Managing Successful Organizational Change in the Public Sector

Sergio Fernandez Indiana University Hal G . Rainey University of Georgia

Theory to Managing Successful Organizational Practice Change in the Public Sector

Sergio Fernandez is an assistant profes- an governmental organizations change? Theories of Organizational Change sor in the School of Public and Reform initiatives have swept through in Public Organizations Environmental Affairs at Indiana University. governments in the United States and overseas, # e variety of theoretical perspectives summarized in His research focuses on public manage- C ment, with an emphasis on privatization again and again bringing news about eﬀ orts to reinvent, the online version of this article presents a rather con- and contracting for services, public sector transform, or reform government agencies ( Barzelay fusing picture, but it provides insights into the nature leadership, and organizational change. His research has appeared in the Journal of 2001; Kettl 2000; Pollitt and Bouckaert 2000; Stillman of organizational change, and in particular, the causes Public Administration Research and Theory, 1999). Curiously, however, this recurrent theme of of change and the role of managers in the change pro- Public Performance and Management change in government agencies has not induced a high cess. Some of the theories downplay the signiﬁ cance Review, Review of Public Personnel Administration , and Public Administration volume of articles that explicitly address the topic in of human agency as a source of change (e.g., Review . public administration journals. # ere are prominent DiMaggio and Powell 1983; Hannan and Freeman E-mail: [email protected] . exceptions to this observation (e.g., Bryson and 1984 ; Scott 2003). Conversely, other theories view

Hal G. Rainey is the Alumni Foundation Anderson 2000; Chackerian and Mavima 2000; Mani managers ’ purposeful action as driving change (e.g., Distinguished Professor in the School of 1995; Wise 2002 ) and journal articles about topics Lawrence and Lorsch 1967; Pfeff er and Salancik Public and International Affairs at the related to organizational change (e.g., Berman and 1978 ), although environmental, cognitive, and University of Georgia. His research concen- trates on organizations and management in Wang 2000; Brudney and Wright 2002; Hood and resource constraints place limits on such action government, with an emphasis on perfor- Peters 2004 ). Articles reporting research and theory with (Van de Ven and Poole 1995). mance, change, leadership, incentives, titles containing “ organizational change ” and with that privatization, and comparisons of governmental management to management in the theme as a focal topic, however, appear with much less # ese major theoretical perspectives illustrate business and nonprofi t sectors. The third regularity in public administration journals than in researchers’ confl icting views about the causes of edition of his book Understanding and research journals focusing on general management and change in organizations, especially the capacity of Managing Public Organizations was published in 2003. He was recently elected organization theory. managers to bring about change. Despite the confl icts a fellow of the National Academy of Public among theorists, however, a signifi cant body of Administration. In that literature on organization theory, Van de Ven research indicates that managers frequently do make E-mail: [email protected] . and Poole (1995) report a count of one million articles change happen in their organizations (Armenakis, relating to organizational change. # is vast body of Harris, and Feild 1999; Burke 2002; Judson 1991; work abounds with complexities, including multiple Kotter 1995 , 1996; Yukl 2002 ). Public sector studies and confl icting theories and research fi ndings and a also off er evidence of the critical role that public good bit of inconclusiveness. # is complexity presents managers play in bringing about organizational a challenge to public administrators and public admin- change (e.g., Abramson and Lawrence 2001; istration researchers alike. To respond to that chal- Bingham and Wise 1996; Borins 2000; Doig and lenge, the full version of this article, which is available Hargrove 1990 ; Hennessey 1998; Kemp, Funk, on PAR ’ s Web site ( www.aspanet.org ), provides an and Eadie 1993). overview of the vast literature on organizational change — a review demonstrating its complexity but Noting that managers can eff ect change tells us little, also bringing some needed order to the literature. however, about whether an intended change actually Here, the analysis identifi es points of consensus among occurs and about the best strategies for eff ecting researchers on what are commonly called organiza- change. Fortunately, a stream of research exists that tional transformations : initiatives involving large-scale, contains various models and frameworks, many of planned, strategic, and administrative change them loosely based on Lewin ’ s (1947) steps or phases (Abramson and Lawrence 2001; Kotter 1995 ). # ese of change. # ese studies describe the process of imple- points serve as testable propositions for researchers to menting change within organizations and point to examine in future research and as major considerations factors contributing to success (e.g., Armenakis, for leaders of change initiatives in public organizations. Harris, and Feild 1999; Bingham and Wise 1996 ;

168 Public Adminisration Review • March | April 2006 Burke 2002; Greiner 1967; Kotter 1995 , 1996; develop speciﬁ c strategies for arriving at a future Rainey and Rainey 1986; # ompson and Fulla 2001 ). end state.

Despite some diff erences in these models and frame- Some research on private organizations indicates that works, one fi nds remarkable similarities among it is easier to convince individuals of the need for them, as well as empirical studies supporting them change when leaders craft a vision that off ers the hope ( Armenakis and Bedeian 1999 ). One can discern from of relief from stress or discomfort (Kets de Vries and this body of research a consensus that change leaders Balazs 1999). Nadler and Nadler (1998) even suggest and change participants should pay special attention implanting dissatisfaction with the current state of to eight factors, each off ering propositions suitable aff airs in order to get members of the organization to for further testing and refi nement in future research. embrace change. To convince individuals of the need # e full online version of this article presents a more for and desirability of change and to begin the process elaborate and detailed propositional inventory; this of “ unfreezing ” the organization, Armenakis, Harris, shorter version emphasizes the most general proposi- and Feild (1999) suggest employing eff ective written tions identifi ed. and oral communication and forms of active participation among employees. Because it draws on points of consensus among researchers and experienced observers, the set of factors # e public-management literature contains evidence discussed here resembles, but diff ers in signifi cant of the importance of determining the need for ways from, some other frameworks (e.g., Kotter change and persuasively communicating it through a 1996). Some experts portray the change process as a continuing process of exchange with as many stake- linear progression through successive stages repre- holders and participants as possible (Abramson and sented by the factors discussed here (e.g., Armenakis, Lawrence 2001; Rossotti 2005; Young 2001 ). For Harris, and Feild 1999; Greiner 1967; Kotter 1995 ). instance, Kemp, Funk, and Eadie (1993) and # e process, however, rarely unfolds in such a simple Bingham and Wise (1996) conclude that successful linear fashion ( Amis, Slack, and Hinings 2004 ; Van de implementation of new programs depends on top Ven 1993). # e eight factors and propositions that are management ’ s ability to disseminate information discussed in the following sections can infl uence the about the change and convince employees of the outcome of change initiatives at diff erent points of the urgency of change. Denhardt and Denhardt (1999) process. Moreover, researchers have generally treated describe how eff ective local government managers these determinants of eff ective implementation of or- verify the need for change through “listening and ganizational change as having additive eff ects. # e learning ” and then communicate those needs in present analysis, in contrast, treats each determinant ways that build support for change. Researchers have as potentially contributing to the successful imple- also noted public sector leaders ’ eff orts to take mentation of change — or making implementation advantage of mandates, political windows of oppor- smoother — by adding to the eff ects of the other fac- tunity, and external infl uences to verify and tors. Finally, despite what some practitioners might communicate the need for change (Abramson and see as the commonsense nature of these factors and Lawrence 2001; Harokopus 2001; Lambright 2001; propositions, examples cited below — as well as many Rossotti 2005 ). other studies and examples — indicate that change leaders very often ignore, overlook, or underestimate Factor 2: Provide a Plan them ( Kotter 1995, 1996 ). Managerial leaders must develop a course of action or strategy for implementing change. Convincing the Factor 1: Ensure the Need members of an organization of the need for change is Managerial leaders must verify and persuasively com- obviously not enough to bring about actual change. municate the need for change. Research indicates that # e new idea or vision must be transformed into a the implementation of planned change generally course of action or strategy with goals and a plan for requires that leaders verify the need for change and achieving it (Abramson and Lawrence 2001; Carnall persuade other members of the organization and 1995; Judson 1991; Kotter 1995; Lambright 2001; important external stakeholders that it is necessary Nadler and Nadler 1998; Young 2001 ). # is strategy (Armenakis, Harris, and Feild 1999; Burke 2002; serves as a road map for the organization, off ering Judson 1991; Kotter 1995; Laurent 2003; Nadler and direction on how to arrive at the preferred end state, Nadler 1998 ). # e process of convincing individuals identifying obstacles, and proposing measures for of the need for change often begins with crafting a overcoming those obstacles. As Kotter (1995) compelling vision for it. A vision presents a picture or explains, the basic elements of the vision should be image of the future that is easy to communicate and organized into a strategy for achieving that vision so that organizational members fi nd appealing ( Kotter that the transformation does not disintegrate into a 1995 ); it provides overall direction for the change set of unrelated and confusing directives and process and serves as the foundation from which to activities.

Managing Successful Organizational Change in the Public Sector 169 Two aspects of a course of action that appear crucial leadership manufactured crises (see also Laurent 2003; for organizational change in the public sector include # ompson and Fulla 2001 ). the clarity or degree of specifi city of the strategy and the extent to which the strategy rests on sound causal For many decades, social scientists have emphasized the theory. Policy implementation analysts have long value of eff ective and ethical participation, as well as noted the importance of clear, specifi c policy goals other means, in supporting group and organizational and coherent causal thinking about the linkage be- change and in lowering resistance to it (Coch and French tween the initiative to be implemented and the de- 1948; Lewin 1947 ). More recently, experts have further sired outcomes (Bishop and Jones 1993; Grizzle and explored ways of reducing resistance to change. Judson Pettijohn 2002; Mazmanian and Sabatier 1989; Meier (1991) identifi es a variety of tactics that managers can and McFarlane 1995 ). Specifi c goals help ensure that employ to minimize resistance to change, including the measures implemented in the fi eld correspond threats and compulsion, criticism, persuasion, induce- with the formal policy by limiting the ability of imple- ments and rewards, compromises and bargaining, guar- menting offi cials to change the policy objectives and antees against personal loss (e.g., off ering job security or providing a standard of accountability. As Bingham retraining to employees), psychological support, em- and Wise (1996) and Meyers and Dillon (1999) dis- ployee participation, ceremonies and other eff orts to covered, policy ambiguity can sow confusion, allowing build loyalty, recognition of the appropriateness and le- public managers to reinterpret the policy and imple- gitimacy of past practices, and gradual and fl exible im- ment it in a fashion that brings about few of the plementation of change. With the exception of threats, changes that policy makers intended (see also compulsion, and criticism, which can have counterpro- Montjoy and O ’ Toole 1979). Finally, a mandate for ductive eff ects and further increase resistance, he argues change based on sound causal theory helps eliminate that these approaches can be eff ective at reducing resis- inconsistent or confl icting directives that can under- tance to change (see also Kets de Vries and Balazs 1999). mine eff orts to implement change. Rossotti (2005) A “ dual approach ” that creates pride in the organization’ s shows how he and others leading major organizational history and past success while arguing for a new way changes at the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) set of doing things seems also to be eff ective at reducing forth a clear, well-conceived, well-organized plan for resistance to change. the change process. # e scope of participation is also important. Wide- Factor 3: Build Internal Support for Change spread participation in the change process is perhaps and Overcome Resistance the most frequently cited approach to overcoming Managerial leaders must build internal support for resistance to change (e.g., Abramson and Lawrence change and reduce resistance to it through widespread 2001; Young 2001 ). Many scholars who focus on pri- participation in the change process and other means. vate organizations have asserted that planned change Students of major organizational changes typically requires extensive participation by members at mul- report that successful leaders understand that change tiple levels of the organization during all stages of im- involves a political process of developing and nurtur- plementation ( Bunker and Alban 1997; Greiner 1967; ing support from major stakeholders and organiza- Johnson and Leavitt 2001; Nadler and Nadler 1998; tional members. Individuals in organizations resist Pasmore 1994 ). # e literature indicates that involving change for a variety of reasons (Kets de Vries and organizational members helps reduce barriers to Balazs 1999) — for example, some ideas for change change by creating psychological ownership, promot- are simply ill conceived, unjustifi ed, or pose harmful ing the dissemination of critical information, and en- consequences for members of the organization. Even couraging employee feedback for fi ne-tuning the assuming a well-justifi ed and well-planned change change during implementation. initiative, however, leaders must build internal support and overcome resistance. Participation presents a particularly important contingency in the public sector. As Warwick (1975) asserts, How can they do so? Several researchers have observed career civil servants, who are allegedly motivated by that a crisis, shock, or strong external challenge to the caution and security, can use the frequent turnover organization can help reduce resistance to change. Van de among top political appointees to their advantage by Ven (1993) explains that because individuals are highly simply resisting new initiatives until a new adminis- adaptable to gradually emerging conditions, a shock or tration comes into power. However, their participa- stimulus of signifi cant magnitude is typically required for tion in the stages of change can help reduce this kind them to accept change as inevitable. In a similar vein, of resistance. Rossotti (2005) , for instance, recounts a Kotter warns managers against the risk of “ playing it too continuous process of meetings with all types of stake- safe ” and noted that “ when the urgency rate is not holders — frontline employees, union leaders, taxpay- pumped up enough, the transformation process cannot ers and taxpayer groups, managers, Treasury succeed ” (1995, 60). He even observed that in a few of Department executives, members of Congress, and the most successful cases of organizational change, the others (see also Denhardt and Denhardt 1999; Poister

170 Public Administration Review • March | April 2006 and Streib 1999 ). Goldsmith (1999 , 68ff ), too, de- the eff ort and marshal the resources and emotional scribes how employee “ empowerment ” played a key support required to induce organizational members to role in his change eff orts as mayor of Indianapolis. change ( Carnall 1995 ; Kets de Vries and Balazs 1999; Kotter 1995; Yukl 2002 ). Kotter asserts that one or Interestingly, Kelman ’ s (2005) analysis of the federal pro- two managers often launch organizational renewal curement reform process suggests that one should avoid eff orts, but “ whenever some minimum mass is not overestimating change resistance. A signifi cant number of achieved early in the eff ort, nothing much worthwhile employees welcomed reforms, and their support needed happens ” (1995, 62). only to be “ unleashed. ” Buttressing Kelman ’ s point, # ompson and Sanders ’ s (1997) analysis of change Whether it occurs in the form of a single change agent within the Veterans Benefi ts Administration suggests that or a guiding coalition, considerable evidence indicates success may require bottom-up participatory elements, that top-management support and commitment play such as delegating decision making to middle manage- an essential role in successful change in the public sec- ment and granting frontline workers greater discretion tor (Abramson and Lawrence 2001; Berman and to implement changes. # ey note, however, that top Wang 2000; Bingham and Wise 1996; Denhardt and management still must play a critical role by encouraging Denhardt 1999; Harokopus 2001 ; Hennessey 1998; and rewarding innovation and expressing support for the Kemp, Funk, and Eadie 1993; Lambright 2001; change. Successful implementation of organizational Laurent 2003; Rainey and Rainey 1986; # ompson change, therefore, often resembles a hybrid combining and Fulla 2001; Young 2001 ). Barzelay ’s (2001) analy- elements of lower-level participation and direction from sis of New Public Management reforms in various top management. nations, for instance, reports that Aucoin (1990) at- tributes the failure of these reforms in Canada to a Even widespread participation, however, does not off er lack of support from cabinet ministers, who simply a magic bullet for overcoming resistance to change did not care much about the reforms. ( Shareef 1994 ). Bruhn, Zajac, and Al-Kazemi (2001) advise that participation should be widespread and span Finally, in the public sector, top-management support all phases of the change process, but they stress that for change often requires the cooperation of top-level leaders must take participation seriously, commit time career civil servants in addition to politically ap- and eff ort to it, and manage it properly. # e failure to pointed executives. Moreover, the need for leadership do so can be counterproductive, leading to wasted time, continuity and stability raises particular challenges in morale, and resources (see also Quinn 2000). Bryson the public sector because of the frequent and rapid and Anderson (2000) make a similar observation in turnover of many executives in government agencies their analysis of large-group methods used to diagnose compared to business executives. # is may explain problems and implement changes in organizations. why, contrary to stereotype, many signifi cant changes in government need to be — and have been —led Factor 4: Ensure Top-Management by career civil servants ( Holzer and Callahan Support and Commitment 1998 ). An individual or group within the organization should champion the cause for change. Top- Factor 5: Build External Support management support and commitment to change play Managerial leaders must develop support from political an especially crucial role in success (Burke 2002; overseers and key external stakeholders. Organizational Carnall 1995; Greiner 1967; Johnson and Leavitt change in the public sector also depends on the degree 2001; Kotter 1995; Nadler and Nadler 1998; Yukl of support from political overseers and other key exter- 2002 ). Some studies of organizational change stress nal stakeholders. # e impact of these actors on the out- the importance of having a single change agent or come of change eff orts stems in part from their ability “ idea champion ” lead the transformation. An idea to impose statutory changes and control the fl ow of champion is a highly respected individual who main- vital resources to public organizations. Political over- tains momentum and commitment to change, often seers can infl uence the outcome of planned change by taking personal risks in the process (Kanter 1983). creating and conveying a vision that explains the need Policy-implementation scholars have off ered evidence for change, as well as by selecting political appointees of how a skillful and strategically placed leader or who are sympathetic to the change and have the knowl- “ fi xer ” can successfully coordinate the behavior of edge and skills required for managing the transforma- disparate actors and overcome obstacles by leveraging tion. As Golembiewski (1985) suggests, attaining close personal ties and pursuing informal avenues of support from governmental authorities and political infl uence ( Bardach 1977; O ’ Toole 1989 ). actors involves serious challenges, given the constraints imposed by the political context in which public orga- Other authors have stressed the need to have a guid- nizations operate. Public agencies often have multiple ing coalition to support the change. A guiding coali- political masters pursuing diff erent objectives, and tion is a group of individuals who lend legitimacy to politically appointed executives often have very weak

Managing Successful Organizational Change in the Public Sector 171 relationships with career civil servants. Despite these resources in major changes at the IRS and expressed challenges, public managers implementing change in regret that he had not sought at the outset stronger their organizations must display skill in obtaining assurances of budgetary support for the reforms from support from powerful external actors. Treasury Department oﬃ cials.

Public policy scholars have observed the impact of sup- Policy implementation scholars have long recognized port from political overseers or sovereigns on the out- this need for adequate resources to implement policy come of policy implementation ( Goggin et al. 1990; changes ( Goggin et al. 1990; Matland 1995; Mazmanian and Sabatier 1989 ). # ey are now joined Mazmanian and Sabatier 1989 ; Montjoy and O ’Toole by more recent studies of public sector reform that have 1979). Ample funding is necessary to staff implement- begun to stress the importance of external political sup- ing agencies and to provide them with the administra- port ( Berman and Wang 2000 ; de Lancer Julnes and tive and technical capacity to ensure that they achieve Holzer 2001; Wallin 1997 ). Berry, Chackerian, and statutory objectives. Similarly, students of recent ad- Wechsler (1999) note that the governor ’ s high level of ministrative reforms have observed that resource scar- commitment and support for particular reforms in city can hinder organizational changes (Berry, Florida had a substantial infl uence on the degree of im- Chackerian, and Wechsler 1999; Bingham and Wise plementation (see also Chackerian and Mavima 2000 ). 1996; Chackerian and Mavima 2000 ; Kemp, Funk, Changes that could have been implemented quickly and Eadie 1993). and cost-eff ectively seemed to generate more support from elected offi cials than those with higher implemen- As Chackerian and Mavima (2000) discovered in their tation costs and those requiring much more eff ort and analysis of government reform in Florida, resource time to implement. munifi cence becomes even more complex when multiple organizational changes are implemented as part Support from other key external stakeholders fi gures of a comprehensive reform agenda. # e authors found prominently in successful change eff orts (Abramson and that multiple organizational changes interact with one Lawrence 2001; Denhardt and Denhardt 1999; another, causing synergies and trade-off s. For example, Harokopus 2001; Mazmanian and Sabatier 1989; the pursuit of multiple changes that demand modest Rossotti 2005; Wallin 1997 ). # ompson and Fulla amounts of similar resources can lead to synergies, (2001) conclude that the interest group environment increasing the likelihood that all changes will be im- acted as an important determinant of agency adoption of plemented successfully. # e pursuit of multiple National Performance Review (NPR) reforms, with changes that require large amounts of similar re- strong interest group opposition to an agency ’ s NPR sources, on the other hand, tends to result in trade- reforms constraining change. Conversely, Weissert and off s. Trade-off s, in turn, result in winners and losers, Goggin (2002) found that proceeding to implementa- with low-cost changes taking precedence over or even tion without garnering the support of interest groups can displacing more costly ones. speed up the implementation process, albeit at the cost of dissatisfaction and criticism. Factor 7: Institutionalize Change Managers and employees must eff ectively institution- Factor 6: Provide Resources alize and embed changes. To make change enduring, Successful change usually requires suffi cient resources members of the organization must incorporate the to support the process. A fairly consistent fi nding in new policies or innovations into their daily routines. the literature is that change is not cheap or without Virtually all organizational changes involve changes in trade-off s. Planned organizational change involves a the behavior of organizational members. Employees redeployment or redirection of scarce organizational must learn and routinize these behaviors in the short resources toward a host of new activities, including term, and leaders must institutionalize them over the developing a plan or strategy for implementing the long haul so that new patterns of behavior displace change, communicating the need for change, training old ones (Edmondson, Bohmer, and Pisano 2001; employees, developing new processes and practices, Greiner 1967; Kotter 1995; Lewin 1947 ). restructuring and reorganizing the organization, and testing and experimenting with innovations (see Doing so, however, is not easy. Armenakis, Harris, and Burke 2002; Mink et al. 1993; Nadler and Nadler Feild (1999) have developed a model for reinforcing 1998 ). Failure to provide adequate resources in sup- and institutionalizing change. According to the port of a planned change leads to feeble implementa- model, leaders can modify formal structures, proce- tion eff orts, higher levels of interpersonal stress, and dures, and human resource management practices; even neglect of core organizational activities and func- employ rites and ceremonies; diff use the innovation tions. Boyne ’ s (2003) review of research, for example, through trial runs and pilot projects; collect data to found that “ resources ” is one of the important factors track the progress of and commitment to change; and for improving public services (and hence, bringing engage employees in active participation tactics that about change). Rossotti (2005) heavily invested foster “ learning by doing. ” Judson (1991) , too,

172 Public Administration Review • March | April 2006 strongly emphasizes the need to collect data and mon- the U.S. Postal Service fell short because of manage- itor the implementation process to keep managers ment ’ s failure to modify organizational subsystems for aware of the extent to which organizational members the desired cultural change. Golembiewski (1985) have adopted the change. Evaluation and monitoring emphasizes the fruitlessness of attempting to change eff orts should continue even after the change is fully attitudes and behaviors toward more teamwork and adopted to ensure that organizational members do not participation if the organizational structure remains lapse into old patterns of behavior. strictly hierarchical and fails to support a team orien- tation (see also Meyers and Dillon 1999 ). # e wisdom # e evidence, however, is mixed regarding the optimal of this strategy notwithstanding, Robertson and pace for institutionalizing change. Some experts un- Seneviratne ’ s (1995) study suggests that subsystem derscore the need to adopt change gradually or incre- congruence may be more diffi cult to achieve in the mentally on a small scale in order to build momentum public than in the private sector because change and to demonstrate the benefi ts of change agents in the public sector exercise less discretion (Armenakis, Harris, and Feild 1999; Cohen and than their private sector counterparts. Eimicke 1994; Greiner 1967; Kotter 1995; Rainey and Rainey 1986 ). Others have argued that a rapid Conclusion pace of change can overcome inertia and resistance # e factors and propositions off ered in this article ( Tushman and Romanelli 1985 ). Small-scale or grad- should serve not as a road map but as a compass for ual implementation, however, may pose more of a practitioners seeking to fi nd their way amid the sus- challenge in the public sector than in business because tained, persistent, and challenging pressures for frequent shifts in political leadership and short tenures change they confront daily. # ey, in turn, suggest a for political appointees can cause commitment for robust, varied, and quite challenging agenda for fu- change to wane. ture research, an agenda that is discussed at length in the extended version of this article on the PAR Web Factor 8: Pursue Comprehensive Change site. It suffi ces to note that work by Nutt (1983, Managerial leaders must develop an integrative, com- 1986) and others accurately suggests the need to move prehensive approach to change that achieves subsys- beyond the literature ’ s additive assumptions in re- tem congruence. Many researchers stress that in order searching these propositions. Researchers should ana- for fundamental change in behavior to occur, leaders lyze the interactive eff ects of such factors using must make systemic changes to the subsystems of research designs and methods that treat the possibility their organization. # ese must be aligned with the of a contingency approach to implementing organiza- desired end state. Changing only one or two subsys- tional change seriously. Especially useful would be the tems will not generate suffi cient force to bring about employment of multivariate statistical techniques and organizational transformation ( Meyers and Dillon large-sample data sets of organizations at diff erent 1999; Mohrman and Lawler 1983; Nadler and levels of government and in diff erent public manage- Nadler 1998; Tichy 1983 ). Still others have warned, ment settings. Another immediate research need in- however, that implementing multiple changes with- volves refi ning the general propositions off ered here, out understanding the structure and nature of the synthesizing the various theories underlying them, interconnections among subsystems can result in ad- and testing rival propositions. In the process, research- ditional costs and a longer implementation period ers must confront the challenge of analyzing the rela- than anticipated (Hannan, Polos, and Carroll 2003). tionship between the content and process of change and such organizational outcomes as performance. Amis, Slack, and Hinings (2004) go even further, ar- Some designs will be very challenging and expensive, guing that the actual sequence of change matters; they but researchers should seek ways to conceive and ex- found that beginning the transformation process by ecute them, possibly through consortia of researchers changing “ high-impact ” decision-making elements of (e.g., Huber and Glick 1993 ) and proposals for large the organization fi rst helps to build momentum for research grants. Such an eff ort would be timely, im- the broader array of changes that follow. Likewise, portant for both practice and theory building, and Robertson, Roberts, and Porras conclude from their long overdue. study of business fi rms that practitioners should begin any change eff ort with systematic changes in the work Want to explore this topic in more depth? Want to see setting and “ insure that the various work setting how others have reacted to this article? Want to join the changes are congruent with each other, sending con- exchange? Go to the ASPA Web site ( www.aspanet.org) sistent signals to organization members about the new and click on the # eory to Practice icon. behaviors desired ” (1993, 629). # eory to Practice has an independent editorial and Support for these arguments is also present in public blind peer review process; proposals from authors for sector research. Shareef (1994) , for example, found future articles may be submitted directly to the editor that an eff ort to implement a participative culture in at [email protected] .

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