Bettye B. Burkhalter, James E. McLean, Melaney A. Jones
Recipients’ Views of the Role of Christa McAuliffe Fellowships in Science Education1
Results are presented that identify the dimensions of the perceptions of Christa McAuliffe Fellows regarding the impact of their participation on their classroom teaching and the relationship of these dimensions to selected demographic variables.
The world continues to be reshaped think critically about the world around Christa because the mission failed. On by change and technology. Space them: the world in which they would January 28, 1986, the world watched exploration is central to these changes live and work in the near future. the Challenger launch at 11:38.03 a.m. by providing unlimited opportunities In addition to being a master with excitement, admiration, and high for expanding mankind’s understanding teacher, she also wanted to be the first expectations. However, within two of the universe through scientific minutes, America’s first classroom research. One such far-reaching teacher in space vanished when the opportunity lies in education’s role in Challenger exploded at 11:39.14 a.m. the space program. The importance of … the use of space Although Americans were stunned and education in America’s space program mourned the loss of Christa McAuliffe was clearly defined in 1965 by NASA’s to motivate science and the other six astronauts, America’s first administrator, James E. Webb: education is at an space program was destined for even “NASA’s educational programs and all-time high. bolder ventures. Out of Challenger’s services are generally aimed at college ashes, grief, and remorse came or university levels, but also include a renewed entrepreneurial deter- space-science material, for elementary teacher to travel and teach in space. mination to move full speed ahead and and secondary schools to assist in In July 1985, NASA selected Christa to not disappoint the seven men and updating classroom instruction and McAuliffe to become the first teacher women who gave their lives daring student participation.” (Levy, 1965). in space (Wilford, 1986). Her dream to break the bonds of Earth (Reagan, NASA’s Space Education Centers and mission was intended to reawaken 1986). As a national recognition to provide motivational materials that are the pioneer spirit in Americans, America’s first teacher in space, the an asset to any teacher’s curriculum. especially students and teachers, U.S. Congress enacted the Christa Classroom teacher Christa McAuliffe and to demonstrate to the world that McAuliffe Fellowship Program in was no exception. She took advantage the space program was accessible 1986 (Public Law 99-498, 1986). This of these space-science materials as to everyone (Richman, 1986). In Program awards a one-year sabbatical well as her own ideas as a master effect, this mission was to open space to one classroom teacher in each teacher. She was a visionary teacher flight to the public and humanize of the 50 states and U.S. territories who had the capacity to reach out into the experience. Unfortunately, this for study, research, or academic the future and inspire her students to dream never became a reality for improvement. Upon completion of the
1Note. A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the 49th International Astronautical Congress, Melbourne, Australia.
SPRING 2004 VOL. 13, NO. 1 49 Fellowship, the teacher is required to (Ginsburg, 1969). As we move toward return to the classroom for two years a global and information technology- to share the Fellowship experience While most educators based society, it is important that our with other teachers, students, and the students understand international educational community at large. It is agree there is a need and cultural diversity and become interesting that NASA announced that to teach students how sensitive to different points of the Teacher in Space Program would to engage in critical view. The key to this understanding be resumed (NASA, 2002) less than and increased sensitivity is critical two months prior to the space shuttle thinking, the lack of thinking: identifying and challenging Columbia disintegrating upon re-entry, consensus as to what assumptions and exploring and again postponing a teacher going into is meant by critical imagining alternatives (Brookfield, space. However, the use of space to 1987). In essence, critical thinking motivate science education is at an thinking has led to means a student takes a holistic all-time high. inadequate teaching of approach to solving a problem and assuring all dimensions of the Need to Teach Critical these skills. problem have been examined. Based Thinking Skills on these issues, the purpose of this The chief executive officer of to which thinking skills to teach, and study was to identify the perceptions Xerox Corporation reported that only a educators either do not understand or of classroom teachers awarded the small percentage of young Americans cannot precisely define these skills. Christa McAuliffe Fellowship and sampled in the “National Assessment With regard to the implementation the impact the Program had on their of Educational Progress” could reason of these skills, many educators fail to classroom teaching and on the need of effectively about what they read and provide the instruction that promotes teaching critical thinking skills. write (Applebee, 1987). These data critical thinking; focus on too many are alarming because they suggest skills without giving the students Procedures that the majority of our youth do not adequate time to master these skills; The study employed a survey. The have the critical thinking skills needed and utilize achievement tests that may survey instrument was comprised in an economy that is now based on inhibit the development of critical of 23 4-point Likert response items information and knowledge. Today the thinking skills (Beyer, 1984). Nothing (strongly disagree to strongly agree) office, not the factory, is the center of is more important in the education of based on seven dimensions: impact working Americans. In order to provide our students than for educators to help on critical thinking, use of technology a critically thinking workforce that has students to think critically about their in the classroom, influence on the ability to interpret, infer, evaluate world (Hugenberg, 1995). curriculum, improved teaching arguments, recognize assumptions, As early as 1923, Jean Piaget behaviors, application of critical and understand deduction, it is challenged teachers to reevaluate thinking skills, logistics regarding essential that educators consistently their goals for students and to the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship explore and search for ways to teach promote critical thinking rather than Program, and improving promotion critical thinking skills at every level. conformity. Piaget described two of the Fellowship Program. The While most educators agree there important educational goals. The first responses were converted from the is a need to teach students how “principal goal of education is to create verbal options (strongly disagree, to engage in critical thinking, the men who are capable of doing new disagree, agree, and strongly agree) lack of consensus as to what is things, not simply of repeating what to numerical indicators (1, 2, 3, and 4 meant by critical thinking has led to other generations have done—men respectively). Thus, a response of “1” inadequate teaching of these skills. who are creative, inventive, and would represent strong disagreement This inadequacy can be divided into discoverers. The second goal of with a statement, a response of “4” two categories: what thinking skills education is to form minds which would represent strong agreement with we choose to teach and how we choose can be critical, can verify, and not an item, and an average response of 2.5 to teach them. Controversy exists as accept everything they are offered.” would represent neither agreement nor
50 SCIENCE EDUCATOR disagreement. Respondents were also Specifically, differences in the seven be considered significantly different given the opportunity to indicate that dimensions of the instrument were if their confidence intervals do not an item was not applicable. In addition compared across the levels of gender, overlap. to the 23 Likert items, the survey form tenure status, age, experience, degree, The two items with the largest included seven demographic items and school enrollment as independent means were “An experiential (hands- regarding gender, tenure classification, variables in separate analyses. on) approach to teaching should be part age, experience in current position, of every classroom.” (mean = 3.82) education, total experience, and and “I improved my knowledge, skills, number of students enrolled at their and abilities as a classroom teacher schools. as a result of receiving the Christa The survey was sent to all 517 As we move toward a McAuliffe Fellowship.” (mean = 3.80). recipients of the Christa McAuliffe global and information, These two items were not significantly Fellowship for its first 10 years different from each other, but their (1987-1997). Completed surveys were technology- means were significantly larger than received from 317 recipients for a 61% based society, it is those for all other items. Conversely, return rate. The data were hand-entered important that our the item with the smallest mean, “The into a computer spreadsheet and U.S. Secretary of Education should checked for accuracy. Complete data students understand select one ‘educational theme’ as were submitted by 217 respondents international and priority each year.” (mean = 1.74 on and usable data were submitted by 99 cultural diversity and 5-point scale) was significantly smaller more respondents for a total of 316 or than all other items. 61% usable surveys. become sensitive to Before examining the individual First, analyses were conducted different points of view. dimensions, it is important to verify their to verify the reliability and validity reliability and validity. The principal of the survey instrument itself. The component analysis confirmed that seven dimensions were verified seven dimensions were present in the using principal components analysis, Results instrument and the appropriate items a statistical grouping process. Item The results were first analyzed were included in each dimension. analyses and coefficient alphas on an item-by-item basis. Table 1 The dimensionality of the instrument (internal consistency indices) were lists the individual items in order of was supported by the Kaiser Criterion computed for each dimension to magnitude of the means from the item (or “eigenvalue greater than one” establish the reliabilities. with the largest mean to the item with criterion) and the Cattell Screen Following the item reliability the smallest mean. For an individual Test, both standard indices used for and validity analyses, the data were item, a mean response of 1.00 would determining dimensionality. Item analyzed in two ways. First, the indicate that all respondents “strongly membership in each dimension was individual items were analyzed, disagreed” with the statement. A confirmed through a principal factor computing the means, standard mean response of 4.00 would indicate analysis with varimax rotation. Every deviations, and confidence intervals that all of the respondents “strongly item but one correlated at least .50 with for each item. Second, differences agreed” with the statement. A mean a specific dimension. Table 2 presents in seven dimension scores were response of 2.50 would indicate that, the items from the survey grouped compared across the demographic on the average, the respondents were within their dimensions and each variables of gender, tenure, age, neutral with respect to their agreement item’s correlation with its dimension. experience in current position, total with the statement. Table 1 also In addition, the means and standard experience, level of education, and includes 95% confidence intervals deviations for the items are presented. size of enrollment. In order to consider for each item; that is, the probability One item, “I believe every Christa these differences simultaneously, the is 95% that the mean response to an McAuliffe Fellow should understand data were analyzed using multivariate item is between the lower and upper Christa McAuliffe’s commitment as a analyses of variance (MANOVAs). confidence limits. Thus, two items can classroom teacher and the conditions of
SPRING 2004 VOL. 13, NO. 1 51 Table 1. Survey Items with Means and Confidence Intervals by Order of Magnitude
95% Item Mean Confidence Interval
An experiential (hands-on) approach to teaching should be part of every classroom. 3.82 3.77-3.87 I improved my knowledge, skills, and abilities as a classroom teacher as a result of receiving the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship. 3.80 3.75-3.85 A creative environment is a necessary ingredient for teaching thinking and reasoning skills. 3.74 3.69-3.79 I believe every Christa McAuliffe Fellow should understand Christa McAuliffe’s commitment as a classroom teacher and the conditions of this national award. 3.72 3.67-3.77 My receipt of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship caused curriculum change in my class. 3.63 3.56-3.70 The Christa McAuliffe National Fellowship Program should be awarded only to outstanding full-time teachers. 3.56 3.48-3.64 I improved my ability to teach critical thinking skills to my students as a result of receiving the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship. 3.47 3.39-3.55 The use of space related technologies by teachers in the classroom enhances students’ opportunities to live, work, and succeed in an internationally competitive society. 3.47 3.40-3.54 As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the interpretation critical thinking skill. 3.31 3.24-3.38 As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the inference critical thinking skill. 3.30 3.22-3.38 My receipt of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship influenced curriculum change in my school. 3.28 3.18-3.38 Immediate aerospace technology transfer to the classroom environment would be useful to motivate students. 3.28 3.21-3.35 As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the deduction critical thinking skill. 3.23 3.15-3.31 As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the evaluation of arguments critical thinking skill. 3.19 3.11-3.27 As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the recognition of assumptions critical thinking skill. 3.12 3.04-3.20 Spin-offs from space technology and other high technology research are important to my method of teaching (e.g., uplink/downlink satellites, microwaves, personal computers, robotics, laser devices, optical information storage devices, etc.) 3.11 3.01-3.21
52 SCIENCE EDUCATOR Table 1. Continuted
95% Item Mean Confidence Interval
Federal and state regulations (red tape) required to ensure proper expenditure of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship were minimal. 3.02 2.92-3.12 Space related classroom activities have had a significant, positive effect on the thinking and reasoning skills of my students. 3.01 2.92-3.10 My receipt of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship influenced curriculum change in school system. 2.93 2.82-3.04 A major difficulty with the United States educational process is the inability of teachers to teach students how to think, reason, and apply knowledge. 2.92 2.82-3.02 The regulation that states that fellowships awarded may not exceed the average national salary of public school teachers in the most recent year is an appropriate amount for the purpose of the Fellowship. 2.91 2.82-3.00 The Christa McAuliffe Fellowship Program is promoted in my school system (LEA and/or school) as an important program for classroom teachers. 2.29 2.18-2.40 The U. S. Secretary of Education should select one “educational theme” as priority each year. 1.74 1.65-1.83
Table 2. Survey Items in Each Dimension, Correlations with Dimensions, Means, and Standard Deviations
Correlation Respnose Dimension Item with Mean ± Dimension SD 1. Impact on • As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching critical thinking methods include more exercises and experiences that require the inference critical thinking skill. .79 3.3 ± .69 • As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the recognition of assumptions critical thinking skill. .88 3.1 ± .69 • As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the deduction critical thinking skill. .88 3.2 ± .66 • As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the interpretation critical thinking skill. .86 3.3 ± .67 • As a result of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship, my teaching methods include more exercises and experiences that require the evaluation of arguments critical thinking skill. .86 3.2 ± .72
SPRING 2004 VOL. 13, NO. 1 53 Table 2. Continuted
Correlation Respnose Dimension Item with Mean ± Dimension SD 2. Use of • Spin-offs from space technology and other high technology in technology research are important to my method of the classroom teaching (e.g., uplink/downlink satellites, microwaves, personal computers, robotics, laser devices, optical information storage devices, etc.). .76 3.2 ± .84 • The use of space related technologies by teachers in the classroom enhances students’ opportunities to live, work, and succeed in an internationally competitive society. .76 3.5 ± .55 • Space related classroom activities have had a significant, positive effect on the thinking and reasoning skills of my students. .83 3.1 ± .73 • Immediate aerospace technology transfer to the classroom environment would be useful to motivate students. .62 3.3 ± .57 3. Influence on • My receipt of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship curriculum influenced curriculum change at my school. .88 3.3 ± .87 • My receipt of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship influenced curriculum change in my school system. .90 3.0 ± .92
4. Improved • I improved my knowledge, skills, and abilities as a teaching classroom teacher as a result of receiving the Christa behaviors McAuliffe Fellowship. .85 3.8 ± .48 • I improved my ability to teach critical thinking skills to my students as a result of receiving the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship. .71 3.4 ± .68 • My receipt of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship caused curriculum change in my class .70 3.6 ± .67 5. Application • A major difficulty with the United States educational process is of critical the inability of teachers to teach students how to think, reason, thinking skills and apply knowledge. .55 3.0 ± .86 • A creative environment is a necessary ingredient for teaching thinking and reasoning skills. .66 3.8 ± .42 • An experiential (hands-on) approach to teaching should be part of every classroom. .64 3.8 ± .39 6. Logistics • The Christa McAuliffe National Fellowship Program regarding the should be awarded only to outstanding full-time Christa teachers. .64 3.6 ± .69 McAuliffe • Federal and state regulations (red tape) required to Fellowship ensure proper expenditure of the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship were minimal. .57 3.0 ± .85 • The regulation that states that fellowships awarded may not exceed the average national salary of public school teachers in the most recent year is an appropriate amount for the purpose of the Fellowship. .59 2.9 ± .81
54 SCIENCE EDUCATOR Table 2. Continuted
Correlation Respnose Dimension Item with Mean ± Dimension SD 7. Improving • The Christa McAuliffe Fellowship Program is promoted promotion of in my school system (LEA and/or school) as an the Fellowship important program for classroom teachers. .52 2.3 ± .93 Program • The U.S. Secretary of Education should select one “educational theme” as priority each year. .81 1.7 ± .80
this national award,” did not correlate of teachers to teach students how to of public school teachers in the most .50 with any single dimension, but did think, reason, and apply knowledge,” recent year is an appropriate amount correlate .36 and .39 with Dimensions mean = 3.0) or near the “strongly for the purpose of the Fellowship,” 5 and 6 respectively. agree” level (“A creative environment respectively). Dimension 7, improving Analyses of the individual is a necessary ingredient for teaching promotion of the fellowship program, items indicated that all items were thinking and reasoning skills” and had the lowest means of all the appropriately related to their respective “An experiential (hands-on) approach items with both being below the dimensions. The internal consistency to teaching should be part of every “neutral” level. That is, on the average, reliable (coefficient alpha) for each classroom,” had means = 3.8). All respondents did not believe that the dimension is presented in Table 3. three items in Dimension 6, logistics fellowship program was promoted at It was concluded that only the first regarding the Christa McAuliffe their schools and they did not believe four dimensions were sufficiently Fellowship Program, had means at or that the U.S. Secretary of Education reliability to use in further analyses. near the “agree” level (3.6, 3.0, and should select an educational theme for The first four dimensions were 2.9 for Items “The Christa McAuliffe the program each year. “impact on critical thinking,” “use National Fellowship Program should The four reliable dimensions of technology in the classroom,” be awarded only to outstanding were compared across the levels of “influence on the curriculum,” and full-time teachers,” “Federal and the demographic variables using improved teaching behaviors.” state regulations (red tape) required MANOVAs. The results are presented However, this does not mean that to ensure proper expenditure of the in Table 4. As can be seen in Table the individual items comprising the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship were 4, the four dimensions are not other three dimensions are invalid. minimal,” and “The regulation that significantly related to gender, tenure The individual responses and means states that fellowships awarded may status, current classroom experience, as presented in Table 1 still have much not exceed the average national salary total classroom experience, level of to contribute. The standard deviation represents an index of agreement. Agreement among the respondents is Table 3. Reliability of Each Dimension proportional to the standard deviation of an item. In general, the responses Reliability Dimension (Coefficient Alpha) of approximately two-thirds of the respondents fall within one standard 1. Impact on critical thinking .94 deviation of the mean. 2. Use of technology in the classroom .77 For Dimension 5, applications of 3. Influence on curriculum .86 critical thinking skills, the means 4. Improved teaching behaviors .71 were at the “agree” level (“A major 5. Application of critical thinking skills .40 6. Logistics of fellowship program .35 difficulty with the United States 7. Promotion of fellowship program .20 educational process is the inability
SPRING 2004 VOL. 13, NO. 1 55 Table 4. Multivariance Analysis of Variance Results Where
Independent Variable F-Statistic F-Probability Eta Square Gender 1.07 .375 .020 Tenure Status 1.29 .276 .026 Age 1.27 .231 .024 Experience in Current Position .78 .669 .015 Total Experience .67 .781 .013 Level of Education 1.18 .274 .022 Enrollment at Current School 1.27 .176 .037
Note. Dimensions 1, 2, 3, and 4 from Table 3 are dependent variables.
degree, or school enrollment. This is regarding the program’s impact It is interesting that the study did true whether considering statistical on their knowledge, teaching, and not find relationships between the significance (minimum significance curriculum. four valid dimensions on the survey level is p = .231) or practical Fellowship recipients strongly and gender, tenure status, classroom significance (maximum variance agreed with most of the items and experience, age, education level, or size of a dependent variable accounted agreed, on the average, with all but of school. This suggests that opinions for by an independent variable is two items. They agreed most strongly of the program’s effectiveness are .026 or 2.6%). These results were with items dealing with (1) experiential independent of these variables. If cross-validated for the dichotomous learning being part of every classroom this finding was confirmed through variables of gender and tenure status and (2) receiving the Christa McAuliffe additional study, it would suggest using an second statistical method, Fellowship as having improved their that a strength of the program is its logistic regression. abilities to improve students’ critical ability to transcend the variables of thinking skills. Award recipients gender, experience, etc. This finding is Discussion and Conclusions disagreed with the idea that the U.S. supported very strongly in this study by Christa McAuliffe Fellowship Secretary of Education should select the lack of both statistical and practical recipients perceived the program to one “educational theme” as a priority significance. have impacted their effectiveness each year and, to a lesser extent that The findings of this study indicate as science teachers. Specifically, the Christa McAuliffe Fellowship that Christa McAuliffe Fellowship they perceived the awarding of this Program is promoted in their school recipients believe that science teachers Fellowship to have improved their systems. could benefit from similar sabbatical ability to produce critical thinking experiences which allow them time in students, use technology in the and resources to develop knowledge, classroom, improve the curriculum, skills, and abilities related to these improve teaching behaviors, and dimensions. The broader conclusion help students apply critical thinking Space still has a is that space related information skills. Collectively, these dimensions fascination for most could provide a vehicle for motivating demonstrate the perceived impact the students and this and explaining science to students. Christa McAuliffe Fellowships have The recipients agreed that their had in the United States over a 10-year fascination can be used involvement in this program influenced period and continue to have in the to motivate them to curriculum change not only in their 21st century. Moreover, the recipients own classrooms, but also in their of the fellowship overwhelmingly learn the principles schools and school systems. Space agreed with the positive statements behind the science. still has a fascination for most students
56 SCIENCE EDUCATOR and this fascination can be used to References Public Law 99-498 (1986, October 17). motivate them to learn the principles U.S. Department of Education. Applebee, A. N., Langer, J. A., & Mullis, behind the science. Further, it lends Reagan, R. (President Reagan at Houston I. V. S. (1987). Learning to be liter- Memorial Service) “We will not dis- itself to hands-on activities to further ate in America: reading, writing, and enhance learning. appoint them”. (1986, February 10). reasoning. The Nation’s Report Card. U.S. News and World Report, 100(5), Although 17 years have passed, Report by the National Assessment of 14-20. Christa McAuliffe’s dream continues Educational Progress. Princeton, NJ : Richman, A. (1986, February 10). A to live and influence classroom Educational Testing Services. lesson in uncommon valor. People teachers and students throughout Beyer, B. K. (1984). Improving thinking Weekly, 25(4), 3 America. On February 1, 2003, the skills—defining the problem. Phi Delta Wilford. J. N. (1986, January 5) A teacher STS-107 Columbia and Crew recorded Kappan, 65(7), 486-490. trains for outer space. The New York Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing another tragedy while returning from Times Magazine, 18-21. critical thinkers: challenging adults orbit. Although their mission pushed to explore alternative ways of think- the space frontier forward, the ultimate Bettye B. Burkhalter, Ph.D., Vice President, ing and acting. San Francisco, CA: Associate Provost and Professor Emerita, price was paid. As with the Apollo Jossey-Bass, Inc. Auburn University, P.O. Box 3155, Auburn, AL 1 and Challenger, the world grieves Ginsburg, H., & Opper, S. (1969). Piaget’s 36831-3155,
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