Flavours and Fragrances of Plant Origin Is the Firstfirst Ofof Thethe Series.Series

Home , Eucalyptus oil, Litsea cubeba, Opopanax (perfumery), Sandalwood oil

\NON-WOOD ON-WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS 1

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Flavours and -.2 fragrances of plant origin

~ Food and "_11_ Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

,141 r NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS 1i

FlavoursFlavours and fragrances ofof plant origin

by J.J.W. Coppen

FOOD AND AGRICULTUREAGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITEDUNITED NATIONSNATIONS Rome, 19951995 --- l The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not implyimply thethe expressionexpression ofof anyany opinion opinion whatsoeverwhatsoever on the part ofof thethe FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization of thethe UnitedUnited Nations concerning thethe legallegal statusstatus ofof anyany country,country, territory,territory, citycity oror area or of itsits authorities, authorities, oror concerningconcerning thethe delimitationdelimitation ofof itsits frontiersfrontiers or boundaries.

M-37 ISBN 92-5-103648-9

All rights reserved. No part of this publicationpublication may be reproduced,reproduced, stored in a retrieval systemsystem,, or transmittedtransmitted in anyany formform oror byby any any means, means ,electronic, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the priorprior permissionpermission ofof thethe copyright owner. Applications for such permission,permission, with a statementstatement ofof thethe purpose and extent of thethe reproduction,reproduction, shouldshould be addressedaddressed to thethe Director,Director, PublicationsPuhlications Division,Division, FoodFood andand AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization ofof thethe UnitedUnited Nations,Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome,Rome, ItalyItaly..

0© FAO FAD 19951995 FOREWORD

NonNon-wood-wood forest products are extremely heterogenous. TheyThey playaplay a vital role in the lifelife and welfare of the people.people. AA large large number number of of items items ofof our our everyday everyday useuse containcontain aa varyingvarying proportion ofof non-woodnon-wood forestforest products.products.

Sustainable utilisationutilisation andand development of of non-wood forestforest products are highlyhighly demanding on scientific knowledge and information relatingrelating toto theirtheir resourceresource distribution and management, chemical and biologicalbiological properties, uses,uses, supply-demandsupply-demand situation and soso on.on. However, the informationinformation base of non-wood forestforest productsproducts is is still still weak. weak. Sources of existing information are dispersed.dispersed. There isis a lacklack ofof an an adequate adequate systemsystem ofof compiling compiling andand disseminating available information.information. These exert aa negativenegative influenceinfluence onon thethe developmentdevelopment ofof non-wood forest products.

In orderorder toto remedyremedy thisthis deficiency,deficiency, thethe FAOFAO ForestForest ProductsProducts DivisionDivision hashas initiatedinitiated publication of a new seriesseries onon non-woodnon-wood forest products. TheThe presentpresent publicationpublication onon flavoursflavours and fragrances of plant origin is the firstfirst ofof thethe series.series.

The material for thisthis publicationpublication was prepared by John Coppen of the UK-ODA Natural Resources Institute under the advice and general guidance ofof C. Chandrasekharan, Chief of thethe FAO Non-WoodNon-Wood Forest ProductsProducts andand EnergyEnergy Branch.Branch.

We hope that this publication will serve as a useful reference for all concerned withwith non-non wood forest products.products.

47-4'

Karl-Hermann SchminckeSchmincke Director Forest ProductsProducts DivisionDivision

III CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD iii111 ABBREVIATIONSABBREVIATIONS XX

CHAPTER 11

FLAVOURS AND FRAGRANCESFRAGRANCES OFOF PLANTPLANT ORIGINORIGIN 1

INTRODUCTION 1 FORMAT OF THE REPORTREPORT 4 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE SUCCESSFULSUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT OF NEWNEW OR IMPROVED SOURCESSOURCES OFOF FLAVOURSFLAVOURS ANDAND FRAGRANCESFRAGRANCES 4 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 6

CHAPTER 2 CINNAMOMUM OILS (INCLUDING(INCLUDING CINNAMONCINNAMON ANDAND CASSIA) 7

DESCRIPTION AND USESUSES 7 WORLD SUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 7 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 10 HARVESTING/PRIMARYHARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 10 VALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 11 PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OIL 11 DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL 11 OILS FROM OTHEROTHER CINNAMOMUMCINNAMOMUM SPECIESSPECIES 12 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 13

CHAPTER 3 SASSAFRAS OILOIL 19

DESCRIPTION AND USESUSES 19 WORLD SUPPLY AND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 19 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 21 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 21 VALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 22 PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN OILOIL 22 DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTALAL POTENTIAL 22 PIPER SPECIES AS ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF SAFROLE 22 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 25

vV CHAPTER 4 ROSEWOOD OIL 29

DESCRIPTION AND USESUSES 29 WORLD SUPPLY AND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 29 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 31 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 32 VALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 32 PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OIL 32 DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTALAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL 32 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 34

CHAPTER 5 EUCALYPTUS OIL 37

DESCRIPTION AND USESUSES 37 WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 37 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 40 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 42 VVALUE-ADDED ALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 43 PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OIL 44 DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL 44 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 46

CHAPTER 6 SANDALWOOD OIL 53

DESCRIPTION AND USESUSES 53 WORLD SUPPLY AND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 53 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 54 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 56 VVALUE-ADDED ALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 56 PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OILOIL 56 DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL 57 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 58

CHAPTER 7 LITSEA CUBEBACUBEBA OIL 61

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES 61 WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 61 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 62 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 62

VIvi VALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 63 PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OILOIL 63 DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL 63 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 64

CHAPTER 8 TURPENTINE FROM PINEPINE RESINRESIN 65

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES 65 WORLD SUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 65 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 68 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 69 VALUE-ADDEDV ALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 72 PRODUCTS OTHEROTHER THANTHAN TURPENTINE/RESINTURPENTINE/RESIN 72 DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL 72 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 73

CHAPTER 9 OLffiANUMOLIBANUM (FRANKINCENSE), MYRRH ANDAND OPOPANAX RESINS AND OILS 81

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES 81 WORLD SUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 81 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 83 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 85 VALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 86 PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN RESINRESIN 86 DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL 86 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 87

CHAPTER 10 CEDARWOOD OILS 93

DESCRIPTION AND USESUSES 93 WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS 93 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES 95 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING 96 VVALUE-ADDED ALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING 96 PRODUCTS OTHEROTHER THANTHAN OILOIL 96 DEVELOPMENTALDEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL 97 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY 97

viiVll TABLES

Table 1:1: Exports of cinnamoncmnamon bark oil fromfrom SriSri Lanka, andand destinations,destinations, 1987-921987-92 16

Table 2: Exports ofof cinnamoncmnamon leafleaf oil from SriSri Lanka,Lanka, and destinations, 1987-921987-92 16

Table 3: Imports of cassiacassia oiloil intointo thethe UnitedUnited States,States, andand sources,sources, 1987-931987-93 17

Table 4: Cinnamomum species with actual or potential use as sourcessources ofof chemical chemical isolates 17

Table 5: Exports ofof sassafrassassafras oiloil fromfrom Brazil,Brazil, andand destinations,destinations, 1986-901986-90 27

Table 6: Exports ofof rosewoodrosewood oiloil fromfrom Brazil,Brazil, andand destinations,destinations, 1986-921986-92 36

Table 7: Imports ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil intointo thethe EuropeanEuropean Community,Community, andand sources,sources, 19841984-90-90 50

Table 8:8: Imports of eucalyptuseucalyptus oil intointo thethe UnitedUnited States,States, 1984-901984-90 50

Table 9: World productionproduction andand exportsexports (excluding(excluding re-exports)re-exports) ofof cineole-typecineole-type eucalyptus oil estimatedestimated forfor 19911991 51

Table 10:10: Exports of sandalwood oil from India, and destinations, 1987/88-19921987/88-1992/93/93 60

Table 11:11: Exports ofof sandalwoodsandalwood oiloil fromfrom Indonesia,Indonesia, andand destinations,destinations, 1987-921987-92 60

Table 12:12: PrincipalPrincipal producersproducers andand productionproduction volumes of gumgum turpentineturpentine (and(and rosin) 79

Table 13: ExportsExports ofof gum gum turpentine turpentine fromfrom Indonesia,Indonesia, andand destinations.destinations, 1988-921988-92 79

Table 14: ExportsExports ofof incense incense gum gum from from Somalia, Somalia, andand destinations,destinations, 1975-801975-80 90

Table 15: ExportsExports ofof myrrh myrrh from from Somalia, Somalia, andand destinations,destinations, 1976-791976-79 90

Table 16: ExportsExports of of incense incense gum gum from from Ethiopia, Ethiopia, and and destinations, destinations, 1981-831981-83 91

Table 17: ExportsExports of olibanum/frankincense from India, and destinationsdestinations,, 1987/88-1992/93 91

Table 18:18: Principal sourcessources ofof olibanum,olibanum, myrrhmyrrh andand opopanaxopopanax andand estimatedestimated worldworld trade, 19871987 92

Table 19:19: ImportsImports of of cedarwood cedarwood oiloil intointo thethe UnitedUnited States,States, andand sources,sources, 1989-931989-93 99

Table 20: ImportsImports ofof cedar cedar oiloil intointo Japan,Japan, andand sources,sources, 1989-931989-93 99

Vlllviii PHOTOGRAPHS

1. Wild Piper hispidenerviutnhispidenervium growing on forest verge, Acre state, Brazil [c.[C. Green, NRI].NRI]. 26

2. Field trials: CoppicedCoppiced PiperPiper hispidenerviumhispidenervium awaiting itsits fourthfourth harvest,harvest, BrazilBrazil [D.[D. Baker, NRI]. 26

3. Rosewood logslogs (Aniba rosaeodora)rosaeodora) being transportedtransported byby riverriver toto the distillery, BrazilBrazil [FCAP].[FCAP] . 35

4. Propagation trials:trials: Seedling ofof Aniba rosaedora growing IIIin partialpartial shade,shade, BrazilBrazil [FCAP]. 35

5. Propagation trials: BranchBranch method of developing juvenilejuvenile stemsstems ofof AnibaAniba rosaeodorarosaeodora for clonal propagation, BrazilBrazil [FCAP].[FCAP]. 36

6. Eucalyptus leaves awaiting distillation. Eucalyptus globulus, showing juvenile and adult leaves, Portugal [J.[J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 48

7. Harvesting Eucalyptus smithii,stnithii, Swaziland.Swaziland. First First cutcut at aboutabout 2424 monthsmonths [J.[J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI]. 48

8. Eucalyptus leaves being loaded intointo stillsstills forfor distillation.distillation. EucalyptusEucalyptus smithii, Swaziland [J.[J . Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 49

9. Regularly coppiced naturalnatural standsstands ofof Eucalyptus Eucalyptus polybracteapolybractea awaitingawaiting harvesting,harvesting, Australia [J. Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 49

10. Traditional form of tappingtapping practised in Indonesia, Pinus merkusii [J.[J. Coppen, NRI]. 75

11 . Tapping Pinus merkusii in Thailand, which also involves removal of wood from the tree [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 75

12. Tapped face ofof PinusPinus elliottiielliottii showingshowing barkbark removalremoval (wide(wide face).face), SouthSouth AfricaAfrica [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 76

13. Tapped face ofof PinusPinus elliottiielliottii showingshowing barkbark removalremoval (narrow(narrow face),face), SouthSouth AfricaAfrica [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 76

14. Tapping Pinus elliottii in BrazilBrazil illustratingillustrating useuse of plasticplastic bags for resinresin collectioncollection [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 77

15. Pinus cafibaeacaribaea inin thirdthird yearyear ofof tapping, tapping, SouthSouth AfricaAfrica [J.[J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI]. 77

16. Quality assessment: CollectionCollection of of aa sample of resin fromfrom PinusPinus merkusii,merkusii, ThailandThailand [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI] . 78

17. Olibanum ("beyo") collected from Boswellia sacra,sacra, Somalia [J. Coulter, NRI].NRI]. 89

18. Boswellia sacra,sacra, SomaliaSomalia [J. Coulter,Coulter, NRI].NRI]. 89

APPAPPENDIXENDIX

Appendix 1:1: Basic principles of steamsteam distillationdistillation 101

ixIX ABBREVIATIONS

CENARGEN Centro NacionalNacional dede RecursosRecursos GenéticosGeneticos ee BiotecnologiaBiotecnologia (Brazil)(Brazil) CC&F & F Cost and freight CIF Cost, insurance,insurance, freightfreight EMBRAPA Empresa BrasileiraBrasileira dede PesquisaPesquisa AgropecuáriaAgropecmiria (Brazil)(Brazil) EC European CommunityCommunity EOA Essential Oil Association of USAUSA FAO Food and AgricultureAgriculture OrganizationOrganization of thethe UnitedUnited NationsNations FCAP Faculdade de CiénciasCiencias AgrariasAgrarias dodo ParaPara (Brazil)(Brazil) FMA Fragrance MaterialsMaterials AssociationAssociation of USAUSA FOB Free onon boardboard FOT Free on tankertanker INPA Instituto Nacional dede PesquisasPesquisas dada AmazôniaAmazonia (Brazil)(Brazil) ISO International StandardizationStandardization OrganizationOrganization ITE Institute of TerrestrialTerrestrial EcologyEcology (UK)(UK) NRI Natural ResourcesResources InstituteInstitute (UK)(UK) ODA Overseas DevelopmentDevelopment AdministrationAdministration (UK)(UK) OFI Oxford ForestryForestry InstituteInstitute (UK)(UK) pa per annumannum

In all Tables:Tables:

indicates nil indicates < 0.50.5 tonnestonnes (except(except Table 1,I, << 0.050.05 tonnes)tonnes) na indicates notnot availableavailable ne indicates not estimated

x CHAPTER 1 FLAVOURS AND FRAGRANCESFRAGRANCES OFOF PLANTPLANT ORIGIN

INTRODUCTION

Taste and smellsmell areare thethe twotwo mostmost sensitive sensitive humanhuman senses.senses. The nose can oftenoften detectdetect andand distinguish odours at a level which even modernmodern instrumentationinstrumentation isis hard hard pressed pressed to to achieve. achieve. The natural world - especially that of higher plants - provides a multitude ofof flavoursflavours andand fragrances,fragrances, either directly oror indirectly,indirectly, whichwhich impingeimpinge uponupon thesethese senses.senses. Over the course of time,time, andand with the benefit of manymany thousandsthousands of speciesspecies of plants from which to produce them,them, countlesscountless numbers of such flavours andand fragrancesfragrances havehave found their way via essential oils intointo everydayeveryday life: intointo foodsfoods andand drinksdrinks andand confectioneryconfectionery items;items; intointo productsproducts for personalpersonal use suchsuch asas perfumes, deodorants,deodorants, shampoos,shampoos, bathbath lotions,lotions, toilettoilet soaps,soaps, toothpastestoothpastes andand mouthmouth washes;washes; intointo pharmaceutical preparationspreparations wherewhere flavoursflavours areare addedadded toto makemake thethe product more appealing oror to mask the taste of lessless agreeableagreeable ones;ones; intointo itemsitems used about the house or office or inin industryindustry such as airair fresheners,fresheners, laundrylaundry soaps,soaps, detergents,detergents, cleaningcleaning agenfsagents and thethe like;like; intointo tobaccotobacco products; the listlist isis endless.endless.

In 1985,1985, LAWRENCELAWREN CE estimatedestimated totaltotal worldworld productionproduction ofof essentialessential oils to bebe approximately 36,500 tonnes. (This(This figure figure excludesexcludes turpentine,turpentine, whichwhich inin 19851985 wouldwould havehave beenbeen around 250,000 tonnes; see TURPENTINE, this report.) LevelsLevels ofof production production werewere givengiven forfor 168 individual oils;oils; a further 6262 oilsoils werewere listedlisted forfor whichwhich estimatesestimates could not bebe provided.provided. Production ranged from the large-volumelarge-volume orange oil (ca 12,000 tonnes) to those with less than one tonne.

More recently,recently, thethe samesame authorauthor (LAWRENCE,(LAWRENCE, 1993)1993) listed the world's toptop 2020 essentialessential oils inin volumevolume termsterms (again,(again, excludingexcluding turpentine).turpentine). Orange oil production was estimatedestimated at 26,000 tonnestonnes (valued(valued atat US$58.5US$58.5 million).million). Cornmint (Mentha arvensis) and eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil (cineole-type) werewere placedplaced second andand third, respectively,respectively, with aroundaround 4,0004,000 tonnestonnes each.each. Patchouli was 20th, with just under 600 tonnes production.production. In total,total, thethe toptop 2020 oilsoils amountedamounted to almostalmost 56,00056,000 tonnestonnes valuedvalued atat US$340US$340 million.million.

VERLET (1993) has givengiven aa slightlyslightly lowerlower estimateestimate of worldworld productionproduction of "volatile"volatile oils": approximatelyapproximately 45,00045,000 tonnes.tonnes. Of this, aboutabout 6565 percentpercent is estimatedestimated to comecome fromfrom perennial woody plants.plants. AboutAbout 5555 percentpercent ofof worldworld production (in value terms)tenis) comescomes fromfrom 2525 developing countries, the most important of which are the People's RepublicRepublic of China,China, Brazil,Brazil, Indonesia and India.India.

Such figures are quoted to give an indication ofof thethe scalescale andand scopescope ofof thethe industry.industry. TheThe number of plantplant speciesspecies whichwhich areare involvedinvolved isis impossibleimpossible toto estimateestimate accuratelyaccurately but mustmust reachreach several hundreds for thosethose oilsoils whichwhich are tradedtraded andand manymany more forfor thosethose whichwhich areare producedproduced and usedused locally.locally. They are distributeddistributed amongstamongst numerousnumerous botanical families and encompassencompass higher and lower plants, gymnospermsgymnosperms and angiosperms, mono- and di-cotyledons, annuals and perennials, wildwild and and cultivatedcultivated sources.sources. Thousands more species have yielded volatile oils in the course of searchingsearching for new oils but, for oneone reason or another, (poor(poor yields, poor quality,quality, unfavourable economics,economics, poorpoor markets) markets) havehave nevernever reachedreached thethe pointpoint ofof commercial exploitation.

1 Before thethe adventadvent ofof syntheticssynthetics andand thethe productionproduction ofof certaincertain flavoursf1avours andand fragrancesfragrances from petrochemicals, virtuallyvirtually allall suchsuch materials were obtained fromfrom plantplant sources.sources. AA fewfew werewere obtained from animals.animals. Even today,today, thethe buildingbuilding blocksblocks ofof manymany syntheticsynthetic compoundscompounds areare derived from plants.plants. Turpentine obtained fromfrom pinepine treestrees isis the prime example ofof this: alpha-alpha and beta-pinene have no directdirect flavourf1avour and fragrancefragrance use themselves, but are isolatedisolated fromfrom suitable species ofof Pinus and convertedconverted into derivatives withwith aa wide range of flavourf1avour andand fragrance applications.applications.

Other plants, too,too , yieldyield essentialessential oilsoils whichwhich areare usedused asas sourcessources ofof chemicalchemical isolatesisolates forfor derivative manufacture.manufacture. ChineseChinese and and Brazilian Brazilian sassafras sassafras oilsoils fromfrom CinnarnotnumCinnamomum camphora andand Ocotea pretiosa,pretiosa, respectively, areare both sources of safrole,safrole, whichwhich is usedused toto manufacturemanufacture heliotropin, aa valuablevaluable flavourf1avour andand fragrancefragrance compound.compound. C. catnphoracamphora is also a sourcesource of natural camphor.

Rosewood oil was once an importantimportant source of linalool,linalool, an aromaaroma chemicalchemical inin itsits ownown right but also a precursor forfor otherother fragrancefragrance compounds.compounds. AlthoughAlthough cheapercheaper sourcessources ofof linaloollinalool are nownow utilizedutilized (still(still ofof plantplant origin),origin), rosewoodrosewood stillstill finds favour as a whole oil for perfumery use. Sandalwood oil,oil, too, is prizedprized inin perfumeryperfumery and the wholewhole oil givesgives anan aromaaroma whichwhich synthetic substitutes cannotcannot match.match. Lemon-likeLemon-like citralcitral isis obtainedobtained fromfrom LitseaLitsea cubeba.cubeba.

Eucalyptus oils are used in whole form for perfumery use; in refined form as flavourf1avour andand fragrance products;products; oror asas rawraw materialsmaterials forfor thethe isolationisolation ofof cineole cineole oror citrinellalcitrinellal (depending(depending onon the species of Eucalyptus which isis utilized).utilized). CedarwoodCedarwood oils are also used both in whole form and as sourcessources ofof aromaaroma chemicals.chemicals.

Some odoriferous materials are obtained, and used,used, in a formform otherother thanthan anan oil.oil. TheThe bestbest grades of olibanum (frankincense) are chewed forfor their pleasant f1avour,flavour, whilewhile othersothers are burnt and employed as incenseincense inin religiousreligious ceremoniesceremonies or aboutabout the house.house.

All ofof thethe oilsoils oror resinsresins referredreferred toto aboveabove areare employedemployed todaytoday asas flavourflavour oror fragrancefragrance materials and form the basis of this report. TheyThey allall havehave establishedestablished markets but offer potential for increasedincreased oror improvedimproved production,production, sometimessometimes fromfrom plantplant sourcessources which areare alternativesalternatives toto existing onesones.. TheyThey areare chosenchosen toto illustrateillustrate thethe diversitydiversity of natural flavours and fragrancesfrauances andand the sorts ofof opportunitiesopportunities (and(and constraints) which exist.exist. ManyMany othersothers mightmight havehave beenbeen used.used.

Some, such as frankincensefrankincense and myrrh, havehave beenbeen usedused forfor thousandsthousands ofof years.years. Others such as LitseaLitsea cubebacubeba andand CedrusCedrus deodaradeodara oilsoils havehave becomebecome articlesarticles ofof commercecommerce moremore recently, inin thethe lastlast fortyforty years.years. TheThe plants plants from from which which they they areare obtainedobtained comecome fromfrom aa varietyvariety of ecological zones: thethe moistmoist rainforestsrainforests ofof SouthSouth America; the semi-aridsemi-arid regions ofof Africa;Africa; thethe more temperate areasareas ofof NorthNorth America;America; thethe mountainousmountainous regions of Asia;Asia; andand manymany others.others. They range fromfrom thethe slow-growingslow-growing sandalsandal treetree toto thethe fast-growingfast-growing eucalypts.eucalypts.

2 BasicBasic datadata on the plants described in this report areare givengiven below:below:

Genus Family Main producing MainMain regionsregIOns applications

CinnamomumCinnaniomum Lauraceae Asia FlavourFlavourss Fragrances Chemical isolatesisolates

Ocotea Lauraceae Latin America Fragrances Chemical isolatesisolates

Aniba Lauraceae Latin America Fragrances

Litsea Lauraceae Asia Fragrances Chemical isolatesisolates

Piper Piperaceae Latin America Chemical isolatesisolates

Eucalyptus MyrtaceaeMy rtaceae Worldwide Flavours Fragrances Chemical isolatesisolates Medicinal

Santalum Santalaceae Asia, PacificPacific Fragrances

BosvvelliaBoswellia Burseraceae Africa, AsiaAsia Flavours Fragrances

Commiphora Burseraceae Africa, AsiaAsia Flavours Fragrances

PiTIUSPinus Pinaceae Worldwide Flavours Fragrances (both via chemicalchemical isolates) Others

Cedrus Pinaceae Africa,Africa, AsiaAsia Fragrances Chemical isolatesisolates

Cupressus CupressaceaeCupressaceae Asia Fragrances Chemical isolatesisolates

JuniperusJuniperus Cupressaceae North America,America, Fragrances Africa Chemical isolatesisolates

3 FORMAT OF THETHE REPORTREPORT

The format within which each oil or resinresin isis discusseddiscussed is structured so as toto hiahlighthighlightb- aa number of points:points:

its uses;uses;

present (and, wherewhere possible,possible, predicted)predicted) supplysupply andand demand,demand, includingincluding nationalnational and international quality criteria andand prices;prices;

plant sources,sources, includingincluding thethe variabilityvariability in oiloil yieldsyields andand qualityquality thatthat maymay occuroccur withinwithin natural populations, and the effects, possibly harmful, that oil production may have had on thethe resource;resource;

the typetype ofof harvesting harvesting andand primaryprimary processing, processing methodsmethods employed;employed;

the nature ofof anyany value-addedvalue-added processing;processing;

other uses to whichwhich the plant is, oror couldcould be,be, put;put;

and thethe developmentaldevelopmental potential ofof the oil, withwith anan indicationindication ofof somesome ofof thethe researchresearch needs necessarynecessary toto maximizemaximize thethe socialsocial andand economiceconomic benefitsbenefits whichwhich areare sought.sought.

A selectedselected bibliographybibliography is appendedappended forfor each oil/resin to enableenable thosethose whowho wishwish toto explore the subject in more detaildetail toto dodo so.so.

REQUIREMENTS FORFOR THETHE SUCCESSFULSUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT OF NEWNEW OROR IMPROVEDIMPROVED SOURCES OFOF FLAVOURSFLAVOURS ANDAND FRAGRANCESFRAGRANCES

Some importance has been attached in the reportreport toto providingproviding anan indicationindication ofof marketsmarkets for thethe oilsoils oror resinsresins andand pastpast and and present present supplysupply sources.sources. It isis aa mistake,mistake, oftenoften mademade byby researchers andand others,others, toto havehave nono thoughtthought forfor whichwhich marketmarket thethe productproduct of one'sone's endeavourendeavour isis most likely toto succeedsucceed inin oror thethe opportunitiesopportunities oror constraintsconstraints thatthat maymay existexist forfor itsits development.development. If suchsuch considerationsconsiderations areare given,given, theythey areare usuallyusually relegatedrelegated toto secondsecond placeplace while while technical technical matters are attendedattended to.to.

Essential oil productionproduction isis nono ditTerentdifferent fromfrom anyany otherother agricultural-based agricultural-based industry.industry. Sustainable productionproduction isis dependent uponupon itit beingbeing remunerativeremunerative toto thethe producerproducer andand atat least as attractive as other options that are open toto him.him. ThisThis meansmeans thatthat therethere needsneeds to be a reasonablereasonable market for thethe product.product. Development willwill notnot follow spontaneously fromfrom thethe enthusiasm of researchersresearchers,, nono mattermatter howhow well-intentionedwell-intentioned this isis (COPPEN(COPPEN and GREEN,GREEN, 1993).1993).

One misconception isis that there areare particularparticular opportunitiesopportunities for newnew perfumeryperfumery oils,oils, previously unknown in trade.trade. The reality is thatthat thethe generallygenerally conservativeconservative nature of thethe essential oils industry and the uncertainties in supply ofof suchsuch oilsoils fromfrom originorigin (both(both inin termsterms ofof quantity and quality) make the productionproduction of completelycompletely new oils something that has onlyonly aa small chance ofof success.success.

4 Of more likelylikely successsuccess isis thethe productionproduction of:of:

(a) established oils for whichwhich there isis knownknown demand and fair prospects for aa newnew producer;producer; or

(b) large-volume oils to serveserve asas alternativealternative sourcessources ofof chemicalchemical isolatesisolates toto existing,existing ones.

One example of the latterlatter approachapproach (which(which isis discussed in this report) is the potential use of previously unexploited Piper spp. as sourcessources of safrole. SuccessSuccess inin suchsuch aa ventureventure willwill bringbring with it environmentalenvironmental benefitsbenefits asas wellwell asas thethe provisionprovision ofof income-earning income-earning opportunitiesopportunities toto thosethose who take itit up.up.

Over the past decade, asas hashas been remarked elsewhere (GREEN and HONE, 1992),1992), therethere have been manymany initiativesinitiatives withinwithin developingdeveloping countries to establish new essential oil industries.industries. UnfortunatelyUnfortunately,, the number of failures has exceeded thethe successessuccesses.. The formerformer havehave frequentlyfrequently arisen from basicbasic mistakes:mistakes: hasty,hasty, inappropriateinappropriate selection of planting stock; misreadingmisreading of markets andand prospectsprospects inin thethe faceface ofof the the knownknown competition;competition; miscalculationmiscalculation of returnsreturns againstagainst alternative crop options in thethe investmentinvestment area; andand poorpoor marketingmarketing ofof thethe product.product.

An importantimportant factorfactor inin thosethose developmentsdevelopments which have succeeded is the degree ofof locallocal commitment toto the venture which hashas beenbeen mademade by by the the primaryprimary raw raw material material producers producers.. The attitudes and motivations ofof the prospectiveprospective farmers to essentialessential oil productionproduction need toto bebe understood and modified ifif necessary toto assistassist inin thethe development.development. WhereWhere harvestingharvesting of wildwild trees or plantsplants isis practisedpractised whichwhich threatensthreatens the survival of the speciesspecies or thethe maintenancemaintenance of biodiversity, then alternative, sustainable optionsoptions must must bebe putput forward to the peoplepeople whosewhose livelihoods may depend on it.it. Enforced regulation byby legislation isis not the answer.

Having established that there is a marketmarket for aa particularparticular flavourflavour oror fragrancefragrance (whether(whether domestic or international)international) and an opportunity for new or improvedimproved productionproduction,, what action is necessary to put these ideas into practice? OneOne approachapproach to the problemproblem in some parts of thethe world is the developmentdevelopment of agroforestryagroforestry systems, involving treestrees andand aa mix of food and cash crops. The cash cropscrops miE.,,htmight be be essential essential oil-bearing oil-bearing plants plants but but must must be be carefullycarefully selectedselected on the basis of knownknown demanddemand ratherrather thanthan onon fancifulfanciful ideasideas of exotic natural oils inevitablyinevitably finding a market inin thethe environmentally-consciousenvironmentally-conscious world.world.

Selection ofof tree cropscrops suchsuch asas Cinnamomum,Cinnamomum, Piper and Eucalyptus,Eucalyptus, which can be harvested under a coppice system of management, offers opportunitiesopportunities forfor development.development. SomeSome or allall ofof thethe researchresearch needsneeds enumeratedenumerated inin thethe sectionsection onon PiperPiper hispidinerviumhispidinervium in Chapter 33 areare applicable to other treetree cropscrops andand thethe sequencesequence ofof eventsevents whichwhich are neededneeded to develop them.them . InIn the case ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus itit isis possiblepossible toto growgrow itit asas aa multipurposemUltipurpose crop from which fuelwood or poles can bebe producedproduced asas wellwell asas oil.oil. Slower-growing treestrees such as rosewood and sandalsandal areare more difficultdifficult toto bring,bring underunder cultivationcultivation butbut thethe possibilitypossibility ofof utilizing utilizing sustainablysustainably harvestedharvested rosewood leaf,leaf, rather than wood, as aa sourcesource ofof essentialessential oiloil mightmight bebe possible;possible; andand thethe successful cultivation of sandalsandal inin India inin areas of natural stands not susceptible to spike disease may yetyet bebe achieved.achieved.

Harvesting of wildwild forestforest treestrees oror shrubsshrubs isis conceptuallyconceptually attractive,attractive, particularly if it involves non-destructive harvesting ofof aerial parts suchsuch asas leavesleaves oror terminalterminal branchesbranches whichwhich quickly regrow. However,However, the the problems problems of of collecting collecting materialmaterial thatthat maymay be scattered over wide

5 areas, perhapsperhaps ofof difficultdifficult terrain,terrain, areare great.great. TheThe supply supply ofof raw raw materialmaterial forfor distillationdistillation wouldwould be unpredictableunpredictable and probablyprobably too smallsmall toto meetmeet marketmarket demand,demand, andand thethe variabilityvariability andand uncertainty of thethe oiloil qualityquality fromfrom widelywidely sourcedsourced biomassbiomass wouldwould createcreate furtherfurther problems.problems.

Bringing treestrees underunder cultivationcultivation hashas advantagesadvantages insofar as bothboth inputsinputs andand outputsoutputs areare well-defined andand can bebe controlledcontrolled andand adjustedadjusted asas thethe needsneeds demand.demand. Selection andand improvement of plantingplanting stockstock asas aa meansmeans ofof improvingimproving oiloil qualityquality andand productivityproductivity -- whichwhich areare not options when utilising wild trees - also become possible.possible. ProvisionProvision ofof sustainablysustainably harvestedharvested plant material for distillationdistillation can bebe undertakenundertaken in severalseveral ways:ways: onon aa smallholdersmallholder basis,basis, withwith farmers owningowning individualindividual distillationdistillation units; by somesome formform ofof cooperativecooperative inin whichwhich individualindividual outgrowers contribute raw material to a singlesingle distillery; or through an estate feeding a central distillery.

Whatever thethe fashionsfashions ofof thethe day,day, flavoursflavours andand fragrancesfragrances ofof plantplant originorigin willwill continuecontinue to be inin demand.demand. AndAnd whatever whatever form form of of exploitation exploitation isis bestbest suitedsuited toto forestforest andand manman -- naturalnatural stands, monocultures oror mixedmixed croppingcropping systemssystems -- the opportunities for developing countries will remain.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBffiLIOGRAPHY

COPPEN, J.J.W.J.J.W. andand GREEN,GREEN, C.L.C.L. (1993) (1993) OptionsOptions forfor developmentdevelopment ofof newnew essentialessential oiloil industries with specialspecial referencereference toto MalaysiaMalaysia.. 1212 pp. PresentedPresented atat InternationalInternational ConferenceConference onon Essential Oils, Fragrances and Flavours, KualaKuala Lumpur, 31 October-4 NovemberNovember,, 1993.

GREEN, C.L.C. L. andand HONE,HONE, G.A.G. A. (1992) (1992) Essential Essential oil oil production production in in developing developing countries.countries. pppp.. 197-202.197-202. In ProceedingsProceedings ofof thethe 3rd3rd MternationalInternational ConferenceConference onon AromaticAromatic andand MedicinalMedicinal Plants, Nyons,Nyons, France,France, 2-42-4 December,December, 1991.1991.

LAWRENCE, B.M.B.M. (1985)(1985) AA reviewreview ofof the world production ofof essentialessential oils oils (1984). (1984). PeifumerPerfialler and Flavorist,Flavorist, 10(5),10(5), 1-16.1-16.

LAWRENCE, B.M. (1993)(1993) AA planningplanning schemescheme toto evaluate new aromatic plants forfor the flavour and fragrance industries.industries. pp. 620-627.620-627. In NewNew Crops.Crops. JanickJanick,, J.J. andand Simon,Simon, J.E. (eds).(eds). 710 pp. NewNew York: York: JohnJohn WileyWiley && Sons.Sons.

VERLET, N. (1993)(1993) CommercialCommercial aspects [of[of essentialessential oil oil production]. production]. pppp.. 137-174.137-174. In Volatile Oil Crops: Their Biology, BiochemistryBiochemistly and and Production. Production. Hay,Hay, R.KR.K.M..M. and Waterman, P.G. (eds). 185 pp.pp. Harlow,Harlow, UK:UK: Longman.Longman.

6 CHAPTER 2 CINNAMOMUM OILS (INCLUDING(INCLUDING CINNAMONCINNAMON ANDAND CASSIA)CASSIA)

CinnamornumCinnamomum is is aa largelarge genus,genus, manymany speciesspecies ofof whichwhich yieldyield aa volatilevolatile oiloil onon distillation.distillation. TheThe composition of the oil, andand thereforetherefore itsits valuevalue and the use to which it is put, depends very much on thethe speciesspecies thatthat isis distilleddistilled asas wellwell asas thethe partpart ofof the the plantplant whichwhich isis utilized.utilized. The mostmost important Cinnamomum oils oils inin worldworld tradetrade areare thosethose fromfrom C. verum (cinnamon barkbark andand leafleaf oils), C.C. cassiacassia (cassia(cassia oil)oil) andand C.C. camphoracamphora (sassafras(sassafras andand HoHo leafleaf oils).oils). The latterlatter speciesspecies provides oils whichwhich areare utilizedutilized asas sourcessources ofof chemical chemical isolates.isolates.

However, aa numbernumber ofof other other CinnamomumCinnamomum species are distilled on a much smaller scalescale and thethe oilsoils usedused eithereither locallylocally oror exportedexported toto regionalregional markets.markets. Given the large numbernumber ofof Cinnamomum speciesspecies thatthat exist,exist, their widespread distributiondistribution inin Asia,Asia, and the number still not characterised inin termsterms ofof essential essential oiloil contentcontent andand composition,composition, thethe genusgenus hashas muchmuch potential forfor providing new treetree cropscrops inin developingdeveloping countries.countries.

The spice oils cinnamon and cassiacassia areare discusseddiscussed first. first. AnAn indicationindication is then given of the types of oil found inin other CinnamomumCinnamomum species,species, includingincluding C.C. camphora,camphora, and those with thethe greatest perceived potential for future use.

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES

Cinnamon barkbark oil oil possesses possesses thethe delicatedelicate aromaaroma ofof thethe spicespice andand aa sweetsweet andand pungentpungent taste. Its majormajor constituentconstituent isis cinnamaldehydecinnamaldehyde butbut other,other, minorminor componentscomponents impart thethe characteristic odour andand flavour.flavour. It is employed mainly in the flavouring industry where itit isis used in meat and fast food seasonings, sauces and pickles,pickles, baked goods,goods, confectionery, cola-type drinks, tobaccotobacco flavoursflavours andand inin dental and pharmaceutical preparations.preparations. PerfumeryPerfumery applicationsapplications are farfar fewerfewer thanthan inin flavoursflavours becausebecause thethe oiloil hashas somesome skin-sensitizingskin-sensitizing properties,properties, but it hashas limited use inin somesome perfumes.perfumes.

Cinnamon leafleaf oiloil hashas aa warm,warm, spicy,spicy, butbut ratherrather harshharsh odour,odour, lackinglacking thethe richrich bodybody ofof the bark oil.oil. Its majormajor constituentconstituent isis eugenoleugenol ratherrather thanthan cinnamaldehyde. cinnamaldehyde. It isis usedused as aa flavouring agent for seasonings andand savorysavory snacks.snacks. AsAs aa cheapcheap fragrancefragrance itit isis addedadded toto soapssoaps and insecticides.insecticides. The oil's highhigh eugenoleugenol content also makes itit valuable asas a source of thisthis chemical for subsequentsubsequent conversionconversion intointo iso-eugenol,iso-eugenol, anotheranother flavouringflavouring agent.

Cassia oiloil is distilled fromfrom aa mixturemixture of leaves,leaves, twigstwigs andand fragmentsfragments of bark.bark. Cinnamaldehyde is the majormajor constituentconstituent and itit isis usedused mainlymainly forfor flavouringflavouring cola-typecola-type drinks,drinks, with smallersmaller amountsamounts usedused inin bakerybakery products,products, sauces,sauces, confectioneryconfectionery andand liqueurs.liqueurs. Like cinnamon bark oil, itsits useuse asas aa fragrancefragrance isis limitedlimited byby itsits skinskin sensitizingsensitizing properties.properties.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

Cinnamon barkbark oil oil is is a ahigh-value high-value essentialessential oiloil butbut thethe volumesvolumes traded are very low.low. In the tenten yearsyears sincesince 19831983 exportsexports from Sri Lanka, virtually the only supplier ofof the oil, have

7 never been more thanthan 2.82.8 tonnes.tonnes. Exports from Sri lanka for the sixsix yearsyears 1987-92,1987-92, togethertogether with their destinations,destinations, areare shownshown inin TableTable 1.1.

The major market is thethe EC,EC, withinwithin whichwhich FranceFrance isis thethe biggestbiggest importer.importer. In recentrecent years the UnitedUnited StatesStates hashas emergedemerged asas thethe secondsecond largestlargest importingimporting country.country.

World demand for cinnamon leafleaf oil oil hashas beenbeen aroundaround 120-150120-150 tonnes pa in recent years, met almost entirely by Sri Lanka. SriSri Lankan Lankan exportsexports (Table(Table 2)2) havehave averagedaveraged about 120120 tonnes pa for thethe periodperiod 1987-92,1987-92, butbut this this includesincludes anan exceptionallyexceptionally lowlow outputoutput inin 1990.1990.

The United StatesStates and Western Europe are the largestlargest markets for cinnamoncinnamon leafleaf oil.oil. Imports intointo FranceFrance andand thethe UKUK havehave fallenfallen inin thethe lastlast fewfew years, asas theythey havehave slightlyslightly forfor India.India. Hong Kong isis aa significantsignificant importerimporter althoughalthough most of thethe oiloil isis re-exported.re-exported.

The ready availabilityavailability of eugenol ex clove leaf oil has led to some loss inin marketsmarkets forfor cinnamon leaf oil.oil. When eugenol is requiredrequired forfor furtherfurther conversionconversion intointo iso-eugenol,iso-eugenol, thatthat produced from cinnamoncinnamon leaf oil possessespossesses a moremore desirabledesirable aromaaroma andand flavourflavour thanthan whenwhen derived from cloveclove leafleaf oil.oil. For mostmost otherother purposes,purposes, however,however, thethe cheapercheaper eugenoleugenol exex cloveclove leafleaf oil is preferred.preferred.

Estimation of world demand for cassia oil is complicated by the fact that export data are not available fromfrom the People's Republic ofof China,China, thethe majormajor producer.producer. Furthermore,Furthermore, thethe oiloil is only separately specified in import statistics of the USA and Japan,Japan, although thesethese are known to bebe thethe majormajor markets.markets.

The levels of importsimports of cassia oil into the USA are shown inin Table 33 for the periodperiod 1987-93.

Imports into the USA have risen in recentrecent years and, withwith aa softsoft drinksdrinks marketmarket whichwhich shows no sign of weakening, demand forfor cassiacassia oiloil isis expectedexpected to to remain remain strong. strong. Imports from Japan andand HongHong KongKong areare almostalmost entirelyentirely re-exportsre-exports ofof ChineseChinese oil.oil.

Japanese imports of cassia oil havehave averagedaveraged 60 tonnes pa for thethe sixsix yearsyears 1988-93,1988-93, virtually all of it coming directly fromfrom thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof China. China. A significant proportionproportion of the importsimports areare re-exportedre-exported (to(to thethe USA,USA, forfor example,example, above).above).

Supply sources

Sri Lanka is thethe onlyonly regularregular suppliersupplier ofof cinnamon barkbark andand leafleaf oils.oils. With thethe exception of 1990, whenwhen bothboth oilsoils werewere inin shortshort supply,supply, productionproduction (as(as reflectedreflected in exports) hashas remainedremained veryvery constant forfor bark oil, withwith aa slightslight downwarddownward trendtrend forfor leafleaf oil.oil. Internal consumption is small so that productionproduction levels are not muchmuch greater thanthan exports.exports.

Madagascar and the SeychellesSeychelles have been intermittent supplierssuppliers ofof leafleaf oil on aa veryvery minor scalescale inin thethe past.past. India produces very small amounts ofof leaf oil for domestic use.

Most cassia oil inin internationalinternational trade isis ofof ChineseChinese origin.origin. There isis believedbelieved toto bebe significant domestic consumption soso total annual production maymay be in excess of 500500 tonnes.tonnes.

8 Small quantitiesquantities ofof cassiacassia oiloil areare producedproduced inin Indonesia,Indonesia, VietViet Nam,Nam, IndiaIndia andand Nepal but these are obtained from speciesspecies ofof CinnamomumCinnamomum otherother thanthan C. cassia (see(see PLANT SOURCES)SOURCES) and are much lessless widelywidely tradedtraded thanthan ChineseChinese oil.oil.

Quality and prices

There isis nono internationalinternational standard for cinnamon barkbark oiloil althoughalthough batchesbatches containingcontaining cinnamaldehyde at the higher endend ofof thethe rangerange fetchfetch thethe higherhigher price.price. In the United States, anan EOA standard specifiesspecifies an aldehydealdehyde content of 55-7855-78 percent.

International (ISO) standardsstandards existexist for for cinnamon cinnamon leaf leaf and and cassia cassia oils. oils. For For cinnamon cinnamon leafleaf oil, rangesranges betweenbetween whichwhich thethe majormajor constituent,constituent, eugenol, should fall are specified in terms ofof total phenol content for oilsoils ofof differentdifferent origin.origin. Oil from the Seychelles usedused to be preferred because of its highhigh eugenoleugenol contentcontent (ca 9090 percent).percent). In practice, Sri LankaLanka nownow accountsaccounts for almost all of thethe oiloil inin internationalinternational tradetrade andand thethe standardstandard specifiesspecifies aa 75-8575-85 percentpercent phenolphenol content. Another constituent ofof the oiloil whichwhich contributescontributes toto its aromatic charactercharacter is cinnamaldehyde andand for Sri LankanLankan oiloil a maximummaximum levellevel of 55 percentpercent is specified. Physico-chemical requirements are also given.

In the United States an FMA monograph, which replaces the old EOA standard, specifies the eugenol content of cinnamoncinnamon leaf oil inin termsterms ofof its its solubilitysolubility inin potassiumpotassium hydroxidehydroxide (80-88 percent).

For cassiacassia oil,oil, cinnamaldehydecinnamaldehyde is thethe majormajor constituentconstituent and aa minimumminimum contentcontent ofof 80 percent isis specifiedspecified inin thethe ISOISO standard.standard. Again, physico-chemical data are provided.

Cinnamon barkbark oil oil is is considerably considerably moremore expensiveexpensive thanthan thethe leafleaf oiloil andand probablyprobably thethe most highly priced of all essential oils. DuringDuring 19921992 itit waswas beingbeing offeredoffered atat aroundaround US$385/kg,US$385/kg, largely reflecting the highhigh rawraw materialmaterial cost.cost. In 19931993 and early 19941994 dealersdealers inin LondonLondon werewere only quoting prices onon request.request.

Cinnamon leafleaf oil, oil, inin contrast, contrast, hashas beenbeen in in the the rangerange US$6.50-7.50/kgUS$6.50-7.50/kg forfor mostmost ofof the the last three years.years. Its priceprice fellfell graduallygradually from aboutabout US$7.50 in early 19911991 toto US$6.50US$6.50 inin mid-1993. InIn late late 19931993 itit hadhad risenrisen againagain toto US$7.30/kgUS$7.30/kg andand in early 19941994 it was US$8.25/kg. Although it is a comparativelycomparatively low-priced oiloil it is still more expensive thanthan cloveclove leafleaf oiloil as a source of eugenoleugenol (which(which waswas approximatelyapproximately US$2.70/kgUS$2.70/kg inin earlyearly 1994).1994).

Cassia oil,oil, too,too, hashas remainedremained fairly level in price over thethe lastlast fewfew years.years. InIn thethe periodperiod early 19911991 toto mid-1993mid-1993 itit fetchedfetched USS33-35/kg.US$33-35/kg. It then fell slightly and in early 19941994 itit waswas about US$29/kg. TheseThese prices prices are are significantly significantly lowerlower thanthan thosethose whichwhich prevailedprevailed inin thethe earlyearly and midmid-1980s,-1980s, when there was a shortageshortage of cassia bark in the People's RepublicRepublic of China.China. Any appreciable rise inin priceprice aboveabove thethe US$30-35/kgUS$30-35/kg levellevel isis likelylikely toto encourageencourage end-usersend-users toto blend cheaply availableavailable syntheticsynthetic cinnamaldehydecinnamaldehyde with natural cassiacassia oil.oil.

9 PLANT SOURCES

Botanical/common names

Family Lauraceae:

Cinnamomum verum Presl True or CeylonCeylon cinnamoncinnamon (syn(syn.. C.C. zeylanicumzeylanicum Nees)Nees) C. cassia PreslPresl Cassia, Chinese cinnamon, "Cassia"Cassia lignea"lignea" C. burmanniiburmannii BlumeBlume Indonesian cassiacassia C. loureiriiloureirii NeesN ees Vietnamese cassia C. tamala (Buch.-Ham.)(Buch.-Ham.) NeesNees && Eberm.Eberm. Indian cassiacassia

Description andand distribution

The genus CinnamomumCinnamomum comprises several hundred species which occur naturallynaturally inin AsiaAsia and AustraliaAustralia.. TheyThey areare evergreenevergreen treestrees andand shrubsshrubs andand mostmost species are aromatic. C. verum,verum, the source of cinnamoncinnamon bark and leafleaf oils,oils, isis aa treetree indigenousindigenous toto SriSri Lanka,Lanka, althoughalthough mostmost oiloil now comes from cultivated areas. Smaller areas of wild trees areare foundfound inin southwesternsouthwestern partsparts of India. C. cassia, thethe sourcesource ofof internationallyinternationally traded cassia oil,oil, occurs wild as a bush in the mountains of southern China but isis nownow cultivatedcultivated for oiloil production,production, mainlymainly inin thethe provincesprovinces of Kwangsi andand Kwangtung.Kwangtung.

The otherother cassiascassias occur wild on thethe islands of SumatraSumatra andand Java,Java, Indonesia (c.(C. burmannii);burmannii); inin VietViet NamNam (C.(c. loureirii);loureirii); andand IndiaIndia andand NepalNepal (C.(c. tamala).tamala). In all casescases thethe trees are alsoalso cultivated.cultivated.

Effects of oil production on the natural resourceresource

Most of thethe aboveabove oilsoils areare nownow derivedderived almostalmost entirely from cultivatedcultivated sources andand therethere is no longerlonger pressure onon thethe wildwild resource.resource.

HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING

CinnamomumCinnarnomum usuallyusually coppicescoppices wellwell andand commercialcommercial productionproduction ofof the bark spices entaientailsls cutting the stemsstems lowlow downdown afterafter anan initial initial establishment establishment periodperiod andand harvestingharvesting thethe bushybushy re-growth stems atat regularregular intervalsintervals thereafter.thereafter. In Sri Lanka, a firstfirst harvestharvest maymay bebe obtainedobtained after 3-4 years,years, althoughalthough bothboth qualityquality andand yieldsyields improveimprove withwith subsequentsubsequent cutting.cutting. The stemsstems are cut duringduring thethe rainyrainy seasonseason toto facilitatefacilitate peelingpeeling ofof thethe bark.bark. Details of harvesting practice differ slightly from country to country but the basic principlesprinciples areare thethe same.same. StripsStrips ofof barkbark areare then formed intointo thethe familiarfamiliar compoundcompound quillsquills (cinnamon)(cinnamon) or hollow quills (cassia) of the spices.

In SriSri Lanka,Lanka, cinnamon bark oiloil is producedproduced by distillationdistillation of chipschips andand variablevariable amounts of featheringsfeatherings (pieces(pieces of innerinner barkbark fromfrom twigstwigs andand twistedtwisted shoots)shoots) andand quillingsquillings (broken fragmentsfragments ofof quills).quills). InIn many many cases cases thethe older older form form ofof hydro-distillation hydro-distillation isis usedused inin whichwhich chips and water areare placedplaced together in the distillation vesselvessel whichwhich isis heated heated by by direct direct fire.fire. TheThe oil distilsdistils overover inin twotwo fractions,fractions, oneone lighterlighter and one heavierheavier than water, and a formform ofof cohobation is used to recoverrecover residualresidual oil fromfrom thethe distillationdistillation waterswaters.. MoreMore modern modern methods methods involveinvolve steamsteam distillation.distillation.

10 The leavesleaves leftleft afterafter trimmingtrimming thethe cutcut stems,stems, asas wellwell asas thosethose obtainedobtained fromfrom pruningpruning operations, provide the raw materialmaterial for productionproduction ofof cinnamon leaf oil.oil. They are usually usually allowed to drydry forfor aa few few days days before before distillation. distillation. Traditional stillsstills inin Sri Lanka are largelarge wooden vesselsvessels capable of holdingholding up to 200 kg of leaves, on top of which is fitted a copper stillstill head. SteamSteam is is introduced introduced from from a a separate separate wood-fired wood-fired boiler.boiler. In some cases, all-metalall-metal vesselsvessels are used andand water-steamwater-steam distillationdistillation isis employed.employed.

Chinese cassia oil isis producedproduced by hydro-distillationhydro-distillation ofof leaves,leaves, twigs andand fragments of bark.

Yields and quality variation

For cinnamoncinnamon andand cassiacassia oilsoils therethere isis moremore potentialpotential thanthan usualusual forfor variationvariation inin oiloil yieldsyields and quality and thisthis makesmakes itit difficultdifficult toto citecite typicaltypical data.data. Not only isis therethere thethe expectedexpected intrinsic variation due to differentdifferent geographical originsorigins of of thethe sourcesource rawraw material, but thethe composition of the charge that is distilled is liable to vary, particularlyparticularly inin thethe casecase ofof cinnamoncinnamon bark oiloil and cassiacassia oil. The methodmethod ofof distillationdistillation usedused (steam(steam vsvs water-steamwater-steam vsvs hydro-distillation) andand otherother differencesdifferences inin distillationdistillation practice practice give give rise rise toto furtherfurther causes of variation.

VALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

Cinnamon andand cassiacassia oilsoils areare bothboth normallynormally rectifiedrectified withinwithin thethe importingimporting country beforebefore sale to end-usersend-users in orderorder toto givegive aa cleanercleaner productproduct oror toto provideprovide anan oiloil withwith moremore uniformuniform composition. Rectification isis also requiredrequired toto produceproduce feedstockfeedstock eugenoleugenol forfor subsequentsubsequent derivative manufacture.manufacture.

PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OIL

The major incentiveincentive to cultivation ofof C. verum and C. cassia hashas beenbeen theirtheir valuevalue asas spice crops, forfor whichwhich worldworld demanddemand isis considerableconsiderable (tens of thousands ofof tonnes of bark annually). IndonesianIndonesian cassiacassia (C.(c. burmanii)burmanii) isis muchmuch moremore importantimportant as a spicespice than as a sourcesource of oiloil andand entersenters internationalinternational tradetrade alongalong withwith ChineseChinese cassia.cassia. There is somesome productionproduction ofof oleoresin for flavouringflavouring purposes,purposes, chieflychiefly inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica fromfrom thethe cheapercheaper IndonesianIndonesian cassia.cassia. Bark also finds local use medicinally,medicinally, particularlyparticularly in the People's RepublicRepublic ofof China.China.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL

For thethe cinnamoncinnamon andand cassiacassia oilsoils ofof international international commerce,commerce, productionproduction ofof oiloil is secondary to the productionproduction of thethe spice.spice. The establishment ofof new areas of thesethese particularparticular Cinnamomum species species will will depend depend upon upon demand demand for for thethe spicespice andand economic returnsreturns to thethe farmer. WhetherWhether "waste" "waste" material material from from spice spice productionproduction isis thenthen utilizedutilized forfor oiloil productionproduction is,is , again, dependent on demand, prevailing oil prices and economiceconomic returns.returns. TheThe closeclose relationshiprelationship between the two commoditiescommodities makes it unlikely that production of oil will shift, geographically,geographically, from thethe traditionaltraditional centrescentres ofof spicespice production.production.

11 Research needsneeds

Apart from improvementsimprovements inin distillationdistillation practice,practice, the greatestgreatest advancesadvances inin productivityproductivity and quality will comecome fromfrom breedingbreeding programmesprogrammes aimedaimed at producingproducing superiorsuperior germplasmgermplasm forfor planting. SomeSome progress progress hashas alreadyalready beenbeen mademade inin identifyingidentifying mothermother plants which give highhidi yields of oiloil and highhigh cinnamaldehydecinnamaldehyde andand eugenoleugenol contentscontents in thethe barkbark andand leavesleaves (GURUSINGHE and KIRINDE, 1985)1985) andand thisthis workwork needsneeds toto bebe continued.continued.

OILS FROMFROM OTHEROTHER CINNAMOIVIUM CINNAMOMUM SPECIES

The diversity of CinnamomumCinnamomum asas aa genus,genus, although notnot asas greatgreat asas,, say,say, EucalyptusEucalyptus,, has analogies withwith the latter in terms of thethe varietyvariety of chemicalchemical types of volatile oiloil that may be distilled from thethe plants.plants. Like Eucalyptus, the samesame speciesspecies ofof CinnamomumCinnamomum can affordafford oilsoils with quite different compositions according toto thethe population beingbeing studied,studied, i.e.i.e. it may exist as different chemotypes.chemotypes. C. camphoracamphora isis aa well-knownwell-known exampleexample and thethe woodwood fromfrom differentdifferent groupsuoups ofof trees trees may may yield yield camphor, camphor, linalool,linalool, safrolesafrole oror cineolecineole asas thethe majormajor chemicalchemical uponupon distillation.

This diversity,diversity , coupledcoupled withwith thethe abilityability ofof mostmost CinnamomumCinnamomum to respond to coppicing (a system of managementmanagement which enables it to be harvestedharvested on aa sustainablesustainable basis), andand aa marketmarket that is alwaysalways receptivereceptive toto new,new, alternativealternative sourcessources ofof natural natural aromaaroma chemicals,chemicals, makesmakes Cinnamomum oneone ofof thethe mostmost promisingpromising areasareas for for researchresearch.. TheThe increasingincreasing number of reports in thethe scientificscientific literatureliterature describingdescribing thethe oiloil characteristicscharacteristics ofof Cinnamomum Cinnamomum speciesspecies isis evidenceevidence of thethe attentionattention theythey areare receivingreceiving inin screening screening programmes.programmes.

Table 4 gives somesome examples of Cinnamomum species species which which are, are, oror mightmight be,be, used as sources ofof commerciallycommercially valuablevaluable chemicalchemical isolates.isolates.

Cinnamomum camphora

C. camphoracamphora waswas heavilyheavily exploitedexploited as aa sourcesource ofof camphorcamphor inin JapanJapan andand TaiwanTaiwan until the SecondSecond WorldWorld War.War. Trees were felledfelled and logs,logs, stumpsstumps andand branchesbranches distilled to givegive crystalline camphor and camphor oil. TheThe speciesspecies waswas introducedintroduced intointo India during the 1950s.1950s. Although yieldsyields ofof camphor areare greater for old trees,trees, leavesleaves andand woodywoody materialmaterial can bebe harvested regularlyregularly fromfrom plantsplants over over five five years years of of age ne whichwhich areare keptkept in in aa bushybushy formform byby coppicing. This form of harvestingharvesting is carried out in thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China.China. The availability of cheap synthetic camphor (ex turpentine), however,however, has meant that there is nownow only modest international demand for the natural form.form. This,This, combinedcombined withwith thethe availabilityavailability ofof competitively priced Chinese camphor (US$3.65/kg(US$3 .65/kg in early 1994)1994) does not make its production elsewhere particularlyparticularly attractive.attractive.

The use of C.C. camphoracamphora asas aa sourcesource ofof HoHo leafleaf oil, onon thethe otherother hand, has expanded in recent years and itit isis nownow anan importantimportant sourcesource ofof naturalnatural linaloollinalool (which(which is still preferred overover the synthetic form forfor somesome fragrancefragrance applications).applications). Chinese Ho oil has largely displaced the use ofof rosewoodrosewood asas aa sourcesource ofof natural natural linalool.linalool.

Fractionation of the camphor-free oil obtained fromfrom C. camphora provides an oil richrich in safrole.safrole. This isis usuallyusually describeddescribed asas ChineseChinese sassafrassassafras oiloil (see(see SASSAFRASSASSAFRAS OIL).OIL).

12 Other CinnamomumCinnamomum speciesspecies

The ease with whichwhich essentialessential oilsoils cancan be obtainedobtained from plantplant materialmaterial (and(and subsequentlysubsequently analyzed in the laboratory)laboratory) makes them ideal candidatescandidates forfor studystudy asas potentialpotential cashcash crops.crops. AA screening programme currently underway at the Forest ResearchResearch Institute of Malaysia focusesfocuses on essential oilsoils ofof indigenous indigenous floraflora andand has has already already examined examined several several Cinnamomum Cinnamomwn species.species. Some are consideredconsidered toto havehave economiceconomic potentialpotential inin providing.,providing rawraw materials for locallocal industry industry and income to farmers who might grow them. C.C. mollissimummollissimum leaves, for example, contain an oil which is richrich inin benzylbenzyl benzoatebenzoate and could find application inin insecticidal preparations.preparations. TheThe trunkwood could possibly be harvestedharvested forfor mucilagemucilage onon aa coppicecoppice systemsystem (for(for mosquitomosquito coilcoil manufacture), in the samesame wayway as C.C. inersiners isis alreadyalready beingbeing growngrown inin Malaysia.Malaysia.

Cinnamomum speciesspecies otherother thanthan C.C. camphora which contain safrole in their leaves have potential for utilization, providing oil yields and safrole content areare high enough to make itsits recovery worthwhile from anan economiceconomic point of view.view.

Leaves of C. tamalatamala (tejpat)(tejpat) areare widelywidely usedused inin northernnorthern India as a spicespice but also furnish an essentialessential oil onon distillationdistillation andand thisthis findsfinds somesome locallocal use.use. Several chemotypeschemotypes exist,exist, producing oils richrich inin cinnamaldehydecinnamaldehyde or eugenol,eugenol, butbut thethe existenceexistence ofof cheapcheap suppliessupplies ofof these these chemicals from other sourcessources (eugenol-rich(eugenol-rich clove leaf oil from Indonesia, for example) means that C. tamalatamala oiloil isis unlikelyunlikely toto findfind widerwider internationalinternational use.use.

Similarly, cineole-richcineole-rich oilsoils fromfrom CinnamomumCinnamomum cannot compete with EucalyptusEucalyptus oils.oils.

The oils of some other CinnamomumCinnamomum speciesspecies areare employedemployed inin wholewhole formform forfor perfumery use although this is usually in a domestic,domestic, rather thanthan internationalinternational contextcontext (e(e.g..g. C. porrectum oil, which is rich inin neral/geranial, isis distilled in the People'sPeople's Republic ofof ChinChina).a). Nevertheless,Nevertheless, the existence of aa locallocal marketmarket maymay bebe sufficientsufficient toto encourageencourage small-scalesmall-scale productionproduction of suchsuch oils. C. osmophloeumosmophloeum is being studied inin Taiwan asas a possible substitutesubstitute forfor cassiacassia oiloil in the food industry.industry.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

ADHIKARY, S.R.,S.R., TULADHAR,TULADHAR, B.S.,B.S., SHEAKSHEAK,, A.,A., BEEK, T.A.V.,T.A.V., POSTHUMUS,POSTHUMUS, M.A. and LELYVELD,LELYVELD, G.P.G.P. (1992)(1992) InvestigationInvestigation ofof NepaleseNepalese essentialessential oils. 1.I. The oil ofof Cinnamomum glaucescensglaucescens (sugandha(sugandha kokila).kokila). Journal ofof Essential Oil Research, 4(2), 151-159.151-159.

BRADU, B.L. andand SOBTI,SOBTI, S.N.S.N. (1988)(1988) CinnamomumCinnamomum tamalatamala inin NWNW Himalayas.Himalayas. EvaluationEvaluation of various chemical types forfor perfumery value.value. IndianIndian Perfinner,Perfumer, 32(4),32(4), 334-340.334-340.

DUNG, N.X.,N.X., KHIEN,KHIEN, P.V.,P.V., CHIEN, CHIEN, H.T.H.T. and and LECLERCQ, LECLERCQ, P.A.P.A. (1993) (1993) TheThe essentialessential oiloil of CinnamomumCinnamomum camphoracamphora (L.) (L.) Sieb.Sieb. var.var. linalooliferalinaloolifera from from Viet Viet Nam. Nam. Journal ofof EssentialEssential OilGil Research, 5(4),5(4), 451-453.451-453.

EOA (1975) Oil of cinnamon barkbark Ceylon.Ceylon. EOAEOA No.No. 87.87. 11 p.p. EssentialEssential OilOil AssociationAssociation of USA.

13 FANG, J.M., CHEN,CHEN, S.A. S.A. and and CHENG, CHENG, Y.S. Y.S. (1989) (1989) Quantitative Quantitative analysisanalysis ofof thethe essentialessential oil of Cinnamomum osmophloeum.osmophloeum. Journal ofof Agricultural and Food Chemistry,Chemistry, 37(3),744-746.37(3), 744-746.

FMA (1992)(1992) CinnamonCinnamon leafleaf oil.oil. 5 pp. FMAFMA Monographs,Monographs, VolumeVolume 1.1. Washington, DC:DC: Fragrance MaterialsMaterials AssociationAssociation ofof thethe UnitedUnited States.States.

GULATI, B.C. (1982)(1982) EssentialEssential oils of Cinnamomum species. species. pp.pp. 607-619.607-619. InIn CultivationCultivation and Utilization of Aromatic Plants. Atal, C.K. andand Kapur,Kapur, B.M.B.M. (eds).(eds). 815 pp. Jammu,Jammu, India:India: Regional Research Laboratory.

GURUSINGHE, P. andand KIRINDE,KIRINDE, S.T.W. (1985)(1985) AA reviewreview ofof researchresearch onon spicespice cropscrops inin SriSri Lanka. NewsletterNewsletter ofof Medicinal Medicinal and ArotnaticAromatic Plants, No.No.2, 2, 37-44.37-44.

ISO (1974) Oil ofof cassia.cassia. International StandardStandard ISOISO 3216-19743216-1974 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp. International Organization for Standardization.Standardization.

ISO (1977)(1977) OilOil ofof cinnamoncinnamon leaf.leaf. International Standard ISOISO 3524-19773524-1977 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp. International OrganizationOrganization forfor Standardization.Standardization.

JANTAN, I.I. andand GOH,GOH, S.H. S.H. (1990) (1990) The The essential essential oils oils of of Cinnamomum Cinnamomum mollissimummollissimum as naturalnatural sources of safrole and benzyl benzoate. JournalJournal qfof Tropical Tropical ForestForest Science,Science, 2(3),2(3), 252-259.252-259.

JANTAN, I. andand GOH,GOH, S.H.S.H. (1992) (1992) Essential Essential oils oils of of Cinnamomum Cinnamomum speciesspecies fromfrom peninsularpeninsular Malaysia. JournalJournal of of Essential Essential OilOil Research,Research, 4(2),4(2), 161-171.161-171.

JI, X.D.X.D.,, PU, Q.L.Q.L.,, GARRAFFO, H.M. andand PANNELL,PANNELL, L.K.L.K. (1991)(1991) EssentialEssential oilsoils of the leaf, bark and branch ofof CinnamomumCinnamomum burmanniiburmannii Blume. Blume. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 3(5), 373-375.

LOCKWOOD, G.B. (1979)(1979) MajorMajor constituentsconstituents of thethe essentialessential oilsoils ofof CinnamomumCinnamomum cassia Blume growinggrowing inin Nigeria. PlantaPlanta Medica,Medica, 36(4),36(4), 380-381.380-381.

LU, B.,B., LI,LI, Y.,Y., MAI, MAl, L., L., SUN, SUN, B. B. and and ZHU, ZHU, L. L. (1986) (1986) Chemical Chemical constituents constituents of of essential essential oiloil from CinnamomumCinnamomum rigidissimum, a new natural resourceresource ofof safrole.safrole. ChemistryChetnistry andand IndustJyIndusto, of Forest Products,Products, 6(4),6(4), 39-44.39-44.

MANZOORKHUDAMANZOOR KHUDA,, M.,M., FARUQ, M.O., RAHMAN,RAHMAN, M., YUSUF,YUSUF, M.,M., WAHAB,WAHAB, M.A.M.A. andand CHOWDHURY, J. (1984)(1984) StudiesStudies on thethe essentialessential oiloil bearingbearing plantsplants ofof Bangladesh.Bangladesh. I.I. A preliminary surveysurvey ofof somesome indigenous varieties. BangladeshBangladesh Journal ofof Scientific andand IndustrialIndustrial Research, 19(1/4),19(1/4), 151-169.151-169.

MOESTAFA, A. andand BADEGES,BADEGES, F.F. (1986)(1986) DistillationDistillation ofof cassiacassia leafleaf oils oils (Cinnamomum (Cinnamomum burmanii, C.C. zeylanicumzeylanicum andand C.C. cassia)cassia) byby cohobationcohobation methodmethod andand thethe identificationidentification ofof oiloil components. WartaWarta IndustriIndustri HasilRasil Pertanian,Pertanian, Indonesia,Indonesia, 3(1),3(1), 22-25.22-25.

NATH, S.C., HAZARIKA,HAZARIKA, A.K.,A.K., BARUAH,BARUAH, R.N., SINGH,SINGH, R.S.R.S. andand GHOSH,GHOSH, A.C. (1994)(1994) Major components of the leaf oil of CinnamomumCinnamomum sulphuratum sulphuratum Nees. Nees. Journal ofof Essential OilOil Research, 6(1),6(1), 77-78.77-78.

14 PURSEGLOVE, J.W.,I.W., BROWN,BROWN, E.G., GREEN,GREEN, C.L.C.L. andand ROBBINS,ROBBINS, S.R.J.S.RI. (1981)(1981) Cinnamon and cassia. pp. 100-173.100-173. InIn Spices, Spices, VolumeVolume 1.1. 439 pp.pp. London:London: Longman.Lonman.

RAO, E.V.V.B.E. V. V.B .(1987) (1987) Characterization Characterization and and evaluation evaluation ofof genetic genetic resourcesresources inin plantationplantation crops. Newsletter of the IBPGRIBPGR RegionalRegional CommitteeCommittee forfor Southeast Asia, Special Issue, 97-98.97-98.

RAO,RAO , Y.R., PAUL,PAUL, S.C.S.C .and and DUTTA,DUTTA, P.K.P.K. (1988) (1988) MajorMajor constituentsconstituents ofof essentialessential oils of Cinnamomum zeylanicum.zeylanicum. Indian Perfumer, 32(1),32(1), 86-89.86-89.

SENANAYAKE, U.M.U.M. andand WIJESEKERA,WIJESEKERA, R.O.B.RO.B. (1990)(1990) TheThe volatilesvolatiles ofof the the CinnanzoinumCinnamomum species. pp. 103-120.103-120. In ProceedingsProceedings ofof thethe 111th lth MternationalInternational CongressCongress ofof EssentialEssential Oils,Oils, Fragrances andand Flavours, Flavours, NewNew Delhi,Delhi, India,India, 12-1612-16 November, November, 1989,1989, VolumeVolume 4.

SHI, W.Y., HE,HE, W.,W., WEN,WEN, G.Y.,G.Y., GUO, GUO, D.X.,D.X., LONG, LONG, G.Y. G.Y. and and LIU, LIU, Y.G.Y.G. (1989) (1989) StudyStudy onon chemical constituents of thethe essentialessential oil andand classificationclassification ofof typestypes fromfrom Cinnamomum Cinnamomum camphora. ActaActa BotanicaBotanica Sinica,Sinica, 31(3),31(3), 209-214.209-214.

SMITH, A.E.A.E .(1986) (1986) MternationalInternational TradeTrade inin Cloves,Cloves, Nutmeg, Mace, Cinnamon, Cassia and theirtheir Derivatives. TDRI ReportReport G193.G193 . 161 pp.pp. London: Tropical DevelopmentDevelopment and ResearchResearch Institute [now[now Chatham:Chatham: NaturalNatural ResourcesResources Institute].Institute].

WANG, C.L.c.L. (1987)(1987) TheThe yieldsyields andand composition composition analysesanalyses ofof essentialessential oilsoils fromfrom plantingplanting Cinnamomum osmophloeumosmophloeum Kaueh Kaueh.. Bulletin ofof the Taiwan ForestryForestry Research Institute, 2(2), 129-144.

WU,WU, H.H . (1992)(1992) A A study study on on the the chemotypes chemotypes of ofCinnamomum Cinnamomum parthenox-ylen parthenoxylen (Jack)(Jack) Nees.Nees. Journal ofof Plant Plant ResourcesResources andand Environment,Environment, China,China, 1(4),1(4), 45-49.45-49.

YAACOB, K.B.,KB., ZAKARIA,ZAKARIA, Z.Z. andand RAMLI, RAMLI, Z. Z. (1990) (1990) Major Major constituents constituents ofof Cinnamomum Cinnamomum parthenoxylon woodwood oil.oil. Journal ofof EssentialEssential OilOil Research, 2(1), 51.51.

ZHOU, R.R (1983)(1983) AA newnew speciesspecies ofof safrole-containing safrole-containing plantplant CinnamomumCinnamomum petrophilumpetrophilum N. Chao.Chao. pp. 102-103.102-103 . InIn ProceedingsProceedings ofof 9th 9th InternationalInternational CongressCongress of EssentialEssential Oils,Oils, Singapore,Singapore, 13-1713-17 March, 1983,1983, BookBook 1.1. Singapore:Sin2apore: Essential OilsOils AssociationAssociation ofof Singapore.Singapore.

ZHU, L.F., LU, LU, B.Y. B.Y and. and LI, LI Y.J., Y.I. (1984) (1984) Studies Studies on on chemical chemical constituentsconstituents ofof essential oil from leaves of jiang-zhang [c.[C. porrectum]. ActaActa BotanicaBotanica Sinica,Sinica, 26(6),26(6), 638-643.638-643.

15 Table 11 Exports ofof cinnamoncinnamon barkbark oiloil fromfrom SriSri Lanka,Lanka, and and destinations, destinations, 1987-92 1987-92 (tonnes)(tornes)

1987 1988 19891989 1990 1991 1992

Total 22.7.7 2.7 22.6.6 0.7 22.8.8 22.8.8

Of which to:to: France 00.6.6 0.6 0.7 00.2.2 1.1 1.1 USA 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 ItalyItaly 0.4 00.3.3 0.40.4 00.1.1 0.2 0.3 UK 0.5 0.4 00.2.2 00.3.3 0.2 Netherlands 0.5 00.2.2 0.3 0.1 0.30.3 0.1 W. GermanyGermany 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.20.2 00.2.2 Switzerland 0.2 0.4 0.2 00.2.2

Source: Sri LankanLankan nationalnational statisticsstatistics

Table 22 Exports ofof cinnamoncinnamon leaf oil from Sri Lanka,Lanka, andand destinations,destinations, 1987-921987-92 (tonnes)

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Total 133 132 162 46 107 119

Of which to:to: USA 38 54 78 13 46 54 UK 29 19 18 2 9 11 France 19 21 24 8 9 8 Hong Kong 11 13 16 14 17 20 IndiaIndia 8 5 7 1 2 2 5 Spain 5 4 6 4 6 3 Switzerland 5 3 5 1 5 7 W. GermanyGermany 5 2 3 3 5

Source: SriSri LankanLankan nationalnational statisticsstatistics

16 Table 3 Imports ofof cassiacassia oiloil intointo thethe UnitedUnited States,States, andand sources, sources, 1987-931987-93 (tonnes)

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Total 221 308 197 333 385 493 445

Of whichwhich from:from: China, People's Rep. of 195 286 123 241 na na na Japan 16 15 21 37 na na na Hong KongKong 7 4 50 44 na na na

Source: AmericanAmerican nationalnational statisticsstatistics

Table 4 Cinnamomum speciesspecies withwith actualactual oror potential use as sources of chemical isolates

Species Plant part Major oiloil percent inin constituent oil

C. camphoracamphora Wood Camphor, linalool,linalool, safrole or cineolecineole C. camphoracamphora var.var. linaloolifera Leaves Linalool 91 C. sulphuratumsulphuratum Leaves Linalool 93 C. petrophilum Leaves Safrole 97 C. tnollissimummollissimum Bark, woodwood Safrole 93,9993, 99 C. mollissimummollissimum Leaves BenzylBenzy I benzoate 78 C. pubescens Bark Eugenol 84 C. tamala Leaves Cinnamaldehyde or eugenol

CHAPTER 3 SASSAFRAS OIL

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES

There are twotwo importantimportant sassafrassassafras oilsoils ofof commerce:commerce: BrazilianBrazilian sassafras oil,oil , obtainedobtained from thethe trunkwood of Ocotea pretiosapretiosa,, andand ChineseChinese sassafrassassafras oil from Cinnamomum ccamphora.amphora. BothBoth ccontainontain 80 percent oror moremore ofof safrole.safrole.

True sassafras oil,oil, fromfrom thethe rootsroots ofof NorthNorth AmericanAmerican SassafrasSassafras albidum,albidum, isis nono longerlonger produced commerciallycommercially,, although it was once the main flavour constituent ofof "root beer". Its use for suchsuch purposes,purposes, andand inin otherother foodsfoods andand drinks,drinks, hashas beenbeen bannedbanned forfor somesome yearsyears becausebecause of fears ofof healthhealth risksrisks associatedassociated withwith consumptionconsumption ofof safrole.safrole.

Only Brazilian and Chinese oils are discussed herehere,, together with oils fromfrom PiperPiper species,species, which show considerableconsiderable promisepromise asas alternative,alternative, sustainablesustainable sourcessources ofof safrole.safrole.

Sassafras oil waswas formerlyformerly usedused inin numerousnumerous householdhousehold fragrancefragrance applicationsapplications suchsuch asas floor waxes,waxes, polishes,polishes, soaps,soaps, detergentsdetergents andand cleaningcleaning agents.agents. Its ability to blend with other oilsoils and its powerfulpowerful maskingmasking propertiesproperties mademade itit valuablevaluable forfor suchsuch purposes.purposes.

HoweverHowever,, thethe principalprincipal use todaytoday is asas aa rawraw materialmaterial forfor thethe isolationisolation ofof safrole.safrole. This is then converted by thethe chemicalchemical industryindustry intointo twotwo importantimportant derivatives:derivatives: heliotropin,heliotropin, whichwhich isis widely used asas aa fragrancefragrance andand flavouringflavouring agent,agent, andand piperonalpiperonal butoxidebutoxide (PBO),(PBO) , aa vitalvital ingredienting,redient ofof pyrethroidpyrethroid insecticides.insecticides. Natural pyrethrumpyrethrum in in particularparticular wouldwould notnot bebe anan economical insecticide without the addition ofof PBO as a synergist and the futurefuture ofof thethe naturalnatural pyrethrumpyrethrum industryindustry isis linkedlinked toto thethe continuedcontinued availabilityavailability ofof PBO. PBO.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

Excluding the People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China,China, forfor whichwhich consumption levels are not knownknown,, demand for sassafrassassafras oiloil is estimated to bebe aroundaround 2,0002,000 tonnestonnes annually.annually . Most of thisthis isis destined for heliotropinheliotropin andand PBOPBO manufacture,manufacture, thethe twotwo outletsoutlets takingtaking approximatelyapproximately equalequal amounts of oil.

Exports of sassafras oil from Brazil for the period 1986-90 are given in Table 5, whichwhich also shows the destinationsdestinations for thethe twotwo yearsyears 19861986 andand 1987.1987.

Japan, Italy and the UnitedUnited StatesStates are the most important markets forfor the oil (the latterlatter being the largest market for applicationsapplications other thanthan derivativederivative manufacture)manufacture).. These countries,countries, along with somesome otherother minorminor manufacturers,manufacturers, thenthen exportexport thethe heliotropinheliotropin and PBO worldwide.worldwide. Brazil has some manufacturingmanufacturing capacity for bothboth heliotropinheliotropin andand PBOPBO (equivalent(equivalent toto aboutabout 500500 tonnes of sassafrassassafras oil)oil) althoughalthough a shortageshortage of domestically producedproduced oiloil hashas ledled toto it importing some Chinese oil.oil.

19 The demand for sassafrassassafras oiloil isis determineddetermined by thethe marketsmarkets forfor heliotropinheliotropin andand PBO.PBO. Heliotropin consumption is increasing,increasing, particularly in Eastern Europe, Asia and some developingdeveloping countries, and sassafras oil is the preferred raw material forfor itsits manufacturemanufacture.. If supplies of the oil become tight, however,however, oror its its priceprice risesrises markedly,markedly, thenthen syntheticsynthetic heliotropinheliotropin wouldwould becomebecome more attractive.attractive.

Demand for PBO,PBO, bothboth inin conventionalconventional pyrethroidpyrethroid insecticidesinsecticides and inin otherother insecticidalinsecticidal outlets now being developed, is alsoalso increasingincreasing butbut,, inin thisthis case,case, thethe possibilitypossibility ofof utilizingutilizing synthetic PBOPBO toto makemake upup anyany shortageshortage ofof sassafras sassafras oil-derivedoil-derived PBOPBO isis less attractiveattractive economically. TheThe overalloverall prospectsprospects forfor aa sassafrassassafras typetype ofof oiloil areare thereforetherefore veryvery good.good.

Supply sources

More thanthan halfhalf thethe sassafrassassafras oiloil currentlycurrently enteringentering worldworld tradetrade originatesongmates from thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of China.China. WhileWhile this this isis likelylikely toto remainremain thethe casecase inin thethe nearnear future,future, ChineseChinese domestic requirements forfor the oil willwill increaseincrease asas technologytechnology for thethe manufacturemanufacture of PBOPBO isis acquired and added to that which alreadyalready existsexists forfor heliotropinheliotropin production. production. ThisThis,, together with supply difficulties caused by the destructive nature of production from wild CC. camphora, meansmeans that inin thethe longerlonger termterm therethere areare likelylikely toto bebe increasing increasing amountsamounts ofof sassafrassassafras oiloil diverteddiverted fromfrom exports to internalinternal use.use.

Up untiluntil thethe 1960s,1960s, BrazilBrazil waswas thethe majormajor exporterexporter ofof sassafras sassafras oil.oil. Production hashas declined since then as a resultresult ofof depletiondepletion of the naturalnatural resource from which it isis obtained,obtained, wild O. pretiosapretiosa inin the the Mata Mata Atlantica Atlantica areasareas ofof southern southern Brazil.Brazil. Restrictions imposed on thethe felling of the trees inin thethe latelate 1980s1980s havehave resultedresulted inin aa furtherfurther declinedecline inin productionproduction andand thisthis isis illustrated by the fallingfalling levellevel ofof BrazilianBrazilian exports (Table(Table 5).

Since 1990, Viet NamN am hashas beenbeen exporting,exporting sassafrassassafras oil. oil. Current exports are believedbelieved to be ofof thethe orderorder ofof several several hundredhundred tonnestonnes pa, butbut withwith reliance,reliance, again,again, onon wildwild treestrees (C.(C camphora),camphora) , itit isis expectedexpected thatthat suppliessupplies fromfrom thisthis sourcesource willwill bebe relativelyrelatively short-lived.short-lived.

The currentcurrent dependencedependence worldwideworldwide on unsustainableunsustainable exploitation ofof wildwild forest trees means that suppliessupplies fromfrom thesethese sourcessources willwill progressivelyprogressively reduce.reduce.

Quality and pricesprices

Brazilian sassafrassassafras oil isis traditionallytraditionally described in trade termsterms asas containingcontaining 8484 percentpercent safrole, althoughalthough itit usually contains a few perper cent moremore.. ChineseChinese oiloil hashas a higher specification, 90 percentpercent safrole,safrole, asas aa resultresult ofof its its methodmethod ofof production.production. (It is obtained not as a whole oiloil butbut as a safrole-richsafrole-rich fraction from the crude oiloil distilled fromfrom CC. camphora.camphora. TheThe majormajor fractionfraction consists chiefly of camphor.)camphor.)

For conversionconversion intointo heliotropinheliotropin or PBOPBO aa minimumminimum safrolesafrole contentcontent ofof 8686 percentpercent isis preferred. TheThe abundance abundance of of chemically chemically similar similar compounds compounds inin thethe oil,oil, suchsuch asas methylmethyl eugenol,eugenol, should be low.low.

For somesome time,time, pricesprices ofof sassafras sassafras oiloil werewere ofof the the order order of of US$4/kg,. US$4/kg. During a brief shortage of sassafrassassafras inin 1991/921991192 (caused(caused largelylargely byby speculativespeculative stock-piling in the FarFar East)East) prices of Chinese oil were around the US$6-7/kgUSS6-7/kg level.level. WhenWhen thisthis shortageshortage was remedied prices

20 eased and inin earlyearly 19941994 ChineseChinese sassafrassassafras oil waswas onon offeroffer fromfrom LondonLondon dealersdealers atat underunder US$4/kg. BrazilianBrazilian pricesprices areare usuallyusually higherhigher thanthan thosethose forfor ChineseChinese oil.

PLANT SOURCES

Botanical!Botanical/commoncommon names

Family Lauraceae:

Ocotea pretiosa (Nees)(Nees) Mez.Mez. Brazilian sassafrassassafras (syn. O.O. cymbarum)cymba rum) Cinnamomum camphoracamphora Nees Chinese sassafras

Description and distribution

Ocotea pretiosa isis aa medium-sizedmedium-sized tree which grows wild in many parts of southeastern Brazil as well asas ColumbiaColumbia andand Paraguay.Paraguay. It has only ever been exploited commercially for oil production, however, inin thethe BrazilianBrazilian statestate ofof SantaSanta Catarina.Catarina. It is only here that trees with a suitably high safrole content are found.found .

CinnamomumCinnatnornum camphora camphora occurs occurs throughout throughout much much of of Southeast AsiaAsia but itsits exact distribution and abundanceabundance are notnot knownknown withwith anyany certainty.certainty. Large areas of wildwild treestrees onceonce grew inin JapanJapan andand TaiwanTaiwan butbut these these havehave largelylargely disappeareddisappeared throughthrough over-exploitationover-exploitation for camphor productionproduction inin the years up toto thethe SecondSecond WorldWorld War.War. The botanicalbotanical status of C. camphoracamphora andand itsits varietiesvarieties isis alsoalso complexcomplex andand therethere areare severalseveral differentdifferent chemotypeschemotypes (see(see CINNAMOMUM OILS).OILS).

Effects of oil production on the natural resourceresource

In bothboth BrazilBrazil and thethe People'sPeople's Republic ofof China,China, lossloss ofof trees by felling for oil production has beenbeen considerable.considerable. As mentionedmentioned earlier, concern over this ledled thethe BrazilianBrazilian government to introduceintroduce regulationsregulations limitin2limiting the cutting of O.O. pretiosa.pretiosa. In the early years of the Brazilian industry trees over fiftyfifty years of ageage werewere common and yielded large amounts of oil. Today,Today, the the resource resource is is seriously seriously depleteddepleted andand tree diameters areare comparatively small. small. No significant replanting has everever occurred.occurred. Expressions of of concern overover the depletiondepletion ofof C. camphora havehave alsoalso beenbeen voicedvoiced byby ChineseChinese researchers.researchers.

HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING

In Brazil,Brazil, treestrees areare felledfelled andand cutcut intointo suitablysuitably sizedsized logslogs forfor transportationtransportation toto thethe distillery. There they areare chippedchipped andand reducedreduced furtherfurther inin sizesize beforebefore being,being placedplaced inin thethe distillation vessels.vessels. Steam is raisedraised byby burningburning wastewaste andand spentspent wood.wood. Distilleries are a mixmix of family and larger-sizedlarer-sized operations.operations.

Little information is available on the details of processing C. camphora in thethe People'sPeople's Republic ofof China or Viet Nam. TheThe crude crude oiloil obtainedobtained byby primaryprimary distillationdistillation of thethe chippedchipped wood is fractionated to removeremove camphorcamphor and furnish a safrole-richsafrole-rich oil.

21 Yields andand quality variation

In bothboth O.O. pretiosapretiosa andand C.C. camphoracamphora oil oil yields yields areare variable variable andand dependant dependant uponupon thethe quality of the wood feedstock. HigherHigher yields yields areare obtainedobtained fromfrom trunkwoodtrunkwood fromfrom olderolder treestrees andand branchwood gives lower yields than trunkwoodtrunkwood.. YieldsYields andand oiloil compositioncomposition undoubtedly vary, both withinwithin andand betweenbetween naturalnatural populationspopulations ofof trees, but thethe extentextent ofof thisthis variationvariation hashas notnot been well documented. AA chemotype chemotype ofof O.O. pretiosa,pretiosa, whichwhich yieldsyields anan oiloil richrich inin methylmethyl eugenol, is knownknown toto occuroccur inin Brazil Brazil althoughalthough itsits geographicalgeographical distributiondistribution is distantdistant fromfrom thethe SantaSanta Catarina harvestingharvesting areas.areas. Information isis not available onon the yields of oiloil obtainedobtained fromfrom coppiced C. camphora;camphora; thethe multiplicitymultiplicity ofof compositionalcompositional typestypes forfor the species is referredreferred toto elsewhere (see(see CINNAMOMUMCINNAMOMUM OILS).OILS).

VALUE-ADDEDV ALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

A largelarge partpart ofof the the totaltotal productionproduction ofof Brazilian Brazilian andand ChineseChinese sassafrassassafras oil isis exportedexported whole to those importing countries where conversion to heliotropinheliotropin andand PBOPBO takestakes place. place. Some manufacture of of bothboth derivatives occursoccurs inin BrazilBrazil andand inin the People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic of ChinaChina heliotropin is produced. TheThe products products inin bothboth countriescountries areare thenthen usedused partlypartly toto meetmeet domesticdomestic needs and partlypartly toto serveserve overseasoverseas customers.customers.

PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OIL

The value of thethe treestrees forfor oiloil productionproduction meansmeans that they are rarelyrarely usedused forfor otherother purposes.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL

In thethe casecase ofof C.C. camphora,camphora, therethere isis thethe potentialpotential forfor regenerationregeneration after fellingfelling the tree due to itsits abilityability toto coppicecoppice butbut nono informationinformation isis availableavailable on thethe practicalitypracticality or economicseconomics of this. The possibility of utilizing other CinnamomumCinnamomum speciesspecies as as sources sources of of safrole,safrole, notnot only in the People's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina butbut elsewhereelsewhere inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia, isis discusseddiscussed brieflybriefly inin thethe section on CINNAMOMUMCINNAMOMUM OILS.OILS.

For O.O. pretiosa,pretiosa, thethe prospects prospects ofof bringing, bringing it into formalformal cultivationcultivation -- a necessarynecessary measure, since the depleteddepleted natural resource is nownow incapableincapable of sustaining highhigh levels of utilization - areare unknownunknown butbut maymay proveprove uneconomic.uneconomic. Like Aniba (see(see ROSEWOODROSEWOOD OIL)OIL) much basic informationinformation is lacking and, whilewhile thisthis couldcould bebe acquiredacquired throughthrough aa concertedconcerted research effort,effort, a moremore satisfactorysatisfactory outcome isis likely to bebe obtainedobtained fromfrom researchresearch intointo alternative sources of safrole.safrole. The potential ofof certain Piper speciesspecies to provideprovide suchsuch anan alternativealternati ve in BrazilBrazil isis thereforetherefore discusseddiscussed below.below.

PIPER SPECIESSPECIES ASAS ALTERNATIVEALTERNATIVE SOURCESSOURCES OF SAFROLESAFROLE

Certain forest shrubsshrubs ofof thethe Piperaceae family,family, indigenousindigenous toto the humid forests of Central America and Greater Amazonia,Amazonia, have been found to contain highhigh levels ofof safrole in theirtheir leaves. WithWith further further research research they they offeroffer good good prospectsprospects asas new,new, commercialcommercial sourcessources of safrole.safrole. Their successfulsuccessful development would also bring other social and economic benefitsbenefits,, albeitalbeit onon a modest scale, toto aa regionregion whichwhich isis atat thethe centrecentre ofof world world attentionattention onon environmentalenvironmental issues.issues .

22 Piper auritumauritum occursoccurs fromfrom MexicoMexico toto PanamaPanama andand isis oneone speciesspecies whichwhich hashas attractedattracted attention. The leafleaf oiloil containscontains aroundaround 7070 percentpercent safrolesafrole andand pilot-scalepilot-scale cultivationcultivation andand distillation trials werewere conductedconducted for aa briefbrief periodperiod inin MexicoMexico inin thethe 1980s1980s atat INIREB,INIREB, Xalapa.Xalapa. There appears to bebe nono currentcurrent workwork being being conductedconducted onon thisthis speciesspecies andand itsits potentialpotential remainsremains uncertain.

The Brazilian AmazonAmazon contains a wide variety of PiperPiper speciesspecies andand sincesince 19901990 attentionattention has been focused on twotwo withwith highhigh safrolesafrole contentcontent in theirtheir leaves,leaves, P.P. hispidinerviumhispidinervium and P.P. callosum. ThisThis work work has has beenbeen funded funded byby ODAODA andand hashas beenbeen undertaken by the Museu Paraense Emilio GoeldiGoeldi in BelemBelem inin collaboration with thethe CentreCentre for Agroforestry ResearchResearch (CPAF-EMBRAPA) in Acre and supported byby technical assistanceassistance from from NRI.NRI. ProgressProgress toto thethe end of 19921992 hashas beenbeen reportedreported byby MAIAMAlA et al.al. (1993).(1993). Subsequently, P. collosumcollosum hashas beenbeen relegated in thethe researchresearch workwork inin favourfavour ofof the the moremore promising promising P.P .hispidinervium. hispidinervium.

The discussiondiscussion on P.P. hispidinervium which followsfollows is intended toto highliE,Ththighlight the developmental potential of the species and the ways in which research are beingbeing, directed. directed. TheThe same basic approach can be applied to many other situations wherewhere it is required to bring wild forest speciesspecies intointo semi-formalsemi-formal cultivation.cultivation.

P. hispidinerviumhispidinervium as an exampleexample of a speciesspecies suitable for agroforestry interventionintervention

P. hispidinerviumhispidinervium is most frequently found onon degraded forestforest oror farm land where itit occurs as aa colonizingcolonizing "weed","weed", eithereither as aa purepure standstand oror alongalong withwith otherother PiperPiper species.species. Surveys have revealed that it occursoccurs inin thethe majoritymajority ofof settledsettled areasareas throughoutthroughout Acre state inin Brazil and it is believedbelieved to extend into Amazonas statestate asas wellwell as as Peru Peru andand BoliviaBolivia.. On natural sites, plantsplants developdevelop initiallyinitially into bushes and at an early stagestage they appear to inhibitinhibit growth ofof competing vegetation. AsAs thethe plantsplants ageage theythey becomebecome more tree-like and stands up to 1010 nim inin height may bebe found.found.

Techniques for propagationpropagation havehave beenbeen developeddeveloped and growing trials established atat severalseveral sites in BrazilBrazil usingusing bothboth rootedrooted cuttingscuttings andand seedlings.seedlings. The trials are designeddesigned toto provideprovide information on growth characteristics and biomass yieldsyields (leaf(leaf ++ stem)stem) under variousvarious plantingplanting and management regimes. Pilot-scalePilot-scale distillationsdistillations havehave beenbeen conductedconducted to determine oil qualityquality and yields and permitpermit estimationestimation of productivityproductivity on a "perper hectarehectare per year"year" basis.basis. Only byby such means, togethertogether withwith knowledgeknowledge of prevailingprevailing and projectedprojected oil prices,prices, cancan economiceconomic returns to the farmerfarmer bebe calculated.calculated. TheThe safrole safrole contentcontent ofof thethe oiloil inin unselectedunselected stockstock isis about 85 percent. ImprovementImprovement to to 9090 percent percent appears appears possiblepossible throughthrough selection.selection.

Results to datedate indicateindicate that the mostmost likelylikely form ofof exploitationexploitation is one in whichwhich thethe plants are first harvestedharvested atat 6-86-8 months,months, withwith subsequentsubsequent harvests at 4-6 month intervals for atat least 3 years.years. Harvesting entails simply cutting the primary or re-growthre-growth stemsstems approximatelyapproximately 20 cm aboveabove groundground level.level.

Mixed planting of P. hispidinerviumhispidinervium with young cash crop trees is a practical possibility and wouldwould bebe economicallyeconomically attractive to a farmer.farmer. Harvesting of P.P. hispidinerviumhispidinervium wouldwould permit an early cashcash returnreturn duringduring thethe period before the first harvest of the tree crop.

23 Further researchresearch needsneeds

Development of P. hispidinerviumhispidinervium to a point where it can be recommendedrecommended to farmers for planting requires further research and reappraisal andand thisthis isis inin hand. TheThe followingfollowing areasareas of study are included inin this programme. TheyThey may may bebe takentaken asas aa generalgeneral guideguide toto thethe approachapproach necessary for thethe developmentdevelopment of anyany otherother forestforest crop.crop.

Observation of the species in itsits naturalnatural habitat to learnlearn moremore aboutabout itsits variabilityvariability andand ecological requirements.requirements.

Identification of superior germplasm forfor plantingplanting purposes.purposes. A largerlarger numbernumber of naturalnatural populations needs to bebe sampledsampled and testedtested for oiloil yield,yield, qualityquality (safrole(safrole content)content) andand growth characteristicscharacteristics (biomass(biomass production).production).

Determination of the best methodmethod of propagation (vegetative oror fromfrom seed) in terms of survival, vigourvigour andand growthgrowth ofof the the plantsplants andand thethe speedspeed andand easeease ofof massmass multiplication.multiplication.

Assessment of growthgrowth performanceperformance andand oiloil productionproduction ofof selectedselected plantingplanting stockstock at moremore sites to determine optimumoptimum climatic and edaphic conditions andand the adaptation rangerange of the species.species. In duedue course,course, thisthis shouldshould bebe extendedextended toto on-farmon-farm trialstrials toto determinedetermine probable productionproduction costs.costs.

The effects ofof spacing,spacing, fertilizerfertilizer applicationapplication and cropping interval on biomass and oiloil yieldsyields..

Closer monitoring of the seasonality of oil production withinwithin thethe plantplant inin orderorder to better assess the optimumoptimum timetime forfor harvesting.harvesting.

Identification, throughthrough socio-economicsocio-economic studies, of farmers whowho wouldwould adoptadopt andand benefitbenefit from production.production.

Determination of the optimum form of management of the combined cultivation/distillationcultivation/distillation operation (i.e. are thethe plantsplants bestbest grown and distilleddistilled on aa familyfamily basis usingusing small-scalesmall-scale fieldfield stills;stills; onon a a cooperative cooperative system; system; or or by by outgrowers outgrowers supplying., supplying a large,large, centralcentral distillery?).distillery?).

Specification of marketing systems (farmer to buyer).buyer) .

24 SELECTESELECTEDD BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

NB References to C.C. camphoracamphora areare includedincluded inin thethe bibliographybibliography forfor CINNAMOMUMCINNAMOMUM OILS.OILS.

GOTTLIEB, O.R. andand MAGALHAES,MAGALHAES, M.T.M.T. (1960)(1960) PhysiologicalPhysiological varieties of Ocotea pretiosa.pretiosa. II. PerfumeryPeifumery and EssentialEssential OilOil Record,Record, 51,51 , 18-21.18-21.

GUPTA, MM.P.,.P., ARIAS,ARIAS, T.D.,T.D., WILLIAMS,WILLIAMS , N.H.,N.H., BOS,BOS, R.R. andand TATTJE,TATTJE, D.H.E.D.H.E. (1985)(1985) Safrole, the main component ofof thethe essentialessential oil oil from from Piper Piper auritum auritum of of Panama. Panama. JournalJournal of Natural Products,Products, 48(2),48(2) , 330.330.

LAWRENCE, B.M. (1985)(1985) ProgressProgress inin essentialessential oilsoils . Ocotea oil.oil. Perfumer and Flavorist,Flavorist, 10(4),10(4), 48-51.

MATA,MAlA, JJ.G..G. et al.al. (1987)(1987) EspeciesEspecies dede PiperPiper dada AmazonicaAmazonica ricasricas emem safrol.safrol. Quimica Nova,Nova, 10(3),10(3), 200-204.200-204.

MAlA,MATA, J.G J.G.,., GREEN, C.L. andand MILCHARD,MILCHARD, M.J.M.J. (1993)(1993) NewNew sourcessources of naturalnatural safrole.safrole. PerfumerPerfumer and Flavorist,Flavorist, 18(2),18(2), 19-22.19-22.

MOLLANMOLLAN,, T.R.MT.R.M.. (1961)(1961) TheThe essentialessential oilsoils ofof thethe sassafrassassafras laurels.laurels. I. Ocotea pretiosa,pretiosa, Brazilian sassafrassassafras,, safrole typetype.. PerfumeryPeifumery andand EssentialEssential OilOil Record,Record, 51,51,284 284-286.-286.

2S25 1. Wild Piper hispidenerviumhispidenervium growing on forestforest verge,verge, AcreAcre state,state, Brazil [c.[C. Green, NRI].

2. Field trials: CoppicedCoppiced PiperPiper hispidenerviumhispidenervium awaiting itsits fourth harvest, Brazil [D. Baker, NRI].NRI].

26 Table 5 Exports of sassafras oiloil fromfrom Brazil,Brazil, andand destinations,destinations, 1986-901986-90 (tonnes)(tonnes)

19861986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Total 1582 1302 970 394 280

Of which to:to: Japan 543 596 na na na USA 274 359 na na na Italy 281 292 na na na China, People'sPeople's Rep. of 154 na na na UK 169 15 na na na Spain 124 25 na na na France 11 7 na na na

Source: Brazilian national statisticsstatistics

27 CHAPTER 4 ROSEWOOD OIL

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USES

Rosewood oil is obtained by fellingfelling wild,wild, AmazonianAmazonian species of Aniba and steam distilling the comminuted trunkwood.trunkwood.

The oiloil ("bois("bois dede rose")rose") possessespossesses aa characteristic characteristic aromaaroma andand isis aa long-established long-established ingredient in thethe moremore expensiveexpensive perfumes.perfumes. Although formerlyformerly itit waswas usedused moremore widely asas a fragrance, particularly inin soaps, wherewhere thethe strongstrong top-notetop-note could be usedused toto advantage,advantage, itsits relatively high price nownow makesmakes itit uncompetitiveuncompetitive with the cheaper, larger volumevolume oils.oils.

Rosewood oil is rich inin linalool,linalool, aa chemicalchemical which can be transformed into a number of derivatives of valuevalue toto thethe flavourflavour andand fragrancefragrance industries,industries, andand up until thethe 1960s1960s rosewood oil was an importantimportant sourcesource ofof naturalnatural linalool.linalool. With the advent of syntheticsynthetic linaloollinalool this useuse largely disappeared. For those applications where natural linalool isis preferred, rosewoodrosewood oiloil has beenbeen displaceddisplaced byby cheapercheaper alternativesalternatives (Chinese(Chinese HoHo oilsoils fromfrom CinnamomumCinnamomum cainphora).camphora) . There does remain, however,however, a veryvery smallsmall nicheniche marketmarket forfor thethe preparationpreparation ofof linaloollinalool derivatives possessing an "ex"ex rosewood"rosewood" character.character.

Use inin aromatherapyaromatherapy formulations,formulations, a relativelyrelatively recentrecent application,application, has becomebecome lessless attractive as environmental concerns havehave growngrown overover the destructive naturenature of rosewood oil production in Brazil.Brazil.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

In thethe 1960s,1960s, exportsexports ofof rosewood rosewood oiloil fromfrom BrazilBrazil alonealone werewere aroundaround 500500 tonnestonnes pa.pa. Today, thethe worldworld marketmarket forfor rosewoodrosewood oil isis aboutabout 100100 tonnestonnes pa.pa, thethe declinedecline inin useuse arisingarising largely fromfrom itsits displacementdisplacement by synthetic linalool. DemDem DemandDemand isis reportedreported toto bebe stable,stable, thosethose who moved away from using rosewood oil in their formulations having donedone soso manymany yearsyears ago.no. However, anyany markedmarked andand prolongedprolonged upward move in the price of the oil aboveabove recent levelslevels could adversely affectaffect demand.demand. SomeSome of of the the top-of-the-market top-of-the-market perfumeryperfumery houseshouses havehave expressedexpressed concern over thethe destructivedestructive mannermanner ofof producingproducing rosewoodrosewood oil andand aa transitiontransition toto sustainablesustainable production wouldwould bebe welcomedwelcomed byby suchsuch users.users.

Recent exports fromfrom Brazil, now the only suppliersupplier of rosewoodrosewood oil, areare shownshown inin Table 6.

The UnitedUnited StatesStates isis thethe principalprincipal importer,importer, followedfollowed by Switzerland,Switzerland, France and aa number of otherother ECEC countries.countries. Regional demanddemand isis veryvery smallsmall andand in 19901990 was limitedlimited toto Argentina (0.4 tonnes).tonnes) .

The magnitude of rosewoodrosewood oil consumption inin Brazil is uncertain; 20-30 tonnes of oil are purchasedpurchased annuallyannually byby thethe fragrancefragrance sector,sector, muchmuch ofof itit byby locallocal branchesbranches ofof multinationals, multinationals,

29 but itit is likelylikely thatthat aa largelarge proportionproportion ofof thisthis is exported,exported, eithereither asas thethe crude oiloil or inin formulations (which(which areare notnot identifiableidentifiable inin tradetrade statistics).statistics).

Supply sourcessources

Production of rosewoodrosewood oiloil inin Peru,Peru, ColombiaColombia andand thethe Guianas,Guianas, wherewhere AnibaAniba alsoalso grows,grows, declined to negligible quantities after the advent of synthetic linaloollinalool inin thethe 1960s.1960s. BrazilBrazil isis nownow the only suppliersupplier toto thethe worldworld market.market.

Since the fallfall inin productionproduction broughtbrought about by the lossloss ofof linaloollinalool marketsmarkets and, moremore recently, byby thethe useuse ofof cheapercheaper ChineseChinese HoHo oils,oils, productionproduction levelslevels have been of the order of 100 tonnes pa. AnnualAnnual fluctuations fluctuations areare mainlymainly thethe resultresult ofof differencesdifferences inin rainfallrainfall andand riverriver levelslevels which determine accessibility to the wildwild resource.resource. Harvesting ofof the treestrees isis concentratedconcentrated around aa numbernumber ofof well-defined well-defined tributariestributaries ofof thethe AmazonAmazon inin northernnorthern AmazonasAmazonas andand southernsouthern Para states.states.

While it shouldshould bebe possiblepossible toto maintainmaintain present production levels in the medium term,term, the disinclination of younger generationsgenerations of producers and labourerslabourers toto undertakeundertake thethe arduousarduous tasks involved in harvesting wild trees, andand thethe increasingincreasing costs of collection as wildwild standsstands become more remote, suggestsuggest that productionproduction in the longerlonger termterm maymay decline.decline. Attempts atat cultivation of Aniba to datedate havehave notnot beenbeen successfulsuccessful but the lacklack ofof anyany directdirect alternativesalternatives toto rosewood oil inin established,established, top-of-the-rangetop-of-the-range perfumeryperfumery formulationsformulations makes it desirabledesirable toto pursue suchsuch objectivesobjectives (see(see below).below).

Quality and pricesprices

All majormajor importingimporting countriescountries havehave publishedpublished standardstandard specificationsspecifications forfor BrazilianBrazilian rosewood oil andand therethere isis alsoalso anan internationalinternational (ISO)(ISO) standard.standard. These specify thethe botanicalbotanical source and physico-chemicalphysico-chemical requirements, including thethe alcohol contentcontent (usually(usually inin the range 84-93 pftrcentpp, rcent determined as linalool).linalool). These standards are minimumminimum trade requirementsrequirements andand for perfumeryperfumery applicationsapplications individualindividual batches of oil must conform to the aroma expectations of the buyer.

Notwithstanding thethe above, there are twotwo gradesgrades ofof BrazilianBrazilian rosewoodrosewood oiloil recognisedrecognised inin trade:trade:

"Manaus" oil, whichwhich is shippedshipped from Manaus, the export centre for thethe industry,industry, andand generally conforms to thethe standardsstandards describeddescribed above.above.

"American" oil, whichwhich isis stretchedstretched byby additionaddition ofof syntheticsynthetic linalool to give aa slightlyslightly lowerlower priced oil.

FOB prices for BrazilianBrazilian rosewoodrosewood oiloil havehave beenbeen inin thethe rangerange US$US$18-32/kg 18-32/kg over thethe period 1987-93.1987-93. PricesPrices in in late late 1993 1993 were were about about US$23/kg; US$23/kg; theythey areare expectedexpected toto riserise slightlyslightly inin 1994 as a resultresult ofof temporarytemporary shortfallsshortfalls inin woodwood suppliessupplies (arising(arising fromfrom lowlow riverriver levels).levels).

30 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES

Botanical/commonBotanical!common namesnames

Family Lauraceae:Lauraceae:

Aniba rosaeodora DuckeDucke Aniba duckeiduckei KostermansKostermans (syn. A. rosaeodora var.var. amazonica)amazonica)

Rosewood (En.),(En.), pau rosa (Br.), boisbois dede roserose femellefemelle (Fr.).

There isis somesome disagreementdisagreement asas toto thethe exactexact botanicalbotanical statusstatus of thesethese species.species. In Brazil, where most of thethe researchresearch onon AnibaAniba has been carried out, somesome groups regard A. rosaeodora as aa synonymsynonym ofof A.A. duckeiduckei while others take thethe reverse view.view. AA thirdthird opinionopinion holdsholds thatthat morphological differences that exist withinwithin the genusgenus are insufficientinsufficient to justify separationseparation intointo two species. OilOil producers producers themselves themselves recogniserecognise twotwo plantplant sourcessources butbut makemake no attemptattempt toto keep the distilleddistilled oilsoils separate.separate.

A numbernumber ofof otherother AnibaAniba speciesspecies co-occur with A.A. rosaeodora (A. duckei) butbut areare not exploited because the oiloil contentcontent isis lowlow oror thethe composition/aromacomposition/aroma isis poor.poor.

Description and distribution

A. rosaeodorarosaeodora (A.(A. duckei)duckei) is a large, evergreen tree reaching upup toto 30 mm in height. AllAll parts ofof thethe treetree areare fragrantfragrant althoughalthough onlyonly thethe trunkwoodtrunkwood isis traditionally harvested and distilled.

Aromatic Aniba species are indigenous toto the northern and western areas ofof GreaterGreater Amazonia. InIn Brazil Brazil itit isis foundfound inin thethe StatesStates ofof Amazonas,Amazonas, ParáPara and Amapa.Amapd. ElsewhereElsewhere inin thethe region it occurs inin Peru,Peru, Colombia,Colombia, Ecuador,Ecuador, SurinameSuriname andand FrenchFrench Guiana.Guiana.

Effects of oil production on the natural resourceresource

The perceived threatthreat toto thethe speciesspecies posedposed byby thethe destructivedestructive naturenature ofof harvestingharvesting hashas ledled to increasingly tight controls on thethe industryindustry inin Brazil.Brazil. GovernmentGovernment regulations exist whichwhich are intended to minimise this threat althoughalthough there are difficulties in enforcing them. The resultsresults ofof recent field surveyssurveys inin BrazilBrazil byby FaculdadeFaculdade dede CiénciasCiencias AgráriasAgrarias do PardPara (FCAP)(FCAP) basedbased inin Belem indicate, in fact, that the species is not presently facedfaced withwith extinction.extinction. Substantial wild stands exist deep within forest areas which are unlikely to be exploited forfor logistical or economic reasons.

However, thethe older,older, moremore accessible accessible areasareas whichwhich havehave beenbeen utilisedutilised byby thethe rosewoodrosewood oiloil industry are effectivelyeffectively devoiddevoid ofof maturemature treestrees andand therethere isis nono significantsignificant naturalnatural regeneration.regeneration. This, togethertogether withwith thethe generalgeneral problemproblem ofof deforestationdeforestation caused by land clearance, has ledled toto a loss of germplasm diversity andand aa narrowingnarrowing ofof thethe geneticgenetic base on which future domesticationdomestication of the species willwill depend.depend.

31 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING

Harvesting isis carriedcarried outout byby teamsteams ofof collectorscollectors under contractcontract to thethe distillerydistillery owners.owners. Exploration of newnew areasareas isis ledled byby someonesomeone experiencedexperienced inin identifyingidentifying andand distinguishingdistinguishing the different Aniba species by appearance andand odour.odour. AccessAccess trailstrails areare createdcreated asas individualindividual standsstands of suitablesuitable treestrees areare located.located. Whereas, formerly, treestrees up to 22 m m diameterdiameter werewere readilyreadily available, these are now only found in the lessless accessibleaccessible areasareas andand treestrees asas small as 15 cm diameter are harvestedharvested inin orderorder toto maintainmaintain thethe supplysupply ofof woodwood toto thethe distillery.distillery. Occasionally, branches over 4 cmcm thickthick maymay also be collected. MoreMore recently,recently, speciesspecies ofof Aniba Aniba otherother thanthan A.A. rosaeodora (A.CA. duckei)duckei) havehave beenbeen felledfelled asas anan expedientexpedient toto bulkbulk distillationdistillation rawraw material.material.

After felling, trees areare cutcut intointo oneone metremetre lengthslengths andand transportedtransported to the riverriver bankbank (which may be up toto 2020 kmkm fromfrom thethe collectioncollection site).site). Logs are stock-piledstock-piled and when river levels are highhigh enoughenough (dependent(dependent onon thethe season)season) they are shipped downstream toto the distillery.

Most distilleries in Brazil are very basic and designed toto be "mobile" so that they cancan be sitedsited onon thethe riverriver bankbank andand movedmoved aroundaround byby raftraft asas conditionsconditions dictatedictate oror allow.allow. In preparation for distillationdistillation the logslogs are cutcut upup intointo smallsmall piecespieces andand thenthen mechanicallymechanically reduced to chips. Distillation is carried out inin mildmild oror galvanisedgalvanised steel vessels which may vary in sizesize from 200-1,000kg200-1, OOOkg capacity (of chips). SteamSteam generationgeneration isis byby boilerboiler fuelledfuelled withwith spentspent chips.chips.

Yields andand quality variation

Yields of oiloil varyvary accordingaccording toto thethe qualityquality ofof thethe woodwood feedstockfeedstock (collection(collection areaarea andand species mix) and its moisturemoisture content, butbut typicallytypically are aroundaround 11 percentpercent (w/w).(w/w).

Although there are knownknown toto bebe batch-to-batch batch-to-batch differencesdifferences in linaloollinalool content,content, nono systematic studies have been undertaken to determine the intrinsic variability of oil composition within natural populations ofof Aniba.Aniba. TheThe needneed forfor thisthis hashas becomebecome more urgent with the recent inclusion ofof non-traditionalnon-traditional speciesspecies inin thethe feedstock andand the attentionattention now being given toto cultivation as aa meansmeans ofof achievingachieving sustainablesustainable oiloil production.production.

VALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

No furtherfurther processingprocessing of the oiloil isis carriedcarried outout eithereither byby thethe primaryprimary distillerdistiller oror anyany intermediate before it isis formulatedformulated forfor fragrancefragrance useuse byby thethe end-user.end-user.

PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN OIL

Indians useuse the woodwood of AnibaAniba for makingmaking canoes but its valuevalue forfor rosewoodrosewood oiloil production mitigates against itsits useuse forfor otherother purposes.purposes.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL

For reasonsreasons givengiven above,above, thethe consumptionconsumption of rosewoodrosewood oil is nownow determineddetermined more byby supply and price factorsfactors thanthan byby otherother marketmarket forces.forces. With the inevitable riserise in costs of production consequent upon a labour-intensivelabour-intensive operationoperation andand thethe need to go deeperdeeper intointo thethe forest to locatelocate suitablesuitable trees, therethere isis everyevery inducementinducement toto considerconsider cultivationcultivation as a meansmeans not not only of ameliorating the loss of biodiversitybiodiversity of Aniba in the primary forest but of ensuring thethe

32 survival of the rosewood oil industry itself in the longer termterm.. SuchSuch aa solutionsolution wouldwould alsoalso offeroffer the prospect of increasedincreased salessales ofof oiloil andand cash-earning opportunities for some of the poorer rural communities, albeit at a very modest level andand onon aa smallsmall scale.scale. ReclamationReclamation of small areas of degraded land byby rosewoodrosewood cultivationcultivation wouldwould bebe anan addedadded environmentalenvironmental attraction.attraction.

Research needs

The problems to bebe overcomeovercome beforebefore domesticationdomestication can bebe consideredconsidered aa realistic,realistic, economic option shouldshould notnot bebe underestimated.underestimated. Unlike some other Amazonian species which have attracattractedted attention because of their much larger potential marketmarket (as sourcessources ofof fruits or oil seeds, forfor example),example), comparativelycomparatively littlelittle researchresearch hashas beenbeen carriedcarried outout onon Aniba.Aniba.

Prior toto 1990,1990, studiesstudies werewere carriedcarried outout onon distribution, distribution, botany,botany, propagationpropagation andand silviculture by variousvarious BrazilianBrazilian institutionsinstitutions (including(including INPA, CENARGENCENARGEN andand EMBRAPA).EMBRAPA). In addition,addition, somesome commercialcommercial distillersdistillers had conductedconducted their own trialstrials byby plantingplanting seedlingsseedlings within the naturalnatural forest.forest. Growth performance with tunnel planting (in cleared strips)strips) withinwithin the forest has beenbeen poor.poor.

Since 1990, a new,new, systematicsystematic programme ofof research hashas beenbeen carriedcarried outout byby FCAP, with technical assistance fromfrom UK institutions (NRI,(NRI, OFIOFI andand ITE)ITE) andand funded byby the UK's Overseas Development Administration (ODA).(ODA). ThisThis hashas involvedinvolved gennplasmgermplasm collections from threatened sites,sites, researchresearch onon improvedimproved propagationpropagation methodsmethods andand establishmentestablishment of fieldfield trials.trials. Results indicate superiorsuperior growthgrowth ratesrates inin open-fieldopen-field situations compared to forest tunnel planting. The longer-termlonger-term aim ofof thisthis workwork isis to to evaluate evaluate the the techno-economic techno-economic potentialpotential forfor formalformal cultivation, including the viabilityviability of producingproducing aa marketablemarketable leafleaf oiloil fromfrom non-destructivenon-destructive harvesting (coppicing or pollarding).pollarding).

Specific needs identified by FCAP for future research on rosewood includeinclude the following:

Development of anan economiceconomic meansmeans of massmass propagationpropagation ofof plantingplanting stock.stock.

Determination ofof thethe practicalitypracticality andand requirementsrequirements forfor fieldfield establishmentestablishment andand thethe optimum management regimesregimes forfor short-rotationshort-rotation harvesting ofof trunkwoodtrunkwood and forfor frequent harvestingharvesting ofof leaf.leaf.

Appraisal of the market for leafleaf oiloil (either(either asas aa directdirect substitutesubstitute forfor traditionaltraditional woodwood oiloil or as aa new,new, alternativealternative sourcesource ofof low-priced low-priced naturalnatural linalool).linalool).

Determination of the economics of production ofof wood and leaf oils.

Investigation of the options for formalformal cultivationcultivation (as(as a monoculture oror inin mixedmixed croppincropping systems on under-utilizedunder-utilized or abandonedabandoned land)land) andand thethe socio-economicsocio-economic aspectsaspects ofof production.

Identification and selection for propagation of elite germplasm.germplasm.

33 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

EOA (1975) Oil of Bois de Rose Brazilian. EOAEOA No.No.2. 2. 33 pp. Essential Oil Association of USA.

FFAO AO (1986) Aniba duckei Kostermans.Kostermans. pp. 60-68.60-68. InIn Databook Databook on on EndangeredEndangered TreeTree andand Shrub Shrub Species and Provenances.Provenances. Forestry PaperPaper No.No. 77.77. Rome:Rome: FAO.FAO.

GUENTHER, E. (1950) Oil ofof boisbois dede rose. rose. pp. 183-193. InIn TheThe Essential Oils,Oils, Vol.Vol. 4.4. NewNew York: Van Nostrand Co.

ISO (1976)(1976) OilOil ofof rosewood,rosewood, Brazil.Brazil. International StandardStandard ISOISO 3761-19763761-1976 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp . International OrganizationOrganization forfor Standardization.Standardization.

KUBITZKI, K.K. (1982) Aniba.Aniba. InIn FloraFlora Neotropica.Neotropica. Lauraceae. MonographMonograph No.No. 31.31. 84 pp.pp.

LEITE, A.M.C., SALOMAO,SALOMAO, A.NA.N.. and LLERAS,LLERAS, E. (1991)(1991) AreasAreas PrioritariasPrioritarias para Conservacao de CincoCinco Especies dada FlorestaFloresta Tropical Umida [incl.[incl. AnibaAniba rosaeodora]. rosaeodora]. 2626 pp.pp. Brasilia: EMBRAPA.EMBRAPA.

LOUREIRO, A.A.,A.A., SILVA,SILVA, M.F. andand ALENCAR,ALENCAR, J.C.J.C. (1979)(1979) EssenciasEssencias MadeireirasMadeireiras da Amazonia.Amazônia. 187 pp.pp. Manaus:Manaus: INPA.INPA.

MORAIS, A.A.,A.A., REZENDE,REZENDE, C.M.A.M., BULOW,BULOW, M.V.V., MOURAO,MOURAO, J.C.,J.C., GOTTLIEB, O.R., MARX,MARX, M.C.,M.C., ROCHA, ROCHA, A.I.A.I. and and MAGALHAES, MAGALHAES, M.T.M.T. (1972)(1972) OleosOleos essenciaisessenciais de especies do genero Aniba. ActaActa Amazonica, Amazonica, 2,2, 41-44.41-44.

OHASHI, S.T., ROSA,ROSA, L.S.,L.S., OLIVEIRA, OLIVEIRA, F.A.,F.A., SANTANA, SANTANA, J.A.J.A. and and SIMONS,SIMONS, A.A. (submitted(submitted 1993) A strategystrategy forfor collection,collection, conservationconservation andand utilizationutilization of geneticgenetic resourcesresources ofof AnibaAniba rosaeodora. Forest Forest Ecology Ecology Management. Management.

PEDROSO, L.M.L.M. (1986)(1986) SilviculturaSilvicultura dodo pau-rosapau-rosa (Aniba(Aniba rosaeodorarosaeodora Ducke).Ducke). pp. 313-324.313-324. In SimposioSimposio dodo TropicoTropico Umido,Umido, 1,1, VII.VII. FloraFlora ee Floresta.Floresta. Belem:Belem: EMBRAPA-CPATU. EMBRAPA-CPATU.

SUDAM (1972) 0 extrativismoextrativismo dodo pau-rosa.pau-rosa . SUDAMSUDAM Documentos Documentos Amazónicos,Amazonicos, 3(1/4), 5-55.5-55. Rosewood logs (Aniba rosaeodora) being transported by river to thethe distillery,distillery, BrazilBrazil (FCAP).(FCAP) .

34 3. Rosewood logslogs (Aniba rosaeodora)rosaeodora) beingbeing transportedtransported byby river to thethe distillery,distillery, Brazil [FCAP].

4. Propagation trials: Seedling of AnibaAniba rosaedorarosaedora growing in partial shade, Brazil [FCAP].[FCAP].

35 5. Propagation trials:trials: Branch method of developingdeveloping juvenile stems of AnibaAniba rosaeodora forfor clonalclonal propagation,propagation, BrazilBrazil [FCAP].[FeAP].

Table 66 Exports ofof rosewoodrosewood oiloil from Brazil,Brazil, andand destinations,destinations, 1986-92 1986-92 (tonnes)

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Total 48 39 95 78 60 74 68

Of which to:to: USA 28 22 na na 40 na na Switzerland 6 6 na na 11 na na France 10 9 na nana 3 na na W. GermanyGermany 1 1 na na 2 na na UK 1 1 na na 1 na na Netherlands na na 1 na na Spain 1 na na 1 na na

Source: BrazilianBrazilian nationalnational statisticsstatistics

36 CHAPTERCHAPTER 5 EUCALYPTUS OIL

DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION ANDAND USES

Eucalyptus oilsoils are obtainedobtained byby distillationdistillation of thethe leavesleaves ofof Eucalyptus Eucalyptus andand havehave aromasaromas ccharacteristicharacteristic ooff the particularparticular speciesspecies used.

The oils are classified in the trade intointo three broadbroad typestypes according to their composition and main end-uend-use:se: medicinal, perfumeryperfumery andand industrial.industrial. OfOf these,these, thethe mostmost important in terms of volume of production and trade is the medicinal typetype,, characterised by a high cineole content inin the oil. This, and the perfumeryperfumery type, are discussed below.below. TheThe so-calledso-called industrialindustrial oil,oil, produced from E. dives,dives , nownow hashas aa veryvery smallsmall andand diminishingdiminishing marketmarket andand isis notnot discusseddiscussed further.

The medicinal typetype ofof oil may be soldsold asas such,such, neat,neat, inin pharmaciespharmacies andand otherother retailretail outlets or inin thethe formform ofof sprays, sprays , lozenges,lozenges, coughcough sweetssweets andand ointmentsointments oror inin formulationformulation withwith other oils.oils. It isis used asas anan inhalantinhalant oror chestchest rubrub toto easeease breathingbreathing difficulties,difficulties, as aa mouthwashmouthwash in water toto refreshrefresh oror easeease thethe throat,throat, andand asas aa skinskin rubrub toto provideprovide reliefrelief from from achesaches andand pains.pains. Anti-plaque solutionssolutions inin dental hygienehygiene are aa recentrecent application.application. Although employed forfor medicinal purposes, thethe pleasantpleasant flavourflavour andand fragrancefragrance propertiesproperties ofof cineole-richcineole-rich eucalyptuseucalyptus oilsoils play an importantimportant rolerole inin their their acceptance acceptance and and utilization utilization on on such such a alarg.,e large scale.scale. Eucalyptus oil is also used asas aa generalgeneral disinfectant,disinfectant, cleanercleaner andand deodorizerdeodorizer aboutabout thethe house.house.

Of the two principal perfumery oilsoils,, that from Eucalyptus citriodora is produced in thethe greatest volume. ItIt differs differs from from the the medicinal medicinal oilsoils inin containingcontaining citrinellal,citrinellal, ratherrather thanthan cineole,cineole, as the major constituent. TheThe oiloil isis employedemployed inin wholewhole form for fragrancefragrance purposes, usually in the lowerlower costcost soaps,soaps, perfumesperfumes and disinfectants,disinfectants, but but alsoalso asas aa source of citrinellal for thethe chemical industry. TheThe citrinellal citrinellal obtainedobtained byby fractionationfractionation of the crude oil may be usedused as such as an aromaaroma chemicalchemical oror convertedconverted toto otherother derivativesderivatives intendedintended for fragrancefragrance use.use.

The only other perfumery oiloil producedproduced inin anyany quantity quantity is is that that from from E. E. staigeriana. staigeriana. NoNo single chemical predominates inin the oil and itit isis usedused inin wholewhole formform forfor perfumeryperfumery purposes.purposes. It has aa lemon-typelemon-type character.character.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

World productionproduction andand tradetrade inin eucalyptuseucalyptus oils isis dominated by the People's RepublicRepublic ofof China, whichwhich isis thethe largestlargest producerproducer ofof both both cineole-richcineole-rich medicinalmedicinal oils (about 70 percent of world output andand trade)trade) andand perfumeryperfumery oiloil (from(from E. citriodora).citriodora). It isis notnot possiblepossible toto quantifyquantify accurately totaltotal worldworld demanddemand for for eucalypt-as eucalyptus oils.oils. The weaknessweakness of productionproduction statisticsstatistics andand of domestic consumptionconsumption statisticsstatistics inin thethe producingproducing country markets,markets, especiallyespecially forfor suchsuch aa largelarge producer andand consumerconsumer asas thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof China,China, makesmakes publishedpublished tradetrade statistics statistics ofof limitedlimited valuevalue forfor analyticalanalytical purposes.purposes. Furthermore, several importingimporting countries suchsuch asas

37 Portugal, SpainSpain andand AustraliaAustralia areare alsoalso producersproducers andand processorsprocessors ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oilsoils andand re-exportre-export much of what theythey import.import.

Notwithstanding these difficulties, total world production of medicinal type eucalyptus oil in 1991 has been estimated at around 3000 tonnes, of which approximately 20002000 tonnes werewere exported (COPPEN andand HONE,HONE, 1992). ProductionProduction and exports ofof E.E. citriodora oil, the main perfiimeryperfumery oil, forfor 19911991 areare estimatedestimated atat aboutabout 15001500 tonnestonnes andand 500500 tonnes,tonnes, respectively.respectively.

Globally, the EuropeanEuropean CommunityCommunity isis the largestlargest importerimporter of eucalyptuseucalyptus oils andand recorded importsimports forfor thethe periodperiod 1984-901984-90 areare shownshown inin TableTable 7.

It shouldshould bebe notednoted thatthat medicinalmedicinal andand perfumeryperfumery oils areare notnot distinguisheddistinguished inin tradetrade statistics.

Within Europe, France, GermanyGermany and the UKUK areare thethe majormajor marketsmarkets forfor eucalyptuseucalyptus oil-based products.products. In 19901990 theirtheir combinedcombined importsimports amountedamounted to 18401840 tonnes.tonnes .

Imports intointo thethe UnitedUnited States,States, thethe largestlargest singlesingle countrycountry marketmarket forfor eucalyptuseucalyptus oilsoils (excluding thethe People's Republic of China and those countries which re-exportre-export muchmuch ofof their imports after further processing), are shownshown inin TableTable 8.

Changes and disruptionsdisruptions in Chinese patterns of trade andand domesticdomestic usage of eucalyptuseucalyptus oils since 19891989 havehave causedcaused aa fallfall inin domesticdomestic offtakeofftake and anan expansionexpansion of exports, thethe latterlatter driven by aa desiredesire toto earnearn foreign foreign exchange.exchange. Although increasing, thethe world market forfor eucalyptus oil is notnot growinggrowing rapidly,rapidly, andand withwith nono majormajor newnew usesuses forfor itit whichwhich couldcould absorbabsorb large volumes, opportunitiesopportunities for newnew producersproducers are likelylikely toto restrest mainlymainly withwith meetingmeeting locallocal oror regional needs rather thanthan tryingtrying toto competecompete inin thethe widerwider internationalinternational market.market.

Supply sources

The main producers andand supplierssuppliers ofof cineole-typecineole-type (medicinal) eucalyptus oiloil to the world market are shownshown inin TableTable 9,9, togethertogether withwith estimatesestimates ofof theirtheir productionproduction andand exportsexports inin 1991.1991.

Under intenseintense price pressurepressure fromfrom ChineseChinese oil, primaryprimary productionproduction inin Portugal andand SpainSpain has decreased inin recentrecent yearsyears althoughalthough bothboth countriescountries remainremain significantsignificant exporters ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oil products. TheThe balance balance ofof the the startingstarting oiloil isis imported,imported, chiefly from the People'sPeople's Republic ofof China.

Southern Africa is a majormajor producing region for eucalyptus oil,oil, most of it fromfrom SouthSouth Africa but a significant proportion from Swaziland. InIn SouthSouth America, Chile and Brazil are the major producers, withwith smallersmaller amountsamounts comingcoming fromfrom Bolivia,Bolivia, UruguayUruguay andand Paraguay.Paraguay.

Australia, the homehome ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus andand eucalyptuseucalyptus oil production,production, hashas declineddeclined inin importance sincesince itsits heyday in thethe 1940s.1940s. However, in thethe faceface ofof increasing increasing productionproduction elsewhere inin thethe world,world, thethe introductionintroduction ofof mechanized mechanized harvestingharvesting (see(see below)below) hashas enabledenabled thethe Australian industryindustry toto becomebecome moremore efficientefficient and it remains an important supplier of refined and finished eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil productsproducts (based(based partlypartly onon itsits ownown productionproduction andand partlypartly onon imports of crude or partiallypartially refinedrefined oil).oil).

38 Production ofof E.E. citriodora oil is also dominated byby thethe People's People's RepublicRepublic of of China. China. In 1991 itit is estimatedestimated thatthat sheshe accountedaccounted for approximatelyapproximately twotwo thirds, 10001000 tonnes,tonnes, ofof totaltotal production, of which,which, perhaps,perhaps, 400400 tonnestonnes werewere exported.exported. Brazil (500 tonnes) and India (50(50 tonnes) are thethe onlyonly other producersproducers of this type of oil, with Brazil exporting aboutabout halfhalf ofof herher production. BrazilBrazil isis thethe onlyonly suppliersupplier to thethe world market ofof E.E. staigeriana oil; production is of the order ofof 6060 tonnestonnes pa.pa.

Quality and pricesprices

The valuevalue ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil forfor medicinalmedicinal purposespurposes lieslies inin itsits cineolecineole content,content, whichwhich larg,elylargely determines,determines, also,also, the priceprice thatthat itit fetches.fetches. National and internationalinternational standardsstandards existexist which specify the minimumminimum cineolecineole contentcontent expected of such oils and this is normally 70 percent (m/m). TheThe intrinsic intrinsic composition composition of of the the oil oil isis largely largely determined determined byby thethe speciesspecies ofof Eucalyptus Eucalyptus that isis distilleddistilled and forfor aa fewfew speciesspecies (such(such as E. polybractea)polybractea) the crude oil fromfrom thethe primaryprimary distillation of the leavesleaves easily exceeds this minimum requirement.requirement. ForFor mostmost eucalyptseucalypts whichwhich are exploited, however, thethe crudecrude oil has to bebe rectifiedrectified to increase its cineolecineole content.content. TheseThese oils then enter internationalinternational trade. ChineseChinese oil, oil, for for example, example, is is commonly commonly tradedtraded asas "eucalyptus"eucalyptus oil 8080 percent",percent", referringreferring toto thethe factfact thatthat it it contains contains atat least least 8080 percentpercent cineole. cineole.

Cineole-rich oilsoils used strictly for medicinal purposes must satisfy national oror international pharmacopoeia and this maymay introduceintroduce furtherfurther requirementsrequirements forfor compliance,compliance, althoughalthough thisthis willwill be a task for thethe rectifierrectifier ofof thethe oiloil ratherrather thanthan thethe primaryprimary producer. CrudeCrude E.E. stint-nilsmithii oil, for example, sufferssuffers fromfrom thethe disadvantagedisadvantage ofof containing containing aa fewfew percentpercent ofof isovaleraldehydeisovaleraldehyde andand thisthis adversely affects its odour. InIn order order to to meet meet pharmacopoeia pharmacopoeia standardsstandards thethe aldehydealdehyde contentcontent must be reducedreduced byby rectification.rectification.

For thethe perfumeryperfumery oils,oils, aromaaroma characteristicscharacteristics areare importantimportant butbut itit isis leftleft toto thethe subjectivesubjective assessment of the prospectiveprospective buyer to decidedecide whetherwhether the oiloil isis acceptableacceptable inin thisthis respect.respect. Published standards existexist for E. citriodoracitriodora oiloil andand thesethese usuallyusually specifyspecify that the aldehyde content calculated as citrinellalcitrinellal shouldshould notnot bebe lessless thanthan 7070 percent.percent.

Price trendstrends ofof both both cineole-richcineole-rich andand perfumeryperfumery oilsoils havehave beenbeen greatlygreatly influencedinfluenced byby thethe ample supplies of Chinese oils on the market in recent years and the price atat whichwhich theythey havehave been offered. In early 19941994 the price ofof standardstandard grade Chinese 80 percent eucalyptus oil had fallen below US$3/kgUS$3/kg from thethe US$6/kgUS$6/kg levellevel inin 1989.1989. Prices for cineole-richcineole-rich oil ofof Portuguese/Spanish origin are US$2-3US$2-3 higher than Chinese prices because of the preference by end-users for these traditional sources. AA new new producerproducer ofof eucalyptus eucalyptus oil, however,however, wouldwould needneed to compete, atat leastleast inin thethe firstfirst instance,instance, withwith ChineseChinese oil.oil.

It isis possiblepossible thatthat thethe nextnext fewfew yearsyears willwill seesee reducedreduced ChineseChinese exports and aa slowslow recovery in demanddemand andand prices,prices, thoughthough eucalyptuseucalyptus oil will remain one of thethe lowerlower pricedpriced essential oils.oils.

Until the recentrecent fallfall inin prices,prices, ChineseChinese E.E. citriodora oil waswas lowerlower pricedpriced thanthan cineole-rich oil of ChineseChinese origin. The situationsituation hashas now reversed and in earlyearly 19941994 E.E. citriodora oiloil waswas beingbeing offeredoffered byby LondonLondon dealersdealers atat US$3.35/kg.US$3. 35/kg.

39 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES

Several hundreds of species of Eucalyptus have been shown toto containcontain volatilevolatile oil,oil, though probably fewer thanthan 2020 ofof these these havehave ever ever been been exploited exploited commerciallycommercially forfor oiloil production. production. Today, fewer than aa dozendozen speciesspecies areare utilizedutilized in differentdifferent parts of thethe world,world, ofof whichwhich sixsix account for the greatergreater partpart ofof world world productionproduction ofof eucalyptus eucalyptus oils.oils.

Those species currently exploited, and the countries inin whichwhich theythey areare utilized,utilized, are listed below. (The(The use use of of parentheses parentheses indicatesindicates a minor producer.) OtherOther speciesspecies thatthat have been used in thethe pastpast includeinclude E.E. cinereacinerea (medicinal),(medicinal), E.E. cneorifoliacneorifolia (medicinal)(medicinal) and E. macarthuriimacarthurii (perfumery)(perfumery). .

Botanical!Botanical/common common names

Family Myrtaceae:

Medicinal

Eucalyptus globulusglobulus Labill.Labill. People's RepublicRepublic ofof China,China, (Tasmanian blue gum)gum) Portugal, Spain, India, Brazil, Chile,Chile, (Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay)Paraguay)

E. smithiismithii R. BakerBaker South Africa, Swaziland,Swaziland, (gully gum)gum) (Zimbabwe)

E. polybractea R.R. BakerBaker Australia (syn. E. fruticetorumjruticetorum F.F. Muell. exex Miq.)Miq.) (blue(blue mallee)mallee)

E. exsertaexserta F. Muell.Muell. People's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina (Queensland peppermint)peppermint)

E. radiataradiata SieberSieber exex DC.DC. (South Africa, Australia)Australia) (syn. E.E. australiana, E. radiataradiata var.var. australiana) (narrow-leaved peppermint)peppermint)

E. divesdives SchauerSchauer (cineole(cineole variant)variant) (Australia) (broad-leaved peppermint)peppermint)

E. camaldulensiscamaldulensis Dehnh.Dehnh. (Nepal)(N epal) (syn. E. rostratarostrata Schldl.)Schldl.) (river(river redred gum)gum)

Perfumery

E. citriodoracitriodora Hook.Hook. People's RepublicRepublic ofof China,China, (lemon-scented gum) Brazil, IndiaIndia

E. staigerianastaigeriana F.F. Muell.Muell. Brazil ex BaileyBailey (lemon-scented(lemon-scented ironbark)ironbark)

40 Description and distribution

Eucalypts varyvary in form fromfrom lowlow shrubsshrubs andand multi-stemmedmulti-stemmed trees trees lessless thanthan 1010 mm in height ("mallees") to largelarge single-stemmedsingle-stemmed treestrees moremore thanthan 6060 m tall.tall. The productionproduction of lignotubers isis aa characteristiccharacteristic ofof manymany speciesspecies andand thisthis generallygenerally makesmakes themthem respondrespond toto coppicing. OnOn the the deathdeath ofof the the plantplant stem,stem, eithereither throughthrough firefire oror byby cutting,cutting, dormantdormant vegetativevegetative buds which have beenbeen presentpresent inin aa tuberoustuberous massmass at thethe basebase ofof thethe treetree developdevelop andand produceproduce new stems.stems. TheThe ability ability to to grow grow Eucalyptus Eucalyptus underunder aa coppice coppice systemsystem ofof managementmanagement is centralcentral to the economic production of oil.

The genusgenus Eucalyptus isis native toto Australia andand somesome islandsislands to to thethe northnorth ofof it andand consists of over 500500 speciesspecies ofof trees.trees. These grow under a widewide rangerange ofof climaticclimatic andand edaphicedaphic conditions in their natural habitathabitat and is one reason for the successful introduction of EucalyptusEucalyptus into so many other countries inin thethe worldworld.. TogetherTogether withwith Pinus, thethe two genera account forfor the larger part ofof exoticexotic plantationsplantations inin thethe Americas,Americas, Europe,Europe, AfricaAfrica andand Asia.Asia.

Like pines, eucalyptseucalypts are growngrown for timbertimber oror pulppulp butbut theirtheir fast-growingfast-growing naturenature alsoalso makes them ideallyideally suitedsuited asas aa fuelwoodfuelwood crop.crop. In somesome cases the favouredfavoured speciesspecies forfor woodwood production (such asas E.E. salignasa ligna and E. grandis,grandis, oror E.E. tereticornistereticornis inin India)India) areare notnot suitablesuitable forfor oil. In other instancesinstances they are, andand leafleaf oiloil maymay be obtainedobtained as a secondarysecondary product from the plantings (as is the case for E. globulusglobulus planted forfor pulp in Portugal, E.E. citriodora growngrown forfor charcoal production inin BrazilBrazil andand E.E. smithiismithii utilizedutilized forfor miningmining timbertimber inin SouthSouth Africa).Africa).

Species selection forfor oil production

When leaf oil isis toto bebe aa product product ofof new new eucalypt eucalypt plantingsplantings thethe choicechoice ofof speciesspecies willwill depend on thethe particularparticular environmentalenvironmental conditions that prevail at the intendedintended site. Although most species ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus provideprovide anan oiloil onon distillation,distillation, itsits economiceconomic recoveryrecovery requiresrequires thethe oiloil to bebe ofof goodgood qualityquality (at(at leastleast 60-6560-65 percentpercent cineolecineole inin thethe casecase ofof aa medicinal-typemedicinal-type oil)oil) andand produced in highhigh yields.yields. In practical terms, therefore,therefore, thethe choicechoice is likelylikely to fall on oneone ofof thethe species already utilizedutilized (and(and listedlisted above).above).

In Swaziland and South Africa, E. smithiismithii has been found to grow particularly well under local conditions, producingproducing largelarge amountsamounts ofof leafleaf biomass,biomass, andand thisthis hashas ledled toto itit beingbeing preferredpreferred for oiloil productionproduction overover otherother species.species. In thethe samesame region E. radiata,radiata, althoughalthough itit yieldsyields lessless biomass, givesgives a similarsimilar recoveryrecovery of oil onon aa perper hectarehectare basisbasis asas E.E. smithii.smithii. Its better aroma characteristics, however,however, makemake it it a a species species withwith muchmuch potentialpotential andand itit maymay inin thethe futurefuture bebe moremore widely planted than it isis atat present.present.

Effects of oil production on the natural resourceresource

In Australia,Australia, thethe reducedreduced levellevel ofof oiloil productionproduction compared with 50 years ago isis aa resultresult of thethe inevitableinevitable riserise inin labourlabour costscosts associatedassociated with such production rather than a lossloss ofof thethe trees themselves. InIn any any case,case, as as has has been been indicated, indicated, mostmost eucalyptseucalypts respondrespond toto coppicingcoppicing and cutting back of thethe naturalnatural standsstands isis soonsoon followedfollowed byby thethe emergenceemergence ofof coppicecoppice regrowth.regrowth.

41 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSING

Eucalyptus leafleaf destined for oil productionproduction is obtainedobtained commercially byby one ofof threethree methods:

recovery of "waste""waste" leafleaf fromfrom felledfelled treestrees whichwhich havehave beenbeen growngrown primarily for theirtheir wood;

short-rotation harvesting of plantations establishedestablished specificallyspecifically for for oil oil production. production. Under such a systemsystem of coppicing,coppicing, plants areare allowed toto growgrow forfor no more than about 20 months before cutting;cutting;

regular harvestingharvesting ofof wildwild standsstands (peculiar(peculiar toto Australia).Australia).

Utilization of "waste" leaf

In mostmost cases,cases, thethe branchesbranches trimmedtrimmed from the stemsstems of eucalyptseucalypts that are felledfelled forfor timber, pulppulp oror fuelwoodfuel wood productionproduction areare leftleft inin thethe fieldfield as wastewaste or burnt; thisthis alsoalso includesincludes thethe shoots and sideside stemsstems derivedderived fromfrom pruningpruning operations.operations. Those countries which possess large areas of anan oil-yieldingoil-yielding species are able to make use of thisthis "waste""waste" resourceresource toto produceproduce oil.oil. This is the case for thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof China,China, PortugalPortugal and Spain which recover oil from E. globulus.globulus. TheThe foliage foliage should should not not be be left left on on the the groundground tootoo longlong beforebefore transportationtransportation toto thethe distillery or there isis aa riskrisk ofof losing losing volatilevolatile oil.oil.

Although the raw materialmaterial itself (the foliage)foliage) may have very littlelittle cost associatedassociated with it, anyany prospectiveprospective producerproducer ofof eucalyptus eucalyptus oiloil whowho isis contemplatingcontemplating thethe utilizationutilization ofof "waste""waste" leaf shouldshould ensureensure thatthat thethe logisticslogistics ofof collection collection are are adequately adequately considered.considered. Labour andand transport costs areare notnot insignificant.insignificant.

Coppice management specificallyspecifically for oil production

Those species of Eucalyptus which respond well to coppicing may be grown specificallyspecifically for oiloil onon aa short-rotationshort-rotation cycle.cycle. In Swaziland, where oiloil is obtained fromfrom E.E. smithii, the first cut isis made 20-2420-24 months after planting. SubsequentSubsequent cutscuts ofof thethe coppicecoppice regrowthregrowth areare mademade atat approximately 16-month intervals,intervals, atat whichwhich timetime thethe plants are 5-65-6 m m tall.tall. Harvesting may continue for manymany yearsyears andand inin SwazilandSwaziland some areas of E. smithii are still being harvested after 20 years oror more.more.

In Brazil, one producer of oils from E.E. citriodora, E. globulusglobulus and E. staigerianastaigeriana adoptsadopts a slightly different system of harvesting. EighteenEighteen monthsmonths afterafter planting,planting, thethe smallersmaller branchesbranches are cut from the stem. ThisThis process process isis repeatedrepeated everyevery 66 monthsmonths oror soso untiluntil the branches are too high to be reached (a period of about 3 years). TheThe stemstem isis thenthen cutcut atat aboutabout kneeknee heightheight and two or three stemsstems areare allowedallowed toto growgrow overover a period of about 12 months, when the harvesting cycle is repeated.repeated.

The distillery isis usually locatedlocated within a reasonable distance of where the eucalypts are growing and foliage from the harvestingharvesting operation isis distilleddistilled either either the the samesame dayday oror the following day.day.

42 Mechanical harvestingharvesting ofof E.E. polybracteapolybractea inin AustraliaAustralia

The multi-stemmed,multi-stemmed, shrubby naturenature of coppiced E.E. polybractea offersoffers anan alternativealternative means of leafleaf collectioncollection thatthat isis notnot labour labour intensive: intensive: mechanicalmechanical harvesting.harvesting. This systemsystem of harvesting was developed inin AustraliaAustralia as a means of reducing labour costs and is used to harvest natural stands of E. polybractea.polybractea. TheThe frequency frequency ofof harvesting harvesting isis betweenbetween 1818 monthsmonths andand 2424 months, at whichwhich timetime thethe shrubsshrubs areare aboutabout 11 mm high.high.

On a more limitedlimited scalescale inin Australia,Australia, E. polybracteapolybractea hashas beenbeen plantedplanted as aa cropcrop forfor oiloil production. The first harvestharvest isis usuallyusually mademade afterafter 33 yearsyears withwith subsequentsubsequent harvestingharvesting at 18-month intervals.intervals.

An additional advantage ofof thethe mechanicalmechanical harvesting systemsystem is that the mobile "bin""bin" intointo which the cutcut foliagefoliage isis blownblown functionsfunctions not only as aa meansmeans ofof transportingtransporting it backback toto thethe distillery, butbut asas aa distillationdistillation vessel.vessel. ByBy such such means, means, double double handling handling byby wayway ofof unloading unloading andand reloading of the leafleaf intointo a separateseparate vessel is avoided. AA steamsteam lineline isis simplysimply connectedconnected to the bottom of the bin,bin, andand aa covercover withwith aa holehole inin the the centrecentre whichwhich allowsallows exitexit ofof thethe oil/wateroil/water vapours during distillation is placed overover thethe top.top. TheThe vapoursvapours areare ledled awayaway throughthrough aa flexibleflexible hose and thenthen condensedcondensed andand separatedseparated inin thethe normalnormal manner.manner.

Yields andand quality variation

Yields of oiloil fromfrom leafleaf varyvary somewhatsomewhat betweenbetween species but on a commercialcommercial scale are of thethe order of 1 percentpercent onon a "fresh""fresh" basis.basis. (Note(Note that that "leaf""leaf" inin thisthis contextcontext includesincludes the woody material of the branches which contains littlelittle oror nono oil.)oil.) OfOf more more relevancerelevance toto thethe economicseconomics of production is thethe yieldyield ofof oiloil perper hectarehectare andand thisthis isis dependentdependent on the biomassbiomass production as well as thethe oiloil yield from thethe leaf.leaf. Production from E.E. smithii inin SwazilandSwaziland yieldsyields approximately 15 tonnes/ha of leaf,leaf, correspondingcorresponding to aboutabout 150150 litres/halitres/ha ofof oil.oil.

The dependence of oil qualityquality on speciesspecies has already been referred to. There may alsoalso be markedmarked differencesdifferences in oiloil yieldyield andand qualityquality withinwithin aa speciesspecies accordingaccording toto thethe provenanceprovenance origin of thethe seed.seed. E. camaldulensis,camaldulensis, forfor example,example, hashas aa veryvery widewide distributiondistribution inin Australia,Australia, but onlyonly certaincertain northernnorthern QueenslandQueensland provenances (Petford,(Petford, inin particular) yieldyield an oil whichwhich makes the speciesspecies attractiveattractive as aa sourcesource ofof medicinal medicinal oil.oil. In extremeextreme cases inin theirtheir naturalnatural habitat, even treestrees withinwithin thethe samesame provenanceprovenance may produce oils which are quitequite differentdifferent toto each other. E.E. divesdives is is a a well-known well-known example example andand itit isis possiblepossible toto obtainobtain seedseed from cineolecineole and piperitone variants.variants.

Further smallsmall yieldyield andand compositionalcompositional differences maymay arisearise from the use ofof juvenilejuvenile rather than adult leafleaf forfor distillation,distillation, thoughthough itit isis not generally practicable to attempt to separate different types of leafleaf inin aa commercialcommercial operation.operation.

VALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

The enhancement of cineole content of the crude oil by aa processprocess ofof rectificationrectification entailsentails carrying outout aa fractionalfractional distillationdistillation under reduced pressure. SmallSmall producersproducers ofof eucalyptus eucalyptus oils,oils, for whom it isis notnot economiceconomic to investinvest in thethe equipment needed toto dodo this,this, sell their crude oil toto other, larger producersproducers or toto rectifiersrectifiers whowho areare not,not, themselves,themselves, producers of crude oil. An

43 annual oil production ofof thethe orderorder ofof 40-50 40-50 tonnestonnes isis thethe minimumminimum scalescale ofof operation operation thatthat wouldwould make rectification a viableviable optionoption for aa producer.producer.

Essentially pure cineole, termedtermed "eucalyptol","eucalyptol" , isis tradedtraded andand used byby some end-users, andand commands aa higher price than the lower grades, but itit isis necessarynecessary to prepare this inin aa secondsecond step afterafter rectification.rectification. The cineole-rich ffractionraction is is frozenfrozen at at -300°C-300°C toto -400°C-400°C for up toto 24 hours andand thethe recoveredrecovered mixture,mixture ,which which contains contains unfrozenunfrozen impuritiesimpurities (principally(principally limonene),limonene), is centrifuged.centrifuged. The liquid portion is thusthus removedremoved and thethe frozenfrozen partpart warmedwarmed toto furnishfurnish eucalyptol.

PRODUCTS OTHER THAN OIL

Apart from any primary utilizationutilization of the stem wood if the oil is produced from "waste""waste " leaf, itit isis stillstill possiblepossible toto makemake useuse ofof both both spentspent leafleaf (that(that is,is, thethe materialmaterial remainingremaining afterafter distillation of thethe oil)oil) andand secondarysecondary biomass,biomass, eveneven fromfrom operationsoperations involvinginvolving short-rotationshort-rotation coppicing, and this aspectaspect shouldshould alwaysalways be consideredconsidered bbyy a prospectiveprospective new producerproducer ofof eucalyptus oil.

Small coppice stems from which the foliage is trimmed for distillation can bbee used asas fuel,fuel , either forfor thethe boilerboiler providingproviding steam at the didistillerystillery oror forfor ssaleale toto otherothers.s. SpentSpent leafleaf cancan also be usedused asas aa boilerboiler fuelfuel althoughalthough onlyonly aa portionportion ofof the the totaltotal availableavailable willwill probablyprobably bebe consumed in this way. TheThe remainderremainder maymay bebe returnedreturned toto thethe fieldsfields to serveserve as a fertilizerfertilizer (or(or a mulchmulch ifif conditionsconditions requirerequire it)it) oror itit maymay bebe convertedconverted toto compostcompost andand soldsold toto provideprovide anan additional source ofof income.income.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL

Although present prices of eucalyptus oils are the lowest they havehave beenbeen in recent yearsyears,, this isis notnot atypicalatypical ofof thethe fluctuationsfluctuations thatthat occuroccur inin thethe essentialessential oiloil marketmarket andand theythey maymay bebe expected, in duedue course,course, toto recover.recover. The advantage of Eucalyptus over most otherother essentialessential oil-bearing treetree cropscrops is that itit offers thethe possibilitypossibility ofof genuine genuine multipurposemUltipurpose utilization.utilization. Moreover, thethe treestrees cancan bebe growngrown onon a a large, large, plantationplantation scalescale oror onon an an individualindividual oror communal communal woodlot system. TheThe rapid rapid growth growth ofof the the treestrees meansmeans thatthat incomeincome cancan bebe derivedderived fromfrom salessales of the stems for poles,poles, fuelwoodfuelwood oror otherother purposepurpose withinwithin a fairly shortshort time (7-10(7-10 years) duringduring which period leaf cancan alsoalso bebe harvestedharvested forfor oiloil production.production.

A number ofof socio-economicsocio-economic studies have been published dedescribingscribing thethe experiencesexperiences ofof smallholder or cooperativecooperative groupsgroups whowho havehave includedincluded EucalyptusEucalyptus speciesspecies amongstamongst thethe treestrees planted. InIn Africa, Africa, E. E. camaldulensis camaldulensis is is often often planted, planted ,either either alonealone oror withwith Acacia,Acacia, GmelinaGmelina oror some other species, usuallyusually asas aa sourcesource ofof polespoles andand fuelwood,fuelwood, thoughthough they may also serveserve asas shelterbelts andand windbreaks.windbreaks. Utilization ofof waste leaf from PetfordPetford E. camaldulensiscamaldulensis for simultaneous oil production is thereforetherefore anan optionoption but moremore researchresearch isis neededneeded toto examineexamine thethe likely economic returns to thethe farmer.farmer. In Kenya,Kenya, andand elsewhere,elsewhere, thethe supposedsupposed disadvantagesdisadvantages of growing eucalyptseucalypts (high(high waterwater andand nutrientnutrient consumption)consumption) havehave notnot beenbeen borneborne outout inin practice.practice. Adverse effects ofof woodlotswoodlots onon neighbouringneighbouring crops cancan bebe minimisedminimised by careful considerationconsideration of positioning.positioning.

44 Research needs

The intrinsicintrinsic variabilityvariability ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus germplasmgermplasm sourcessources hashas alreadyalready beenbeen discussed.discussed. The advantages to bebe gainedgained fromfrom givinggiving adequateadequate attentionattention to selectionselection of seedseed forfor plantingplanting cannot be over-emphasized. Over-hastyOver-hasty plantingplanting of aa speciesspecies oror provenanceprovenance whichwhich is unsuitedunsuited to locallocal conditions, or doesdoes notnot produceproduce an oiloil ofof acceptableacceptable quality oror yield.yield, will resultresult inin failure.failure.

Despite the largelarge storestore ofof knowledgeknowledge thatthat isis availableavailable on the cultivation of eucalypts for wood and pulp, furtherfurther researchresearch isis neededneeded toto maximizemaximize the returns on eucalypts planted (solely or partly) for thethe productionproduction of oil:

More extensiveextensive evaluationevaluation ofof thethe climaticclimatic andand edaphicedaphic conditions under whichwhich thethe majormajor oil-bearing speciesspecies willwill growgrow in differentdifferent parts of thethe world.world. As wellwell asas originaloriginal research, collationcollation ofof publishedpublished (and(and unpublished)unpublished) data which are presently scatteredscattered inin the literatureliterature wouldwould bebe valuable.valuable. Armed with suchsuch information,information, moremore informedinformed judgements could be made onon whichwhich speciesspecies are likelylikely to be mostmost suitedsuited toto aa particularparticular site (though this wouldwould notnot eliminateeliminate the need to conduct field trials to verifyverify this).this).

Determination of biomassbiomass production. WhileWhile information information is is oftenoften availableavailable onon thethe yieldsyields of oiloil toto bebe expectedexpected fromfrom thethe leafleaf ofof particular particular speciesspecies ofof Eucalyptus,Eucalyptus, muchmuch lessless is is known about thethe amountamount ofof leafleaf producedproduced inin thethe field,field, withwith whichwhich meaningfulmeaningful estimatesestimates can be made of productivity, i.e. oiloil yieldyield perper hectarehectare per year.year. Specific areas rrequiringequiring research includeinclude thethe effectseffects ofof spacing,spacing, fertilizerfertilizer applicationapplication andand frequencyfrequency andand heightheight of coppicingcoppicing onon biomass/oilbiomass/oil yields.yields.

Investigation of nutrientnutrient recycling.recycling. In cases where eucalypts are grown specifically forfor oil onon aa shortshort rotation, rotation, thethe long-term long-term effectseffects ofof continued continued removalremoval ofof biomassbiomass andand possible nutrient depletiondepletion of thethe soilsoil needneed toto bebe studied.studied.

Socio-economic studies of the effects of including oil production inin smallholder/cooperative venturesventures involvinginvolving multipurposemUltipurpose eucalyptseucalypts andand woodlots.woodlots. To date, mostmost workwork hashas relatedrelated toto woodwood useuse only.only.

Some speciesspecies deservedeserve particularparticular attention.attention. In AfricaAfrica andand Asia.Asia, E.E. camaldulensiscamaldulensis hashas great potentialpotential asas aa sourcesource ofof fuelwood/poles fuel wood/poles andand oil.oil. In Africa,Africa, E.E. smithiismithii andand E.E. radiata areare highhigh oiloil yielders.yielders. In veryvery drydry areasareas E.E. polybracteapolybractea maymay havehave potentialpotential although it would notnot bebe suitablesuitable forfor timbertimber production.production.

45 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBffiLIOGRAPHY

BOLAND, D.J., BROPHY,BROPHY, J.J.J.J. andand HOUSE,HOUSE, A.P.N.A.P.N. (eds) (eds) (1991) (1991) EucalyptusEucalyptus LeafLeaf Oils.Oils. Use,Use, Chemistry,Chemistry, Distillation Distillation and and Marketing.Marketing. 252 pp. Melbourne/Sydney:Melbourne/Sydney: InkataInkata Press.

BOOTH,BOOTH, T.H. (1992)(1992) WhereWhere inin thethe world?world? NewNew climaticclimatic analysisanalysis methodsmethods to assistassist species andand provenanceprovenance selection forfor trials. Unasylva, 42(165), 51-57.51-57.

BROOKER,BROOKER, M.1.H.M.I.H. and KLEINIG, D.A. (1990)(1990) Field Guide to Eucalypts, Vols. 1 andand 2.2. Melbourne/Sydney:Melbourne/Sydney: Inkata Press.

CALDER,!.CALDER, I. (1990)(1990) EucalyptusEucalyptus not the villain after all. Overseas, No.4No. 4,, pp 6.6. Wallingford, UK: Institute of Hydrology.Hydrology.

CONROY,CONROY, C. (1992)(1992) CanCan eucalypts be appropriate for poor farmers?fanners? AppropriateAppropriate Technology, Technology, 19(1), 22-25.

COPPEN, J.J.W. andand DYER,DYER, L.R.L.R. (1993)(1993) EucalyptusEucalyptus and itsits LeafLeaf Oils.Oils. An IndexedIndexed Bibliography. 205205 pp.pp. Chatham,Chatham, UK: UK: Natural Natural Resources Resources Institute.Institute.

COPPEN, J.J.W.J.J.W. andand HONE,HONE, G.A.G.A. (1992)(1992) EucalyptusEucalyptus Oils.Oils. A ReviewReview of Production and Markets.Markets. NRINRI BulletinBulletin 56.56. 4545 pp. pp. Chatham, Chatham, UK: UK: Natural Natural Resources Resources Institute.Institute.

FAO (1979) Eucalypts for for Planting.Planting. FAOFAO ForestryForestry SeriesSeries No.No.1!, 11. 677 pp.pp. Rome:Rome: FAO.FAO.

FAO (1988) TheThe EucalyptEucalypt Dilemma. Dilemma. 2626 pp.pp. Rome:Rome: FAO.FAO.

GUSTAVSSON, S.S. andand KIMEU,KIMEU, P.P. (1992) (1992) Socio-economic Socio-economic EvaluationEvaluation ofof Eucalyptus Eucalyptus GrovvingGrowing on Small-scaleSmall-scale Farms inin VihigaVihiga Division,Division, KakamegaKakamega District, Kenya: a MinorMinor FieldField Study.Study. International Rural DevelopmentDevelopment Centre Publication No. 210. 41 pp. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.Sciences.

HERGERT, H.J.H.J. andand UIBRIG,UIBRIG, H.H. (1991)(1991) EconomicsEconomics ofof aa polepole and fuelwood productionproduction project in thethe HarargheHararghe highlands,highlands, easterneastern Ethiopia.Ethiopia. In ProceedingsProceedings of thethe FirstFirst InternationalInternational Symposium onon HorticulturalHorticultural Economics in DevelopingDeveloping Countries,Countries, Alemaya, Ethiopia, 16-2316-23 July,July, 1989. ActaActa HorticulturaeHorticulturae (270),(270), 373-379.373-379.

ISO (1974)(1974) OilOil ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus citriodora.citriodora. International StandardStandard ISOISO 3044-19743044-1974 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp . International OrganizationOrganization forfor Standardization.Standardization.

ISO (1974)(1974) OilOil ofof Australian Australian Eucalyptus,Eucalyptus, 8080 toto 8585 percent percent cineolecineole content.content. International Standard ISO 3065-1974 (E).(E). 22 pp.pp. MternationalInternational Organization Organization for for Standardization. Standardization.

ISO (1980)(1980) OilOil ofof Eucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus.globulus. International Standard ISO 770-1980770-1980 (E).(E). 22 pp.pp. InternationalInternational OrganizationOrganization forfor Standardization.Standardization.

ISO (1983) RectifiedRectified oiloil ofof EucalyptusEucalyptus globulus globulus Labillardiere, Labillardière, Portugal. Portugal. InternationalInternational Standard ISO 4732-1983 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp. InternationalInternational OrganizationOrganization forfor Standardization.Standardization.

46 NEIL, P.E.P.E. (1987) (1987) NotesNotes onon PotentialPotential MultipurposeMUltipurpose and CommunityCommunity ForestForest TreeTree Species.Species. Forest Research Report,Report, Vanuatu,Vanuatu, No.No. 11/87.11/87. 22 pp.pp.

OSEMEOBO, G.J. (1989)(1989) AnAn impactimpact andand performanceperformance evaluationevaluation of smallholdersmallholder participation ini n treetree planting,planting, Nigeria. AgriculturalAgricultural Systems,Systems, 29(2),29(2), 117-135.117-135.

PENFOLD, A.R.A.R. andand WILLIS,WILLIS, J.L.J.L. (1961)(1961) EssentialEssential oils.oils. pp. 245-281.245-281. In TheThe Eucalypts.Eucalypts. 551 pp. London:London: LeonardLeonard Hill.Hill.

POORE, M.E.D. andand FRIES,FRIES, C.C. (1985)(1985) TheThe EcologicalEcological Effects ofof Eucalyptus.Eucalyptus. FAOFAO ForestryForestry Paper No.No. 59.59. 8787 pp.pp. Rome:Rome: FAO.FAO.

TURNBULL, J.W. (1991)(1991) FutureFuture useuse ofof Eucalyptus: Eucalyptus: opportunitiesopportunities andand problems.problems. pp. 2-27.2-27. In Proceedings ofof IUFRO IUFRO SymposiumSymposium on Intensive Forestry:Forestry.. TheThe RoleRole ofof Eucalypts, Eucalypts, Durban,Durban, 2-62-6 SSeptember,eptember, 1991.1991 . Vol. 1.1. 595 pp. Pretoria:Pretoria: SouthernSouthern AfricanAfrican Institute of Forestry.Forestry.

WHITEWHITE,, K.J.K.J. (1988)(1988) Eucalyptus onon smallsmall farms.farms. pp. 86-96.86-96. InIn ProceedingsProceedings ofof an InternationalMternational Workshop onon MultipurposeMultipurpose TreeTree Species for for Small-farmSmall-farm Use,Use, Pattaya,Pattaya, Thailand, 2-52-5 November,November, 1987.

47 6. Eucalyptus leaves awaiting distillation. Eucalyptus globulus, showingshowing juvenile andand adult leaves, PortugalPortugal [J.[1. Coppen,Coppen, NRI1.NRI].

77. Harvesting EucalyptusEucalyptus smithii,smithii, Swaziland. First cutcut at aboutabout 2424 monthsmonths [J. Coppen, NRI].NRI].

48 8. Eucalyptus leaves being loadedloaded intointo stillsstills forfor distillation.distillation. Eucalyptus smithii,smithii, Swaziland [J[J.. Coppen, NRI].NRI].

9. Regularly coppiced natural stands of Eucalyptus polybracteapolybractea awaiting harvesting,harvesting, Australia [J. Coppen, NM].NRI].

49 SEN-SARMA, P.K. (1982)(1982) SandalwoodSandalwood -- its cultivationcultivation and utilization.utilization. pp. 395-405.395-405. In Cultivation and UtilizationUtilization ofof Aromatic Aromatic Plants.Plants. Atal, C.C.K. K. and Kapur, B.B.M. M. (eds).(eds). 815 pp.pp . Jammu, India:India: RegionalRegional ResearchResearch Laboratory,Laboratory, CSIR.CSIR.

SHANKARANSHANKARANARAYANA, ARA Y AN A, K.K. H.H. and PPARTHASARATHI, ARTHASARA THI , K. (1984) CompositionalCompositional differencesdifferences in sandal oils from youngyoung and mature trees and inin thethe sandalsandal oils undergoing colour change onon standing. IndianIndian Perfumer,Pefjumer, 28(3/4),28(3/4), 138-141.138-141.

STATHAM, PP.. (1990)(1990) TheThe sandalwoodsandalwood industryindustry in Australia:Australia: aa history.history . pp. 26-38.26-38. In Proceedings ofof Symposium Symposium on Sandalwood inin thethe PacificPacific,, HonoluluHonolulu,, HawaiiHawaii,, 9-119-11 April, 1990.1990. USDA ForestForest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, GeneralGeneral TechnicalTechnical ReportReport PSW-122.PSW-122. Berkeley, USA:USA: USDA,USDA, PSRS.PSRS .

SURIAMIHARDJA, S. (1978)(1978) [Problems[Problems onon sandalwoodsandalwood (Santalum album LinnLinn.).) silviculturesilviculture and improving its production]production].. pp.pp. 115-125.115-125. InIn Proceedings Proceedings of of Third Third SeminarSeminar onon VolatileVolatile Oils,Oils, Bogor, Indonesia,Indonesia, July,July, 1978.1978. Bogor:Bogor Balai: Balai Penelitian Penelitian Kimia. Kimia.

VERGHESE, J.,J., SUNNY,SUNNY, T.P.T.P . andand BALAKRISHNAN,BALAKRISHNAN, KK.V..V. (1990)(1990) (+)-a-santalol(+)-a-santalol andand (-)-b-santalol(-)-b-santalol (Z)(Z) concentration, aa newnew qualityquality determinantdeterminant of EastEast IndianIndian sandalwoodsandalwood oil. Flavour and Fragrance Journal,Journal, 5,5, 223-226.223-226.

YADAV, V.G.V.G. (1993)(1993) Sandalwood: Sandalwood: its origin,origin, synthetic substitutessubstitutes andand structure-odourstructure-odour relationship. PAFAIPAFAI Journal, 15(4),15(4), 21-54.21-54.

59 Table 7 Imports ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil intointo thethe EuropeanEuropean Community,Community, andand sources,sources, 1984-901984-90 (tonnes)(tonnes)

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 19901990

Total 1516 1194 1568 2025 1939 1987 2646

Of which from:from: China 807 460 771 1275 891 1139 1790 Portugal 229 204 156 172 164 171 117 Spain 132 182 172 146 131 144 175 Brazil 179 116 na na na na na South Africa 68 80 na na na 146 164 Others 101 152 469 432 753 387 400

Source: NIMEXE; EurostatEurostat (1989,(1989, 1990)1990)

Table 8 Imports ofof eucalyptuseucalyptus oiloil intointo thethe UnitedUnited States,States, 1984-901984-90 (tonnes)

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Total 384 226 293 378 312 326 378

Source: Foreign AgriculturalAgricultural Circular, USDAUSDA

50 Table 9 World productionproduction andand exportsexports (excluding (excluding re-exports)re-exports) ofof cineole-type cineole-type eucalyptus oil estimated for 19911991 (tonnes)(tonnes)

Production Exports

Total 2480-3130 1870-2070

Of which:which: China,China, PeoplePeople's's Rep.Rep of 1600-2000 1300-1500 Portugal 150- 200 150 India 150- 200 ne South Africa 150- 180 120 Australia 120- 150150 100 Swaziland 80- 100 80 Chile 80- 100 70 Spain 50- 100100 50 Others 100 ne

SourceSource:: NRINRI andand tradetrade estimatesestimates

51 CHAPTER 6 SANDALWOOD OIL

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES

The term sandalwoodsandalwood has beenbeen appliedapplied atat variousvarious timestimes toto oilsoils fromfrom severalseveral differentdifferent sources.sources. Today, almostalmost allall thethe sandalwoodsandalwood oiloil tradedtraded internationallyinternationally isis so-calledso-called EastEast IndianIndian sandalwoodsandalwood oil distilled from the heartwood and roots of Santalum album.album. AustralianAustralian sandalwoodsandalwood oil from S. spicatumspicatum and West Indian and African "sandalwood" oils oils are are nono longerlonger produced.produced. UnlessUnless otherwise statedstated thethe followingfollowing discussiondiscussion relates to the East Indian type from S. albumalbum (referred(referred to, here,here, simplysimply asas sandalwoodsandalwood oil).

Sandalwood oil has a characteristic sweet,sweet, woodywoody odour whichwhich is widely employed inin thethe fragrance industry,industry, butbut moremore particularlyparticularly inin thethe higher-priced higher-priced perfumes.perfumes. It hashas excellentexcellent blending properties andand thethe presencepresence ofof aa largelarge proportionproportion ofof high-boilinghigh-boiling constituents in the oil (about 90 percent santalols)santalols) also makes it valuable as a fixative for other fragrances.fragrances. In India, where it is produced,produced, itit isis usedused inin thisthis mannermanner forfor thethe manufacturemanufacture of traditionaltraditioml attars such as rose attar; thethe delicatedelicate floralfloral oilsoils areare distilleddistilled directlydirectly intointo sandalwoodsandalwood oil.oil.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

India and Indonesia are thethe twotwo majormajor producersproducers andand exportersexporters ofof sandalwoodsandalwood oiloil butbut reliable production data are notnot available.available. Domestic consumption,consumption, whichwhich isis certainly high inin India and probably greater than the combined totaltotal forfor the rest of the world,world, isis thereforetherefore alsoalso difficult to estimate.estimate. World production/consumption is is probably probably of of thethe order ofof severalseveral hundreds of tonnestonnes annually.annually.

Indian exports ofof sandalwoodsandalwood oiloil for thethe periodperiod 1987/88-1992/93,1987/88-1992/93, togethertogether withwith destinations, are shown in TableTable 10.10.

The United States and France areare thethe twotwo largestlargest importersimporters ofof IndianIndian sandalwoodsandalwood oil.oil. Imports intointo thethe formerformer SovietSoviet UnionUnion have fallen in the last two years and no early recovery ofof this market isis expected.expected. ImportsImports into into the the Middle Middle East East have have increased.increased.

The USA isis alsoalso thethe chiefchief destinationdestina~ion forfor IndonesianIndonesian exports and thus representsrepresents thethe biggest market forfor sandalwoodsandalwood oiloil outsideoutside India.India.

Indonesian exports for 1987-921987-92 are shown in Table 11.11.

Demand for sandalwoodsandalwood oil fell sharply inin thethe 1970s asas aa result of very high prices and competition from syntheticsynthetic substitutes.substitutes. However, this largelylargely affected affected thethe lower-pricedlower-priced formulations and thethe natural oiloil hashas retainedretained itsits marketmarket in in the the top top grade grade products. products. Demand now is influenced mostly by supply factors and the wayway inin whichwhich thisthis affectsaffects prices.

53 Supply sources

Indian exports over thethe last sixsix years (Table(Table 10)10) have averaged about 40 tonnes pa, withwith no distinct trend overover thethe period.period. Production is based almostalmost entirely on exploitationexploitation ofof wildwild trees. The lacklack ofof productionproduction oror domesticdomestic consumptionconsumption data makemake itit impossibleimpossible toto judgejudge thethe state of thethe supplysupply basebase andand whetherwhether thisthis (and(and thethe levellevel ofof exports)exports) isis likelylikely toto changechange inin thethe future.

Indonesia is the only other supplier ofof EastEast Indian-typeIndian-type sandalwoodsandalwood oil. oil. Recorded annual exports over thethe sixsix yearsyears 1987-921987-92 (Table(Table 11)11) averagedaveraged 1515 tonnes.tonnes.

Australian production of oiloil fromfrom SantalumSantalum spicatumspicatum ceasedceased inin 1971.1971. Exports for thethe ten years toto thatthat datedate averagedaveraged lessless thanthan 33 tonnestonnes annually.annually.

Quality and pricesprices

There isis anan internationalinternational (ISO)(ISO) standardstandard forfor sandalwoodsandalwood oil (ex SantalumSantalum album) which stipulates a minimum free alcohols (santalol) contentcontent of of 90 90 percentpercent (m/m).(m/m). RangesRanges withinwithin whichwhich various physico-chemicalphysico-chemical propertiesproperties must fall are alsoalso given.given. In thethe UnitedUnited States,States, anan EOAEOA standard specifies thethe samesame minimumminimum santalolsantalol content.content. As a perfumeryperfumery oil, thethe aromaaroma characteristics are all-important and these areare judgedjudged byby the buyer to be acceptable oror not for individual consignments.

Sandalwood oil isis one ofof thethe most highlyhighly priced items in the essential oil trade, reflectingreflecting the naturenature ofof thethe rawraw materialmaterial sourcesource andand thethe tightnesstightness ofof supplies. supplies. In the latelate 1980s1980s itit waswas fetching-fetching almostalmost US$200/kg.US$200/kg. Throughout 19921992 thethe priceprice ofof oil ofof IndianIndian originorigin offeredoffered byby London dealers was about US$140-150/kg; Indonesian oiloil waswas aboutabout US$5US$5 lower.lower. InIn mid-1993mid-1993 thethe price of IndianIndian oiloil roserose againagain toto US$180/kgUS$180/kg andand thisthis waswas stillstill thethe priceprice inin earlyearly 1994.1994.

PLANT SOURCES

Botanical!Botanical/common common name

Family Santalaceae:Santalaceae:

Santalum album Linn. (Sandalwood)

Other Santalum species occurring in Australia andand islands ofof thethe PacificPacific havehave been,been, or are, harvested forfor theirtheir fragrantfragrant wood,wood, althoughalthough nonenone (with(with thethe possible exceptions of very small quantities of S. austrocaledonicumaustrocaledonicum and S.S. yasi) are currentlycurrently used as sourcessources of internationallyinternationally traded oil. These include S. spicatumspicatum and S. lanceolatumlanceolatum (Australia),(Australia), S.S. ellipticumellipticum (Hawaii),(Hawaii), S. yasi (Fiji(Fiji andand Tonga),Tonga), S.S. macgregoriimacgregorii (Papua(Papua NewNew Guinea),Guinea), S.S. austrocaledonicumaustrocaledonicum (Vanuatu(Vanuatu and New Caledonia)Caledonia) andand S.S. insulareinsulare (French(French Polynesia).Polynesia).

54 Description and distribution

S. alburnalbum is aa smallsmall toto medium-sizedmedium-sized evergreen tree, sometimes reaching upup to 18 nim inin height and 2.5 mm inin girth.girth. It isis aa rootroot parasiteparasite andand successfulsuccessful regenerationregeneration (both(both naturalnatural andand artificial) requires, amongstamongst otherother things,things, suitablesuitable hosthost plants.plants.

S. album occurs naturallynaturally in India, SriSri LankaLanka andand the Malay Archipelago (Indonesia and surrounding islands).islands). In IndiaIndia itit isis foundfound inin thethe drierdrier regionsregions inin thethe southsouth ofof the the country,country, especially thethe states ofof Karnataka andand TamilTamil Nadu Nadu,, up up toto 14001400 mm.. FormationFormation ofof heartwood,heartwood, from which thethe oil isis obtained,obtained, isis saidsaid toto bebe bestbest between 600 mm andand 900900 m.m. ModerateModerate rainfallrainfall (850(850-1200-1200 mm) spread over several months and much sunshine areare conducive toto good growth. Sandal has become naturalized in parts of Rajasthan,Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya PradeshPradesh and UttarUttar Pradesh and hashas beenbeen introducedintroduced intointo aa numbernumber ofof otherother IndianIndian states.states. The wood of treestrees outside their natural range,range, however,however, isis veryvery variablevariable withwith respectrespect toto oiloil contentcontent and sometimessometimes has little or nono aroma.aroma.

In Indonesia, S. album occurs on thethe neighbouringneighbouring islandsislands of of Timor Timor,, Sumba Sumba,, Flores Flores,, AloAlorr and Roti, althoughalthough therethere isis nownow onlyonly aa significant significant populationpopulation onon Timor.Timor.

Effects of oil production on the natural resourceresource

Cultivation of sandal in India has hadhad limitedlimited successsuccess.. WhileWhile it mightmight be expected that the destructive nature ofof sandalwoodsandalwood oil production, which entails the uprootinguprooting of mature treestrees,, would put inexorable pressure on the wild resource there is little or no quantitative information available on which to judge thethe extentextent toto whichwhich thisthis mightmight havehave occurred.occurred. Sandal trees freelyfreely produce seed and naturalnatural regenerationregeneration occursoccurs bothboth viavia seedlingsseedlings and through root suckers which are producedproduced when the treetree hashas beenbeen felledfelled andand thethe stumpstump extractedextracted from the ground.ground. The absence of heartwood inin youngyoung treestrees providesprovides littlelittle reason for fellingfelling treestrees lessless thanthan 20-2520-25 yearsyears old so they areare allowedallowed toto growgrow toto atat leastleast thisthis age.age . The extent of heartwood formation is atat its maximum at aroundaround 30-5030-50 years.years.

The greatestgreatest threatthreat toto IndianIndian sandalsandal maymay bebe lossloss throughthrough spikespike disease rather thanthan oiloil production. Trees of allall agesages andand sizessizes areare liableliable to bebe attackedattacked and,and, ifjf infected,infected , succumbsuccumb ttoo the disease within about threethree years.years.

In Indonesia,Indonesia, continuouscontinuous harvestingharvesting combined with very little regenerationregeneration (due to firesfires,, shifting cultivation and uncontrolled cattlecattle grazing)grazing) hashas ledled toto aa serious decline inin the SS.. album population.

Elsewhere, too,too, thethe consequencesconsequences ofof destructivedestructive harvesting (either for oil productionproduction oror for salesale ofof thethe loglog forfor incense incense productionproduction [see[see PRODUCTSPRODUCTS OTHEROTHER THAN OIL]) are beingbeing increasingly recognized andand somesome attemptsattempts havehave been been made made to to quantify quantify loss loss of of the the resource resource.. In 19851985 it was estimated that livelive S.S. spicatumspicatum standsstands inin WesternWestern AustraliaAustralia werewere sufficientsufficient forfor aa further 23 yearsyears harvestingharvesting beforebefore depletion,depletion, althoughalthough favourablefavourable technicaltechnical andand economiceconomic changes could extend thisthis period.period. Collection ofof dead woodwood (which(which formsforms anan increasingincreasing proportion of thethe harvestedharvested logs)logs) willwill contributecontribute to aa furtherfurther extension.extension.

55 HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSING

In India, trees above 60 cm girth are harvested duringduring thethe post-monsoonpost-monsoon period. period. In areas affected by spikespike diseasedisease onlyonly deaddead andand dyingdying treestrees areare harvested.harvested . After uprooting, the woodwood is cut intointo billetsbillets whichwhich areare thenthen transportedtransported to a central depot. TheThe sapwoodsapwood andand heartwoodheartwood parts ofof thethe trunktrunk areare clearly clearly demarcated demarcated andand sapwoodsapwood isis removedremoved accordingly.accordingly. Roots areare primarily heartwood and require no initial division.division. TheThe valuevalue ofof thethe woodwood andand thethe highhigh priceprice that itit fetchesfetches makemake smugglingsmuggling somethingsomething thatthat thethe authoritiesauthorities havehave toto contendcontend with.with.

In preparationpreparation for distillationdistillation thethe billets of wood are chippedchipped and then reducedreduced to aa powder. MostMost sandalwood sandalwood oiloil isis nownow producedproduced by steam distillation ofof thethe powder. powder. InIn formerformer times direct water distillation, inin whichwhich thethe raw material is immersed in water and distilled, was used. TheThe high-boiling high-boiling nature nature ofof the the oiloil makesmakes distillationdistillation ratherrather slowslow andand itit takestakes manymany hourshours to complete.complete.

Yields and quality variation

The yield of heartwoodheartwood variesvaries fromfrom localitylocality to locality and the age of the tree. In India, trees of 100100 cmcm girthgirth havehave beenbeen reportedreported toto yieldyield betweenbetween 8585 kgkg andand 240240 kgkg ofof heartwood heartwood according to thethe areaarea fromfrom whichwhich theythey come.come.

The yield of oiloil isis highesthighest inin thethe roots,roots, aboutabout 1010 percentpercent (as(as receivedreceived basis),basis), andand lowestlowest in chips which are aa mixturemixture ofof heartwoodheartwood and sapwood (1(1.5-2.5-2 percent). TheThe oiloil contentcontent ofof the the heartwood variesvaries fromfrom tree to treetree andand isis higherhigher forfor olderolder trees.trees. In India,India, yieldsyields ofof aboutabout 0.9 percentpercent havehave beenbeen reportedreported from the heartwood of 10-year oldold trees,trees, while maturemature treestrees ofof 30-50 years age have yielded 4 percent oil. TheThe oil oil contentcontent alsoalso variesvaries accordingaccording toto thethe colourcolour of thethe heartwood.heartwood. Light-coloured wood yields 33-6-6 percent oil, whilewhile dark brownbrown woodwood yieldsyields about 2.5 percentpercent oil.oil.

Oil fromfrom thethe youngeryounger treestrees alsoalso hashas aa slightlyslightly lowerlower proportionproportion ofof santalolssantalols thanthan thethe mature trees (ca(ca 8080 percentpercent cfcf 9090 percent),percent), anotheranother reasonreason forfor notnot harvestingharvesting atat tootoo youngyoung anan ag,e.age.

VALUE-ADDEDV ALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

No further processingprocessing of the oil is carried out until it is prepared for fragrance use by the end-user.end-user.

PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN OILOIL

Sandalwood is much prizedprized asas aa woodwood forfor carvingcarving andand isis usedused forfor making, making souvenirssouvenirs andand other items requiring,requiring finefine workmanship.workmanship. InIn IndiaIndia sapwoodsapwood of sandal is used for wood turning,turning, particularly toy making; thethe woodwood comescomes mainlymainly fromfrom trimmingstrimmings andand immatureimmature treestrees killedkilled byby spike disease.disease.

Sawdust from heartwood preparedprepared forfor distillationdistillation isis valuablevaluable enoughenough toto bebe collectedcollected andand sold for use asas anan incenseincense forfor religiousreligious purposespurposes asas wellwell asas forfor scentingscenting clothesclothes andand cupboards.cupboards.

56 Outside India,India, where exportsexports ofof logs are prohibited, therethere isis a thrivingthriving marketmarket for sandalwood as anan incenseincense inin joss-stickjoss-stick manufacture.manufacture. Australia supplies mostmost ofof this market at present, mainly from S. spicatumspicatum which hashas aa low oil content and which is, therefore, lessless attractive as a direct sourcesource ofof oil.oil. Exports of logs from Western Australia were almost 2,000 tonnes in 1989,1989, valuedvalued at A$11.5A$11.5 million.million. LogLog exports exports fromfrom otherother sources sources havehave amountedamounted toto a few hundredhundred tonnestonnes oror lessless fromfrom individualindividual species.species.

The cotyledonscotyledons and kernel of sandalsandal seedsseeds containcontain a fixedfixed oiloil whichwhich hashas dryingdrying properties. Oil-free sandal seed meal is rich in protein and could be utilized as an animalanimal feedfeed if available inin sufficientsufficient quantities.quantities.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL

The naturenature ofof sandalwoodsandalwood oil and itsits originorigin inin thethe heartwoodheartwood of maturemature treestrees makesmakes itit an oil thatthat althoughalthough high inin valuevalue isis notnot attractiveattractive as a shortshort oror medium-termmedium-term source of incomeincome for thosethose whowho mightmight considerconsider cultivatingcultivating thethe tree.tree. In India,India, underunder naturalnatural conditionsconditions in thethe forest, sandalsandal isis slow-growing.slow-growing. GrowthGrowth rate rate may may be be increased increased byby improvementimprovement ofof soil soil fertilityfertility and other measures but vigorous growth leads toto muchmuch reducedreduced heartwoodheartwood formation. formation. Assuming that existing propagation and cultivation problems can be overcome, opportunities forfor utilizing sandal as anythinganything other thanthan a long-termlong-term cash crop are likelylikely toto dependdepend on thethe identificationidentification of elite treestrees asas aa sourcesource ofof material material forfor planting.planting. This in turn requires thethe establishmentestablishment of aa wide-ranging screeningscreening programmeprogramme to to searchsearch forfor suchsuch trees,trees, not onlyonly withinwithin S.S. albumalbum butbut amongst other speciesspecies ofof Santalum.Santalum. Production ofof oil from superiorsuperior trees mightmight thenthen offeroffer possibilities for commercialcommercial exploitationexploitation in the smallersmaller islandisland communitiescommunities of the Pacific.Pacific.

Research needsneeds

Although sandal is highly valued, most research inin IndiaIndia hashas focusedfocused onon spikespike diseasedisease and littlelittle workwork hashas beenbeen donedone onon the the silvicultural silvicultural andand genetic genetic aspectsaspects ofof sandal sandal cultivation. cultivation. Despite muchmuch effort,effort, however,however, completecomplete characterizationcharacterization ofof thethe mycoplasma-likemycoplasma-like organismorganism believed to be responsible for thethe diseasedisease has still not been achieved. ResearchResearch isis stillstill requiredrequired to elucidateelucidate the precise cause ofof the disease andand thethe best form of treatment ifif the risk ofof infection is not toto makemake sandalsandal cultivationcultivation forfor oiloil productionproduction anan unacceptableunacceptable investmentinvestment risk.risk.

Research needsneeds includeinclude thethe following:following:

Investigation of thethe intrinsicintrinsic variabilityvariability inin oiloil yieldyield andand qualityquality within natural populations of S.S. albumalbum atat thethe provenanceprovenance andand individualindividual treetree level.level. Indonesia and other sourcessources outside India (where most research to datedate hashas been undertaken)undertaken) should be particularly targeted forfor sampling.sampling. It isis knownknown forfor otherother generagenera whichwhich occuroccur naturallynaturally inin AsiaAsia (Pinus, forfor example)example) thatthat markedmarked differencesdifferences cancan occuroccur betweenbetween continentalcontinental and insularinsular populations of thethe samesame species.species.

Correlation ofof heartwoodheartwood andand oiloil contentcontent ofof treestrees fromfrom naturalnatural populationspopulations ofof S.S. albumalbum outside India.India. Very littlelittle informationinformation is availableavailable on thethe growthgrowth characteristicscharacteristics ofof Indonesian trees andand thethe raterate atat whichwhich they they produceproduce heartwood.heartwood.

Provenance trials to determinedetermine the relative performanceperformance of differentdifferent S. album populations.

57 Consolidation of tree improvementimprovement work already begun in India involving selection of plus treestrees forfor highhigh oiloil contentcontent andand resistanceresistance toto spikespike disease.disease.

Investigation ofof oil yields andand qualityquality forfor speciesspecies of of Santalum Santalum other other than than S. S. album. album. The latter speciesspecies appearsappears toto bebe richerricher inin oiloil thanthan mostmost othersothers butbut aa systematicsystematic studystudy ofof inter-inter and intra-speciesintra-species variability is needed to fill the gaps inin thethe presentpresent statestate ofof knowledge.knowledge. Where oil yieldsyields appearappear promising,promising, qualityquality assessmentassessment should be extended to end-user evaluation; chemicalchemical analysisanalysis alonealone isis notnot sufficientsufficient toto judge thethe commercial acceptabilityacceptability of oilsoils intendedintended forfor perfumeryperfumery use.use.

Development of improvedimproved propagationpropagation techniquestechniques andand cultivationcultivation practices.practices.

Investigation of the suitabilitysuitability of other tree cropscrops asas hostshosts forfor cultivatedcultivated sandalsandal whichwhich might themselves serve as sources of incomeincome until the sandal is ready forfor harvesting.harvesting.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBffiLIOGRAPHY

ADKOLI, N.S.N .S. andand KUSHALAPPA,KUSHALAPPA, K.A. (eds.)(1977)(eds.)(1977) ProceedingsProceedings ofof All IndiaIndia SandalSandal Seminar, Bangalore, 7-8 February,February, 1977.1977. Myforest, SpecialSpecial Issue.Issue. 88 pp.pp. Bangalore: Karnataka Forest Department.Department.

EEOAOA (1975) Oil of sandalwood EastEast IndianIndian.. EOAEOA No.No. 103.103. 1 p. Essential Oil Association of USAUSA..

GUENTHER, E.E. (1952)(1952) OilOil ofof sandalwood sandalwood EastEast Indian.Indian. pp. 173-187.173-187. In TheThe Essential Oils,Oils, Vol. 5. NewNew York: York: VanVan Nostrand Nostrand Co.Co.

HAMILTON, L.L. andand CONRAD,CONRAD, C.E.C.E. (Tech. (Tech. Coords.) Coords.) (1990) (1990) Proceedings Proceedings of of Symposium Symposium onon Sandalwood in the Pacific, Honolulu, Hawaii, 9-119-11 April, 1990. USDAUSDA Forest Service,Service, PacificPacific Southwest Research Station,Station, GeneralGeneral TechnicalTechnical ReportReport PSW-122.PSW-122. 84 pp.pp. Berkeley, USA:USA: USDA,USDA, PSRS.PSRS.

ISO (1979)(1979) OilOil ofof sandalwood sandalwood (Santalum(Santalum albumalbum Linnaeus).Linnaeus). International Standard ISOISO 3518-1979 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp. International Organization for Standardization.Standardization.

MCKINNELL, F.H. (ed.)(ed.) (1993)(1993) ProceedingsProceedings ofof Symposium Symposium on SandalwoodSandalwood in the PacificPacific Region held at XVIIXVII PacificPacific ScienceScience Congress,Congress, Honolulu, Hawaii, 2 June,June, 1991.1991. ACIAR Proceedings No.No. 49.49. 4343 pp.pp. Canberra:Canberra: ACIAR.ACIAR.

NAYAR, R. (1988)(1988) Cultivation,Cultivation, improvement,improvement, exploitationexploitation and protection of Santalum album Linn. AdvancesAdvances inin ForestryForestry ResearchResearch in India, 2, 117-151.117-151.

RAORAO,, P.S.P .S. (1987)(1987) ClonalClonal multiplicationmultiplication ofof plantsplants ofof economiceconomic value: sandalwood, mulberry andand oil palm. pp.pp.225-229. 225-229. In In Proceedings Proceedings of of Workshop Workshop on on Mcreasing Increasing CropCrop Productivity,Productivity, Bombay,Bombay, 20-21 June, 1986.1986. NewNew Delhi: Delhi :Oxford Oxford and and IBH.IBH.

58 Table 1010 Exports ofof sandalwoodsandalwood oil from India, andand destinations,destinations, 1987/88-1992/93 (tonnes)

1987/88 1988/891988/89 1989/90 1990/91 19911921991/92 1992/93

Total 39 26 34 37 65 42

Of whichwhich to:to: France 11 8 14 10 8 9 USA 10 5 5 6 14 8 Soviet Union 7 2 4 77 2 Japan 3 2 2 2 4 2 UK 2 1 2 3 3 3 Switzerland 3 2 2 2 11 2 W. GermanyGermany 1 2 1 1 3 1 United Arab Emirates 1 2 4 5 3 SingaporeSinapore 21 OmanOrnan - - 9

Source: Indian nationalnational statisticsstatistics Note: Year runs April to MarchMarch

Table 1111 Exports ofof sandalwoodsandalwood oiloil from Indonesia,Indonesia, andand destinations,destinations, 1987-92 (tonnes)

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Total 22 19 12 13 10 13

Of which to:to: USA 16 12 7 10 1 6 Netherlands 2 3 3 6 Singapore 2 3 3 Switzerland 1 3

Source: IndonesianIndonesian nationalnational statisticsstatistics

60 CHAPTER 7 LITSEA CUBEBA OIL

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES

Litsea cubebacubeba oiloil isis distilleddistilled fromfrom thethe small,small, pepperlikepepperlike fruitsfruits ofof thethe treetree ofof Litsea Litsea cubeba.cubeba.

Oil of Chinese origin, thethe onlyonly sourcesource of internationallyinternationally traded material, is rich inin citralcitral (about 7070 percent) and has an intenselyintensely lemon-like,lemon-like, fresh, sweetsweet odour. It competes to a limitedlimited extent with lemongrass,lemongrass, anotheranother citral-richcitral-rich oil, inin fragrancefragrance applicationsapplications such asas householdhousehold sprays and freshenersfresheners althoughalthough itit isis lessless suitablesuitable for use in soaps than lemongrass oil since it has lessless fixative power.

Its major use,use, however,however, bothboth inin thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina andand inin internationalinternational markets, isis asas aa rawraw materialmaterial sourcesource forfor thethe isolationisolation ofof citral. citra!. This is used in its own right for flavour andand fragrancefragrance purposespurposes oror convertedconverted byby thethe chemicalchemical industryindustry toto aa numbernumber ofof importantimportant derivatives suchsuch asas ionones,ionones, whichwhich possesspossess aa violet-likeviolet-like fragrance,fragrance, andand vitamins.vitamins.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

Although cheap synthetic citral (ex turpentineturpentine oror petroleumpetroleum hydrocarbons)hydrocarbons) isis readilyreadily available, and has displaceddisplaced much of the citralcitral exex lemongrasslemongrass previouslypreviously used for derivativederivative manufacture, therethere hashas remainedremained aa significantsignificant marketmarket forfor naturalnatural citralcitral whichwhich low-pricedlow-priced LitseaLitsea cubeba oil has been able to meet. However,However, thethe oiloil isis notnot separatelyseparately specifiedspecified inin tradetrade statisticsstatistics and this,this , coupledcoupled withwith thethe lacklack ofof reliablereliable datadata forfor ChineseChinese productionproduction or exports, makesmakes it difficult to quantify the demand and identify allall thethe consumers.consumers. CountriesCountries withwith thethe capacitycapacity to fractionate essentialessential oilsoils and chemicallychemically convert isolatesisolates intointo products forfor the flavourflavour andand fragrance industries areare the majormajor importersimporters ofof LitseaLitsea cubebacubeba oil,oil, i.e.i.e. thethe UnitedUnited States,States, countries of WesternWestern EuropeEurope andand Japan.Japan. Total imports areare probably ofof the order ofof severalseveral hundred tonnes annually, althotwhalthough trade in some years is estimated at up toto 500500 tonnes.tonnes.

Supply sources

Chinese production of oiloil is impossibleimpossible toto quantifyquantify accurately.accurately. A reportreport ofof thethe International Trade CentreCentre inin 19861986 suggestedsuggested a figurefigure ofof 500-600500-600 tonnestonnes annually, but aa recentrecent Chinese source placedplaced itit muchmuch higherhigher atat 15001500 tonnestonnes pa.pa. Social and economic changes in thethe People's RepublicRepublic ofof China China inin recentrecent yearsyears havehave ledled manymany peoplepeople traditionallytraditionally employedemployed inin thethe agricultural sectorsector toto turnturn toto moremore remunerative remunerative activitiesactivities forfor theirtheir livelihoods.livelihoods. One consequence ofof this has been a fluctuation inin thethe levellevel ofof harvestingharvesting Litsea Litsea cubeba. cubeba. If ChineseChinese domestic consumption ofof LitseaLitsea cubeba oiloil grows as expected,expected, thenthen quantitiesquantities available for export are likelylikely toto decreasedecrease andand opportunitiesopportunities willwill occuroccur forfor newnew producers.producers.

Small quantities ofof LitseaLitsea cubeba oiloil are produced on Java, Indonesia,Indonesia, but from from thethe leaves rather thanthan thethe fruitsfruits andand itit isis notnot richrich enoughenough inin citralcitral toto bebe suitablesuitable forfor export.export.

61 Quality and pricesprices

Citral content is thethe mostmost importantimportant indicatorindicator of oil qualityquality andand anan internationalinternational (ISO)(ISO) standard specifies a minimum value of 74 percent. BothBoth ChineseChinese LitseaLitsea cubebacubeba oiloil andand IndianIndian lemongrass oil,oil, with which it competes,competes, are described inin trade termsterms as "75"75 percent", i.e.i.e. containing 75 percent citral.citra!.

The price of Litsea cubebacubeba oiloil hashas beenbeen erratic asas aa resultresult ofof competingcompeting economiceconomic forcesforces in the People's RepublicRepublic ofof China.China. It has fallen steadily in recent years and at the end ofof 19931993 it was availableavailable inin LondonLondon atat aroundaround US$3.40/kgUS$3.40/kg (compared(compared withwith US$7.75/kgUS$7.75/kg inin earlyearly 1991).1991). In early 19941994 itit hadhad risenrisen slightlyslightly toto US$4.30/kg.US$4.30/kg. ByBy comparison,comparison, lemongrasslemongrass oil ofof IndianIndian origin has remained at around US$9.75/kgUS$9.75/kg forfor mostmost ofof thethe lastlast two two years. years. In early 19941994 it was US$9.1O/kg.US$9.10/kg. The longer term price trendtrend isis uncertainuncertain for Litsea cubeba but aa firmingfirming isis conceivable.

PLANT SOURCES

Botanical!Botanical/common common names

Family Lauraceae:Lauraceae:

Litsea cubeba Pers.Pers. (Litsea)

Description andand distribution

Litsea cubeba is a smallsmall tree, 5-125-12 m high with a stem diameterdiameter ofof 66-20-20 cm. cm. It isis nativenative to China,China, IndonesiaIndonesia andand somesome otherother partsparts ofof Southeast Southeast Asia,Asia, wherewhere it occursoccurs mainlymainly inin mountainous regions.regions. InIn the the People'sPeople's Republic Republic ofof China China itit occursoccurs naturallynaturally inin thethe southsouth ofof thethe country but itit hashas beenbeen successfullysuccessfully domesticateddomesticated andand largelarge cultivatedcultivated areasareas areare foundfound inin central central and eastern ChinaChina southsouth ofof thethe YangtzeYangtze River.River. In IndonesiaIndonesia the species grows wild inin Java,Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan from 700 mm toto 23002300 mm aboveabove seasea level.level.

Effects of oil production on the natural resourceresource

Information onon thisthis aspect, if itit exists,exists, isis notnot readilyreadily accessibleaccessible outside the People's Republic ofof China, but it is unlikelyunlikely that harvesting thethe fruitsfruits for oiloil productionproduction can havehave seriously affected the statestate oror sizesize ofof the the wildwild resource.resource.

HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING

Details of the methods used for harvesting andand thethe timingtiming ofof itit areare not available in the more accessibleaccessible literature.literature. Nor is itit knownknown at whatwhat ageage the trees,trees, inin areasareas wherewhere theythey areare cultivated, can furnishfurnish theirtheir firstfirst crop.crop.

Standard methods of steamstearn distillationdistillation are usedused toto distildistil thethe fruits.fruits.

62 Yields andand quality variation

Yields of oil distilled from the fruit are reported to be 3-5 percent. WhatWhat thisthis representsrepresents in terms of yieldyield perper treetree isis notnot known.known. OilOil yield yield and and composition composition undoubtedlyundoubtedly vary according to thethe provenanceprovenance originorigin ofof thethe treestrees butbut informationinformation onon thisthis is notnot wellwell documented.documented. "Krangean" and "trawas""trawas" oilsoils fromfromL. L. cubebacubeba growing in West and Central JavaJava,, Indonesia, are different in composition, althoughalthough they are both obtained from the leaves rather than fruits andand are richer inin cineolecineole thanthan citral.citral.

VALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

Fractionation of the oil and recovery of citral takes place inin the country ofof origin (for Chinese internal use)use) oror the importing country.country. ChineseChinese exports are of wholewhole oil.

PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN OIL

Although itit isis not aa major timbertimber species,species, thethe trunktrunk woodwood ofof L. cubebacubeba isis sometimessometimes usedused for makingmaking furniturefurniture andand handicrafts.handicrafts. Parts of thethe treetree havehave alsoalso beenbeen usedused forfor medicinalmedicinal purposespurposes..

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL

The ChineseChinese monopoly of the marketmarket forfor citral-richcitral-rich LitseaLitsea cubebacubeba oiloil presentspresents bothboth constraints and opportunitiesopportunities for thethe potentialpotential newnew producer.producer. End-users dodo not like to bebe dependent on a singlesingle sourcesource ofof supplysupply ofof any any oiloil andand soso wouldwould welcome welcome alternativealternative sources,sources, providing quality (citral content) was assuredassured andand thethe priceprice waswas attractive.attractive. ProductionProduction ofof anan oiloil with a higher citralcitral contentcontent than Chinese oil might enableenable itit toto bebe priced at about the same or slightly higher thanthan prevailingprevailing levels.levels.

There may bebe particularparticular potentialpotential inin remoteremote countriescountries suchsuch as BhutanBhutan where L. cubebacubeba occurs, labourlabour isis availableavailable andand newnew highhigh value/lowvaluellow volumevolume cash crops are imperativeimperative toto socialsocial and economiceconomic development.development.

One obstacle to introducing the species into areasareas outsideoutside thethe People'sPeople's Republic of China where it doesdoes notnot occuroccur isis thatthat ofof acquiring acquiring seedseed forfor growinggrowing trials.trials. Another is the lack of documented information relatingrelating toto itsits cultivationcultivation which could be used as a basis for such trials.

Research needsneeds

The following areasareas need to be researchedresearched if citral production isis toto be takentaken upup byby countries other thanthan thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof China: China:

Germplasm screening of L. cubeba.cubeba. Sources of wild Litsea growing inin IndonesiaIndonesia andand elsewhere need to bebe screenedscreened forfor citralcitral contentcontent andand oiloil yieldyield toto trytry andand identifyidentify suitablesuitable sources of plantingplanting stock.stock.

Economic viability of cultivatingcultivating L. cubeba.cubeba. This includesincludes propagationpropagation studiesstudies andand management trials.

63 Germplasm screening of plants other than L.L. cubeba. ContinuedContinued commercialcommercial interestinterest inin natural citral makes it worthwhile seeking alternativealternative sourcessources to to L. L. cubebacubeba.. BackhousiaBackhousia citriodora isis oneone plantplant whichwhich hashas arousedaroused recentrecent interest.interest.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

CU, J.Q.J. Q. (1992)(1992) LaLa production, production, lala technologie technologie etet leIe potentielpotentiel desdes huileshuiles essentiellesessentielles en Chine. pp. 91-92.91-92. In ProceedingsProceedings ofof thethe 3rd3rd International International ConferenceConference onon AromaticAromatic andand MedicinalMedicinal Plants, Nyons,Nyons, France, 2-42-4 December,December, 1991.1991.

HAMID, A.A. andand DJISBAR,DJISBAR, A.A. (1989)(1989) CurrentCurrent workwork onon essentialessential oilsoils andand spicesspices inin Indonesia.Indonesia. Industrial CropsCrops ResearchResearch Journal,Journal, 2(1),2(1), 16-21.16-21.

ISO (1974)(1974) OilOil ofof LitseaLitsea cubeba.cubeba. InternationalMternational Standard ISOISO 3214-19743214-1974 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp. International OrganizationOrganization forfor Standardization.Standardization.

ITC (1986) Essential OilsOils and Oleoresins.Oleoresins. AA StudyStudy ofof Selected Selected Producers and Major Markets.Markets. 208 pp. Geneva:Geneva :International International TradeTrade Centre.Centre.

KOERNIATI, S.S. (1989)(1989) LitseaLitsea cubebacubeba Pers.:Pers.: potentialpotential andand prospects.prospects. pppp.. 268-269. InIn PlantPlant Resources of South-East Asia.Asia. ProceeedingsProceeedings offirstoffirst PROSEA PROSEA International Symposium,Symposium, Jakarta, 22-25 May, 1989. Wageningen,Wageningen, Netherlands:Netherlands: PUDOC.PUDOC.

LIN, T.S.T. S. (1981)(1981) StudyStudy onon thethe variationvariation ofof yield yield andand compositioncomposition of essentialessential oil from Litsea cubeba. BulletinBulletin ofof the the TaiwanTaiwan ForestryForestry ResearchResearch Institute,Institute, No.No. 355.355. 14 pp.

LIN, T.S.T.S. (1983)(1983) VariationVariation inin contentcontent andand compositioncomposition of essentialessential oil fromfrom LitseaLitsea cubebacubeba collected inin differentdifferent months.months . Bulletin ofof the Taiwan Forestry ResearchResearch Institute,Institute, NoNo.. 398.398. 9 PP.pp.

ZAMAREL, RUSLI, S.S. and DJISBAR, DJISBAR, A. (1990)(1990) NewNew essentialessential oil cropscrops (Clausena,(Clausena, Foeniculum, Backhousia citriodora and Litsea cubeba). PenelitianPenelitian TanainanTanaman RempahRempah dan ObatObat (Indonesia), 6(1), 66-73.66-73.

64 CHAPTER 8 TURPENTINE FROMFROM PINE RESIN

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES

Turpentine is the volatilevolatile oiloil distilleddistilled from pine resin, whichwhich itselfitself is obtainedobtained by tapping trees of the genusgenus Pinus.Pinus. The solid materialmaterial left behind after distillation isis known as rosin. BothBoth products are usedused inin aa widewide varietyvariety ofof applicationsapplications butbut onlyonly turpentineturpentine isis discussed in detail herehere (rosin is briefly referredreferred toto inin PRODUCTSPRODUCTS OTHEROTHER THAN OIL, below).

Turpentine, rosinrosin andand derivativesderivatives ofof these these whichwhich havehave beenbeen obtainedobtained viavia tappingtapping ofof living living pine trees (whether(whether naturalnatural standsstands oror plantations)plantations) areare knownknown collectivelycollectively as gumgum navalnaval storesstores (and the turpentine and rosin as gum turpentine and gumgum rosin,rosin, respectively). ThisThis distinguishesdistinguishes them from turpentineturpentine andand rosinrosin whichwhich havehave beenbeen recoveredrecovered asas by-productsby-products fromfrom chemicalchemical pulping of pines and whichwhich areare referredreferred toto asas sulphatesulphate navalnaval stores;stores; andand woodwood navalnaval stores,stores, which are similar materials obtained from aged pinepine stumps.stumps. NeitherNeither sulphatesulphate nornor woodwood navalnaval stores are discusseddiscussed further.

Traditionally, turpentineturpentine hashas beenbeen employedemployed as a solvent or cleaning agent for paints and varnishes and this isis stillstill oftenoften thethe casecase today,today, particularlyparticularly inin thosethose countriescountries wherewhere thethe pinepine trees are tapped.tapped. There are alsoalso somesome specializedspecialized uses, in thethe pharmaceuticalpharmaceutical industry, for example.

Most turpentine nowadays,nowadays, however, isis usedused asas aa sourcesource ofof chemical chemical isolatesisolates whichwhich areare then converted into a widewide rangerange ofof products.products. Many of these,these, includingincluding thethe biggestbiggest singlesingle turpentine derivative, syntheticsynthetic pine oil, areare employedemployed for fragrancefragrance andand flavourflavour use,use, althoughalthough there areare alsoalso manymany importantimportant non-aromaticnon-aromatic applicationsapplications suchsuch asas polyterpenepoly terpene resins.resins. Pine oiloil is used in disinfectants, cleaning agentsagents andand otherother productsproducts having having a a "pine" "pine" odour. odour. Derivatives such as isobornylisobornyl acetate,acetate, camphor,camphor, citral,citral, linalool,linalool, citrinellal,citrinellal, mentholmenthol andand manymany othersothers areare used either inin theirtheir ownown rightright oror forfor thethe elaborationelaboration ofof other other fragrancefragrance andand flavourflavour compounds.compounds. Many of thethe odoursodours andand flavoursflavours inin useuse today,today, whichwhich areare associatedassociated withwith naturallynaturally occurringoccurring oils, maymay wellwell bebe derived,derived, instead,instead, fromfrom turpentine.turpentine.

A fewfew ofof thethe minorminor constituentsconstituents ofof turpentine,turpentine, such as anethole,anethole, are employedemployed for fragrance oror flavourflavour useuse withoutwithout thethe needneed forfor chemical chemical modification.modification.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

No moremore thanthan somesome generalgeneral commentscomments and anan indicationindication of marketsmarkets are givengiven here.here. Trade statistics are complexcomplex and difficultdifficult to analyze in terms of gumgum turpentineturpentine alone: firstly,firstly, because it isis notnot alwaysalways disaggregateddisaggregated from sulphate turpentine andand secondlysecondly,, becausebecause therethere is considerable trade in turpentineturpentine derivatives, with a consequent loss ofof identity in teimsterms ofof thethe type of turpentineturpentine usedused asas feedstock.feedstock.

65 GREENHALGH (198(1982)2) estimatedestimated worldworld productionproduction of of allall typestypes of turpentine to bebe approximately 250,000 tonnes in 19791979.. OfOf this,this, aboutabout 110,000110,000 tonnes was gum turpentine,turpentine, most ooff the remainderremainder beingbeing sulphatesulphate turpentine. COPPENCOPPEN (1993)(1993) estimatedestimated annual production ofof gum turpentine from the sevenseven majormajor producersproducers at 140,000140,000 tornestonnes basedbased onon 1987-891987-89 datadata (Table 12).12). MostMost recently, recently, DAWSON DAWSON (1994) (1994) hashas estimatedestimated totaltotal world production of turpentine aatt 335,000335 ,000 tonnes, ofof whichwhich aroundaround 100,000100,000 tonnestonnes isis believedbelieved to be gumgum turpentine.turpentine.

The USAUSA andand thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina areare thethe world'sworld's largestlargest producersproducers andand consumers of turpentine.turpentine. MostMost American American requirements requirements areare metmet by by domesticdomestic sulphatesulphate turpentineturpentine pproductionroduction but gum turpentineturpentine isis alsoalso imported forfor fractionationfractionation andand conversion intointo derivatives.derivatives. Chinese requirementrequirementss are metmet byby herher ownown productionproduction ofof gumgum turpentine.turpentine.

Japan, WesternWestern EuropeEurope (particularly(particularly France,France, whichwhich importsimports PortuguesePortuguese turpentineturpentine forfor ffractionation),ractionation), India and some Latin American countries (Mexico(Mexico andand Brazil,Brazil, forfor example) are all majormajor consumersconsumers ofof turpentine,turpentine, butbut manymany otherother countriescountries importimport oror use use domestically domestically produced turpentine to a greater or lesser degree. SmallSmall producersproducers suchsuch asas KenyaKenya and Thailand consume all their turpentineturpentine (a(a hundredhundred tonnestonnes oror soso each)each) locally.locally . Others,Others, suchsuch asas Indonesia,Indonesia, which produces around 66,000,000 tonnes pa, exportexport a majormajor part ofof theirtheir production.production.

Recent export of gumgum turpentineturpentine fromfrom Indonesia,Indonesia, andand theirtheir destinations,destinations, areare shownshown inin Table 13.13. There are aa largelarge numbernumber ofof importingimporting countriescountries but India is by farfar thethe biggestbiggest importer - overover 4,0004,000 tonnestonnes inin 19921992 andand makingmaking upup forfor herher ownown decliningdeclining production.production.

Any newnew producer,producer, therefore,therefore, or, indeed,indeed, an existingexisting one whowho isis ableable toto expandexpand production,production, is likely to find a readyready market. ImportersImporters andand end-usersend-users ofof turpentineturpentine (and(and rosin)rosin) are always anxious to widen their supply base. InIn addition,addition, therethere isis usuallyusually anan ampleample domesticdomestic market.

Supply sources

The largestlargest producerproducer ofof gumgum turpentineturpentine inin thethe worldworld isis thethe People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof China China (Table 12),12) , althoughalthough mostmost isis consumedconsumed domesticallydomestically andand doesdoes notnot enterenter internationalinternational trade.trade.

Portugal accountsaccounts for the greatergreater partpart ofof worldworld tradetrade inin gumgum turpentineturpentine butbut volumesvolumes havehave decreased in recent years as a resultresult of falling resin productionproduction.. TheThe estimateestimate of 16,00016,000 tonnestonnes for PortucmesePortuguese turpentine productionproduction givengiven inin Table 12 (1987-89(1987-89 data) needs toto bebe revisedrevised downwards by aa significantsignificant amountamount toto reflectreflect currentcurrent levels.levels . Only around 2020,000,000 tonnes of resin was producedproduced inin 1993,1993 , equivalentequivalent toto aboutabout 4,0004,000 tormestonnes of turpentine,turpentine, althoughalthough thisthis isis forecast to rise toto 25-30,00025 -30,000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin inin thethe 19941994 cropcrop year.year.

The decline inin resinresin productionproduction inin PortugalPortugal hashas beenbeen broughtbrought aboutabout by increasingincreasing labourlabour costs and a uowinggrowing unwillingness unwillingness ofof people people toto undertakeundertake thethe arduousarduous tasktask of tapping pine trees. Countries other than PortugalPortugal have experienced the problem and the USA, France,France, SpainSpain andand several others, whichwhich werewere formerlyformerly veryvery significantsignificant producersproducers ofof gumgum turpentineturpentine (and(and rosin)rosin) from tappingtapping operations,operations, nownow produceproduce either nonenone or veryvery little.little. Production in MexicoMexico andand India has alsoalso suffered.suffered.

In manymany otherother countries,countries, however,however, productionproduction hashas eithereither commencedcommenced (where(where nonenone previously existed) or increased in recent years. TheThe primeprime exampleexample of thisthis is Indonesia, where

66 resin production hashas increasedincreased dramaticallydramatically overover thethe lastlast decade and it is now one of the world'sworld's largestlargest producersproducers.. GumGum turpentine turpentine exportsexports fromfrom IndonesiaIndonesia increasedincreased fromfrom aroundaround 3,4003,400 tonnestonnes inin 1988 to 7,200 tonnestonnes inin 19921992 (Table(Table 13).13). Brazil is also now a significant producerproducer although most of itsits productionproduction ofof turpentine turpentine isis consumed consumed domestically.domestically . Argentina is anotheranother SouthSouth American producer of gumgum turpentine.turpentine .

Some other producing countries are noted below (see PLANT SOURCES) although for most of thethe smallersmaller onesones (South(South Africa,Africa, Zimbabwe,Zimbabwe, Kenya,Kenya, Thailand,Thailand, GreeceGreece andand Turkey)Turkey) production is confinedconfined toto meetingmeeting domesticdomestic needsneeds ratherrather thanthan exports.exports.

Quality and pricesprices

An internationalinternational (ISO)(ISO) standardstandard existsexists for for "gum"gum spiritspirit ofof turpentine" butbut this is forfor turpentine intended for use inin paintspaints andand varnishes.varnishes.

Turpentine purchased by the chemical industry as a source of isolates for conversionconversion toto pine oil and fragrance andand flavourflavour compoundscompounds is assessed onon thethe basisbasis ofof its composition.composition. TheThe most versatile and widelywidely used constituents ofof turpentine areare alpha-alpha- andand beta-pinenebeta-pinene.. OfOf these, these, the latter is the more valuable, although the formerformer isis usuallyusually moremore abundant.abundant. (The(The dependence of turpentine composition on the species of pine from which it isis obtained is discussed in more detail below.)

A total pinenepinene contentcontent of 9090 percentpercent oror greatergreater wouldwould bebe regardedregarded asas good,good ,becoming becoming excellent as the beta-pinene contribution increasesincreases aboveabove 30-40 30-40 percent. percent. Portuguese, American and Brazilian turpentines are all high in pinenes.pinenes. AnythingAnything much less than 70-80 percent pinene would be of limitedlimited value for derivativederivative manufacture, at least if the turpentine were offered for sale on thethe internationalinternational market. TheThe presence presence ofof certain certain compoundscompounds inin thethe turpentineturpentine lowerslowers its value; the most common of these is 3-carene,3-carene, which maymay comprisecomprise 5050 percentpercent oror moremore of Indian turpentine.turpentine.

Gum turpentine is traded in much higher volumes than otherother essentialessential oilsoils andand is often importedimported directdirect from source by thethe end-userend-user oror fractionator.fractionator. Prices are thereforetherefore subjectsubject toto negotiation although they are very dependent on the quality (composition) ofof thethe turpentine:turpentine: the greater the proportion ofof beta-pinenebeta-pinene compared toto alpha-pinene,alpha-pinene, thethe higherhigher itsits value.value. TheThe priceprice of gumgum turpentineturpentine intendedintended as aa sourcesource ofof pinenespinenes isis alsoalso influencedinfluenced by the price ofof sulphatesulphate turpentine and inin thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates therethere hashas beenbeen anan oversupplyoversupply of thisthis inin thethe lastlast year,year, leadingleading to a softeningsoftening ofof thethe market.market.

Where turpentineturpentine is intended for smaller,smaller, miscellaneousmiscellaneous applicationsapplications rather thanthan fractionation, importsimports areare usuallyusually mademade throughthrough dealersdealers whowho specializespecialize inin navalnaval stores.stores. Prices are stillstill dependentdependent on thethe sourcesource andand characteristicscharacteristics of thethe turpentineturpentine as wellwell asas thethe supplysupply ssituation.ituation. AA generalgeneral shortageshortage ofof turpentine turpentine inin earlyearly 1989,1989, forfor example,example, ledled toto aa sharpsharp increaseincrease in the price ofof PortuguesePortuguese turpentineturpentine (to about £5801tonne£580/tonne FOBFOB Lisbon).Lisbon). The price hadhad fallenfallen to aroundaround £385/tonne£385/tonne FOTFOT byby mid-1991.mid-1991. In thethe lastlast twotwo yearsyears itit hashas risenrisen againagain toto £480£480 (mid-1992)(mid-1 992) andand £550/tonne FOBFOB,, earlyearly 1994 (= US$825US$825 FOBFOB oror approximatelyapproximately US$920 CIF London).

By comparison,comparison, prices forfor ChineseChinese andand IndonesianIndonesian turpentineturpentine in earlyearly 19941994 werewere approximately US$640 and US$520 perper tonne,tonne, respectively, onon aa CIFCIF LondonLondon basis.basis. TheThe higherhigher

67 price for PortuguesePortuguese turpentineturpentine is due in partpart toto itsits betterbetter quality,quality, particularlyparticularly the absenceabsence of 3-carene3-carene (which(which IndonesianIndonesian turpentine contains), and partpart toto thethe tightnesstightness ofof suppliessupplies followingfollowing the fallfall inin resinresin productionproduction inin 1993.1993. The price shouldshould ease somewhatsomewhat if PortuguesePortuguese resinresin production improves, as forecast,forecast, inin 1994,1994, althoughalthough thethe longer-termlonger-term trend is less certain.

PLANT SOURCESSOURCES

While most pines yield resin of somesome sortsort uponupon tapping,tapping, thethe questionquestion of whetherwhether itit isis economic to do soso dependsdepends onon itsits qualityquality andand thethe quantitiesquantities thatthat areare produced.produced.

Those species of Pinus that areare currentlycurrently tapped, and the countries that are knownknown to utilize them for this purpose, are listedlisted below. WhereWhere tappingtapping isis solelysolely oror mainlymainly carriedcarried outout on natural stands,stands, asas distinctdistinct fromfrom plantations,plantations, thisthis isis indicatedindicated byby (n).(n).

Botanical/common names

Family Pinaceae:Pinaceae:

Pinus elliottiielliottii Engelm.Engelm. USA, Brazil, SouthSouth Africa,Africa, (slash pine) Zimbabwe, KenyaKenya

P. pinaster AitonAiton Portugal (n)(n) (maritime pine)

P. massonianamassoniana D. DonDon People's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina (Masson pine)pine) (n)

P. merkusiimerkusii Indonesia, ThailandThailand (n)(n) (Merk-us(Merkus pine)

P. caribaeacaribaea MoreletMorelet South Africa, Kenya (Caribbean pine)pine)

PP.. roxburghiiroxburghii Sarg.Sarg. India (n), Pakistan (n)(n) (syn. P.P. longifolialongijolia Roxb.Roxb. ex Lambert) (chir(chir pine)pine)

P. oocarpaoocarpa SchiedeSchiede Mexico (n), HondurasHonduras (n)(n)

P. sylvestrissylvestris L.L. Former SovietSoviet UnionUnion (n)(n) (Scots pine)

P. radiataradiata D.D. DonDon Kenya (Monterey pine)

P. halepensishalepensis MillerMiller Greece (n)(n) (Alleppo pine)

P. brutiabrutia Ten.Ten. Turkey

6868 Description andand distribution

Pines are coniferous species, nativenative to many parts of Central and North America, Europe and Asia, and small areas of North Africa. AtAt one one point point their their naturalnatural distributiondistribution extendsextends southsouth of the EquatorEquator (P.(P. merkusiimerkusii inin Sumatra, Sumatra, Indonesia).Indonesia). In addition,addition, they are widelywidely plantedplanted forfor timber and pulpwood and therethere areare extensiveextensive plantationsplantations in Africa and South America (as(as wellwell as elsewhere).elsewhere) . Those species which are tappedtapped includeinclude temperate and tropical ones and theythey mmayay grow near sea level oror at altitudealtitudess ofof 11,000,000 mm oror more.more. InIn somesome parts of the world, suchsuch as Mexico and CentralCentral America,America, mixedmixed standsstands areare tapped.tapped .

Recent research inin SouthSouth AfricaAfrica andand BrazilBrazil hashas demonstrateddemonstrated thatthat somesome PinusPinus hybridshybrids which have beenbeen developeddeveloped forfor improvedimproved woodwood productionproduction alsoalso givegive enhancedenhanced resinresin yields.yields. CroCrossessses of PP.. elliottiielliottii x P.P. caribaea,caribaea, oneone of of the the most most promisingpromising hybrids,hybrids, maymay therefore be the trees of choice for tappingtapping inin thethe future.future .

Effects of resin production on the natural resourceresource

If done properly,properly, andand usingusing methodsmethods whichwhich involveinvolve removalremoval ofof barkbark only,only, tappingtapping treestrees causes no damage whatsoever to them and they may be (and are) tapped for up to twenty years or more.

The absence of anyany adverseadverse effects caused by tapping is demonstrated byby thethe fact that plantationplantation pines are tapped in many partsparts ofof thethe world.world. NoNo lossloss inin quality of the log is observed after felling,felling , whetherwhether itit isis destineddestined forfor timbertimber oror pulppulp production,production, andand althoughalthough therethere isis somesome loslosss of volume increment during thethe period of tappingtapping this is more than compensated for by thethe revenue earned fromfrom resinresin production.production.

Even more traditional methodsmethods ofof tapping which involve some removal of wood from thethe tree (see(see below)below) maymay notnot bebe damagingdamaging toto itsits survival,survival , andand treestrees cancan bebe seenseen inin thethe wildwild whichwhich show evidence of veryvery oldold tappingtapping scarsscars butbut whichwhich areare otherwiseotherwise quitequite healthy.healthy . The risk of damage,damage, however,however, isis undoubtedlyundoubtedly heightenedheightened byby useuse ofof thesethese methodsmethods andand ifif wood wood isis removedremoved too deeply from the tree, oror overover tootoo widewide anan area,area, thenthen itit willwill suffer.suffer.

HARVESTING/PREVIARYHARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSING

Unlike tapping Boswellia and Commiphora species, which resultsresults in discretediscrete,, hard "tears" forming on the exposedexposed surfacesurface ofof thethe treetree whichwhich areare thenthen removedremoved byby handhand (see(see OLIBANUM,OLIBANUM, MYRRH AND OPOPANAX RESINS),RESINS) , pine resin is collected in a manner more akin to rubber tapping. AA cup cup and and gutter gutter system system isis installedinstalled onon thethe treetree intointo which the reresinsin flowsflows,, albeit moremore slowly than rubber latex.latex.

Over the course of manymany years,years, andand inin differentdifferent countries,countries, severalseveral differentdifferent systemssystems of tapping have evolved.evolved. It is now recognized that tappingtapping,, however it is done, shouldshould be carriedcarried out carefully and inin suchsuch aa wayway as toto avoidavoid permanent damage to the tree,tree, and the older methods in which deep cuts werewere mademade intointo thethe treetree havehave generallygenerally givengiven wayway toto thosethose whichwhich involveinvolve remoremovalval of bark alone ("bark chipping"). InIn thethe casecase ofof plantation plantation pines,pines, thethe useuse ofof aa particularparticular style of tapping is also influenced byby thethe factfact thatthat thethe treetree is to be felledfelled for sawsaw timbertimber oror pulpwood. InIn this this case case it it is is common common to to taptap fairlyfairly intensively,intensively, usingusing aa widewide face,face, forfor fourfour yearsyears or so prior toto felling.felling .

69 Traditional forms of tappingtapping (practised(practised in Indonesia, Thailand and India, for example)example) entail removing aa 10 cm-wide sliversliver ofof wood from the tree in aa verticalvertical directiondirection using a specially designeddesigned tool.tool. ExposureExposure ofof thethe resinresin ductsducts causescauses resin to flow down the tree andand itit is directed into thethe receiverreceiver byby aa smallsmall metalmetal gutter.gutter. After a while, thethe resinresin ductsducts becomebecome sealed and the tapper has to re-visitre-visit the treetree everyevery 3-43-4 daysdays toto repeatrepeat thethe operation,operation, graduallygradually moving upup the tree with each removal ofof wood.wood. TheThe resinresin isis collected from the trees at regular intervals (but not necessarily at each visit by the tapper) and placed in drums which, whenwhen full,full, are takentaken toto thethe factoryfactory forfor distillation.distillation.

If tapping is continued for the whole year, then the tapped portionportion ofof thethe treetree will extend upwards approximately 60 cm, less for a shorter season. TheThe cupcup andand guttergutter areare removedremoved atat thethe end of each season and replaced just above thethe faceface inin preparationpreparation forfor thethe newnew season.season. Tapping continues up the tree asas farfar asas thethe tappertapper cancan comfortablycomfortably reach, atat whichwhich pointpoint it can commencecommence again near thethe basebase ofof thethe treetree andand toto oneone side side of of the the original original face face (keeping (keeping aa short short distance distance between the twotwo faces).faces). In this way a tree may be tapped for 20 years or more.

The preferred methodmethod ofof tappingtapping toto thethe oneone justjust describeddescribed entailsentails only removalremoval ofof barkbark and is practised inin mostmost ofof thethe majormajor (and(and manymany minor) producing countries.countries. AfterAfter installationinstallation of a suitablesuitable cupcup andand guttergutter systemsystem near thethe bottombottom of the tree aa horizontalhorizontal strip of barkbark 2-2.52-2.5 cm high isis removed,removed, justjust aboveabove thethe gutter.gutter. (In Brazil, a speciallyspecially designed plastic bag is tiedtied flush to the face of thethe treetree toto holdhold thethe resinresin andand thisthis eliminateseliminates the need for a cup andand gutter.)gutter.) A chemical formulation, eithereither aa sprayspray oror aa pastepaste inin whichwhich sulphuricsulphuric acidacid is usually the "active""active" ingredient, isis thenthen appliedapplied alongalong thethe toptop edgeedge ofof thethe exposedexposed tissue.tissue.

The combination of barkbark removalremoval andand acidacid treatmenttreatment makesmakes itit unnecessary toto cutcut intointo thethe wood to openopen thethe resinresin ducts.ducts. Equally important, the acid maintains resinresin flow for a longerlonger period of timetime thanthan isis thethe casecase inin traditional traditional methodsmethods ofof tappingtapping and thethe tasktask needneed notnot bebe repeated until 2-3 weeks later, thethe removalremoval ofof barkbark beingbeing made above and adjacent toto the first one. Labour requirementsrequirements are, therefore,therefore, muchmuch reducedreduced comparedcompared toto tappingtapping methodsmethods which which do notnot involveinvolve acidacid treatment.treatment.

One aspectaspect ofof thethe barkbark chippingchipping methodmethod whichwhich givesgives riserise toto twotwo slightlyslightly differentdifferent versions is thethe widthwidth ofof barkbark whichwhich isis removed.removed. In the UnitedUnited States, Brazil,Brazil, ZimbabweZimbabwe andand several other countriescountries wherewhere even-agedeven-aged plantation trees are utilized, tappingtapping isis intensiveintensive andand bark removalremoval extendsextends acrossacross thethe diameterdiameter of thethe tree.tree. In some other countries (Portugal(Portugal andand South Africa, forfor example),example), wherewhere aa longlong tappingtapping lifelife is preferred overover higherhigher short-termshort-term yields,yields, a narrownarrow faceface isis usedused andand barkbark removalremoval isis limitedlimited toto aa widthwidth ofof 1010 cm.cm. This alsoalso enablesenables aa simpler system of guttering to bebe used.used.

Once it has arrived at the factory, thethe resinresin isis steamsteam distilleddistilled to furnish two co-products, turpentineturpentine and rosin.rosin. InIn contrast contrast to to direct direct distillation distillation ofof plant plant tissuetissue forfor essentialessential oils,oils, resinresin hashas to be cleaned before itit goesgoes intointo thethe still.still. Typically, crude resin comprises 70-7570-75 percent rosin, 15-20 percent turpentine and 10 percent foreign matter (pine needles,needles, bark,bark, insects, etc) and rain water. AfterAfter dilution dilution of of the the resin resin with with turpentine turpentine (from(from aa previousprevious distillation)distillation) insoluble material is removedremoved firstfirst byby filtration.filtration. Ideally, althoughalthough it does notnot alwaysalways taketake place,place, water-solublewater-soluble impurities are thenthen removedremoved by washing the resin with hothot water.water. TheThe cleanedcleaned resinresin thenthen passespasses to the distillation vessel where the turpentine isis recovered.recovered. AtAt thethe endend ofof thethe distillationdistillation thethe hot,hot, molten rosin which remains in the still is drained into drums or other suitable containers and set aside to coolcool andand solidify.solidify.

70 Yields and quality variationvariation

As an approximateapproximate guide, mean annual yields of resin should not be much less than 2 kg per treetree ifif tapping tapping isis toto bebe economicallyeconomically viable. AroundAround 33 kgkg perper treetree isis probablyprobc.bly aa realisticrealistic maximum of whatwhat oneone cancan expect.expect.

This means that for anan operationoperation aimed at producing 1,000 tonnestonnes ofof resinresin per year, 0.3-0.5 millionmillion treestrees areare required.required. Distillation of of thisthis quantity ofof resinresin willwill produceproduce approximately 650-700 tonnes of rosinrosin andand 150150 tonnestonnes ofof turpentine. turpentine.

Intrinsic quality and yields of resin from the tree areare bothboth determineddetermined by genetic factors and so thethe speciesspecies ofof Pinus Pinus thatthat isis tappedtapped isis crucialcrucial toto thethe viabilityviability ofof any any tappingtapping operationoperation and and the marketabilitymarketability ofof thethe turpentine.turpentine.

P. patula,patula, forfor example, example, althoughalthough widelywidely plantedplanted as anan exoticexotic speciesspecies in AfricaAfrica andand elsewhere, does not givegive goodgood yieldsyields of resinresin andand thethe qualityquality of thethe turpentineturpentine and rosinrosin isis extremely poor. AsAs aa consequence consequence itit isis notnot tappedtapped anywhere in the world. AA speciesspecies suchsuch asas P. elliottiielliottii onon thethe otherother hand,hand, whichwhich isis alsoalso quitequite widelywidely plantedplanted for timber,timber, isis tappedtapped becausebecause it gives good qualityquality resinresin andand inin reasonablereasonable yields.yields. In Thailand, where natural stands of bothboth P. merkusiimerkusii andand P.P. kesiyakesiya exist,exist, onlyonly thethe formerformer isis tapped;tapped; yields of resin from P. kesiyakesiya are too low.low.

Although oneone can make some generalizations about the relative merits of different species of pine forfor tapping,tapping, resinresin yields yields and and turpentine turpentine quality quality (chemical(chemical composition)composition) cancan sometimessometimes vary markedly withinwithin aa species,species, accordingaccording toto provenanceprovenance origin.origin. In naturalnatural stands,stands, therefore,therefore, it may be advantageousadvantageous to tap trees only inin certain areas (although(although in practice, providing yields are not impossiblyimpossibly low,low, andand ifif thethe turpentineturpentine isis toto bebe usedused ultimatelyultimately inin wholewhole formform ratherrather thanthan as a source of isolates, all treestrees are usually tapped). InIn plantations,plantations, however,however, wherewhere therethere maymay be large-scalelarge-scale plantingplanting ofof aa particularparticular provenance,provenance, thesethese differencesdifferences cancan bebe important.important.

In the casecase ofof P.P. caribaea,caribaea, a aspecies species withwith muchmuch potentialpotential forfor tapping,tapping, therethere areare somesome differences in turpentineturpentine compositioncomposition betweenbetween thethe three varieties (var. caribaea, var. hondurensis and var. bahamensis).bahamensis) . ResinResin yields yields forfor thisthis speciesspecies are,are, onon thethe whole,whole, higherhigher thanthan for P.P. elliottii,elliottii, thethe usual usual yardstick yardstick byby whichwhich performanceperformance isis judged,judged, althoughalthough againagain therethere areare varietal and provenanceprovenance differences.differences.

There cancan alsoalso bebe significantsignificant differencesdifferences inin resinresin yieldyield andand turpentineturpentine compositioncomposltlon between individual trees within a provenanceprovenance and this can be takentaken advantageadvantage of inin breedingbreeding programmes aimed atat improvingimproving thethe long-termlong-term performance of a plantation resource base.

In additionaddition toto geneticgenetic factors,factors, resinresin yieldsyields areare alsoalso influencedinfluenced byby climaticclimatic conditions.conditions. High ambient temperaturestemperatures areare conduciveconducive toto goodgood resinresin flow,flow, whilewhile prolongedprolonged periodsperiods ofof rainfall rainfall are not, andand thethe extentextent ofof seasonal seasonal changeschanges willwill largelylargely determinedetermine the period during the year when it is profitable to taptap the trees. AltitudeAltitude is is importantimportant insofarinsofar asas itit affectsaffects temperature,temperature, andand it maymay bebe thatthat wherewhere treestrees areare growinggrowing overover aa rangerange ofof elevations,elevations, onlyonly thosethose at thethe lower,lower, warmer sites can bebe tapped.tapped.

71 VALUE-ADDEDVALUE-ADDE'D PROCESSINGPROCESSING

If thethe volumesvolumes ofof turpentine turpentine beingbeing producedproduced areare sufficientlysufficiently high (at(at leastleast severalseveral hundreds of tonnestonnes annually,annually, and preferably much more), and the pinene content is also high, then fractionation and production of value-added derivativesderivatives cancan bebe considered.considered. InIn mostmost cases,cases, however, a newnew producerproducer ofof navalnaval storesstores wouldwould looklook firstfirst toto sellingselling wholewhole turpentineturpentine toto established end-users or fractionators.fractionators.

PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN TURPENTINE/RESINTURPENTINE/RESIN

As explainedexplained earlier, rosinrosin isis alwaysalways producedproduced withwith thethe turpentineturpentine atat thethe distillerydistillery andand so plays a vitalvital rolerole inin determiningdetermining the overall viability ofof thethe gumgum navalnaval storesstores operation.operation. AsAs with the turpentine, aa newnew producerproducer maymay bebe ableable toto serveserve thethe domesticdomestic market or, ifif qualityquality isis acceptable, export it.it.

If plantationplantation pines are tappedtapped then the felled trees provide income fromfrom sale of the logslogs for timber oror pulp.pulp.

Distillation of freshly cut foliage to yield pine needle oil isis aa possibility,possibility, althoughalthough thethe market for thisthis isis ratherrather specializedspecialized andand itsits sizesize isis vastlyvastly smallersmaller thanthan forfor turpentine.turpentine. It isis notnot normally somethingsomething that isis undertakenundertaken atat thethe samesame timetime asas turpentineturpentine production.production.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIALPOTENTIAL

Rising labour costs andand decreased supplies of gum naval stores from traditional producers mean that therethere areare opportunitiesopportunities forfor thosethose countriescountries withwith aa standingstanding resourceresource ofof pinepine trees,trees, either natural standsstands oror plantations,plantations, whowho dodo notnot presentlypresently produceproduce turpentine and rosin. Apart from domesticdomestic use or exportsexports ofof turpentineturpentine (and(and rosin),rosin), therethere maymay bebe opportunitiesopportunities forfor aa newnew producer for regionalregional tradetrade inin crudecrude resin.resin. Many existing producers of gum naval storesstores (in(in Africa, forfor example)example) cannotcannot obtainobtain enoughenough resinresin fromfrom domesticdomestic resourcesresources andand wouldwould welcomewelcome supplementary supplies. InIn the the firstfirst instance,instance, therefore,therefore, aa tapping tapping operationoperation withwith nono processingprocessing might be anan option.option.

The production of resin (and(and from itit turpentine and rosin) by tapping brings with it many social and economic benefits. It:It:

provides employment andand incomeIncome opportunities forfor peoplepeople in ruralrural areas,areas, includingincluding women;

improves the profitability of primary forestforest activitiesactivities (when plantation pines are tapped) by co-productionco-production ofof non-woodnon-wood forestforest products;products;

enables foreignforeign exchangeexchange savingssavings to bebe mademade throughthrough importimport substitution;substitution;

and it maymay generategenerate foreignforeign exchangeexchange throughthrough exports.exports.

Distillation of thethe resin,resin, althoughalthough necessarilynecessarily conductedconducted centrallycentrally (since(since smallsmall fieldfield stillsstills of thethe typetype whichwhich mightmight bebe usedused toto distildistil plantplant materialmaterial areare notnot suitable)suitable) isis stillstill aa technically technically simple operation and oneone thatthat doesdoes notnot requirerequire sophisticatedsophisticated oror hugelyhugely expensiveexpensive equipment.equipment.

72 The technology of processing isis thereforetherefore notnot somethingsomething that need constrain a potential producerproducer in aa developingdeveloping country.country.

Research needsneeds

Apart from thethe problemsproblems of labourlabour availability, thethe shortageshortage ofof resinresin in many parts of the world isis caused by: (a)(a) lowlow yieldsyields of resinresin from treestrees which are tapped and/or (b)(b) a shortageshortage of suitable trees. SolutionsSolutions to to these these problems problems willwill notnot comecome easilyeasily butbut researchresearch aimedaimed atat solvingsolving them shouldshould includeinclude thethe following:following:

Improved tapping methodology. MoreMore needsneeds toto bebe donedone toto learnlearn howhow toto optimiseoptimise suchsuch variables as streakstreak height,height, tappingtapping frequencyfrequency and acidacid concentrationconcentration to suitsuit locallocal conditionconditions.s. Studies should includeinclude investigationinvestigation ofof modifiedmodified formulationsformulations for thethe stimulant that is applied to the tree during tapping; "ethrel" is one exampleexample of an additive which has been foundfound toto enhanceenhance resinresin yieldsyields whenwhen addedadded to thethe standardstandard formulation,formulation, but itit hashas notnot yet yet been been evaluated evaluated underunder a awide wide enoug,h enough rangerange ofof conditions. conditions. By increasing productivity it may be possiblepossible to taptap inin areasareas previouslypreviously notnot possiblepossible (e.g.(e.g. at higher,higher, coolercooler elevations).elevations).

Species/provenanceSpecies/provenance trials.trials. There isis still insufficientinsufficient knowledge about the relativerelative performancesperformances of different species or provenances inin producingproducing resin.resin. WhereWhere trialstrials existexist which were establishedestablished to testtest growth and wood characteristics, and where theythey areare oldold enough to supportsupport tappingtapping (ca(ca 15-1715-17 yearsyears minimumminimum age),age), small-scalesmall-scale tappingtapping trialstrials should be setset up.

Investigation of the variabilityvariability of resinresin propertiesproperties withinwithin naturalnatural populationspopulations of pines.pines. Identification of superiorsuperior provenancesprovenances (or individualindividual trees withinwithin aa provenance)provenance) andand establishment ofof seedseed orchardsorchards willwill enableenable thethe qualityquality andand productivityproductivity ofof plantation pinespines to bebe improvedimproved inin thethe longerlonger term.term.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

CLEMENTS, RR.W..W. (1974)(1974) ManualManual ofof ModernModern GumGum Naval Stores Methods. USDAUSDA ForestForest Service SoutheasternSoutheastern Forest ExperimentExperiment StationStation GeneralGeneral TechnicalTechnical ReportReport SE-7.SE-7. 29 pp.pp. Ashville, USA:USA: USDA.USDA.

COPPEN, J.J.W.J.J.W .(1993) (1993) Pines Pines andand eucalyptseucalypts -- SourcesSources ofof non-woodnon-wood forest products in Africa. Paper presented atat FAO/CommonwealthF AO/Commonwealth Science Science CouncilCouncil RegionalRegional Expert ConsultationConsultation MeetingMeeting on Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest Products,Products, Arusha,Arusha, Tanzania,Tanzania, 17-2217-22 October,October, 1993.1993.

COPPEN, J.J.W.J.J.W.,, GAY,GAY, C.,C., JAMES,JAMES, D.J.,D.J., ROBINSON,ROBINSON, J.M. andand MULLIN,MULLIN, L.J. (1993)(1993) Xylem resinresin compositioncomposition andand chemotaxonomychemotaxonomy of threethree varieties of PinusPinus caribaea.caribaea. Phytochemistry,Phytochemistry , 3333,, 1103-1111.11 03-1111.

COPPEN, JJ.J.W.,.J.W ., GAY,GAY, C.,C., JAMES,JAMES, D.J.,D .J., ROBINSON, ROBINSON, J.M.J.M. andand SUPRIANA,SUPRIANA, N. (1993)(1993) Variability in xylemxylem resinresin compositioncomposition amongstamongst naturalnatural populationspopulations ofof IndonesianIndonesian PinusPinus merkusii. Phytochemistry,Phytochemistry, 33, 129-136.129-136.

73 COPPEN, J.J.W., GREEN,GREEN, C.L.,C.L., GREENHALGH, GREENHALGH, P.,P. ,KEEBLE, KEEBLE, B.B. andand MILCHARD,MILCHARD, M.J.M.J. (1985) The potential of somesome tropical pines as sourcessources of marketablemarketable turpentine. pp. 138-147.138-147. In Proceedings ofof 9th International CongressCongress on Essential Oils, Singapore, 13-17 March, 1983, Book 5.5. Singapore: EssentialEssential OilsOils AssociationAssociation ofof Singapore.Singapore.

COPPEN, J.J.W., GREENHALGH,GREENHALGH, P. andand SMITH,SMITH, A.E.A.E. (1984)(1984) GumGum NavalNaval Stores.Stores. An Industrial ProfileProfile ofof TurpentineTurpentine and Rosin Production fromfrom PinePine Resin.Resin. TDRITDRI ReportReport G187.G187. 40 pp. London:London: TropicalTropical Development Development and and ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute [now[now Chatham: Natural Resources Institute].Institute] .

COPPEN, J.J.W.J.J.W. and and ROBINSON, ROBINSON, J.M.J.M .(1988) (1988) Terpenoid Terpenoid constituentsconstituents andand properties ofof xylemxylem oleoresin from exotic Pinus radiata. NavalNaval Stores Stores Review, Review, 98(2),98(2), 12-14.12-14.

COPPEN, J.J.W., ROBINSON,ROBINSON, J.M.J.M. andand MULLIN,MULLIN, L.J.L.J. (1988)(1988) CompositionComposition of xylem resin from fivefive MexicanMexican andand CentralCentral AmericanAmerican Pinus speciesspecies growing in Zimbabwe. Phytochemistry,Phytochemistry, 27, 1731-1734.1731-1734.

DAWSON, F.A. (1994)(1994) TheThe amazingamazing terpenes.terpenes. NavalNaval Stores Stores Review,Review, 104(2),104(2),6-12. 6-12.

DERFER, J.M. (1978)(1978) TurpentineTurpentine asas a source of perfume andand flavourflavour materials.materials. Perfumer and Flavorist, 3(1),3(1), 45-50.45-50.

FABER, J.A. (1988)(1988) PerfumePerfume fromfrom thethe treetree -- AnAn updateupdate onon turpentine turpentine derivativesderivatives asas fragrancefragrance raw materials.materials. Paper presented at 15th15th InternationalInternational Naval Stores Meeting, Lisbon,Lisbon, 10-1310-13 October, 1988.1988.

GREENHALGH, P. (1982)(1982) TheThe Production,Production, Marketing andand Utilisation ofof NavalNaval Stores.Stores. TPITPI Report G170. 117117 pp.pp. London:London: Tropical Tropical Products Products Institute Institute [now [now Chatham:Chatham: NaturalNatural ResourcesResources Institute]Institute]. .

McREYNOLDS, R.D.,R.D., KOSSUTH,KOSSUTH, SS.V..V. andand CLEMENTS,CLEMENTS, R.W. (1989)(1989) GumGum naval storesstores methodology. pp. 83-122.83-122. In NavalNaval Stores.Stores. Production,Production, Chemistry,Chemistry, Utilization.Utilization. 1060 pp. Zinkel, D.F. andand Russell,Russell, J.J. (eds).(eds). NewNew York: York: Pulp Pulp Chemicals Chemicals Association. Association.

74 10. Traditional form ofof tappingtapping practisedpractised inin Indonesia,Indonesia, PinusPinus merkusiimerkusii [J.[J. Coppen,Coppen, NR11.NRI].

11. TappingTapping Pinus merkusiimerkusii in Thailand, whichwhich also involvesinvolves removal of wood fromfrom the treetree [J.[J. Coppen,Coppen, NR11. NRI].

75 12. Tapped face of PinusPinus elliottiielliottii showingshowing barkbark removalremoval (wide(wide face),face), SouthSouth AfricaAfrica [J.[J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI].

13. Tapped faceface ofof PinusPinus elliottiielliottii showingshowing bark removalremoval (narrow face),face), SouthSouth Africa [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI] .

76 14. Tapping Pinus elliottiielliottii inin BrazilBrazil illustrating use of plastic bags for resin collectioncollection [J[J.. Coppen,Coppen, NM].NRI] .

15. Pinus caribaea inin thirdthird yearyear ofof tapping,tapping, SouthSouth Africa [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI].

77 16. Quality assessment: Collection of a sample of resin fromfrom Pinus merkusii, Thailand [J. Coppen,Coppen, NRI].NRI] .

78 Table 1212 Principal producersproducers andand productionproduction volumesvolumes ofof gumgum turpentine (and(and rosin)rosin) (tonnes)

Turpentine Rosin

Total 140000140 000 710 000

Of which:which: China,China, People'sPeople's Rep. of 7878000 000 390390000 000 Former SovietSoviet UnionUnion 1700017 000 8500085 000 Portugal 1600016 000 7373000 000 Brazil 80008 000 3600036 000 Indonesia 66000 000 3900039 000 Mexico 66000 000 2800028 000 India 44000 000 2020000 000

SourceSource:: NRI,NRI , estimatedestimated usingusing 1987-891987-89 data

Table 1313 Exports of gum turpentine fromfrom Indonesia,Indonesia, andand destinations,destinations, 1988-921988-92 (tonnes)

1988 1989 19901990 1991 1992

Total 3421 3403 4935 3989 7234

Of which to:to : India 1619 2030 2470 2559 4121 Japan 1128 552 292 204 95 Taiwan 269 96 82 152 68 Germany 349 360 65 165 New Zealand 327 54 - - Netherlands 163 192 38 Thailand 109 14 41 UK 50 312 42 164 Singapore 34 59 USA 631 39 209 Italy 227 126 754 Belgium/Luxembourg 394 20 123 France 97 237 508 Canada 152 379

SourceSource:: IndonesianIndonesian nationalnational statisticsstatistics

79 CHAPTER 9 OLIBANUMOLIBANUNI (FRANKINCENSE),(FRANKINCENSE), MYRRHMYRRH AND OPOPANAX RESINSRESINS AND OILS

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USESUSES

Olibanum-11,Olibanumv, myrrh myrrh and and opopanax opopanax are are the the hardened, hardened, resinousresinous exudatesexudates obtainedobtained fromfrom treestrees of certain BoswelliaBoswellia andand CommiphoraCommiphora species.species. The resins, particularlyparticularly olibanum, are used inin unprocessed form forfor bothboth fragrancefragrance andand flavourflavour purposes.purposes.

The majormajor fragrancefragrance use isis forfor burningburning asas incenseincense inin religious religious ceremonies.ceremonies. Small amounts of resinresin areare distilleddistilled toto yieldyield volatilevolatile oilsoils andand thesethese havehave theirtheir ownown characteristic,characteristic, balsamic odours which find useuse inin perfumery.perfumery. Solvent extractsextracts are alsoalso preparedprepared (see(see VALUE-ADDED PROCESSINGPROCESSING below) and both resinoids and absolutes are used as fixativesfixatives in perfumes.

The "clean","clean", distinctivedistinctive flavourflavour ofof certaincertain typestypes ofof olibanum olibanum makesmakes themthem highlyhighly valuedvalued for chewing and this constitutes an important useuse inin somesome markets.markets. MyrrhMyrrh andand opopanaxopopanax oilsoils are occasionally used asas flavouringflavouring agents: thethe former inin oraloral preparationspreparations suchsuch asas mouthwashesmouthwashes and some beverages which require a slightlyslightly bitter flavour, andand thethe latterlatter inin liqueurs.liqueurs.

The main use forfor olibanum,olibanum, myrrhmyrrh andand opopanaxopopanax imported into the People's RepublicRepublic of ChinaChina isis inin thethe preparationpreparation ofof traditional traditional medicines.medicines.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

Demand for thethe resinsresins isis veryvery difficultdifficult toto quantifyquantify accurately.accurately. Official statistics are notnot always available fromfrom thethe major producing countriescountries and and whenwhen theythey are,are, theythey areare oftenoften aggregated as "other"other naturalnatural gums, resinsresins andand balsams".balsams". There There isis alsoalso aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof unofficial unofficial trading across the bordersborders ofof producingproducing countries.countries.

Notwithstanding thesethese remarks,remarks, exports of "incense"incense gum" and myrrh from SomaliaSomalia forfor the periods 1975-801975-80 and 1976-79, respectively, together with destinations,destinations, areare shown in Tables 14 and 15.15 . Exports of incenseincense gumgum fromfrom EthiopiaEthiopia forfor 1981-83,1981-83, withwith destinations,destinations, areare shownshown in Table 16.16.

The data serve toto givegive somesome indicationindication ofof individualindividual markets althoughalthough demand today isis believed to be lessless thanthan waswas currentcurrent inin thethe latelate 1970s/early1970s/early 1980s.1980s. The Middle East and thethe People's RepublicRepublic of ChinaChina areare seenseen toto bebe thethe major major consumers. consumers. Germany hashas importedimported significant amounts of EthiopianEthiopian incenseincense gum.gum.

1/ The terms olibanumolibanum and frankincensefrankincense are used somewhat interchangeably in common parlanceparlance.. They are alsoalso usedused ratherrather looselyloosely atat timestimes withwith nono clearclear indicationindication of which botanical source the resins areare derivedderived from.from. The term olibanumolibanum is usedused herehere and,and, unlessunless indicatedindicated otherwise,otherwise, denotes the resinresin obtainedobtained fromfrom northeastnortheast AfricanAfrican andand ArabianArabian speciesspecies ofof Boswellia.Boswellia.

81 MoreMore recent data are availableavailable forfor IndianIndian olibanum exports and these are shown in Table 17 for the years 1987/88-1992/93.1987/88-1992/93.

AnAn overview of world trade in olibanum, myrrh and opopanax waswas givengiven byby COULTERCOULTER in 1987 and thethe discussiondiscussion belowbelow drawsdraws onon thisthis information.information.

The People's RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina isis thethe largestlargest marketmarket for allall threethree resins,resins , mainlymainly forfor useuse in traditionaltraditional medicines.medicines. Imports of olibanum (mainly(mainly thethe Eritrean type from Ethiopia and Sudan) and myrrh were eacheach significantlysignificantly in excess of 1,0001,000 tonnestonnes in 1984;1984; opopanaxopopanax importsimports amounted to about 400 tonnes. Long-termLong-term demanddemand waswas judged (1987)(1987) to be increasing,increasing, although difficult to estimateestimate givengiven thethe unpredictableunpredictable naturenature ofof Chinese Chinese buying.buying.

In EuropeEurope andand LatinLatin America,America, substantialsubstantial amountsamounts ofof Eritrean-typeEritrean-type olibanumolibanum areare usedused as incense by thethe OrthodoxOrthodox andand RomanRoman CatholicCatholic ChurchesChurches (approaching(approaching 500500 tonnestonnes inin 1987).1987). Similar quantities are importedimported into NorthNorth AfricanAfrican countries where itit isis usedused forfor chewing.chewing.

The Middle East,East, particularlyparticularly SaudiSaudi Arabia, isis anotheranother importantimportant marketmarket forfor thethe chewingchewing grade of olibanum,olibanum, thisthis timetime thethe higherhigher qualityquality "maidi""maidi" typetype fromfrom SomaliaSomalia (approximately(approximately 500 tonnes in 1987). SmallerSmaller quantities quantities ofof lower lower gradegrade maidimaidi areare employedemployed inin thethe MiddleMiddle East forfor burning in the home,home, althoughalthough the useuse ofof maidimaidi isis decliningdeclining inin favourfavour ofof other other fragrancefragrance materials such asas sandalwood.sandalwood.

Of the order of 50 tonnestonnes pa each of olibanum, myrrh and opopanax areare used in Europe (mainly France) for thethe productionproduction ofof essentialessential oilsoils andand extracts.extracts.

Supply sources

The principal producers ofof olibanum,olibanum, myrrhmyrrh andand opopanaxopopanax and estimates of their exports in 19871987 are shownshown inin TableTable 18.18.

Somalia and Ethiopia areare by farfar thethe biggestbiggest producersproducers of thethe threethree resins.resins. Somalia supplies mostmost of the world'sworld's myrrhmyrrh andand opopanaxopopanax (ca 1,5001,500 tonnestonnes in 1987)1987) although some of this originates inin neighbouringneighbouring Ethiopia and, more recently, Kenya. SomaliaSomalia isis thethe onlyonly sourcesource of maidi-type olibanumolibanum,, exports of which were estimated atat 800-900800-900 tonnestonnes inin 1987.1987. SmallerSmaller quantities of the "beyo""beyo" typetype ofof olibanum olibanum areare produced.produced.

Ethiopia and Sudan produce the most widely tradedtraded olibanum, thethe Eritrean typetype,, and inin 1987 this was reckonedreckoned toto amountamount toto somesome 2,0002,000 tonnes.tonnes. More recentrecent estimatesestimates are notnot available although production is believed to have declined as a result ofof severesevere droughtsdroughts inin thethe region and somesome lossloss ofof demand.demand.

Most IndianIndian olibanumolibanum isis usedused domesticallydomestically forfor makingmaking incenseincense sticks.sticks. Volumes of exports have been erratic in recent years but averagedaveraged about 9090 tonnestonnes papa forfor the six yearsyears 19871987/88-1992/93./88-1992/93.

Some countries outsideoutside thethe naturalnatural rangerange ofof BoswelliaBoswellia andand ComrniphoraCommiphora (for(for example,example, Indonesia) sometimes record "frankincense""frankincense" inin theirtheir exportexport statisticsstatistics butbut thethe botanicalbotanical sourcesource inin these cases isis notnot knownknown andand theythey havehave beenbeen ignoredignored inin thethe presentpresent discussion.discussion.

82 Quality and pricesprices

The resins are sortedsorted andand gradedgraded according to size, colour and state of cleanliness beforebefore being bagged for export.export. In SomaliaSomalia there are up toto sevenseven gradesgrades ofof maidimaidi (olibanum(olibanum fromfrom Boswellia jrereana)frereana) and three gradesgrades of beyobeyo (olibanum(olibanum from B. sacra).sacra) . The larger, palerpaler lumps used for chewingchewing areare moremore highlyhighly valuedvalued thanthan the smaller, darker colouredcoloured piecespieces andand thethe powder and siftings.siftings.

Myrrh is usually only classified as cleaned oror uncleaned.uncleaned. ItIt isis moremore susceptiblesusceptible to quality variation than olibanumolibanum becausebecause ofof thethe mixturemixture ofof speciesspecies thatthat oftenoften existsexists inin exportexport shipments.shipments. Pieces of goodgood qualityquality selectedselected myrrhmyrrh shouldshould be slightlyslightly sticky on breaking,breaking, ratherrather thanthan crystalline, indicatingindicating aa highhigh oiloil content.content. It is important to use high quality material suchsuch asas thisthis for productionproduction ofof essentialessential oiloil (not(not onlyonly forfor myrrhmyrrh but but also also olibanumolibanum andand opopanaxopopanax oils).oils).

There areare nono internationalinternational standardsstandards forfor thethe distilleddistilled oils.oils . Quality is judged onon aromaaroma as perceivedperceived byby thethe prospectiveprospective buyer.buyer.

In earlyearly 1994,1994, GradeGrade 11 Somali Somali olibanumolibanum (used(used forfor perfumeryperfumery purposes)purposes) waswas pricedpriced atat about US$6US$6/kg/kg CC && FF Hamburg.Hamburg. Top-grade Eritrean-type olibanumolibanum (for(for incense)incense) waswas approximately US$3/kg,.US$3/kg.

Clean SomaliSomali myrrhmyrrh waswas availableavailable atat US$5/kgUS$5/kg (early(early 1994).1994). Somali opopanax waswas priced at US$3.50/kgUS$3. 50/kg (clean)(clean) andand US$3.00/kgUS$3. OO/kg (natural).(natural).

PLANT SOURCESSOURCES

Botanical!Botanical/common common names

Family Burseraceae:Burseraceae:

Olibanum

Boswellia sacra FliickigerFliickiger ArabicArabic:: mogar (tree)(tree) (syn(syn.. BB.. carteri Birdw.)Birdw.) sheehaz (resin) Somali: mohor (tree)(tree) beyo (resin)

B. jrereanafrereana Birdw.Birdw. Somali: yagar (tree)(tree) maidi (resin)

B. serrata Roxb.Roxb. Indian olibanum, salai guggul

Myrrh

Commiphora myrrha (Nees)(Nees) Somali:Somali: didin (tree)(tree) Engl. (syn.(syn. C.C. mohnolmolmol Engl.)Engl.) molmol (resin)

C. mukul (Hook. ex Stocks)Stocks) Indian bdellium, falsefalse Engl. myrrh

83 Opopanax

Commiphora erythraea Somali: hagar (Ehrenb.)(Ehrenb.) Engl. (syn(syn.. C. erythraea var.var. glabrescens)glabrescens)

C. katafkataj (Forsk.)(Forsk.) Engl.Engl.

The botanicalbotanical origin of thethe incenseincense resinsresins andand thethe namesnames ascribedascribed toto theirtheir sourcessources hashas been a subjectsubject ofof muchmuch uncertaintyuncertainty andand discussiondiscussion overover manymany years.years . Olibanum of MiddleMiddle Eastern origin isis saidsaid byby somesome sourcessources toto comecome principallyprincipally fromfrom threethree speciesspecies ofof Boswellia:Boswellia: B.B. carteri andand B. jrereanafrereana inin Somalia Somalia andand B.B. sacrasacra inin southernsouthern Arabia.Arabia. SomeSome other other Boswellia Boswellia spp.spp. are minor sourcessources ofof resinresin andand thesethese includeinclude B.B. bhau-dajianabhau-dajiana andand B.B. neglectaneglecta inin SomaliaSomalia andand B.B. papyrrferapapyrijera inin Ethiopia.Ethiopia.

THULIN and WARFA (1987), however, havehave concludedconcluded thatthat B.B. cacarterirteri isis simplysimply aa variable form of B.B. sacrasacra andand should should not not be be afforded afforded separate separate speciesspecies status.status. BB.. jrfrereanaereana is a distinct and fairly uniformuniform species,species, easilyeasily distinguisheddistinguished from B. sacra.sacra .

The situation for Cornmiphora,Commiphora , the source of myrrh aandnd opopanaxopopanax,, is even more complex than for Boswellia.Boswellia. True myrrhmyrrh isis producedproduced byby C.C. myrrhamyrrha butbut numerousnumerous otherother CommiphoraCommiphora spp. yieldyield resinresin andand itit isis notnot clearclear toto whatwhat extentextent thesethese enterenter commercecommerce (either(either asas adulterantsadulterants oror as inferior types of myrrh)myrrh).. TheseThese otherother speciesspecies include C. abyssinicaabyssinica,, C. joliafoliacea,cea, C.C. playfairiiplayjairii and C. serrulata.serrulata.

The namename opopanax is derived from that of its original source, Opopanax chironium,chironium, butbut production today isis entirelyentirely fromfrom CommiphoraCommiphora spp.spp. The main source is the C.C. erythraea-C.erythraea-C. katajkatqf complex but resin is also collected from species suchsuch asas C. guidottiiguidottii and C. holtziana.holtziana.

Description and distribution

The Boswellia species which yield the classical olibanum of commerce are all small treestrees or shrubs growing in the drydry areasareas ofof northeastnortheast Africa and southern ArabiaArabia.. TheyThey areare ableable toto grow in veryvery steepsteep oror exposedexposed situationssituations and are oftenoften found in rocky slopesslopes or gullies.gullies.

B. sacrasacra isis aa small small tree,tree ,occasionally occasionally upup toto 88 nim tall,tall, branchingbranching fromfrom thethe base.base. It occursoccurs in South Yemen,Yemen, Oman andand northernnorthern Somalia.Somalia. (Those whowho regardregard B.B. sacrasacra aandnd BB.. carteri carteri asas distinct species identify the former as growing in Arabia and the latter in SomaliaSomalia.).) B.B. ,frereanajrereana grows to aa similarsimilar heightheight asas B.B. sacrasacra butbut isis restrictedrestricted toto northernnorthern Somalia.Somalia.

B. serrata,serrata ,the the source source of of Indian Indian olibanum, olibanum, occursoccurs inin thethe drierdrier partsparts ofof northern northern India. India.

Commiphora species areare smallsmall treestrees oror shrubsshrubs withwith short, short, thornythorny branche branches.s. True myrrh is produced by C.C. myrrha,myrrha, aa variable variable speciesspecies foundfound inin southernsouthern ArabiaArabia andand northeastnortheast AfricaAfrica (chiefly Somalia) asas far south as northeastnortheast Kenya. OtherOther resin-producing resin-producing CommiphoraCommiphora occur in southern Arabia, Sudan,Sudan, Ethiopia,Ethiopia, Eritrea,Eritrea, SomaliaSomalia andand Kenya.Kenya. C. erythraeaerythraea andand C.C. kataf,kataj, thethe main sourcessources ofof opopanax,opopanax, areare abundantabundant inin manymany partsparts ofof southernsouthern Arabia,Arabia, Somalia,Somalia, easterneastern Ethiopia andand Kenya.Kenya.

84 EffectsEffects ofof resinresin production on the natural resourceresource

In some cases, asas inin Somalia,Somalia, thethe wildwild BoswelliaBoswellia standsstands belongbelong toto extendedextended families whowho livelive in thethe resin-producingresin-producing areas.areas. There is therefore some incentive onon the part of thosethose whowho taptap the trees not to do itit inin suchsuch aa wayway asas toto damagedamage thethe treestrees andand jeopardise their livelihoods.livelihoods. On the other hand,hand, itit isis impossibleimpossible toto preventprevent grazinggrazing ofof livestocklivestock and inin timestimes ofof droughtdrought nomads cutcut branches for fodder.fodder. Severe drought alsoalso affects thethe trees directly, slowingslowing their growthgrowth and causingcausing problemsproblems ofof regeneration.regeneration. The more accessible trees are oftenoften tappedtapped continuously throughthrough thethe year, with no rest periods,periods, andand thisthis putsputs themthem under further stress.stress.

There are nono ownershipownership rightsrights overover CommiphoraCommiphora species in Somalia andand the trees areare exploited by nomads on a lessless systematicsystematic basis, and with less concern for their statestate ofof health,health, than Boswellia.

HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING

Most resin isis obtainedobtained byby makingmaking deliberate incisions intointo thethe barkbark of the tree.tree . The milky liquid that exudes hardens on exposure to air into dropletsdroplets oror "tears" which are then easily detached by the collector.collector. Occasionally, some tearstears areare produced by accidental injuryinjury or from splits which occur in thethe stemsstems oror branchesbranches of thethe tree.tree.

Details of the tapping, particularly the time of year it is undertaken, its duration and thethe interval between individualindividual tappings, vary according to the species and the customs in the areaarea of production. InIn Somalia, Somalia, therethere areare usuallyusually twotwo periodsperiods when B.B. sacra (B. carteri)carteri) isis tapped,tapped, each lasting 3-43-4 monthsmonths andand involvinginvolving successivesuccessive tappingstappings atat approximatelyapproximately 15-dayIS-day intervals.intervals. B. frereanajrereana isis tappedtapped overover aa singlesingle 8-98-9 monthmonth periodperiod withwith aa longer,longer, butbut variable,variable, tappingtapping interval. In bothboth casescases thethe timingtiming ofof thethe tappingtapping periodsperiods dependsdepends on thethe onsetonset andand extentextent ofof thethe rains.

Tapping involves removingremoving small small areas areas of of barkbark fromfrom thethe tree, sometimessometimes usingusing a specially designed tool,tool, otherwise anan ordinaryordinary axe.axe. NewNew tappingtapping pointspoints are made at thethe samesame place as oldold onesones afterafter removingremoving hardenedhardened resinresin fromfrom thethe previousprevious cut.cut. If thethe tappingtapping intervalinterval is short thenthen aa lightlight scratchingscratching ofof thethe woodwood isis usuallyusually sufficientsufficient to cause the resin to flowflow again.again.

Sorting and uadinc,fgrading ofof the resin, referredreferred toto earlier,earlier, is thethe onlyonly formform ofof primaryprimary processing undertaken, although this is usually done by the local merchant to whom it isis soldsold rather thanthan thethe collector.collector.

Yields and quality variation

It is notnot possiblepossible fromfrom officialofficial recordsrecords alone to estimate how much resin, on average,average, isis obtained from a tree.tree. Figures of 1-31-3 kgkg perper treetree perper yearyear havehave beenbeen citedcited forfor olibanumolibanum inin Somalia. ItIt is is known known that that yields yields and and quality quality declinedecline duringduring eacheach tappingtapping seasonseason asas wellwell asas overover thethe longerlonger term,term, particularlyparticularly inin prolongedprolonged periodsperiods ofof drought. drought. Drought conditionsconditions alsoalso affectaffect yields indirectlyindirectly since therethere isis moremore competitioncompetition for labour:labour: wateringwatering andand grazinggrazing placesplaces forfor livestock need to be soughtsought moremore activelyactively by thethe herdsmenherdsmen and therethere maymay bebe lessless timetime devoteddevoted toto tapping.tapping.

85 Unlike most essentialessential oils,oils, therethere hashas beenbeen nono systematicsystematic studystudy ofof thethe intrinsicintrinsic variabilityvariability of olibanum, myrrhmyrrh andand opopanaxopopanax oils within thethe naturalnatural resource.resource. This is due in large part toto the factfact thatthat thethe botanicalbotanical originorigin ofof anyany particularparticular consignmentconsignment of resin is notnot knownknown withwith anyany certainty, atat leastleast inin thethe casecase ofof myrrh.myrrh.

VALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

Oils are obtainedobtained fromfrom thethe crudecrude resinsresins byby steamsteam distillationdistillation and are then normally used whole for flavouringflavouring andand fragrancefragrance applications.applications.

As an alternativealternative to productionproduction of essential oil,oil, all three resins may be extractedextracted withwith org,anicorganic solventssolvents toto furnishfurnish eithereither aa "resinoid" or anan "absolute"."absolute".

The resinoidresinoid is preparedprepared byby extractionextraction of thethe crudecrude resinresin withwith aa hydrocarbonhydrocarbon solvent.solvent. Evaporation of thethe solventsolvent yieldsyields aa dark,dark, viscousviscous massmass withwith somewhatsomewhat plasticplastic consistency.consistency . It should contain all thethe availableavailable essentialessential oil fromfrom thethe crudecrude material,material, althoughalthough low-gradelow-grade resinoids can be producedproduced fromfrom resinsresins whichwhich havehave previouslypreviously beenbeen distilled.distilled.

Strictly, anan absoluteabsolute shouldshould be prepared by alcohol extraction of the resinoid.resinoid. InIn thethe casecase of olibanum, myrrhmyrrh andand opopanax,opopanax, however,however, absolutesabsolutes areare usuallyusually prepared by direct extraction of the resin with alcohol.alcoho1. LikeLike thethe resinoids,resinoids, theythey maymay bebe extractedextracted cold or hot to give products with somewhat differentdifferent olfactoryolfactory properties.properties.

PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN RESINRESIN

Apart from their use for browsingbrowsing or as sources of fodder, the trees are not of a size or form which enables themthem toto bebe utilizedutilized forfor timbertimber productionproduction oror otherother large-scalelarge-scale use.use.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL

Although reliable informationinformation on thethe distributiondistribution and abundanceabundance of thethe resin-yieldingresin-yielding species is notnot available,available, andand thethe scatteredscattered occurrenceoccurrence ofof thethe treestrees makesmakes detaileddetailed surveyssurveys aa difficult and expensive option,option, it is believed thatthat thethe total size of the natural resource and itsits potential productivity significantly outweighoutweigh demand demand for for the the products. products. COULTER (1987) cites official estimates inin 1981 of 23,00023,000 tonnestonnes pa forfor thethe potentialpotential productionproduction of olibanumolibanum inin Ethiopia. With such a largelarge resourceresource basebase therethere wouldwould appear to bebe littlelittle incentiveincentive to domesticate thethe trees.trees. TheThe inputsinputs (such(such asas irrigation)irrigation) neededneeded toto establish and maintain treestrees in cultivation would also bebe extremelyextremely costly.costly. Nevertheless, a Swedish aid projectproject inin SomaliaSomalia during the 1980s1980s waswas aimedaimed specificallyspecifically atat studyingstudying thethe conditionsconditions for domesticationdomestication of Boswellia. The outcome of this researchresearch isis notnot known.known.

Value-added processing in the country of origin is one area thatthat couldcould bebe developeddeveloped andand this offersoffers thethe possibilitypossibility ofof modestmodest gainsgains inin foreignforeign exchangeexchange forfor thethe nationalnational economy.economy. Volumes of oil (or(or extract)extract) whichwhich couldcould bebe tradedtraded would be small but high in value.value.

Research needs

Two areasareas ofof researchresearch areare readilyreadily identified.identified. The greatest need is forfor up-to-dateup-to-date information onon the present scale of productionproduction and marketsmarkets for thethe resinsresins andand value-addedvalue-added

86 products. Without this knowledgeknowledge itit is impossibleimpossible toto know how much scope there is forfor increased production, whatwhat typestypes and grades of resinresin areare inin demand, demand, customerscustomers qualityquality requirements, deficienciesdeficiencies inin qualityquality ofof present present consignments,consignments, etc.etc.

Coupled with this isis the needneed to undertake surveys in selected areas to try and assess the size and productivity of the resource, thethe extent to which it may be under- or over-utilized (and therefore capablecapable ofof meetingmeeting anyany increasedincreased demand)demand) and the statestate of healthhealth ofof thethe trees.trees.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

BHATT, J.R.J.R.,, NAIR, M.N.B. andand RAM,RAM, H.Y.M.H.Y.M. (1989)(1989) EnhancementEnhancement of oleo-gumoleo-gum resin production inin CommiphoraCommiphora wightiiwightii byby improvedimproved tappingtapping technique.technique. Current Science,Science, 58(7),58(7), 349-357.

CHIAVARI, G.,G., GALLETTI,GALLETTI, G.C., PICCAGLIA,PICCAGLIA, R. andand MOHAMUD,MOHAMUD, M.A.M.A. (1991)(1991) Differentiation between resins from Boswellia carterii and Boswellia frereanafrereana (frankincense) of Somali origin.origin. JournalJournal of of Essential Essential OilOil Research, Research, 3(3),3(3), 185-186.185-186.

COULTER, J. (1987)(1987) MarketMarket studystudy for frankincensefrankincense and myrrh fromfrom SomaliaSomalia (unpubl).(unpubl). Study undertaken forfor thethe EuropeanEuropean AssociationAssociation forfor Cooperation.Cooperation. Chatham, UK: NaturalNatural ResourcesResources Institute.

DEMISSEW, S.S. (1993)(1993) AA descriptiondescription ofof somesome essentialessential oil bearing plants in Ethiopia and their indigenous uses.uses. JournalJournal of of Essential Essential OilOil Research,Research, 5(5),5(5), 465-479.465-479.

FARAH, A.Y.A.Y. (1988)(1988) TheThe milkmilk of of the the Boswellia Boswellia forests:forests: frankincensefrankincense productionproduction among the pastoral Somali.Somali. Thesis, London School ofof Economics andand Political Science, UniversityUniversity of London, U.K.u.K. 382382 pp. pp. Mogadishu, Mogadishu, Somalia: Somalia: Somali Somali Academy Academy ofof Sciences. Sciences.

KRISHNA-MURTHY, T.T. andand SHIVA,SHIVA, M.P.M.P. (1977)(1977) SalaiSalai guggulguggul fromfrom BoswelliaBoswellia serrata Roxb. Its exploitation and utilization. IndianIndian Forester,Forester, 103(7),103(7), 466-474.466-474.

MARTINETZ, D., LOHS,LOHS, K.K. andand JANZEN, JANZEN, J.J. (1989) (1989) Weihrauch Weihrauch undund Myrrhe. Myrrhe. 236 pp.pp. Berlin: Academie-Verlag.Academie-Verlag.

THULIN, M.M. andand CLAESON,CLAESON, P.P. (1991)(1991) TheThe botanicalbotanical originorigin ofof scentedscented myrrhmyrrh (bissabol(bissabol or habak hadi). EconomicEconomic Botany,Botany, 45(4),45(4), 487-494.487-494.

THULIN, M.M. andand WARFA,W ARFA, A.M.A.M. (1987) (1987) The The frankincensefrankincense treestrees (Bo.swellia(Boswellia spp.,spp., Burseraceae)Burseraceae) of northern SomaliaSomalia and southern Arabia. KewKew Bulletin,Bulletin, 42(3),42(3), 487-500.487-500.

TUCKER, A.O. (1986)(1986) FrankincenseFrankincense andand myrrh.myrrh. EconoinicEconomic Botany,Botany, 40(4),40(4), 425-433.425-433.

VERGHESE, J. (1988)(1988) Olibanum inin focus.focus. PetfumerPeifumer and Flavorist, 13(1),13(1), 1-12.1-12.

87 WAHAB, S.M.AS.M.A.,. ,ABOUTABL, ABOUTABL, E.A., EL-ZALABANI,EL-ZALABANI, S.M., FOUAD,FOUAD, H.A.,H.A., DE DEPOOTER, POOTER, H.L. andand EL-FALLAHA,EL-FALLAHA, B.B. (1987)(1987) TheThe essentialessential oiloil ofof olibanum. olibanum. Planta Medica,Medica, 53(4),53(4), 382-384.

WILSON, R.A.R.A. andand MOOKHERJEE, MOOKHERJEE, B.D.B.D. (1983)(1983) Characterization Characterization ofof aroma-donating aroma-donating components of myrrh.myrrh. pp.pp . 1-10.1-10. In ProceedingsProceedings of 9th InternationalInternational CongressCongress ofof EssentialEssential Oils, Singapore,Singapore, 13-1713-17 March, 1983,1983, BookBook 4.4. Singapore: Essential Oils AssociationAssociation ofof SingaporeSingapore..

88 17. Olibanum ("beyo") collected from BoswelliaBo,suellia sacra,sacra, Somalia [J. Coulter, NRI].NRI].

18. Boswellia sacra,sacra, SomaliaSomalia [J. Coulter, NM].NRI].

89 Table 14 Exports ofof incenseincense gum fromfrom Somalia,Somalia, andand destinations,destinations, 1975-801975-80 (tonnes)(tonnes)

19751975 19761976 1977 1978 1979 19801980

Total 684 173 86 81 118 373

Of which to: Saudi Arabia na 156 - 11 67 na United Arab Emirates na - 70 - 22 na China, People's RepRep.. of na - - 60 - na Djibouti na - 16 - 29 na France na 1616 - - - na Italy na - - 11 - na

Sources: Frankincense and Gums Trading Agency,Agency, SomaliaSomalia Somali national statistics

Table 1515 Exports ofof myrrhmyrrh fromfrom Somalia,Somalia, andand destinations, destinations, 1976-79 1976-79 (tonnes)

1976 1977 1978 1979

Total 1352 497 199 421

Of whichwhich to:to: China, People's Rep. of 1017 361 70 248 Saudi Arabia 199 - 10 83 Djibouti 33 3 30 11 Yemen, People's Dem. Rep. of 69 61 Italy 36 8 16 France 10 79 37 Kenya 7 26

Source: SomaliSomali nationalnational statisticsstatistics

90 Table 16 ExportsExports of incense gumgum fromfrom Ethiopia, and destinations, 1981-83 (tonnes)

1981 1982 1983

Total 318 831 1122

Of which to:to : W. GermanyGermany 138 155 568 China, People's Rep. of 486 265 France 64 147 40 DjiboutiDjibouti 55 11 Hong Kong 94 Switzerland 72

UK 1 25

Source: Ethiopian nationalnational statisticsstatistics

Table 17 Exports of olibanum/frankincense from India, andand destinations,destinations, 1987/88-1992/93 (tonnes)

1987/88 1988/89 1989/901989/90 1990/911990/91 1991/921991/92 1992/931992/93

Total 167 81 19 75 70 113

Of which to:to: .USA 25 8 2 15 4 15 United ArabArab EmiratesEmirates 30 5 - - 23 - Saudi ArabiaArabia 13 - 12 6 8 Hong KongKong 13 13 1 2 Singapore 9 19 1 9 44 17 Trinidad 8 6 6 6 15 7 3 Spain 3 6 - 4 - 2 France 10 5 2 7 Malaysia 5 3 1 4 44 Japan 10 - - - 54

Source: IndianIndian nationalnational statisticsstatistics

91 Table 1818 Principal sourcessources of olibanum, myrrh andand opopanaxopopanax andand estimatedestimated worldworld trade,trade, 19871987 (tonnes)

Producing countrycountry World tradetrade

Olibanum "tritreantritrean typetype Ethiopia,Ethiopia, SudanSudan 2,000 Maidi Somalia 800 Beyo Somalia 200 Indian type India 200

Myrrh Somalia, Ethiopia, KenyaKenya 1,100

Opopanax Somalia, Ethiopia, KenyaKenya 400

Source: COULTER,COULTER, 19871987

92 CHAPTER 10 CEDARWOOD OILS

DESCRIPTION ANDAND USES

Although termed cedarwood oils,oils, the most important oilsoils ofof this groupgroup areare producedproduced fromfrom distilling wood of aa numbernumber ofof differeni different junipers/cypressesjunipers/cypresses (Juniperus and CupressusCupressus spp.), rather thanthan true cedarscedars (Cedrus(Cedrus spp.).spp.). AA cedar cedar leaf leaf oil oil is is distilled distilled fromfrom ThujaThuja occidentalisoccidentalis butbut is not discussed here.

Cedarwood oilsoils eacheach havehave characteristiccharacteristic woodywoody odoursodours which may changechange somewhatsomewhat inin the course of drying out. TheThe crudecrude oilsoils areare oftenoften yellowishyellowish or even darker in colour and somesome,, such as Texas cedarwood oiloil,, are quitequite viscous and deposit crystalscrystals onon standing.standing. TheyThey findfind useuse (sometimes afterafter rectification) inin a rangerange ofof fragrancefragrance applicationsapplications such asas soapsoap perfumes,perfumes, household sprays,sprays, floorfloor polishespolishes and insecticides. SmallSmall quantitiesquantities are used in microscope work as a clearingclearing oil.oil .

All the cedarwoodcedarwood oilsoils ofof commercecommerce containcontain aa groupgroup ofof chemicallychemically relatedrelated compounds,compounds, the relativerelative proportionsproportions ofof thesethese dependingdepending onon thethe plantplant speciesspecies from whichwhich thethe oil isis obtained.obtained. These compounds includeinclude cedrolcedro I andand cedrene,cedrene, andand whilewhile theythey contributecontribute somethingsomething toto thethe odourodour of thethe wholewhole oiloil theythey areare alsoalso valuablevaluable toto thethe chemical chemical industryindustry forfor conversionconversion toto otherother derivatives withwith fragrance applications.applications. TheThe oilsoils areare thereforetherefore usedused bothboth directlydirectly andand asas sourcessources of chemical isolates.isolates.

In India,India, CedrusCedrus deodaradeodara oiloil hashas been been shown shown to to possess possess insecticidal insecticidal andand antifungal antifungal properties andand toto havehave somesome potentialpotential for control of fungal deterioration of spices during storage. However,However, itsits commercialcommercial useuse forfor thisthis purposepurpose remains,remains, atat present,present ,speculation. speculation.

WORLD SUPPLYSUPPLY ANDAND DEMANDDEMAND TRENDSTRENDS

Markets

Excluding the People's RepublicRepublic of China,China, forfor whichwhich thethe magnitudemagnitude ofof consumptionconsumption of domestically producedproduced cedarwoodcedarwood oil oil isis notnot known, the United States, Western Europe andand Japan are the major markets for the oiloil.. (After(After processing,processing, thethe derivativesderivatives thatthat areare producedproduced andand their formulated products have a moremore diversediverse rangerange ofof markets.)markets.)

The USA utilizes much of itsits ownown TexasTexas andand VirginiaVirginia cedarwood oils but also importsimports significant quantities of ChineseChinese oil.oil. Imports for the period 1989-93,1989-93, and their sources,sources, areare shown in TableTable 19.19. Levels of importsimports over thethe fivefive yearsyears averagedaveraged justjust underunder 400400 tonnestonnes annually, with a rangerange ofof 320-460320-460 tonnestonnes but nono clearclear trend.trend.

Japanese imports for the same period are shown inin TableTable 2020.. TheyThey averagedaveraged aboutabout 170170 tonnes pa, mostmost ofof whichwhich waswas fromfrom thethe USA.USA. ThisThis suggests suggests thatthat importsimports areare intendedintended mainlymainly for derivativederivative manufacturemanufacture - ChineseChinese oil hashas aa lowerlower cedrolcedro I contentcontent thanthan AmericanAmerican oiloil andand isis used more inin itsits ownown rightright asas aa fragrance fragrance oiloil thanthan asas aa source source ofof chemical chemical isolates.isolates.

93 In Europe,Europe, demanddemand forfor oiloil isis mainlymainly ofof the the ChineseChinese type.type. Essential oil dealers indicateindicate that demand isis goodgood andand shouldshould remainremain soso providingproviding suppliessupplies continuecontinue toto bebe adequateadequate fromfrom thisthis source.

Supply sources

Production data are not available for either of the main producers,producers, the People's RepublicRepublic of ChinaChina andand thethe UnitedUnited States,States, andand exportexport statisticsstatistics areare alsoalso incompleteincomplete (US(US exportsexports ofof cedarwood oil, forfor example,example, areare notnot recorded recorded separatelyseparately butbut includedincluded withwith cloveclove andand nutmegnutmeg oils)oils).. It isis notnot possible,possible, therefore,therefore, toto bebe preciseprecise aboutabout thethe scalescale ofof worldworld productionproduction or trade.trade. However, ChineseChinese exports are probablyprobably of thethe orderorder ofof 400-500400-500 tonnestonnes pa, withwith AmericanAmerican exports somethingsomething overover halfhalf ofof this.this.

East Africa usedused toto bebe anan importantimportant sourcesource ofof cedarwoodcedarwood oil butbut over-exploitationover-exploitation of the wild resource hashas meantmeant thatthat onlyonly veryvery occasionaloccasional shipmentsshipments areare nownow available.available.

Morocco produces cedarwood oiloil from trees growing in thethe AtlasAtlas mountainsmountains but thethe volumes are believedbelieved toto bebe small.small.

Himalayan cedarwood oiloil is a relativelyrelatively recent addition to the listlist ofof cedarwoodcedarwood oilsoils produced commercially.commercially. ProductionProduction began began inin India India inin thethe latelate 1950s1950s andand waswas estimatedestimated twentytwenty years later to be around 25 tonnes pa.pa. MostMost ofof thethe oiloil isis consumedconsumed domestically. In thethe sevenseven years 1986/87-1992/93,1986/87-1992/93, averageaverage recordedrecorded exportsexports amountedamounted to less than oneone tonnetonne pa.pa.

Quality and pricesprices

While overalloverall olfactoryolfactory propertiesproperties are importantimportant and willwill bebe judgedjudged byby prospectiveprospective buyers, the useuse ofof cedarwood cedarwood oilsoils asas rawraw materials materials forfor derivative derivative manufacturemanufacture meansmeans thatthat chemical composition isis alsoalso important.important.

International (ISO) standards existexist forfor Texas andand VirginiaVirginia cedarwoodcedarwood oils. For thethe former, anan alcoholsalcohols contentcontent (expressed(expressed as cedro!)cedrol) in the range 35-48 percent is specified, with a minimumminimum cedrolcedrol contentcontent ofof 2020 percent.percent. For VirginiaVirginia oil, aa maximummaximum cedrolcedro I content of 14 percent is stipulated. VariousVarious physico-chemicalphysico-chemical data are alsoalso defined.

In the UnitedUnited States,States, recentrecent FMAFMA standardsstandards replacereplace older EOA ones and are availableavailable for Chinese as wellwell asas Texas andand Virginia cedarwood oils. CompositionalCompositional datadata forfor thethe AmericanAmerican oils areare somewhatsomewhat different to thosethose citedcited inin thethe ISOISO standardsstandards andand illustrateillustrate the factfact thatthat standards can onlyonly bebe treatedtreated asas guidelinesguidelines forfor facilitatingfacilitating the assessment of quality and not as definitive statements. TheThe alcohols alcohols contentcontent ("cedrol("cedrol andand relatedrelated isomers")isomers") isis specifiedspecified asas fallingfalling in thethe ranges 25-42 percent and 18-38 percent forfor thethe TexasTexas andand VirginiaVirginia oils, oils, respectively.respectively. For the Chinese oil, thethe alcoholsalcohols contentcontent isis requiredrequired toto bebe 88 percentpercent minimum.minimum.

The price of ChineseChinese cedarwood oil has beenbeen quitequite stablestable inin recentrecent years.years. InIn thethe periodperiod early 1991 to earlyearly 19941994 itit hashas beenbeen availableavailable fromfrom LondonLondon dealersdealers atat US$2.90-3.50/kg,US$2.90-3.50/kg, thethe most recent price being atat thethe lowerlower endend ofof thisthis range.range. In comparison,comparison, TexasTexas andand VirginiaVirginia cedarwood oioilsls at thethe samesame timetime werewere approximatelyapproximately US$7/kg and US$13/kg, respectively.respectively .

94 PLANT SOURCESSOURCES

Botanical/commonBotanical! common names

Family Pinaceae

Cedrus deodara (Roxb.)(Roxb.) Loud.Loud. Himalayan cedarwood, deodar e.C. atlantica ManettiManetti Atlas cedarwood

Family Cupressaceae

Cupressus junebrisfunebris Endl.End!. Chinese cedarwood

Juniperus virginiana L.L. Virginia cedarwood, Eastern red cedar

1.J. mexicanamexicana SchiedeSchiede Texas cedarwood [correct name saidsaid byby ADAMSADAMS (1987) toto be 1.J. asheiashei Buch.]Buch.]

1.J. proceraprocera HochstHochst East African cedarwoodcedarwood

Widdringtonia whyteiwhytei RendleRendle Mulanje cedarwoodcedarwood

Cupressus junebrisfunebris isis commonly stated to be the source of Chinese cedarwood oiloil but oneone Chinese source indicates thatthat JuniperusJuniperus chinensis, 1.J. jormosanaformosana and 1.J. vulgarisvulgaris areare alsoalso used.used.

Description and distribution

Cedrus deodara isis aa tall,tall, evergreenevergreen treetree upup toto 5050 mm high,high, occasionallyoccasionally more.more. It growsgrows extensively onon the slopes of the HimalayasHimalayas in northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan andand is often the most importantimportant coniferconifer atat elevationselevations ofof 1650-2400 1650-2400 m.m.

Cedrus atlantica occursoccurs inin thethe AtlasAtlas mountainsmountains ofof MoroccoMorocco andand northwesternnorthwestern Algeria.Algeria.

Cupressus junebrisfunebris isis an evergreen tree or shrubshrub withwith aa widewide distributiondistribution inin Guizhou,Guizhou, Gansu and Sichuan provinces in the People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof China.China.

Juniperus virginianavirginiana is aa slow-growingslow-growing evergreen tree,tree, up to 1818 mm tall.tall. It occursoccurs inin North America and in thethe USAUSA isis distributeddistributed widely from the east coast to the mid-mid- west.west. Young forests are commonlycommonly formedformed inin abandonedabandoned fields from seed spread by birds.birds.

J. mexicanamexicana is aa smallsmall tree,tree, upup toto 66 m m tall, tall, and and occurs occurs inin the the southern southern United United StatesStates (Texas), Mexico and partsparts ofof CentralCentral America.America. In thethe USA,USA, likelike J.J. virginiana,virginiana, itit invadesinvades abandoned fields and overgrazedovergrazed rangelands.rangelands.

1.J. proceraprocera isis aa talltall tree,tree, upup toto 3030 mm oror more.more. It isis foundfound inin thethe drierdrier highlandhighland forestsforests of East Africa,Africa, particularlyparticularly Kenya,Kenya, atat elevationselevations ofof 1000-30001000-3000 m.m.

95 Widdringtonia whyteiwhytei isis aa treetree of rather restrictedrestricted occurrenceoccurrence inin Africa.Africa. The greatest concentration is in the MountMount MulanjeMulanje areaarea ofof southernsouthern Malawi.Malawi.

Effects of oil production on the natural resourceresource

MostMost of thethe cedarwoodcedarwood oilsoils areare obtainedobtained fromfrom wildwild treestrees butbut littlelittle informationinformation isis published on the extentextent toto whichwhich oiloil productionproduction maymay havehave affectedaffected thethe naturalnatural resource.resource. In Kenya, as alreadyalready noted,noted, therethere hashas beenbeen a seriousserious depletion ofof thethe wild trees as a resultresult ofof over-exploitation forfor timber and oil. The position in the People's Republic of China is notnot known. AmericanAmerican oil oil productionproduction utilizesutilizes wastewaste wood from trees felled for timber as well as the considerable areas where the junipers grow asas invasiveinvasive "weeds"."weeds".

HARVESTING/PRIMARY PROCESSINGPROCESSING

For thosethose casescases wherewhere thethe treestrees areare utilizedutilized forfor bothboth timbertimber andand oiloil productionproduction sawdust,sawdust, wood shavings and other waste wood materials from the saw mills areare taken to the distillery for steam distillation andand recoveryrecovery ofof oil in the normal manner.manner. SawdustSawdust shouldshould not be exposedexposed to direct sunlight before distillation,distillation, otherwiseotherwise oiloil yieldsyields andand qualityquality areare diminished.diminished.

In other instances,instances, wherewhere the trees areare notnot of a size or formform thatthat makes them suitable for primary timber utilization, such as 1.J. mexicana,mexicana, thethe treestrees themselvesthemselves are cut,cut, chippedchipped and steamsteam distilled. HeartwoodHeartwood and and stumps stumps containcontain thethe mostmost oiloil althoughalthough the latter are not widely utilized.

Yields andand quality variation

Not unexpectedly,unexpectedly, oiloil yieldsyields varyvary widelywidely accordingaccording toto thethe typetype ofof cedarwood oiloil producedproduced and the form in which the wood is distilled (sawdust vsvs chips)chips).. Heartwood is richer in oil thanthan sapwood and commercial distillers of Texas cedarwood oil recognize higher yielding trees to bebe the older, slowerslower growinggrowing onesones withwith aa strong,strong, centralcentral axis.axis. Yields of oil areare inin thethe rangerange 11-5-5 percent.

Some chemotaxonomic studies have examined foliagefoliage oilsoils fromfrom the various species but little systematicsystematic research has beenbeen conductedconducted on woodwood oils.oils. The variabilityvariability between,between, andand particularly within,within, species (for(for even-aged trees) trees) isis notnot knownknown inin anyany greatgreat detail.detail. ADAMSADAMS (1987) has reported thethe heartwoodheartwood oiloil yieldyield andand compositioncomposition of eleven Juniperus spp.spp. growinggrowing in thethe UnitedUnited States.States. The relative proportions of thethe importantimportant aromaaroma constituentsconstituents ofof thethe oilsoils (alpha-(alpha- and beta-cedrene,beta-cedrene, cedrolcedrol andand thujopsene)thujopsene) variedvaried markedly.markedly.

VVALUE-ADDED ALUE-ADDED PROCESSING

Rectification of the crude oil toto obtainobtain fractionsfractions with differentdifferent olfactory properties, andand to isolateisolate individualindividual constituents for derivative manufacture,manufacture, isis carriedcarried out either in the country of originorigin -- wherewhere therethere isis large-scale large-scale productionproduction andand domesticdomestic consumptionconsumption (e.g. ChinaChina andand USA) - oror byby end-usersend-users inin importingimporting countriescountries (e.g.(e.g. JapanJapan andand Europe).Europe).

PRODUCTS OTHER THANTHAN OILOIL

Some of the species are utilized forfor timbertimber purposes.purposes. CedrusCedrus deodara isis oneone ofof thethe mostmost valuable Indian timbers and is usedused forfor railwayrailway sleeperssleepers andand inin constructionalconstructional workwork requiringrequiring

96 beams, posts and framesframes.. ItIt is is alsoalso usedused forfor makingmaking pencils. TheThe strongstrong odourodour ofof thethe woodwood and its oily naturenature limitslimits itsits useuse forfor indoorindoor work.work.

Juniperus virginianavirginiana producesproduces a light-weightlight-weight timbertimber whichwhich isis usedused forfor some items of furniture and pencilpencil making.making. In the southernsouthern United States itit is sold as anan ornamentalornamental tree,tree, eespeciallyspecially at Christmas.Christmas.

J.1. proceraprocera is is used used in in Kenya Kenya forfor pencil pencil making, making, joinery,joinery, flooring,flooring , etc.etc.

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL

For thosethose countriescountries whichwhich possesspossess sufficientlysufficiently largelarge areas of Cedru,s,Cedrus, Juniperus oror Cupressus to consider sustainable oil production, then an examination andand tradetrade assessment ofof trial lotslots of oiloil wouldwould bebe worthwhile.worthwhile. AcceptanceAcceptance ofof oil oil fromfrom aa newnew sourcesource forfor thethe internationalinternational market, however,however, willwill dependdepend onon itsits quality quality (composition) (composition) andand priceprice vis-a-vis vis-a-vis traditionaltraditional cedarwood oils.oils. If therethere isis alreadyalready somesome useuse ofof thethe woodwood forfor timbertimber purposespurposes thenthen wastewaste residues could bebe utilizedutilized toto advantage.advantage.

Those speciesspecies suchsuch asas WiddringtoniaWiddringtonia whytei,whytei, which have a limitedlimited distribution,distribution, couldcould only provide veryvery smallsmall quantitiesquantities of oil toto aa locallocal marketmarket (utilizing(utilizing waste sawdust from sawn wood). EconomicEconomic production production of of such such an an oil oil couldcould probablyprobably onlyonly bebe undertakenundertaken inin conjunctionconjunction with other oilsoils inin orderorder toto makemake fullfull useuse ofof the the distillationdistillation facilities.facilities.

Research needsneeds

Areas of researchresearch thatthat deservedeserve attentionattention includeinclude thethe following:following:

Screening of indigenousindigenous Juniperus, CupressusCupressus andand CedrusCedrus species.species. As noted earlier,earlier, there isis littlelittle publishedpublished informationinformation on the woodwood oiloil characteristicscharacteristics of manymany ofof thesethese species. Leaf oil compositioncomposition is often very differentdifferent from woodwood butbut maymay containcontain thethe same typestypes ofof chemicalchemical constituentsconstituents andand shouldshould alsoalso bebe examined.examined.

Field surveyssurveys of thethe resourceresource forfor thosethose speciesspecies whichwhich appearappear toto havehave somesome potential.potential. Exploitation ofof wildwild treestrees is only warranted where therethere is a highhigh degreedegree ofof naturalnatural regeneration or wherewhere thethe plantplant isis consideredconsidered aa weed.weed. In thesethese cases some form of controlled,controlled, semi-formalsemi-formal cultivationcultivation mightmight bebe possible.possible.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

ADAMS,ADAMS, R.P.R.P. (1987)(1987) InvestigationInvestigation of JuniperusJuniperus speciesspecies of the United States for newnew sourcessources of cedarwood oil.oil. Economic BotanyBotany,, 41(1)41(1),, 48-54.

DIKSHIT, A. andand DIXIT,DIXIT, S.N.S.N. (1982)(1982) CedrusCedrus oiloil -- aa promising promising antifungalantifungal agentagent of CedrusCedrus deodara. IndianIndian Perfumer, Perfumer, 26(2/4),26(2/4), 216-227.216-227.

FMA (1992) Cedarwood oil,oil, Chinese.Chinese. 55 pp.pp. FMAFMA Monographs,Monographs, Volume 1. Washington,Washington, DC:DC: Fragrance Materials AssociationAssociation ofof thethe UnitedUnited States.States.

97 FMA (1992)(1992) Cedarwood oil,oil, Texas.Texas. 5 pp. FMAFMA Monographs,Monographs, VolumeVolume 1.1. Washington, DC:DC: Fragrance Materials AssociationAssociation of the UnitedUnited States.States.

FMA (1992) CedarwoodCedarwood oil,oil, Virginia.Virginia. 5 pppp.. FMAFMA Monographs,Monographs, Volume 1.1. Washington,Washington, DC: Fragrance MaterialsMaterials AssociationAssociation ofof thethe UnitedUnited States.States.

GREEN, C.L.,C.L., WOOD,WOOD, A.B.A.B .and and ROBINSON, ROBINSON, J.M.J.M. (1988)(1988) AA re-examination re-examination ofof Mulanje Mulanje cedarwood oil (Widdringtonia whyteiwhytei Rendle). Rendle). FlavourFlavour andand FragranceFragrance Journal,Journal, 3(3),3(3), 105-108.105-108.

GULATI, B.C. (1982)(1982) EssentialEssential oil of deodar (Cedrus(Cedrus deodara).deodara). InIn CultivationCultivation and UtilizationUtilization of Aromatic Plants. Atal, C.K. andand Kapur,Kapur, B.M.B.M. (eds).(eds). 815 pp.pp. Jammu, India:India: RegionalRegional Research Laboratory, CSIR.CSIR.

ISO (1984) OilOil ofof cedarwood,cedarwood, VirginiaVirginia (Juniperus(Juniperus virginiana virginiana Linnaeus). Linnaeus). InternationalInternational Standard ISO 4724-19844724-1984 (E).(E) . 2 pp.pp. International OrganizationOrganization forfor Standardization.Standardization.

ISO (1986) Oil of cedarwood, Texas (Juniperus mexicanamexicana Schiede).Schiede). International Standard ISOISO 4725-1986 (E).(E). 2 pp.pp. International Organization for Standardization.Standardization.

LAWRENCE, B.M. (1980)(1980) CedarwoodCedarwood oil.oil. Perfumer and Flavorist, 5(3), 63.63 .

NIGAM, M.C.,M .C., AHMAD,AHMAD, A.A. andand MISRA,MISRA, L.N.L.N. (1990)(1990) CompositionComposition ofof thethe essentialessential oiloil ofof Cedrus deodara.deodara. IndianIndian Perfumer,Peljumer, 34(4),34(4), 278-281.278-281.

ROVESTI, P.P. (1978)(1978) LeLe essenzeessenze didi JuniperusJuniperus proceraprocera HochstHochst dell'Africadell'Africa orientaleorientale etiopica.etiopica. Essenze DerivatiDerivati Agrumari,Agruman, 48(3), 282-288.282-288.

SINGH,SINGH, D.,D., RAO,RAO, S.M.S.M. and and TRIPATHI, TRIPATHI, A.K.A.K .(1984) (1984) CedarwoodCedarwood oiloil [Cedrus[Cedrus deodara]deodara] asas aa potential insecticidal agent against mosquitoes. Naturwissenschaften,Naturwissenschajten, 71(5), 265-266.265-266.

VON RUDLOFF,RUDLOFF, E.E. (1975) Chemosystematic studies studies of of thethe volatile oils ofof JuniperusJuniperus horizontalis, 1.J. scopulorumscopulorum andand J.J. virginiana.virginiana. Phytochemistry, 14(5/6), 1319-1329.1319-1329.

WALKER, G.T. (1968)(1968) CedarwoodCedarwood oil.oil. Perfumery andand Essential Oil RecordRecord,, 59, 347-350.347-350.

98 Table 1919 Imports ofof cedarwoodcedarwood oiloil intointo thethe UnitedUnited States,States, andand sources,sources, 1989-931989-93 (tonnes)

1989 19901990 1991 1992 1993

Total 457 461 338 317 366

Of which from:from: China, People's Rep. of 259 342 na na na Hong KongKong 158 58 na na na Canada 23 15 na na na UK 14 32 na na na France 14 na na na

Source: USUS nationalnational statisticsstatistics

Table 2020 Imports ofof cedarcedar oiloil intointo Japan,Japan, andand sources, sources, 1989-93 1989-93 (tonnes)

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Total 159 191 157 195 140140

Of which from:from: USA 126 179 157 193 138 China, People'sPeople's RepRep.. of 32 12 1 2

Source: JapaneseJapanese nationalnational statisticsstatistics

99 APPENDIX 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STEAMSTEAM DISTILLATION

Most essentialessential oilsoils areare obtainedobtained fromfrom thethe plantplant materialmaterial byby aa processprocess knownknown asas steamsteam distillation.distillation. Descriptions andand explanations of the theory and practice of steam distillation areare given elsewhere (AMES and MATTHEWS, 19681968,, and DENNY, 1991) andand thethe readerreader isis referred to these for detailed discussions of equipment needs,needs, distillerydistillery layoutlayout andand methods.methods. An indicationindication of what is involvedinvolved isis givengiven here.here.

The fundamental nature of steam distillation is that it enables a compound or mixture of compounds to be distilled (and(and subsequentlysubsequently recovered) atat a temperature substantiallysubstantially belowbelow thatthat of the boilingboiling point(s)point(s) ofof the the individualindividual constituent(s).constituent(s). Essential oils containcontain substancessubstances withwith boiling points up toto 200°C200 De oror hig,her, higher, includingincluding somesome that areare solidssolids atat normalnormal temperatures.temperatures. In thethe presencepresence ofof steamsteam oror boiling boiling water,water, however,however, thesethese substancessubstances areare volatilizedvolatilized at aa temperature close toto 100°ClOoDe atat atmospheric atmospheric pressure.pressure. The mixture ofof hot vapours will, if allowed to pass through aa coolingcooling system,system, condensecondense to form a liquidliquid in which the oil andand waterwater comprise two distinct layers.layers. MostMost (but(but notnot all)all) essentialessential oils are lighterlighter than water and form the toptop layer.layer. The steam that is usedused forfor thethe distillationdistillation is generatedgenerated either withinwithin the steelsteel vessel that contains the plantplant materialmaterial (by(by boiling water contained at the base) or byby anan externalexternal boiler.

The use ofof steamsteam generatedgenerated withinwithin the vessel requires that the leafleaf bebe supportedsupported aboveabove some boiling water by aa grid.grid. The water is heatedheated either directly usingusing aa fire or byby heatheat exchanger coils.coils. The simplicity of the methodmethod makesmakes it suitablesuitable for small-scalesmall-scale distillationdistillation of essential oils.oils.

If steam is generated, instead,instead, by an external boiler it is introduced into thethe base of the vessel via an openopen coil,coil, jets oror similarsimilar device(s).device(s). TheThe advantages advantages ofof thisthis typetype ofof distillation distillation areare that itit isis relativelyrelatively rapidrapid andand capablecapable ofof greatergreater controlcontrol byby thethe operator.operator. The vessel can bebe emptied and recharg,edrecharged quicklyquickly andand with the immediateilmnediate reintroductionreintroduction of of steamsteam therethere is no unnecessary delay inin the commencement of the distillationdistillation process.process. OilsOils produced by this means are more likelylikely toto bebe ofof acceptable acceptable qualityquality thanthan thosethose producedproduced usingusing thethe moremore directdirect method.method.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

AMES, G.R.G.R. andand MATTHEWS,MATTHEWS, W.S.A.W.S.A. (1968)(1968) TheThe distillationdistillation ofof essentialessential oils.oils. Tropical Science, 10,10, 136-148.136-148.

DENNY, E.F.K.E.F.K. (1991)(1991) FieldField DistillationDistillation for Herbaceous Oils. Lilydale,Lilydale, Tasmania:Tasmania: PublishedPublished by the authorauthor (PO(PO BoxBox 42).42).

101 !1 Flavours andand fragrancesfragrances areare an an importantimportant group of non-wood forest products. This publication contains informationinformation aboutabout the the sources, sources, uses,uses, manufacturing processes, markets,markets, research needs andand developmentdevelopment potential ofof ninenine selectedselected flavoursflavours andand fragrancesfragrances of plant origin representingrepresenting the different varieties or types of the product. CountlessCountless flavours andand fragrances have foundfound theirtheir way via essentialessential oils into everyday life. They are found, for example,example, inin foods, drinks and confectionery items; in products of personal use such as perfumes, deodorants, shampoos, soaps, toothpastestoothpastes andand mouthwashes; in pharmaceutical preparationspreparations to to mask mask disagreeabledisagreeable tastes; andand inin itemsitems used inin thethe house oror officeoffice or in industry suchsuch asas air fresheners,fresheners, detergentsdetergents andand cleaning agents. TheThe purposepurpose ofof thisthis publicationpublication isis to disseminate useful informationinformation on this important group of products and thereby to promote their development.development.

11 ISBN 92-5-103648-992·5·103648·9 ISSN 1020-3370 fi!

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