disease." The disease, he feels, is gious: "Therefore, the farmers assiduously much the same as the yellows, or jaundice, separated the disordered from the sound." described in British works. He states: The common treatment - bleeding and It is an hepatic affection; and as a farrier purging - Sayre considers to have been in­ who attended my anatomical theatre, and had adequate, and rowelling_- to be of no signifi­ opened many horses with this disease, called it cance. In his own experience he effected the "liver disorder" for want of a more ap­ cures by bleeding to faintness and using propriate term. strong calomel purges. More or less in summary, he sugg~sts: At any rate, this almost resistless destroyer, Peters' Legacy should add to our motives for using more oxen, Peters' account is of considerable inter­ and fewer horses, on our farms. est from several standpoints. It is perhaps This disease apparently was diagnosed the first full description of any animal dis­ frequently toward the encl of the eight- ease in America; and in all too many in- 86 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE stances for another century or more empha­ ing, (so far as human means can accomplish it,) sis was upon treatment alone - especially their safety, when attacked by diseases, or in­ in those cases which terminated success­ jured by accidents too frequently occurring; and often fatal through the want of skill in fully. The treatment administered by Pe­ their treatment. ters can be considered only as reflecting contemporary thinking - or lack thereof - Peters' advocacy of veterinary medicine upon the subject of animal disease. He at did have palpable results, if only in the least admits: "The remedies are by no contributions of Benjamin Rush and James means well ascertained," and, "I have no Mease. The continuity of the work of this theory to establish." He displays to perfec­ triumvirate, however, ceased with the sus­ tion the enlightened interest of the landed pension of the Society Memoirs in 1826, gentry in the welfare of animals, and was and none of the three lived to see their among the first few to consistently call for aspirations materialize. How much impact greater attention to veterinary matters. Not Peters may have had beyond his intimate only did he have relatively complete nec­ circle is perhaps a moot question, but his ropsies made, but evidently a number of writings leave no doubts about the merits farriers also did this as a matter of course. of the claim of his being the first friend of At this time there were no graduate veteri­ the veterinary profession in America. narians in America, the first having come to these shores in 1800. BENJAMIN RUSH, PHYSICIAN Peters again pleads for greater attention Even a casual study of the life and work to veterinary medicine in his eulogy on the of Benjamin Rush reveals hardly a facet of horse: colonial and post-Revolutionary culture in which he did not demonstrate some inter­ It is to be earnestly wished, that intelligent est. Among his manifold medical interests medical characters here, would turn their at­ tention to the disease of that noble animal, was his advocacy of veterinary education, a the horse - The companion, the faithful ser­ sidelight of his rich life which has received vant, and friend to man, - he deserves our only the briefest notice by medical histori­ grateful attention, and care. He shares and les­ ans. In urging the study of the diseases of sens our toils, promotes our health, administers domestic animals by medical students and to our comforts and amusements, fights with us our battles, and contributes largely to our physicians, Goodman, his biographer, cred­ wealth and prosperity. its Rush with being "the earliest proponent of the study of veterinary science in Amer­ Peters' final plea appears in his com­ ica." It is obvious, however, that this writer ments on an article in the final volume of was unaware of the endeavors of Richard the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society Peters. Rush's principal veterinary con tri­ (1826), on the death of a horse from worms: bution was his response to the request of the Philadelphia Society for a "Veterinary This and a thousand other misfortunes oc­ Essay and Plan." While Rush is something curring to our domestic arnimals, loudly im­ press the indispensable usefulness of veterinary of a controversial figure with regard to his knowledge .... Many years have passed away contributions to medicine, there need be since our Society, and myself individually, have no doubt that his advocacy of veterinary warmly and feelingly recommended a veteri­ medicine can be taken at face value. nary institution, and that it should be part of the education of medical men, to know how to Colonial America had its physicians, and treat the diseases of the animals com posing our had asserted its independence in medical stock. Let this part of the acquirements nec­ education by the establishment of the essary for those who practice in the country, Medical School of the College of Philadel­ be rescued from the low state in which it now phia in 1765. Despite the interruptions of is; by being made essential to the education of medical men; and countless advantages will ac­ war, several additional schools of medicine crue to our farmers and breeders of stock. It is had been founded to 1800. Beginning with vain to raise valuable animals, without ensur- scattered contributions in the eighteenth Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 87 century, an impending voluminous medi­ a veterinary institution in this country," he cal literature found its fountainhead in the apparently acted in accordance with the Medical Repository in 1797. A number of desires of the Society for a "practical" ap­ colonial physicians already had become proach to the problem by urging medical world figures in medicine. Colonial Amer­ students to study the diseases of domestic ica early recognized its need for physicians, animals, for: and, whether graduate or nongraduate, the doctor was an important man in the New In vain will be the efforts of public bodies World. and private individuals to disseminate veteri­ In Europe, it is understandable that vet­ nary knowledge in our country, without a pro­ vision for regular and oral instruction upon it. erinary medicine should have been a sub­ ject beneath the notice of the average phy­ A Veterinary Chair sician or surgeon. While veterinary and human medicine had flourished side by Rush apparently did envIS1on the estab­ side in ancient times, the separation be­ lishment of a veterinary curriculum as tween the two disciplines had become ab­ such, for he adds: solute during the twilight of the Byzantine era. With animal medicine securely in the From the public spirit of the trustees of our: rough-and-ready hands of the farrier and University, and particularly from their disposi­ cow-leech, there was little left of the once tion to promote every branch of science con­ nected with medicine, there is reason to believe, fundamental identity of veterinary and that it is only necessary to lay before them the human medicine. In America however, advantages of a veterinary chair, in order to in­ many rural physicians forgot their heredi­ sure its establishment. . . . tary antipathy for animal medicine and I have lived to see the medical school of Philadelphia emerge from small beginnings, treated animals and man without discrimi­ and gradually advance to its present flourish­ nation. Undoubtedly many of them came ing condition; but I am not yet satisfied with to grips with the unescapable fact that a its prosperity and fame, nor shall I be so, un­ medical education did not always supply til I see the veterinary science taught in our them with the necessary weapons for this university. guerilla warfare. What is remarkable is the number of eminent physicians, fore­ The University of Pennsylvania did estab­ most among them Benjamin Rush, who lish a school of veterinary medicine, but recognized the need for veterinary educa­ not until 1884, 71 years after the death of tion at a time when livestock owners did Rush. In keeping with the tradition Rush not see beyond the confines of their own might have wished to father, the school was barnyards and pastures. Undoubtedly there established largely through the efforts of a were occasions when they lamented the lineal descendent, the eminent Philadel­ lack of qualified medical care for their phia physician, Rush Shippen Huidekoper, stock, but none had raised the issue of how who became its first dean. this problem should be met. While Rush also foresaw the possibility In compliance with the request of the that veterinary medicine might develop in Philadelphia Society, on November 2, 1807, conjunction with agricultural education, Rush addressed the medical students of the and not without profit to both, it is in some University of Pennsylvania upon: "The respects unfortunate this did become the Duty and Advantages of Studying the Dis­ pattern for the development of most of our eases of Domestic Animals, and the Reme­ veterinary schools. Beginning as veterinary dies Proper to Remove them." It is per­ science departments of agricultural col­ haps more than a little significant that leges, and designed to render a necessary Rush expected veterinary medicine to de­ service to agricultural interests, most of our velop at first along with human medical veterinary schools had to evolve without study. v\Thile he did "lament the want of the guidance of experienced medical edu- 88 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE cators and the salutary stimulus of a medi­ That Rush understood the differences cal climate. Rush states: as well as the similarities of human and animal diseases is evident from his lengthy Should the subject of the diseases of domestic animals be connected with instruction upon the description of specific symptoms of certain principles of agriculture ... it would form a animal maladies. An advantage in study­ still more useful branch of education, not only ing the diseases of animals is that: for physicians, but for private gentlemen. Although his "veterinary" lecture is not the number of their diseases is more limited, and their symptoms are more obvious, for they included in his Selected Writings, nor does are not multiplied, nor complicated by intem­ it appear as such in an extensive bibliogra­ perance in eating or drinking, nor are they phy of his works, Rush did include it in a under the influence of passions which suspend volume of Introductory Lectures published or alter them, and in some instances, to prevent their evolutions. The seats of their diseases, in 1811, and it appears in the form of frag­ moreover, are more perfectly known from the mentary lecture notes in his Autobiogra­ greater facility of dissecting and examining phy. It would, therefore, be unjust to con­ their bodies after death. clude that he had stepped outside his sphere, if that were possible, in complying Domestic Duties with the request of the Philadelphia So­ In keeping with the title of his lecture, ciety. While he mentions this request Rush mentions the moral obligations as "being impressed upon me with peculiar well as the practical advantages of a study force by the enlightened and patriotic pre­ of the diseases of animals. Thus he urges: sident of that society, that I was led to se­ lect the interesting subject of our lecture," We are bound in the first place, to discharge it seems most unlikely that his compliance the important duties to domestic animals which I have mentioned, by the relation that has been was anything but one of sincere interest established between them and us by the author in the matter. Few men in any walk of life of nature .... They live only for our benefit have before or since demonstrated so cos­ ... so that there is constantly due, to them, an mopolitan and enlightened an interest in immense balance of debt from us.... By the affairs of man. studying the diseases of domestic animals, we may rescue them from the hands of quacks, who add, to the mischievous and unsuccessful efforts The Science of Medicine of nature, the evils of absurd, painful, and de­ That his convictions on the subject of structive remedies. veterinary medicine were not of a neo­ Concerning the practical advantages to be plastic nature is demonstrated in Rush's derived from a study of the diseases of do­ earlier writings. He had studied compara­ mestic animals, Rush says: tive anatomy at Edinburgh under Alexan­ der Monro, Secundus, and in his "Lectures It is our duty and interest to attend in a on Animal Life" in 1799, he had ex­ more especial manner to the health of those pounded upon the values which medicine domestic animals which constitute a part of our might derive from the lower forms of ani­ aliment, in order to prevent our contracting disease by eating them. A few years ago, a mal life. Along the lines of his own phi­ farmer in New Hampshire, who had over­ losophy, Rush stated in his "veterinary" worked a fat ox in the time of harvest, killed lecture: him and sent his flesh to market. Of four and twenty persons who ate it, fourteen died, and The science of medicine is related to every­ chiefly with diseases of the stomach and bowels. thing. A mere physician, that is a physician who knows nothing but the sciences which are Rush's statement in this regard appears to supposed to belong exclusively to his profession, be the first public recognition, by an emi­ is a non-entity. To deserve that title in its ex­ tensive import, it is necessary for us to know nent American, of the interrelation of cer­ something of the principles and practice of tain human and animal diseases which in­ every art and pursuit of man. cluded a practical solution to the problem. Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 89

In a sense, he anticipated a function of tion and experiments; for as yet no societies or boards of health to which little thought, schools have been established for cultivating, and less action, had been applied. It was or teaching it in the U nitecl States. not until 1884, when the Bureau of Animal Regarding such societies Rush states: Industry was established as an adjunct of the Department of Agriculture, that Rush's In St. Domingo [Dominican Republic], a society called the "Philadelphians," was estab­ concept was ready for implementation lished many years ago, consisting chiefly of upon a national basis. physicians, whose principal business was to in­ Rush also urged the study of animal dis­ vestigate and cure, what they called epizootic ease from a sense of duty to the nation and diseases, that is the diseases of domestic ani­ its citizens, saying: mals. The society, however, had gone out of ex­ The products of agriculture and commerce are often lessened by a fatal epidemic, brought istence. on by diseases which blast the character of Rush concludes his lecture, saying: animal provisions; and many poor families have been left to suffer all the evils of penury and I have then gentlemen, laid before you a famine, by the death of a single horse, upon brief detail of the obligations we owe to our whose labor, of a cow upon whose milk, or of a domestic animals, and the reciprocal advantages hog upon whose flesh, they had relied ex­ to be derived from extending to them, the clusively for subsistence; all of whom perhaps benefits of the science of medicine. In perform­ perished by diseases that might have been ing this task, I have endeavored to become the cured. organ of speech for the dumb, and a suppliant for creatures that are unable to plead for them­ A plague which killed large numbers of selves. Permit me to recommend the subject to your attention in your future studies.... animals in a frontier community was a real Take care of the health of domestic animals. calamity which stripped away the thin ve­ neer of civilized comfort afforded by the What the impact of Rush's plea for the work or food potential of the wealth repre­ study of veterinary medicine may have sented by domestic animals. been is perhaps too subtle to determine. In speaking to a group of medical stu­ Certainly nothing as concrete as his de­ dents, it is logical that Rush should include termination to see veterinary science taught a reference to the advantages accruing to in "our university" came about in his life­ medicine itself from a study of animal dis­ time, nor for long years afterward. As in­ ease, a subject he had alluded to in his pre­ fluential as he was in the affairs of the uni­ vious writings: versity, and the nation as well, public opin­ ion had been too long one of indifference to By extending our knowledge of the causes the necessity for veterinary education. On and cures of the diseases of domestic animals, we may acid greatly to the certainty and useful­ the other hand, Rush's address apparently ness of the profession of medicine, as far as it did stimulate the thinking of leading agri­ relates to the human species ... there is scarcely culturalists. John Skinner, editor of the a form of disease mentioned in our svstems of American Farmer, not only reprinted nosology, but what is to be met with in domes­ tic animals .... By acquiring this kind of Rush's address, but made repeated pleas knowledge, you will acid to the resources of of his own for the establishment of veteri­ medicine as far as it relates to the human body nary schools. Like Rush, he advocated the and by disseminating it gratuitously in your inclusion of veterinary instruction in the neighborhood, you will become the benefactors medical curriculum until veterinary schools of your country. should come into being. In addition, he Modus Operandi fostered the reprinting in America of the leading veterinary works of Britain. In Rush adds: 1846 an unacknowledged summary of For a while your knowledge in this branch of Rush's address, in his own words, appeared science, must be acquired by reading, observa- in the American Agriculturalist. 90 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

Rush's colleague, James Mease, delivered passing observations upon animal disease. the first of "A Course of Lectures upon Mease, perhaps stimulated by Rush's plea Comparative Anatomy and the Diseases of for investigation of animal disease on the Domestic Animals" before the Philadelphia part of physicians, actively worked in the Society in 1813. Mease actually worked in field of comparative pathology for more the field of comparative pathology for some than thirty years. In addition to his con­ thirty years, and is noted for his pioneering tributions in this area, Mease also pub­ work on Texas fever of cattle. Perhaps as lished papers in the Society Memoirs on an indirect result of the efforts of Rush and such diverse subjects as pine forestry, smut Mease, Robert Jennings, a student at the in wheat, manures for clover, varieties of Pennsylvania Medical College of Philadel­ wheat, and thorn hedges, but his contribu­ phia, delivered a series of veterinary lec­ tions of greatest interest and value are tures to his fellow students from 1846 to those on animal disease. 1850. And in 1850, with the aid of a group of medical men of Philadelphia, Jennings Veterinary Medicine vs. Farriery organized the short-lived Veterinary Col­ In his introductory lecture upon com­ lege of Philadelphia. parative anatomy and diseases of animals, Mease thought it "very probable that a JAMES MEASE, EPIDEMIOLOGIST part of my hearers are entirely unac­ One of the results of Rush's lecture ap­ quainted with the subject upon which I pears to have been: "A Course of Lectures am to lecture, and even with the meaning upon the Comparative Anatomy and the of the words 'Comparative Anatomy.' " In Diseases of Domestic Animals," by James explaining his subject, he says that one of Mease, M.D., who was secretary, later a his objects is "to point out its intimate con­ vice-president, of the Philadelphia Society. nexion with Veterinary Medicine." The The introductory lecture of Mease's course, more widely read veterinary writers of the which was given in the winter of 1812- time had done little to enlighten their 1813, was published in the Memoirs of the readers upon comparative anatomy; most Society for 1814 and as a separate publica­ of these works were little more than far­ tion. riers' guides which placed primary empha­ Mease (1771-1846) was a younger con­ sis upon cures. Little or no thought was temporary of Benjamin Rush (1745-1813), given to the anatomy of the principal sub­ and while the two were friends and co­ ject, the horse, much less to physiology or members of the Philadelphia Society, Mease pathology, or to the diseases of other ani­ did not hesitate to differ with his colleague mals. when the occasion arose. Thus Mease's That Mease intended to approach his concept of rabies in 1792 was far more ad­ subject in an entirely different manner, a vanced than that of Rush in 1805. At the manner largely unknown in America, is time, and for logical reasons, rabies was evident from his statement: considered to be entirely a medical prob­ A distinction must be made between veteri­ lem. Mease not only rejected the current nary medicine and farriery. The first is founded concept of the spontaneous generation of upon science, whereas farriery disclaiming any the disease, but held advanced views on connexion with science, proves itself a mere the contributions to the problem that practice, habit or routine, and as it rests on nothing regular or solid, so it must ever be might be made by a study of comparative variable. The course of veterinary medicine pathology. On the other hand, Mease and and farriery are indeed the same, but with this Rush held almost identical views upon the difference, that the former condescends to need and means of increasing veterinary admit a guide, while the latter prefers to knowledge. Rush's manifold interests un­ ramble at risk and hazard. doubtedly prevented his making more than Among the advantages which have resulted Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 91

from a study of comparative anatomy, of veterinary medicine in late eighteenth­ Mease mentions the elucidation of the century Europe that public opinion toward structure and function of man, and the im­ veterinary medicine began to be more provements in surgery resulting from ex­ favorable. perimental investigation. And: Recognizing that a separate system of veterinary schools could not come into Comparative anatomy is as essential to the successful practice of veterinary medicine, as a being before there was a public acceptance knowledge of the structure of the human body of the distinction between farriery and vet­ is to the cure of the diseases and accidents in­ erinary science, both Rush and Mease urged cident to mankind. It is owing to a want of this the acquisition of veterinary knowledge by knowledge of their structure, that our useful medical men. Mease says: domestic animals are so mismanaged by farriers, and pretenders to animal medicine; and that If we consider the present state of animal diseases, trivial in their nature, or that slight medicine in this country, under its appellation surgical cases often end in death, or lameness, of farriery, we see it in as deplorable a situa­ which might have been easily prevented by a tion, as was the art of medicine, during the scientific treatment. barbarous ages, when the gross ignorance of its professors brought disgrace upon the art itself, Such ignorant practices as giving the horse and when many diseases, which now yield read­ when sick "the drench from a horn, ily to judicious treatment, raged without con­ whether the disease be pleurisy or colic," trol; yet that the veterinary art, like human will: medicine, in the hands of a judicious person, is made respectable, we may see by the example necessarily continue so long as veterinary medi­ of ancient times, and by the present example of cine is not studied scientifically, or until medi­ several nations of Europe .... cal gentlemen cease to think it beneath their It remains for this country . . . to follow notice; and I may add, until the owners of fine those examples; and by advancing the art to a horses will by pecuniary rewards, encourage height as yet unattained, to make amends for men of respectability and knowledge to engage the neglect we have hitherto shown it. Indeed in its practice. I am persuaded that in a short time the public attention will be called to the subject, and that The proper plan of study, he adds: men of education will think it no derogation from their medical character, to become ac­ requires a leisure and education, far beyond the quainted with the diseases of cattle, or to lend capacities and circumstances of those to whom their aid in the removal of them when re­ the care of our animals has been hitherto quired. abandoned ... we might suppose, that a greater degree of judgement and penetration are re­ In recommending the study of animal quisite for the physician of animals than of disease to the rural practitioner, Mease mankind. says, "The veterinary science offers a new and respectable means of employment to Status, Then and Now its professors," and this will not only be the Mease points out that in ancient times: means of "extending the sphere of his util­ "Veterinary medicine was esteemed among ity, but his personal consideration" as well. the most important objects, and worthy of As a practical example of the debt of medi­ the consideration of an inquiring mind." cine to such study, he cites the case of John Not only did eminent physicians of times Hunter, who not only fostered the estab­ past practice upon man and beast without lishment of the Veterinary College of Lon­ discrimination, but later, when veterinary don (1791), but also attended the practice medicine had been far outstripped by its of the college infirmary upon occasion. It parent science, the leading medical minds was his observation of phlebitis following were less apt to disparage the values of ani­ the bleeding of horses, and the dissection mal medicine than were the lesser lights in of the veins of affected subjects, that led surgery and medicine. Even so, it was not Hunter to the seat of the condition in simi­ until long after the establishment of schools lar cases in man. 92 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

In response to an inquiry, Mease wrote more powerful argument be adduced for in­ in 1816: vestigating the diseases of domestic animals, than the knowledge of this fact, that all of us I cannot recommend anv book on the diseases are every day of our lives liable to the attack of cattle. I have read eve'ry one that ever was of an awful and incurable malady from one of published in English, and am disgusted with them? the absurdity and inhumanity of the practice they advise. In the northern states our cattle Mease gives a summary of the important are, fortunately, healthy, if justice be done outbreaks of epidemic diseases among do­ to them. In the southern states, the chief mestic animals in America, and suggests diseases they are subject to arise from shame­ ful neglect and poverty; and until a planter that by a greater knowledge of them we makes up his mind to house his cattle in storms, might be led to anticipate fatal epidemics and supply them with plenty of wholsome and provide the means of guarding against juicy food, it is better that he should not have them. medical books, as he will pester the animal with drenches instead of good hay, pumpkins, turnips, potatoes, and corn meal. In the winter "I shall demonstrate" of 1813, I gave a course of lectures on the There seems to be no record of the other diseases of domestic animals, with the hope of lectures delivered by Mease, other than evi­ exciting the attention of medical gentlemen to the subject.... I hope the trustees of the dence that he did advertise: "lectures will University will establish a professorship of be given every Tuesday, Thursday, and Sat­ Veterinary Medicine, when I will furnish the urday afternoon at half past three o'clock" person appointed, if desired, with the result during the winter of 1812-1813. In his of my researches on the subject. introductory lecture, he states that it is his Mease on Mad Dogs intention to adopt the following plan: On the subject of rabies, Mease, who had 1. I shall demonstrate the structure of dif­ in 1792 made the first real contribution ferent animals. to this problem in America, stated: "it still 2. Explain the use and functions of the continues to humble the pride of the medi­ several parts, and compare them with cal profession." Mease rejected all of the those of the human body. commonly accepted causes of rabies in the 3. Point out the causes, nature and symp­ dog, particularly that of spontaneous gen­ toms of diseases in our domestic ani­ eration and the redoubtable "worm under mals, with the method of cure. the tongue" (lyssa) claimed by innumerable 4. Give the natural history, operations, authors since Pliny. Concerning the latter and doses of medicines. cause, Mease states: "The idea of a worm In summary, he says: is utterly false, no such thing exists." While From this plan it will be seen, that farriery, Mease's statement leaves some doubt that strictly so called, or what relates to the fashion­ he knew of the existence of the fibrous able operations on a horse, makes no part of lyssa in the tip of the dog's tongue, the his­ the course. By thus separating the scientific tory of rabies would have been saner had from the merely mechanical part, the veterinary this structure escaped notice altogether. science will be at once put in a condition to go hand in hand with human medicine. Generations of hardy practitioners had re­ moved the lyssa from healthy dogs as a pre­ Mease recognizes the propriety of teaching ventive, and from rabid dogs as a "cure." the proper methods of shoeing the horse, Unlike some of his medical brethren who but his insistence upon the separation of claimed to cure human hydrophobia, the scientific from the mechanical aspects Mease states emphatically that the disease of the art was largely forgotten by later has never been cured, but veterinary educators until long after the We must not despair; for I cannot think heyday of the horse. that Providence has determined to permit this What the immediate effects of Mease's disease to be forever incurable, and can any lectures may have been would be difficult Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 93 to determine. Certainly they were the first tion which had been told him "by an in­ efforts in this direction in America. There telligent drover." In a similar vein it was would seem to be little doubt that his lec­ the faith of the veterinarian, Fred Kil­ tures stimulated a continuing interest in borne, in cattlemen's observations on the animal diseases on the part of members of tick that led him, in spite of professional the Philadelphia Society. Inasmuch as ridicule, to the final incrimination of the practically all of the early promoters of a tick. veterinary profession in America were as­ In an article in 1826 on "An Account of sociated in some way or another with the a Contagious Disease Propagated by a Society, it would seem a safe assumption Drove of Southern Cattle in Perfect that Mease's lectures had some influence in Health," Mease reported his earlier obser­ moulding veterinary perspective. vations on symptoms and epizootology in great detail, thus providing an invaluable Texas Fever first chapter in the written history of Texas In his introductory lecture of 1813, fever. By this time the disease was wide­ Mease mentioned the fact that he had in­ spread in eastern Pennsylvania, and was vestigated a fatal cattle disease in 1796, the commonly denoted as the "bloody mur­ particulars of which "I shall hereafter de­ rain" inasmuch as "some discharged bloody tail." The one fact, and an important one, urine, others bled at the nose." Mease con­ he mentions in the body of his lecture is tinues: that the reservoir of the disease was a small Upon being opened, the kidneys were found area of South Carolina, and that appar­ inflamed, and sometimes in a state of suppura­ ently healthy cattle from this area infected tion, and the intestines filled with hard balls. I all others with which they mixed in being prescribed strong purgatives. To one I gave driven north. He says: two ounces of calomel, in sweet oil, on the second day of the disease, but without produc­ ing any evacuation. Bleeding was tried, without A singular fact attending this disease is, that success. The blood was in a state of decomposi­ the cattle alluded to, have the power of infect­ tion, and did not coagulate. As a preventative ing others with which they associate, while they I recommended smearing the nose, horns, fore­ themselves are in perfect health. head, hoofs, and tail with tar, to counteract the contagion of the disease, by creating an artificial The existence of the disease, later desig­ atmosphere around the animal, and also the nated as Texas fever had been reported as obvious expedient of an entire separation of early as the l 760's, and in 1766 the colony the old stock from the strangers. None of the southern cattle died .... of North Carolina had passed laws to con­ The useful deduction of which the foregoing trol the movement of cattle from South statement admits, is a caution in respect to the Carolina or Georgia. Mease's investigation mixing northern and southern cattle, without of 1796 and his report of 1814, however, the performance of a kind of quarantine by a strange drove, before they are permitted to as­ are the first scientific contributions on the sociate with the stock already on the farm. subject. While Mease did not identify the tick as Mease makes it clear that the southern a vector in spread of the disease, his iden­ cattle were confined "for one night in a tification of immune carrier cattle was ploughed field," and that the northern cat­ largely forgotten until scientists of the Bu­ tle which became affected "had no inter­ reau of Animal Industry began a frontal course with the drove." With additional attack on the problem in the 1880's. In the observations of similar instances, it might open-minded spirit characteristic of the be supposed that a logical thinker such as true investigator, Mease did not discount Mease might have arrived at the deduction the value of observations made by those that some intermediary agent, in this case closest to the problem; his identification of the cattle tick, must have been operative in immune carriers was based upon informa- producing the contagion. At this time, 94 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE however, the tick had not been recognized ease existed. Due largely, perhaps, to the as more than a minor depredator in its increasingly metropolitan character of the own right. In the absence of knowledge of city of Philadelphia, publication of the the real cause of the disease, it is not sur­ Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for prising that Mease's treatment of affected Promoting Agriculture was suspended with animals, although based upon accurate the volume of 1826. Thus the veterinary post-mortem finding, would avail little, contributions of Mease were buried in a particularly in arresting the contagion. As once respected, but later little-remembered health officer of the port of Philadelphia, tomb, until they were resurrected recently however, Mease had demonstrated sound by Bert Bierer in his Short History of Vet­ principles of quarantine in dealing with erinary Medicine in America (1955). yellow fever; segregation similar to but more stringent than that suggested by PETER BROWNE, PROFESSOR Mease was the only effective means of ar­ In 1837, Peter Arrell Browne, a lawyer resting the spread of Texas fever before the and professor at Lafayette College, Easton, role of the tick was fully elucidated. Pennsylvania, published:

Ergotism An Essay on the Veterinary Art; Setting Forth its Great Usefulness, Giving an Account In addition to having made the first sci­ of the Veterinary Colleges in France and Eng­ entific observations upon rabies and Texas land, and Exhibiting the Facility and Utility fever, Mease also may be credited with of Instituting Similar Schools in the United being the first American to identify ergot States. poisoning among domestic animals. While This essay formed the basis of an address Mease in his report of 1826 "On the Hoof to the Philadelphia Society on January 23, Disease from Eating Hay Affected with 1838 and was published in the Cultivator Ergot," credits a Dr. Arnell with having the same year. He also sent the essay to the made a similar observation in 1820, Mease's president of the British Veterinary Medical own observations go back to 1803. He Association, and abstracts from it were pub­ states that cattle which ate hay infested lished in the Veterinarian in 1839, in con­ with ergot "became affected with a disease nection with which the editor stated: in their hoofs, causing them sometimes to drop off." Concerning Arnell's description This, indeed, is erecting a veterinary school of the disease, Mease says: on a noble foundation. That it may fully an­ swer the expectations of those to whom it owes The facts detailed by him, leave no doubt its birth, is our ardent wish. of the deaths of numerous cattle in his vicinity being caused by their eating hay made from This implies, as did Browne's pamphlet, some grass that was affected with the species that the school - Rittenhouse College - of ergot, observed in the produce of the mead­ was in operation. While such a school ows before mentioned. was chartered in 1850, this had no connec­ tion with Browne's scheme, and it is evi­ Had the observations of James Mease dent that Browne's institution existed only been made during a time of great activity on paper. His concept of what constituted in the field of veterinary investigation, not an adequate system of veterinary instruc­ only would he still have been a giant tion, however, is worth reproducing at among men, but his contributions would some length. Browne states that while the have received just recognition. Because college was formed to give instruction in of the lack of interest in animal disease literature and science: during Mease's lifetime, and for some dec­ ades later, no appropriate vehicle for the there is now attached to it a separate depart­ reporting of observations upon animal dis- ment for teaching, theoretically and practically, Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 95 the following branches of useful knowledge: the following quotation from Dr. Brown's es­ I. The different species and various races of say by way of explanation. the domestic animals. 2. The breaking, educating, training, and After defining "Science" and "Art," Browne fattening certain domestic animals. had explained: 3. Commercial Jurisprudence as regards do­ mestic animals. The VETERINARY is a SCIENTIFIC ART 4. The study of the outward forms of domes­ in the strictest sense of the term.... Veterinary tic animals ... [and] the indications of comprehends a knowledge of the external form, their age. as well as the internal structure and economy of 5. The in'rernal structure of domestic animals domestic quadrupeds, the appropriate manage­ - their anatomy - their comparative ana­ ment of them, and the nature, causes and cure tomy, and the most humane and economi­ of their diseases. cal use of their strength and speed. 6. The various medicines used for the nour­ In g1vmg the subjects detailed by ishment of different domestic animals. Browne as belonging to the veterinary art, 7. The various medicines required for domes­ tic animals - the most approved methods the editor states: "Such are among the im­ of raising, curing and preserving those that portant and useful studies which would be are botanical - a general knowledge of taught in an agricultural school." To sup­ those that are mineralogical, together with port the veterinary department of his the manner of mixing, preparing, and ad- ministering both. . school, Browne proposed to raise a sub­ 8. The most effectual methods of preserving scription of $50,000 in shares of $50 each, domestic animals from disease, and curing and to extend certain privileges to the sub­ those that contract disease, together with scribers, as had been done by the London the methods used to prevent contagion Veterinary College. Those who have re­ and infection. 9. The accidents and injuries of domestic ani­ cently opened new schools of veterinary mals, and the surgical operations that are medicine will be interested to know how required. Browne expected to spend the $50,000: IO. The most approved methods of shoeing, either generally, or when the animal is He estimates the cost at $47,500, viz. 125 acres diseased or lame. of land, at $100, making $12,500, buildings $30,000, and library and apparatus $5000. For these purposes, Browne says, "there is ... a theatre for lecturing, a museum, a li­ Thus a tidy $2,500 would be left for un­ brary, a dissecting room, a forge, hospitals, anticipated expenses. sheds, &c." In addition to a director, there were listed four professors - anatomy; New Venture in New York botany; chemistry and pharmacy; and pa­ There is little doubt that the editor of thology, surgery, and farriery - in addition the Cultivator (Albany), Jesse Buel, who to four other teachers, a head farrier, li­ was an eminent agriculturalist, expected brarian, and attendants. Inasmuch as veterinary medicine to develop as an ap­ Browne remained active in civic affairs for pendage to agricultural education. In ad­ another twenty-five years, it may be pre­ dition to his remark above, an article sumed that he had ample time to reflect printed the same year concerning a pro­ upon his somewhat premature announce­ posed agricultural school for New York ment. State leaves no doubt on this issue: "The Although the agricultural journals had chief object of the school should be to form been alluding to veterinary medicine - practical mechanics . . . veterinary sur­ rather than farriery - for a number of geons and practical agriculturalists." One years, the editor of the Cultivator in print­ of six professorships was to be "Compara­ ing Browne's essay in 1838 observes: tive Anatomy and the Veterinary Art"; As it is not generally understood what is liberal studies were to be the province of implied by the term veterinary art, we make the preparatory schools. At the end of the 96 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE second year of more general studies, six of OTHER PHILADELPHIA FRIENDS "the most distinguished pupils," appar­ A number of scattered articles on ani­ ently one for each professor, should be se­ mal disease in addition to those mentioned lected to serve as "adjunct professors." In above appeared in the Memoirs of the return for free tuition, these were to assist Philadelphia Society in the five volumes the professor and coach the dullards. Dur­ published from 1808 to 1826. The irregu­ ing the third year of "special" studies, the larity of publication, however, would sug­ students: gest that the time was not ripe for a bona should be actively engaged in the kinds of busi­ fide agricultural journal. In the first vol­ ness for which they design to prepare them­ ume there was reported a method of "Cut­ selves ... under the direction of the professors ting off the horns of Bull Calves" by means of the branches they pursue. of a sharp gouge "when a calf is about a month old, and the horns have risen above The library should include: "books on the skin." the veterinary art," and the farm should In an article "On Sheep and their Dis­ have: "an hospital for the reception of eases," a correspondent reports that he had sick animals and for veterinary practice." observed "the worm in their head," which Whether these student veterinarians were he supposed to be caused by the "sheep to be turned loose on the countryside is not bee," and for which: "I know no cure." made clear, but it is possible that such a To prevent the condition he smeared their system would produce a fair number of noses with tar. On intestinal worms, he hospital cases within its own fences. Later mentions: it is stated: I frequently find the tape worm, to the num­ There are more quacks in the veterinary art, ber of four or five, in one sheep, and four or than in the profession of surgery; and it there­ five yards long. I lately killed a lamb with fore stands the intelligent breeder in hand, to eleven: the animal was fat: these seem to be qualify himself to become, in some measure, least injurious to sheep, as those in which I his own cattle doctor. have have found them have the fewest knobs on their bowels. In fairness to Buel, however, in reference Those which cause "knobs," he says are to an inquiry about animal disease, he more injurious, but less so than the "small states: round worms, about one inch long." He notes: "sheep are much more healthy here, We are not skilled in the diseases of cattle; and we are satisfied that we are suffering im­ than in England," but reprimands Ameri­ mense losses annually, in the death, by diseases, can farmers for not clocking their sheep, of our domestic animals, which might be "hence they often dislocate their spines, avoided, had we schools, like those of Europe, and render their limbs paralytic, by the to teach and promulgate correct knowledge in the veterinary art. violence with which they frisk their tails when affrightecl." And elsewhere he prints a contribution In 1814, a physician, who apparently did from a Britisher, who states: "The cure, not disdain attending livestock, necropsiecl it has been hinted, must generally be left several sheep belonging to a patient, who to the veterinary practitioner in the com­ had lost 30 of 300. He found "an effusion plicated diseases of the horse." With pre­ of water around the lungs," together with cious few qualified veterinarians in the "considerable inflamation of the membrane United States at this time, it is likely that lining the thorax." He prescribed bleeding the plan espoused by Buel would at least and purges, which apparently resulted in have been some improvements on the the recovery of a number. He also men­ status quo. tions "an inflammatory sore throat was epi- Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 97 demic among the horses throughout this in the spontaneous generation of bots in country," and attempted to relate it to an the stomach of the horse - despite a proper epidemic of "hooping cough" in man. appreciation of the facts of life concerning the sheep bot. The concept of spontaneous Sheep Problems generation of lower animal forms, of In a lengthy communication "On Merino course, was not dealt a final death blow Sheep" in 1814, a correspondent from New until the work of Pasteur and others in Jersey states that he has had experience the late nineteenth century was accepted. with worm in the head, prolapse, abortion, Dunghill Dialectic cholera, and foot rot. The worm in the head, he says: It is of some interest, therefore, to note an article in the Cultivator for 1841. Being did not come into much notice, until the last unsigned, it presumably is authored by one summer, when a considerable alarm was excited or both editors, Willis Gaylord and Luther among merino-men by its discovery, but their Tucker, but the information is taken from fears were chiefly groundless, for they are now other sources. The article concerns the found to exist in a greater or less degree, in the heads of almost all sheep, producing for the "eyeworm," Filaria, of the horse, a speci­ most part but little inconvenience and very men of which had been found by a Dr. Lee rarely death. of New York. After giving a good descrip­ tion of the parasite, a number of other par­ He suggests trepanning the frontal sinuses enteral forms are mentioned, following and picking the grubs out with tweezers, which there is a lengthy dissertation on which he says is neither difficult nor dan­ their origin: gerous, or causing the animal to sneeze by blowing sulfur fumes up the nostrils. Perhaps the origin of these parasitic animals A New York correspondent to the Ameri­ is one of the most difficult questions to solve, can Farmer in 1823 says, "It has been but a belonging to animal physiology.... Writers on this subject are at this time divided into three few years since worms have been discovered classes, those who advocate the doctrine of to breed in the heads of sheep, though it spontaneous generation; those who maintain is probable they have, from time immemor­ that these worms, &c. "are produced by some ial." Unlike his New Jersey compatriot, living process or function of the organism" however, he contends: "these grubs do [flukes were still held by some to be the result rather than the cause of sheep "rot"] ... and more injury to the sheep of our country, those who attribute the origin and presence of than all the diseases with which they are worms, whether intestinal or visceral, in all afflicted." He gives a good summary of the cases to ova. life cycle of the sheep bot, and recommends injecting a suspension of snuff and asafe­ The writer discounts either of the former tida up the nostrils. theories as: "admission that we do not On a related matter - that a parasite know how else it could be produced." And with a life cycle as simple as that of the if spontaneous generation were a reality: common horse bot should have defied We should expect occasionally to see a man, identification of its adult form and the a quadruped, or a bird, spring up from some mode of infection for so long, is perhaps dunghill or fermenting vat. ... The old doc­ less surprising than the fact that a consid­ trine then, which attributes the origin of all erably longer time was required for this vitality, to an egg or germ, is not likely to be information to become common know­ falsified in this case. . . . It is probable that ... by circulation in the blood, the ova of the ledge. As late as the early nineteenth cen­ filaria reached the eye of the horse, where, find­ tury, there were those who had had the op­ ing suitable food, it remained until it reached portunity to learn differently who believed adult size. 98 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

Prolapse of the vagina, as a concomitant the Urinal, into the food of her Cows. She of difficult parturition, the Jersey sheep­ acknowledged this to have been the magical cause of the superiority of her Butter and man says, is "oftentimes very troublesome," Cream. But when the secret was discovered, and while there had been many cases in his she could sell no more of the celebrated articles. flock, he had lost only one - in which "the cesarean operation was successfully per­ Several articles on "Hoven Cattle" ap­ formed by killing the ewe to save the peared at various times, following that by lamb." Prolapse prior to parturition: Peters in 1808. In 1811 a correspondent takes Peters to task for supposing that the may generally be reduced by raising the ani­ gas was contained in the abdominal cavity mal up by the hind legs, and shaking her well - a common fallacy perpetuated since the ... and to use a few sutures to prevent a re­ currence. . . . I have recourse always to the days of John Fitzherbert's Boke of Hus­ lancet, both as a remedy and preventive. bandrie (1523). The advantages of the trocar and cannula are given in detail in Prolapse of the uterus he associates with the same volume, and of the stomach tube abortion. The latter he attributes to high in 1818. feeding, having lost lambs from 15 of 25 An early experimental approach to the ewes suffering from "too much blood." Fol­ problem of excessive salivation in horses, lowing this loss, he practiced bleeding to later a cause of great concern, was reported the extent of a half-pint taken from the ex­ in 1811. The writer, believing the spotted ternal jugular vein. spurge plant to be the cause "of the saliva­ "A new and most alarming disease," tion that has occurred so frequently among causing purging and loss of appetite, and horses," fed some on repeated occasions to which for lack of a better designation he his horse, whereupon: called "cholera" was traced to overfeeding on corn, but was confined to ewes which A preternatural discharge of saliva took place in less than half an hour ... I think it had recently lambed. Death was rapid: extremely probable, that the plant in question "the unexampled rapidity of its progress is the general cause of the salivation in horses. allowed no time for the operation of reme­ dies." Another "new" disease in his flock In the final volume of the Memoirs was foot rot, which he says, "is certainly (1826) there is an account of the "Dissec­ not contagious, [and] may safely be attrib­ tion of a horse, whose death was occasioned uted to wet pastures." He says he has by perforation of the Aorta by worms," by never known it to affect native sheep, or Richard Harlan, M.D. The abdomen of a foreign coarse-woolled sheep; nor were year-old colt, the body of which was sent either affected with scab. to Harlan by a friend, was found to con­ tain two bucketfuls of blood, which had Other Matters come from a ruptured sac surrounding the On the matter of urine, Peters states in aorta. In this early report of verminous 1818: aneurism, the doctor states: We discovered the cause of the whole mis­ It is asserted, that it is preferred by Horses chief, viz. a great number of small worms, from and Cattle to Salt; and is, to them, salutary a quarter to three quarters of an inch in length, as a medicine, as well as a condiment, pro­ attached to the internal coat of this portion motive of health, and consequent profit. . . . of the artery; giving it truly a worm-eaten Many years ago, a German woman kept Cows, appearance. in a town in Maryland . . . [which] were remarkable for their goodly appearance. . . . Envy was excited: and she was narrowly In the one article on diseases of swine watched. At length it was discovered, by her appearing in the Society Memoirs (181 I), rivals, that she daily emptied the contents of the author notes that this is a subject: Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 99 that few writers have thought worth while to American, which promised much, but de­ notice . . . a subject on which it has either livered little beyond a rehash - or outright not been fashionable to treat, or perhaps from the mistaken idea "that the hog like the miser, reprinting- of what had been offered be­ can do good only when he dies." fore. Frequently a claim to years of exper­ ience might be deduced to mean experience Among his hogs, of which he kept up to in digesting other men's works; many were 250, he says the "staggers" was most armchair compilations. Carver, however, troublesome, causing death of several at appears to be a notable exception, for there a time, and in less than a half-hour after seems to be no question that his book is symptoms appeared:" They were immedi­ literally the product of long experience, ately bled under the ear and at the tail and while he acknowledges the influence ... a few recovered, but a greater number of a number of British writers, much of his died." This was until 1803, when an ac­ writing is in the first person in the form quaintance gave him a British work of of his experiences in American practice. I 706, which advised cutting a "bare knob This latter feature makes the book doubly in the roof of the mouth," allowing it to valuable in the present instance, for many bleed, and then giving the hog urine to early American works give no indication drink. The success of this procedure was of the prevalence in this country of the such that "where I used to lose six I do conditions treated in the text. not now lose more than one." And in 1807: In his preface, Carver says: an epidemic . . . raged among the swine The author ... is aware that his work will throughout this part of the country . . . the meet with objections, on account of there people in the neighborhood called the disorder having been many large volumes published the sore throat. -A hog would come up to the on Farriery by men of science, who were ac­ trough, eat, apparently in good health, and in quainted with the dead languages ... [but] ten minutes after, be dead. those languages only serve the purpose of those Nothing could be found on post-mortem who wish to keep the world in ignorance .... The reader may think that I am an enemy to examination. By accident it was discovered science and a friend to ignorance - but the that feeding on clover would prevent the case is otherwise. I should feel myself happy to disease: "in consequence there was neither see science flourish, stripped of her garb of staggers or sore throat among them; no mystery and quackery. . . . I have been an eyewitness to the dreadful effects of the ignor­ sickness and no deaths." ance of those who have undertaken to doctor the horse, both in this country and England. WILLIAM CARVER, PRACTICAL ... I am certain that there are persons in this HORSE FARRIER city [New York], who undertake to doctor the horse, that cannot either read or write their In 1818 William Carver published his own names - and consequently know nothing Practical Horse Farrier; or, The Traveller's of the quality or power of medicine ... they Pocket Companion (Norristown, Pennsyl­ cannot consult the state of the blood of the vania). The title continues: horse . . . or know how many times the pulse beats in a minute, in order to judge of the Shewing the best method to preserve the state of the animal, they pretend to cure. horse in health; and likewise the cure of the most prominent diseases to which this noble On shoeing, he continues: animal is subject, in the United States of I have attempted to describe the best method America. The whole being the result of nearly that I have discovered, in thirty years' practice. forty years' experience, with an extensive ... I have witnessed the dreadful, and the practice. most evil consequences, of horses being placed in the hands of unexperienced shoers in this Except for the reference to the United city. I have known smiths to open shops, and States, the title page reads much like any undertake to shoe horses, who never had shod of a number of previous works, British or a horse in their lives; and the result has been, Carver's Practical Horse Farrier, Norristown, 1818, was an early work based on broad expe­ rience, keen observation, and sound judgement. Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 101

that the feet have been ruined.... I would years, but his residence probably dates to not permit three fourths of the smiths, of this some time earlier, perhaps to the turn of city, to take off a single shoe from my horse's the century. He speaks of "a Mr. Clem­ foot, was I not present at the time. ents, a farrier in this city," and mentions re­ Critic Carver ferring cases to him "on hearing of his pres­ ence in the city." This individual undoubt­ On the matter of cnt1nsm of others, of edly was Clements, a London graduate, course, Carver did not differ from his J. who came to New York in 1804. Carver's predecessors; most works of the time were wording strongly suggests he was in practice fair subjects for criticism. But most of here before Clements arrived. What may these overly censorious critics had little be a more precise indication is his state­ real basis for their criticism - having little ment that he had attended several horses better to offer in its stead. Undoubtedly, belonging to a gentleman who "arrived in many had a base motive in doing so - the this country about twenty years ago" (ca. sale of their own work. On this matter, 1800). however, Carver says: The Carver Clan I have not written this small treatise with a view of deriving any pecuniary advantage, as The name of Carver is most closely asso­ I am now arrived at an advanced period of ciated with the person of James Carver, a life ... my only object is that of being useful London graduate of 1815, who published to those who are in possession of that useful animal, the horse. . .. Although there are a two issues of his ill-fated Farrier's Maga­ great number of horses kept in this city, I do zine in 1818, and conceived the idea of not find one citizen that makes the economy or a veterinary college in Philadelphia. welfare of the horse so much his study that he James was the son of another William Car­ might examine this work, or to whom I might ver, whom the author identifies as "a dedicate it. I therefore dedicate it to the public at large, leaving them to judge of its merits, countryman of mine, from England, and and my experience or veracity. one of the best farriers that ever came to this country . . . a man of sound judge­ Unfortunately, Carver was quite correct in ment, and long experience. We went hand his appraisal of the numbers of men in his in hand in all difficult cases." The author fair city who had made an adequate study also states: of the horse. Moreover, his writing vindi­ cates his claims concerning his own exper­ Attempts have been made to establish a ience and veracity. On the matter of prac­ Veterinary College in the United States, but all to no purpose. An institution of this kind titioners unable to read or write, when could not fail to be of the utmost utility and nongraduates were permitted to register importance, in cultivating that valuable science, under the first practice act in New York veterinary surgery; but at this time, it appears in 1886, more than one, of necessity, did so to me impracticable. Mr. Carver [father of James], some time since attempted to effect the by "making his mark." establishment of one in New York, but failed Little is known of Carver's personal life in the accomplishment of his object; I presume beyond what is contained in incidental pas­ his son recollects the circumstances and the sages in his book. It is obvious that he had futility of his efforts, experience in both England and America; Author Carver also speaks of: it is apparent that he was British-born and came here some considerable time before my friend, Mr. James Carver, veterinary sur­ authoring his book. Just when he might geon, from the Farrier's college at London have come to New York - which he calls ... I have perused, with considerable interest ... [his] work on Farriery, and am clearly of "this city" -cannot be determined with any opinion that his doctrines are sound. He rea­ degree of accuracy; he speaks of cases he sons like a man of experience and sound judge­ had attended in "this city" in the past few ment. I should like to hold a correspondence 102 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE with him [James resided in Philadelphia]. "and the horses still remained lame." Else­ His father and myself were as intimate as where he says: brothers, and I regret the loss of his friendship and associations. There are many others who profess to have a thorough knowledge in veterinary surgery; over­ This digression may serve to place the stocked with diplomas of which they boast, like name of Carver in proper perspective in coxcombs with their fine coats, and a little knowledge of the latin language; but I never the annals of American veterinary history. saw them perform cures equal to this good old As an examination of the Horse Farrier friend of mine [his namesake, William Carver]. should suggest, it is its author, rather than As late as 1870, M. H. McKillip of Chicago the other William Carver - or even his son said he had never seen a London graduate - that perhaps is the more deserving of who was a proficient practitioner; they lasting recognition for having made a defi­ were "gropers and itinerants seeking new nitive contribution to American veterinary pastures, invariably banking on the medicine. At least William Carver, the au­ M.R.C.V.S. rather than ability and charac­ thor, has been more or less the forgotten ter to distinguish them from the rabble." It member of the Carver clan. should be emphasized that McKillip and, Colleg'd Idiots to a lesser extent, Carver had reference only to those graduates who had emigrated Something of Carver's character can be to America. gathered from his writing, in particular, Nor should it be supposed that Carver the principles which guided his practice. was prejudiced against college training in If he appears to be disdainful of graduate veterinary medicine as such. As mentioned veterinarians, probably he had cause, for above, he thought, "an institution of this few of the early graduates of the London kind could not fail to be of the utmost school distinguished themselves. Also, it utility and importance ... but at this may be presumed that it was the less, rather time, it appears to me impracticable." In than the more, distinguished that would retrospect, we would have to agree with give up a lucrative practice in England for Carver on the latter point; America was the uncertainties of America. In speaking simply not ready to accept the idea of a of his unsuccessful attempts to treat bone veterinary college in 1818 - nor in 1850. spavin, Carver says: Carver adds:

I have many times since been applied to, It has often occurred to me, that if a few for to cure the bone spavin, but declined the young men in this country would turn their at­ attempt. But on hearing of a Mr. Clements ... tention to the cultivation of this important who, it is said, is in possession of a diploma branch of science, and make the veterinary art from the Veterinary College of London, and their study, they might become useful to the that he could cure the bone spavin, I advised community and rise to opulence, by the pro­ those who applied to me, to take their horses fession. There are many who have good educa­ to him: although I confess, that I did not place tions, and although there are no veterinary any more confidence in the talents of Mr. Cle­ colleges in this country they might derive the ments, on account of his diploma, or his knowl­ necessary information from the study of the edge of the dead languages - as neither of most celebrated authors.... By a proper ap­ these can give experience. During the course of plication to these works, a young man, even of my life, I have conversed with many college­ ordinary capacity, might in a short time be­ bred gentlemen, who in my opinion, were come a proficient in Farriery ... and acquire colleg'd idiots.... If I myself am in posses­ an ample fortune. It is by the study of those sion of any diploma, it is a grant from the col­ books, and an extensive practice that I have ob­ lege of nature, and the credentials are, expe­ tained a knowledge of the horse. rience, reason, and common sense. A New Broom Mr. Clements, says Carver, pursued the Like other intelligent men of the time, same methods other practitioners used - Carver had long since disposed of the buga- Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 103 boo of superstition. Hobgoblins, however, is those which he specifically mentions as ran rampant in the minds of many of the being frequent here that are of greatest in­ less enlightened. Carver relates: terest. Obviously, many of the descriptions of conditions in British reprints, or British I recollect, a few years past, to have been inspired works published in America, had called by a respectable Dutchman in this city, some utility, but there is no way of know­ to see his horse, that had the mad staggers. He ing to what extent these conditions pre­ said to me, Mr. Carver, mine horse is bewitched - I suspect the person who has done it - I vailed here. Thus Carver states: have some very bad neighbors. I laughed at the ignorance of the man, and his belief in ancient Pleurisy, and inflammation of the lungs, is superstition! For my own part, I have long a disorder that horses are much subject to in since discarded from my mind, witches, hob­ this country. I have frequently found, by exa­ goblins, and ghosts of all kinds: having swept mining the carcasses of dead horses, different them away from my brains, with the besom kinds of inflammations on the pleura. [broom] of thought! I drove the old lady, the witch, out of my employer's horse - but the poor animal lost the sight of one eye. This I His treatment for the condition, for which did not attribute to my friend's old witch, but he gives symptoms adequate for diagnosis, to the malignity of the disorder. is the commonplace bleeding, blistering and purging- with reasonable restraint. Carver's work follows the typical pattern And: of most others of the time with regard to the subjects treated. In general, his meth­ Strangles is a distemper to which colts and ods of treatment can be considered simple young horses are very subject . . . [but] I and moderate, certainly less contrary to na­ have known horses, in this country, that have ture than those of most of his contempo­ been eight or nine years old, to have this dis­ order, which I never saw in England. raries. His rationale obviously is influenced by James Clark, a worthy preceptor, and one of few practitioners fit to be followed. Vegetable poultices on the throat and purg­ ing are recommended: nothing is said of Carver says: the contagious nature of the disease. Glan­ ders and farcy, contrary to the teaching of It should be observed to give horses as few medicines as possible, and not to follow the the London school, he recognizes as con­ ridiculous custom of frequently bleeding and tagious; in glanders: purging, when the horse is in perfect health. Proper dressing, feeding, and exercise will alone The horse should be dispatched as quick as cure many disorders, and prevent most. . . . possible, for fear of the contagion spreading: Having visited many stables in this city, I have besides, no other horse should be permitted to found many stalls where horses have stood in stand in the same stable with a horse in this their dung, to the thickness of six or seven situation. inches, which I could attribute to nothing but the indolence of those that had the care of horses committed to them. Upon being applied to for a cure:

The custom of driving horses with blankets I have recommended the owner immediately to give the horse a leaden ball through his on them, he likewise says, is a pernicious heart or brains; and I always looked on it as practice: "If nature . . . had destined the folly for an author even to write on it, or pre­ horse to wear blankets, she would have sent scribe any cure. him covered with them!" Farcy, however, which he has been highly local Diseases successful in treating: "is also a distemper While it may be supposed that Carver's to which horses are much subject to in this writing is directed principally toward dis­ country; and which perhaps has called eases as he has seen them in America, it forth as much, or more of my practice, than 104 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

Illustration of the viscera of the horse, from Carver's Farrier (1818). The original plate is from Ruini's Anatomy of the Horse, 1598, much copied by later authors.

any other-disorder." A major difficulty, he almost possessed of su pernatural powers, so as finds, is with horses at some distance: to raise the dead to life - or perform an in­ sta ntaneous cure. And his employer is not ac­ as proper regimen, exericse, and good nursing, quainted with the danger to which he is ex­ are very essential in performing a cure. The posed, at the time he is practising on this practitioner also has other evils to encounter, powerful animal. Teither is he acquainted with as he is seldom applied to until a variety of nos­ the quantity of medicine that the horse re­ trums have been given the horse, which he has quires, or the expense of those medicines. . . . to encounter and counteract, as well as the On account of the high price of drugs . I disease . . .. Besides it is expected that he be have been obliged to substitute medicine of a Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 105 cheap quality, and to omit those that would ber of horses under my care, that have had, have had a far better effect: for gentlemen in what is generally called the stag evil [from this country do not pay that respect to a valu­ the arching of the neck], or lock jaw - but per­ able horse, that the gentlemen in England do. formed a cure on two only.

These woes of the large animal practi­ He ridicules those authors who recommend tioner, as many of this brotherhood could giving balls of various sorts to horses with attest today, were not peculiar to the early lockjaw, saying: nineteenth century. With regard to bots, one of the major I would ask those gentlemen, how a single problems at the time, Carver urges: ball is to be given, when not so much as a shill­ ing piece can be put between his teeth; and his jaw cannot be pried open, even with an iron It would be both needless and useless to in­ bar. sert all the nostrums that have been recom­ mended to destroy worms and bots, that reside Sane Shoeing in the stomach (and intestine) of the horse. The shoeing of horses, Carver insists: For bots, which he says are the most mis­ chievous, he gives milk ancl molasses fol­ is an operation of far greater importance than lowed by a purging ball - "in some cases is generally imagined ... [and] I am well aware, that what I shall here advance will meet with with good effect." He censures Clements opposition, from the ignorant and prejudiced for claiming - as taught at London - that: shoers of horses . . . three fourths of them are as ignorant of the structure of the foot, as the a horse was never known to die with the bots horse is of them. But I shall appeal to the . . . almost every superannuated old woman understanding and judgement of the experi­ knows that the bots destroy numbers of fine enced few, both in this city and elsewhere, for horses ... so much for theory and a diploma. the justness of the statement.... A most per­ nicious custom is practised in this city, by many "Locked jaw," says Carver, pretended shoers, which is to make presents to gentlemen's coachmen, grooms, or negroes, is a disorder, that has hitherto baffled the art in order to obtain horses to shoe. of the physician, and also the power of medi­ cine to cure, either on man or beast. ... In the The conscientious Carver, upon being course of my practice, I have had a great num- asked by these leeches what he would offer,

Strangles was a common prob­ lem from colonial times, treat­ ment of which - including vig­ orous use of the twitch - changed little until the advent of chemotherapy and tranquil­ izers. Manning: Stock Doctor 106 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE says: "My reply was, that I should give The Doctor on Docking nothing." They told him that the common Carver appears to have had strong hu­ practice was to remove and apply the same manitarian instincts; he laments: shoes, and charge as for new shoes, and some owners: The docking and nicking of horses is a cruel practice, and ought to be abandoned by the told me that they believed there were more whole race of mankind ... but that creature horses shod for bribes and grog, than by experi­ called man, attempts thus to mend the works enced workmen; and when they discovered the of his almightly wise Creator, and in the execu­ fraud, they immediately ordered the horses tion of which, he frequently spoils and disfigures back to my shop. them.

Additional light is cast upon the char­ Carver admits to having performed these acter of the common shoeing smith of the operations a few times at the insistence of time. Of "old and experienced" shoeing clients, and he details what he considers smiths, Carver says: the best methods to save the horse from some of the barbarities perpetrated upon There are a few such characters in this city, this hapless animal. He says, however: and but few. The greater part of them have never made the anatomy of the foot their study. Contrary to my pecuniary interest ... if I They are generally employed as journeymen, can prevent one owner of a horse from per­ and like birds of passage, are here to-day and forming this brutal practice on the animal, my gone to-morrow. Talk to them of the internal wishes, in some measure, will be gratified. structure of the foot, of the coffin, and coronet, and you will find them entirely ignorant, and More or less as a valedictory, Carver know no more about the matter than the horse states: knows about them.... They are so tenacious of their own opinions, and so perverse, through As the first edition of this work [1818] was ignorance that they will not be taught. Since disposed of in the course of eight months, it I have given up the business of horse shoeing, was thought advisable to publish a second I have frequently, at the solicitation of gentle­ [1820], under the impression that the first met men, gone to smith's shops and shod their the approbation of the public . . . this may horses, in order that they might travel sound. probably be the last time they may hear from In many instances I have endeavoured to in­ me on the subject of that most excellent and struct smiths in the principles of shoeing ... noble animal the horse; wishing that my fellow but the next time they attempted to shoe, they beings called man, may perform their duty would still cut down the heels, frogs, and bars through life as well as the beautiful creature of the feet, against which I have so much pro­ I have just mentioned, and long admired, and tested. endeavoured to relieve when in distress, and to protest against the brutality of the worst of Mange, Carver states: all animals, Man . ... Hoping this work may prove of utility to the owners and lovers of is a disorder that horses are subject to in all horses, the author takes his leave of the public countries.... This distemper is contagious and and subscribes himself- Their obedient ser­ is frequently caught by infection. I have known vant, William Carver. men who have taken care of horses with the mange to have caught the itch from them. . . . It appears, however, that Carver did not When a horse is labouring under this disease, take his leave for some time. An item by by taking a microscope and looking at him [ ? ] through it, you may discover a number of small him on the management of horses appears live insects in the pustules. in the New York Enquirer in 1830, in which he says, "I presume none of my fel­ Carver apparently did not use the micro­ low-citizens will doubt but I have some scope himself, but his reference to identifi­ knowledge of the structure and economy of cation of the mange mite by use of the horses, after years of extensive practice." microscope (hand lens?) is an early one in What, then, is to be our evaluation of veterinary literature, perhaps the first in this man and his work? Every man to some America. degree, of course, is a product of his times, Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 107 and the Practical Horse Farrier is not with­ Royal Veterinary College of London is the out its faults, either of omission or com­ great era from which this improvement may be dated, and the sequence of this has been, that mission. But judged against the backdrop ignorance and error have been detected, so as of his own time - the only fair criterion - to establish what may be termed the difference it is obvious that William Carver was far between random routine and scientific prac­ in advance of his contemporaries, and the tice; and the first professor, M. St. Bell, a over-all tenor of his writing is acceptable Frenchman, showed (as I may be doing for this country) what now might be done during even today. A little immodest at times, he the short time he possessed the appoint­ was less so than most of his fellow practi­ ment.... tioners and authors, and it may with good The greatest skill is requisite to form a judge­ reason be said that he had more cause to ment on the diseases of brutes ... can there be have a good opinion of his practice than a greater burlesque, than the supposition of a man's ability to give physic for a horse, ex­ others had of theirs. What is of greatest cepting in very common cases, merely because consequence to the historian, he has given he knows how to groom and shoe him? The what appears to be an honest and consci­ plea of experience is futile; for the utter in­ entious picture of conditions as he found ability of illiterate and uninformed men to in­ vestigate the principles of science, and their them in practice - rather than in the writ­ total want of opportunity to acquire, even by ings of others. Certainly, veterinary medi­ rote, a rational system of practice. The whole cine in America, and thus the public, stock of medical knowledge of these practi­ would have benefitted if this second edi­ tioners usually consists of a number of receipts, tion of his work had not been "the last handed down from Tom and Dick to Harry, with which they continually ring their charges time they may hear from me on the sub­ in all cases, right or wrong, hit or miss; and so ject." fiercely are they bigoted to their own particular nostrums, they are totally incapable of all ad­ JAMES CARVER, PROFESSIONAL FARRIER vice or improvement, the common and unavoid­ able fate of confirmed ignorance, since it is the As indicated above, it was James Carver, highest point of knowledge to know and feel a London graduate of 1815, who is the best that we still need information.... Into such known of the Carver clan, primarily be­ hands do men commit their distempered ani­ cause bibliographers of Americana give his mals, who have it not in their power to re­ proach their masters with their accumulated ill-fated Farrier's Magazine (1818) perhaps sufferings. Mankind, from prejudice, indolence, greater recognition than it deserves. At and want of feeling, neglect those creatures least from a veterinary viewpoint it is less which they can purchase with their money; revealing of conditions as they exisited and the progress of veterinary medicine, here than is William Carver's Farrier­ grounded, as it necessarily must be, on a proper knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, and which as a book is dismissed rather lightly, pathology of disease, will in this country, as it being presumed to be of the same genre as was in Europe, be rapid or slow according to others. Actually, Carver's Magazine, while the diligence of those enlightened practitioners apparently intended to be issued serially which the college has sent forth .... The number of horses annually lost in all the (only two issues appeared), was more in public cities of the United States, and particu­ the nature of a repository which could just larly in the mail stage departments, either from as well have been published as a book. evils attendant bad shoeing or other misman­ There is no intention, however, to detract agement, is incalculable, and calls aloud for the from its value as an historical item; consid­ attention and interference of government.... In endeavoring, therefore, to obviate this de­ erable insight is offered on Carver's inten­ fect, I trust I am performing a most useful and tions to see veterinary medicine raised to a acceptable task to the community. more proper status. In the introduction to Part II of his Among Carver's essays in this publication Farrier's Magazine, Carver states: is one addressed to Judge Peters and several It is only within these last thirty years that medical men of Philadelphia, among oth­ veterinary medicine has been placed on the ers, on the importance of veterinary sci­ footing of a science. The institution of the ence. In this: 108 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

Internal title page from James Carver's Farrier's Magazine, 1818, a collection of essays on veterinary subjects. Although serial publication appears to have been intended, only two issues were published. R. R. Shomer collection

I cannot forbear offering some remarks re­ New Forges, as well as to the profession.... specting the Veterinary profession, independent Still there can be no doubt, that if human of the subject of the new Veterinary Forges I medicine and surgery have been aided by am now establishing in this city, with a view of public establishments, the Veterinary art must laying the foundation stone for ameliorating admit of improvement by the same means; and the Diseases of Quadrupeds in general, and in that cloud of imbecility that has so long ob­ order to give encouragement to those who may scured and stigmatized the profession in this still feel a want of confidence in not knowing country, now promises gradually to be dis­ its having assumed the form of a science, as if pelled; and no doubt that in a few years, there it were a derogatory and hopeless profession will not be a city, a town, or a country village . . . to accomplish this, however, some time in the United States, but will have to boast a must be allowed. . . . practitioner, whose abilities may do honour to Some disappointment has, without doubt, a great national institution. arisen, from unfounded expectations of relief in desperate and hopeless cases, where human Forging Ahead art could not avail; and some, not finding their interest served in this respect, have become Following this, Carver inserts an "essay" rancorous enemies to the establishment of the promoting his proposed forges: Chapter 4 : THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 109

Cities, Country Towns, and Villages, and of Anatomy, and Dr. Mease. He continues: Proprietors of Mail and Stage Coach Establish­ ments, will find it an object of great commer­ . Country smiths, respectable young men de­ cial, as well as domestic importance to their own sirous of emulating in this branch of the Veteri- interests in obtaining smiths, and inviting them 1:ary Art, as well as to learn the surgical, opera­ to receive instruction, and to establish them­ tive parts of the profession, will do well to selves on their different lines .. .. The follow­ apply before the ensuing winter. And every ing gentlemen, therefore, seeing the ignoran ce p~rson b~ing so instructed, and found qualified, and incompetency of farriers, and others, who will receive a proper certificate, signed by the have hitherto practised on the diseases of horses medical patrons, gentlemen and professor of in this city . . . have cheerfully stepped forward the aforesaid establishment, as being better to sanction and support it. qualified to practise with advantage to them­ selves and to the public. Among the several patrons listed by Carver Carver adds that he has established a small are Drs. Chapman and Hewson, Professors laboratory, where:

Althou~h the aphorism '~N~ foot, no horse," had been repeated since ancient times, few horse­ men paid heed - but paid 1n terms of horses made useless before their time. Mayhew: Horse · Doctor 110 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

Overwork of horses, especially on stony streets, was often cited as a cause of foot troubles . .4.merican Agriculturalist

gentlemen may be supplied with what Medi­ is of the Penn family of Pennsylvania ... cines they may want. City and country druggists, strange it is, that the very man who laid the desirous of retailing ... may be supplied also. foundation of the London Veterinary College, Each article containing a regular practical should be an American .... May we not, there­ treatise on the complaint intended to be re­ fore, hope, ere long, to see another Penn rise moved. up and lay the foundation stone of a Veteri­ nary institution in this country? Carver then lists some twenty-eight Carver's statement about the family ties Subjects which will be taught and demon­ of Granville Penn is correct, but it may be strated to every smith on receiving instruction doubted that this made him an American. at the New Veterinary Forge ... [concluding with] how and why the shoeing art has for so Professional Qualifications many ages been involved in a cloud of dark­ ness. With conclusions how this branch of the Carver then speaks of "The Character of Veterinary Art may be drawn from contempt a Veterinary Surgeon," saying: to respectability. There is, undoubtedly, no profession in which greater natural qualifications are re­ In an "Advertisement to the Faculty, quired than our own. The more liberal nature Gentlemen, Farmers, and Graziers of Penn­ has been in her gifts, the more carefully the sylvania, and the United States in Gen­ first impressions have been cultivated by ra­ eral," Carver gives a concise history of the tional education - by so much better will a veterinary art in antiquity, and an outline man be fitted for the practice of it. Youth, firmness, dexterity, acute sensation, sound of the history of the schools of France. In judgement, and humanity, are the qualifica­ this he states: tions which may be considered as necessary for a surgeon, whether his patient be a man or a Dr. Rush, whose heart was ever warm for the quadruped. introduction of any new branch of science, which might tend to promote the welfare of In elaborating on these, he says: the animal creation, conversed much with me He that begins to study on the brute . . . on Veterinary subjects, and laboured hard to from the earliest period of life, will be most prevail upon me to establish that pursuit in likely to acquire reputation ... Firmness ... this city - but not having then obtained it implies resolution to go through his operations, scientifically, I proposed to Dr. Rush and other however hazardous or severe, undisturbed by friends, already mentioned, my then intended any accidental circumstances - unmoved or un­ pursuits at the college, - from whence I am awed by the presence of spectators ... Dexterity now returned and commenced practice. . .. enables him to finish an operation with all convenient dispatch, and with the least pain to In a history of the London school, he men­ the patient.... Acute sensation ... is necessary tions that one of its promotors, Granville to distinguish the true state of the pulse . . . Penn, Sound judgement ... enables him to form Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 111 judicious prognostics ... Humanity ... is the ... [and] a complete and thorough knowl­ cardinal qualification of all; it reflects a lustre edge of Comparative Anatomy." on the rest, and completes the true character Carver's publication closes with a listing of the man, as well as the surgeon. of his qualifications and testimonials as to Of the "acquired knowledge necessary to his abilities; an invitation to the students make a good Veterinary Surgeon," Carver of the University of Pennsylvania "to at­ says the most important are "a knowledge tend a Course of Lectures on the Foot of of the power and properties of medicines the Living Horse; and the various diseases

In his Farrier's Magazine (1818) James Carver gives a good de­ scription of the horse's eye and of the operation for cataract, learned while he was a student at the London Veterinary Col­ lege. R. R. Shomer collection 112 Chapter 4: THE FIRST FRIENDS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE attendant on Quadrupeds in general" and in their old way of stable deception, by suffer­ an advertisement for his "Veterinary Bath." ing their horses to stand literally on hot beds of Finally, he gives: "Heads of Subjects to be manure, and are determined to give no ventila­ tion to their stables, certainly, as a veterinary treated of in Dr. Carver's proposed Publi­ practitioner, the more grist will continually be cations," which is essentially what might coming to my mill. pass for the table of contents of any stand­ ard work on farriery. Thus it would ap­ Carver is especially harsh on some of the pear that Carver had intended to continue practices of ignorant practitioners, as that his magazine "In order that the public may of blowing powdered glass into the eye to be put in possession of all of the necessary cure "moon blindness." And in decrying information in Veterinary Science." the practice of farriers in cutting out the frog, he says: Manure Factories In order to show the evil tendency which The second issue of the Farrier's Maga­ this abominable practice at one time produced zine contains several essays on the eye of in the British army, the officers of the regiment the horse and its diseases, some sixty-eight were obliged to pass a martial law, that every pages in all, undoubtedly some of the best farrier who was found guilty of this crime, was branded on his posteriors with a hot iron in veterinary writing that had appeared to front of his regiment. And if some of the sons this time in the United States. It would of Erin, at the south end of the town, were to appear that this is primarily the substance have this operation performed on them a few of what was taught on the eye at the Lon­ times, I am confident there would not be so many lame horses in Philadelphia as there now don school. Carver does, however, add some are; for I have been witness to the abominable comments from his own experience. His practice, and stood by and seen them deprive belief, reinforced by teachings at the Lon­ the frog of large slices, which I am confident don school, was that ophthalmia and other it was not in the power of nature to replace in affections of the eye were due largely to as many months. poorly ventilated stables, which he says, In several articles on "The Epidemic are converted into "storehouses and fac­ Fever, or Influenza ... in and about the tories of manure." One of his objects is: City of Philadelphia," Carver leaves no to point out and expose whatever I may have doubt that he had correctly identified the seen and witnessed, particularly on Long Is­ disease, but gives no satisfactory evidence land and among the Pennsylvania farmers, as as to how extensive it was. He says: well as in the city of Philadelphia, what I know to be so productive of causing so much The cases in and about the city, from every blindness, as well as every way prejudicial to account that I could collect, have been numer­ the general health of that noble animal. For, on ous, and I have this day learnt that it is still Long Island, it is notorious, that three horses prevailing very much about Darby, Chester, out of every five through the island, is blind and Wilmington. with cataract; and if any one will only take the trouble for the space of one week, to walk Most of his material, however, relates to up and down Market-street [Philadelphia], he will, I believe, find that I am not very far out of the history of the disease in Europe, and to my calculation, as respects this state and city a number of cases he had personally at­ ... if people are determined to continue on, tended.