3 Study area and Tisenjoch (latitude 46°50’N, longitude 10°50’E). For a general view of the studied area and the investigated 1 km² squares see The study area centres on the site of the Fig. 1-3 (attachement). The core area with the Iceman and extends north and south of valleys and mountain ridges (Fig. 1) around the the watershed, i.e., the main divide of the Iceman site is colloquially known as “Ötziland” (Fig. 1-3, see attachment). The region (Dickson 2011b). where the Iceman was found is still referred The core area comprises ( to as Tyrol (Tirol). In 1919, the southern village, Castle Juval, village), the part (, Südtirol) became part of (the villages of St. Katharinaberg, and the northern part (North Tyrol, Karthaus, Vernagt and Unser Frau) up to Nordtirol) remained Austrian. In the past, Kurzras village with the side valleys Pfossental, the area with the main municipalities Klosteralm, Penaudtal, Mastauntal, Finailtal and Vent belonged to the county of Tschars and Tisental leading up to the discovery place (Vinschgau, South Tyrol), but after World of the Iceman. Also the Schlandrauntal/ War I, Vent was merged with the municip- Taschljöchl and the Pfelderertal until it leads ality of Sölden, whereas the whole southern into the Passeiertal were investigated. On the area became Italian. The area played an es- Austrian side, leading down from the Iceman sential role in the development of alpinism, site beside the Niederjochferner (glacier), the alpine tourism and the foundation of the study sites comprise Niedertal with Vent, continental Alpine Club which was initialised Zwieselstein and Nachtberg/Sölden as well by the famous clergyman Franz Senn (Vent) as the Rofental and Tiefenbachtal/Tiefenbach and his companions. For a comprehensive Ferner along the Panorama trail and the way overview of the local history, especially on the up to the Breslauerhütte. Further 1 km² squares villages Schnals and Vent see Hendricks et al. are scattered around the core area such as (1990), Schlosser (2012) and Scharr (2013). on the Italian side the Langtauferertal, the Matschertal, Haidersee, Oris village, Castle Tarantsberg, village, Martelltal, Oberthalmühle and Marlingerberg as well 3.1 Geography as more remote sites in the around Brixen with Tils, Kreuztal, Latzfons, Pfunderer The investigated area stretches from southern- mine, Laugen, Cloister Säben, Lajen, Dörf in most Ötztal (North Tyrol) to the north-west- the Pustertal, Valsertal, Altfasstal and Villnoder. ern South Tyrol (Haider See), eastwards to On the Austrian side, detached squares are at about Brixen/Pustertal and southwards to mid Hohe Mut/Obergurgl (Fig. 1). Martelltal. The place where the Iceman was Apart from cultivated ground around the vil- found lies at 3,210 m a.s.l., near Hauslabjoch lages and at the valley bottoms, large parts of

15 3 Study area

the investigated core area lie in the Naturpark Vinschgau, the Laaser series with the famous Texelgruppe (Italy) and the Naturpark Ötztal white marble forms the boundary (Hoinkes (Austria). Within the investigated area there 1980; Krainer 2010). In contrast to siliceous is a considerable altitudinal range from ca. soils, those on the Schneeberg complex have a 520 m a.s.l. (Naturns) and ca. 1,360 m a.s.l. pH around and above 7. (Sölden) to well above 3,000 m a.s.l. Apart from the specific bedrock, the soil de- velopment is further influenced by mineralo- gical composition and grain size of ground material, (micro)climate (especially temper- 3.2 Geology ature and precipitation), weathering (mainly because of physical processes), vegetation, soil Geologically, the investigated area belongs to fauna and microorganisms, surface structure, the . At a coarse scale, the main water influence and erosion. At high altitudes, bedrocks in the core area are polymetamorphic the soil development usually starts with virgin gneisses and related rock formations belong- soils (Regosol) which further develop to Para- ing to the Ötztal-Stubai-complex (Klebelsberg rendzina (Rendzic Leptosol). Under undis- 1935; Tollmann 1977; Purtscheller 1978; turbed conditions they may develop to Braun­ Frank et al. 1987; Hoinkes & Thöni 1993; erde (Cambisol) or Podzol. Fluvisols accumu- Schmidt et al. 2004; Krainer 2010). Fig. 3.1 late along the margins of streams and rivers shows a geological map of the investigated (Alluvium); see also Kuntze et al. (1988) FAO area. The leading bedrocks in the surround- (1998) and Schwienbacher & Koch (2010). ings of Brixen/Eisacktal are phyllites (Geitner Bedrock, soil reaction and chemistry greatly 2004; Schmidt et al. 2004). The main under- influence the existing moss flora, only a few lying bedrock types are all siliceous and lead to widespread bryophyte species are indifferent soil types with an acidic reaction (pH below 6). on soil reaction (Dierssen 2001). Exceptions are the Langtauferertal region where outcrops of Mesozoic limestones/ dolomites from the “Engadiner Window” pre- vail and the so-called “Schneebergzug”, a spe- 3.3 Climate cial rock formation of metamorphic limestone, often transformed to marble (Frank et al. The investigated area has a temperate climate, 1987), at the border between Austria and Italy. which varies not just from the lowland to the Especially at the upperparts of the Pfossental higher altitudes, but also from north to south. and Pfelderertal this calcareous/marble berock Because of the high mountain ridges, there overlays the gneisses. The same holds for the is less precipitation south of the main alpine valley bottom of Obergurgl and Vent/Rofen divide. Therefore, most of the Italian part of (Konzett et al. 2003; Tropper et al. 2012). In the investigated area has a drier environment

16 Fig. 3.1: Geological map of Tyrol (Müller et al. 2003b).

17 3 Study area

than the Austrian part in the north (see also expansion around 1850, with the end of the Schiechtl & Stern 1980). Little Ice Age. Since that time, the glacier area The Austrian part of the study area, north was reduced by about 50 %. Since the begin- of the central alpine divide shows higher el- ning of the climate measurements in Ober- evation with the lowest altitude near Sölden gurgl in 1953 the mean annual temperature (1368 m a.s.l.), being wetter (851 mm annual increased by 1.2 °C (Fischer 2010). precipitation) and colder with a mean annual temperature of 2.8 °C (Obergurgl 1938 m a.s.l., Fischer 2010). The Italian part, south of the central alpine divide, descends to much 3.4 Vegetation lower altitudes, e.g. 518 m a.s.l. at Naturns, being drier (805 mm annual precipitation) and In the south, the study area extends from much warmer with a mean annual tempera- the colline (525 m a.s.l.) to the nival zone ture of 10.3 °C (https://de.climate-data.org, (3,242 m a.s.l.), in the north from the mon- accessed 20th June 2018). In middle Vinschgau, tane (ca. 1,450 m a.s.l.) to the nival zone from Naturns to , the climate is quite (3,242 m a.s.l.). The potential treeline would continental and the lowermost, south-facing be at 2,300 m a.s.l. The actual treeline, how- slopes are warmer and drier with a submediter- ever, was lowered by 200 – 400 m (Ellenberg ranean climate (Schlanders, 720 m a.s.l., an- & Leuschner 2010) due to human activities nual mean temperature 9.1 °C, annual precip- from prehistoric times until present (Jandl itation 801 mm; https://de.climate-data.org, et al. 2012). The human impact in high accessed 20th June 2018). The Vinschgau main altitudes of the study area dates back to valley is somewhat sheltered by mountain more than 6,000 years (Vorren et al. 1993; ridges and less precipitation is recorded, there- Bortenschlager 2000). According to palynol- fore it is often referred to as an “inner alpine ogical records, the treeline was located more dry valley.” Within the study area, temperat- or less at an elevation of 2,250 m a.s.l. ure and snow cover vary greatly with altitude ± 200-250 m during the whole Holocene and aspect; permanent snow and glaciers oc- (Bortenschlager 2010). Land use and settle- cur above 2500 m a.s.l. and especially above ment of the inner Ötztal occurred from the 3000 m a.s.l. (Dickson 2011b). North of the higher altitudes down to the valley, originating central alpine divide, the glaciated area is still from the southern side of the central alpine much larger according to the higher precipita- divide (Bortenschlager 2000). tion and the lower mean temperatures. How- Even today, large parts of the study area rep- ever, since more than 150 years the glaciers are resent a sustainably developed rural landscape, more or less drastically retreating (Abermann although recently influenced by modern agri- et al. 2013). For instance, the glaciers around culture and tourism. The high number of old Obergurgl reached their maximum historical wooden farm buildings provides a special charm

18 to Ventertal and Schnalstal, as already stressed Poppy (Papaver somniferum) have been im- by Schiechtl & Stern (1980). Even at present, portant crops, but now fruit trees are by far many of these ancient buildings are in use. the major crop. The dense fruit trees are re- For the distribution pattern of the actual and stricted mainly to the colline belt usually be- potential vegetation see Pitschmann et al. low ca. 500 – 600 m a.s.l. Meadows and pas- (1980) and the “Tirolatlas” (www.tirolatlas. tures are reaching higher altitudes and occur uibk.ac.at), for the northern part of the study mainly on the steep slopes of the side valleys area, and Peer (1991, 1995), for the southern (Fig. 3.3, 3.4). These meadows are watered, part. cut two or three times a year and fertilised, the In the following, a brief description of the ve- associations belonging to the order Arrhena- getation begins from the lowest site of the in- theretalia. vestigation area to the highest one and includes also some azonal vegetation types. There is no intention to give a comprehensive overview of Colline to lower montane zone – up to the vegetation but some of the most important ca. 1,000 m a.s.l. (only in the southern plant communities will be mentioned. part of the study area)

Steppe heath Orchards and meadows in the valley A specialised vegetation type adapted to dry bottom and on the lower slopes conditions can be seen on the lower south facing slopes of Vinschgau (usually below Regarding the cultivated land, great differences 1,000 m a.s.l., but single steppe elements may exist between the Austrian and the Italian part reach much higher elevations), Schnalstal and of the study area. Whereas meadows and small Schlandrauntal. Associations of the Festuco- vegetable crop fields (e.g. Potato –Solanum Brometea class and the orders Festucetalia tuberosum) occur in the flatter parts around valesiacae and Brometalia erecti occur. Tradi- Vent, extensive fruit orchards and other in- tionally grazed, this type of vegetation is home tense cultures expand in the Vinschgau low- to many rare steppe plants and also the bryo- land. Side valleys such as the Schnalstal, with flora is peculiar. their very steep slopes, appear to be more sim- ilar to the northern areas in respect of cultiva- Submediterranean deciduous woodland tion apart from their dry southernmost slopes. The lowest and warmest part of the southern There is hardly any potentially natural veget- study area is characterized by a submediter- ation left on the valley floor of Vinschgau – ranean vegetation. From Bozen north-west- now the striking features of that area are the wards through the - to millions of apple trees planted in recent dec- the Vinschgau valley and upwards to middle ades (Fig. 3.2). Formerly, cereals and Opium Schnalstal the climate is mild enough to sup-

19 3 Study area

Fig. 3.2: Looking down on Castle Juval (square 7). In the valley bottom, in the Vinschgau, the ex- tensive apple orchards and the straightened out river Etsch can be seen.

Fig. 3.3: View of Vent village with green meadows, grey-green pastures and Pinus cembra forests (squares 82, 84, 85).

20 Fig. 3.4: Farm houses between Vent and Zwieselstein surrounded by very steep slopes with mead- ows, on the opposite side spruce-larch forest (square 91)

port broad-leaved deciduous trees and shrubs and in the 19th and 20th centuries large parts of such as Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia), this open grassland were reforested with Black Downy Oak (Quercus pubescens), Manna-ash Pine (Pinus nigra). (Fraxinus ornus), Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa) and Small-leaved Lime (Tilia cordata) up to an elevation of ca. 800 m a.s.l. Associations Montane and subalpine zone from ca. from the order Quercetalia pubescentis with 1,000 to 2,300 m a.s.l. (zone of forests Orno-Ostryetum and Quercetum pubescentis north and south of the central alpine and shrub communities from the Prunetalia divide) order as well as the pioneer shrub community Corylo-Populetum prevail. However, large Coniferous forests areas of the originally occurring deciduous Typically, if the trees were not cut down long woodland were cleared in favour of pastures time ago (Stumböck 2000, 2002), the slopes of

21 3 Study area

the valleys are covered by forest, with a timber- subalpine-lower alpine belt, usually domin- line at 2,100 – 2,300 m a.s.l. All communities ated by the True Alpine Rose (Rhododendron with tall conifers in the study area belong to ferrugineum) on soil with acid reaction or the classes Vaccinio-Piccetea, Erico-Pinetea Fringed Alpine Rose (Rhododendron hirsutum) and Pulsatillo-Pinetea (the latter one only on base-rich soil. These dwarf shrub communi- in the south). Today, large areas of the forest ties belong to the class Loiseleurio-Vaccinietea in the valleys are dominated by Larch (Larix with associations such as Rhododendretum decidua; Fig. 3.5). Deliberately encouraged ferruginei, Rhododendretum hirsutae or in the past, this kind of open forest (Festuco- Rhododendro-Vaccinietum. There are also Laricetum) allowed a double use as pasture the low-growing conifers, such as the Dwarf and as source for useful timber. In the areas Mountain Pine (Pinus mugo, Fig. 3.7) form- with enough precipitation (e.g. Vent) we ing the alliance Erico-Pinion mugi, locally in find mixed coniferous forests with Norway large stands on the hillsides. Especially when spruce (Picea abies) and Larch. Peculiar for the relatively base-rich bedrock prevails, Com- Central Alps is the Swiss Stone Pine/Arolla mon Juniper (Juniperus communis ssp.nana) Pine (Pinus cembra) woodland, e.g. at Vent occurs, forming the association Junipero- village (Fig. 3.6) and at Obergurgl (Mayer & Arctostaphyletum. Also Savin (Juniperus Erschbamer 2012). Synsystematically the Swiss sabina) may occur in this community. Stone Pine and Larch woodland belongs to Formerly, the dwarf shrub heath was regularly Larici-Pinetum cembrae, developed at the tim- cut and burnt (in German called “schwenden”). berline of the valleys (e.g. Pfossental, Pfelderer- Nowadays, this management practice is not tal, Obergurgl and Vent). At many areas, allowed anymore. this woodland is now replaced by grasslands On acidic, steep and moist slopes such as ava- (Trisetetum flavescentis) or subalpine pastures lanche paths Green Alder (Alnus alnobetula) (Crepido-Festucetum commutatae, Fig. 3.7, prevails. Usually many different bryophytes see also Mayer et al. 2012). are present in this vegetation type (Alnetum Some bryophytes form a consistent part of the viride). Here, widespread bryophytes are vari- understorey in these woodlands; a good ex- ous species of Barbilophozia and Pleurozium ample is Hylocomium splendens. However, the schreberi, which are by no means only restric- bryodiversity is more concentrated on special- ted to the dwarf shrub zone, they occur also in ised synusia such as bolder scree, shaded cliffs, woodland below. crevices and rotten wood or bark. Pastures occur from well below the timber- line to some hundred metres above the tree- Dwarf shrub heath lines (e.g. Crepido-Festucetum commutatae, Just above the timberline or replacing felled Sieversio-Nardetum strictae). Today, these ar- woodland dwarf shrub heaths extend at ca. eas are grazed by sheep, goats, cattle and horses 1,600 – 2,400 m a.s.l. in the upper montane- from below 2,000 to 2,500 m a.s.l.

22 Alpine and subnival zone from ca. 2,300 Caricetum ferruginei. Apart from the soil to 3,000 m a.s.l. reaction, the vegetation is often patchy ac- cording to soil depth and duration of snow Alpine grasslands cover. Wind edges with Loiseleuria procumbens In the alpine zone, dense alpine grasslands (Loiseleurio-Vaccinion: Loiseleurietum formed by sedges (Carex curvula - acidic soil; procumbentis) and snow beds (e.g. with Salix Carex sempervirens – lime-rich soil) as well as herbacea or Salix retusa, Salix reticulata; by grasses (Nardus stricta – acidic soil, Sesleria Salicetum herbaceae on siliceous rock and caerulea – lime-rich soil) occur depending on Salicetum retusae-reticulatae on lime-rich soil reaction. Corresponding vegetation types rock) represent the extremes in respect of are from the class Caricetea curvulae with snow cover. Whereas the former is exposed at Caricetum curvulae and Sieversio-Nardetum the crests without snow in winter, the latter strictae and from the class Seslerietea albicantis may be covered with snow until mid-summer. with Seslerio-Caricetum sempervirentis and If the ground is unstable due to permafrost

Fig. 3.5: Schnalstal, view down to lower Schnalstal with typical larch woodland on the steep slopes, in the background snow covered mountains (squares 10 to 16).

23 3 Study area

Fig. 3.6: Pinus cembra (Swiss Stone Pine) woodland on the slopes of Mutsbichl near Vent (square 84)

Fig. 3.7: Niedertal near the timberline with extensive Pinus mugo stands from behind a big erratic block called “Hohler Stein” (hollow stone), a place of prehistoric excavations (square 82).

24 such as in the subnival zone, the vegetation is lichens forming miniature forests (Goffinet et very patchy and mainly characterized by snow al. 2012; Rozzi et al. 2012). bed vegetation and cryptogams. All in all the Fig. 3.8 – 3.13 give some further impressions alpine and subnival zones represent classical of the landscape and vegetation in the alpine cryptogam (co)dominated vegetation types and nival zone. with many different species of bryophytes and

Fig. 3.8: A frozen spring on a summer morn- Fig. 3.10: Gorge above the Martin-Busch- ing in the alpine zone (square 73) Hütte (square 69)

Fig. 3.9: Typical snowpatch with Anthelia, Fig. 3.11: Water irrigated scree in the alpine Racomitrium elongatum and autumn coloured zone – a typical locality for Grimmia mollis leaves of Salix herbacea (square 73) (green cushions; square 70)

25 3 Study area

Fig. 3.12: Exposed wind edge in the alpine zone covered in bryophytes and lichens (square 68)

Fig. 3.13: Finailspitz (3,514 m a.s.l.) in summer (above square 66)

26 Glacier forelands (Fig. 3.14) on permanent snow or ice only special snow Due to the continuous retreat of the alpine algae are able to survive. glaciers, abundant new areas for colonization Due to the discovery of the Iceman in the appear year by year. As an example, Nagl & nival zone, this belt was regarded as the cru- Erschbamer (2010) give a comprehensive sur- cial zone for the assessment of the actual dis- vey of primary succession in the glacier fore- tribution of bryophytes. At the altitude of the land of the Rotmoosferner near Obergurgl. Iceman site, at 3,210 m a.s.l., only a few vas- cular plant species are present (e.g. Ranunculus glacialis and Poa laxa). In contrast, a high di- Nival zone, above 3,000 m a.s.l. versity of lichens, mosses and liverworts, the latter being very diminutive, was found among Above 3,000 m a.s.l., the nival zone with very rock outcrops, cracked stone and permanent restricted plant life occurs (Figs. 3.15, 3.16). ice. Typical moss species of the nival zone are Phanerogams survive on protected sites, while Paraleucobryum enerve, Polytrichum piliferum cryptogams become more important. Growing and Polytrichastrum sexangulare.

Fig. 3.14: View down Tisental, a typical glacial trough valley and glacier forefield, in the distance the reservoir at Vernagt (squares 60, 61, 63, 64)

27 3 Study area

Fig. 3.15: Nival zone near the discovery place of the Iceman; bolder screes and rock cliffs (square 66), small patches of pioneer vegetation, September 2000 (square 66)

Fig. 3.16: Nival landscape between the Similaunhütte and the discovery place of the Iceman (mostly squares 65 and 66) with snow patches and rocky outcrops

28 Azonal vegetation Riverine woodland Since the straightening of the main river Etsch Cliffs and block screes in Vinschgau, the riverine woodlands nearly Not bound to particular altitudes, these hab- disappeared. There are, however, some rem- itats can be found throughout the investigated nant areas such as the Schludernser Au with area. With increasing elevation, phanerogams the typical riverine vegetation still present, get scarcer and cryptogams (bryophytes and harbering communities of Salicetum albae, lichens) take over. Important associations from Salicetum purpureae and Alnion glutinosae- the Asplenietea trichomanis class on more or incanae. Along the rivers of the side valleys, less stable rock are the Androsacetum alpinae riverine woodlands are more or less lacking. (siliceous rock), the Androsacetum helveticae Thus, coniferous forests extend down to the (lime-rich rock) and several associations from river (Fig. 3.17). the Thlaspietea rotundifolii class on scree. Typ- ical components of the bryophyte cover on such rocky sites are different Grimmias (Grimmia, Schistidium).

Wetlands Within living memory, the valley bottom of Vinschgau was much wetter, but nowadays almost all sites are drained and cultivated. Scattered patches of reed fens with various remnants of vegetation belonging to the Phragmiti-Magnocaricetea class can be seen. The only low ground in Vinschgau where Sphagnum spp. (Bog mosses) occurs, lies at the south end of Haider See at 1,500 m a.s.l. At much higher elevations there is more or less acidic peat-forming vegetation with different Sphagnum spp. and other bryophytes of wet- lands such as Warnstorfia spp. Examples are the bogs at Martin-Busch-Hütte (2,500 m Fig. 3.17: Venterbach, downstream of Vent a.s.l. and slightly above), Penaudtal (2,075 m (square 87) with coniferous trees along the a.s.l.) and Kurzras (ca. 2,000 m a.s.l.). river

29