AUSTRALASIAN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 11,1993

The Good Oil: Oil Distilleries in

MICHAEL PEARSON

The qualities of eucalyptus oil have been recognised since the early years of Australia's European settlement, and an industry based on it grew from the mid-nineteenth century to reach maturity by the turn of the century. Eucalyptus distilling has always been a 'struggle' industry, based on the geographic and social margins of Australian society, subject to environmental, market and labour jluctuations, and ultimately largely supplanted by overseas production, an ironic outcome given the essential Australianness of the product. This article traces that history, and the technology of eucalyptus distilling, focusing on a case study ofthe Queanbeyan district of in the 1950s and the archaeological remains of that era.

EUCALYPTUS OIL: TABLE 1: Eucalyptus species most commonly exploited for oil

ITS USES AND EXTRACTION Species Common name Principle leaf oil Oil yield as % of Eucalypts, like many other plants, contain volatile oils, called constituent and % fresh weight Medicinal oils 'essential oils'. In the eucalypts, essential oils can occur in E. polybractea blue mallee cineole 60-93% 0.7-5.0 many parts of the plant, depending on the species, but it is in & pinene the leaves that oils are most plentiful. Eucalyptus oil is E. cneorifolia Kangaroo Island gum, cineole 40-90% 2.0 produced and stored in small glands, the leaves of different narow-leaved mallee species contaipng from 0.1 up to 7 per cent of the fresh weight E. dives broad-leaved cineole 60-75% 3.0-6.0 of the ieaves.' The essential oils of the eucalypt are readily (cineol variant) & phellandrine volatilised (vaporised), and it is this characteristic that & piperitone

produces the blue haze of the Australian forests in summer, E. elaeophora long-leaved box, cineole 60-80% 1.5-2.5 gives crushed eucalyptus leaves their distinctive aromatic (E. goniocalyx) apple box & pinene odour, and allows easy distillation of the oils by heating the E. leucoxylon yellow gum, clneole 65-75% 0.8-2.5 leaves. white gum & pinene The volatile oil of the eucalypt has a number of constituent parts, called odorous terpenes, such as cineole, phellandrene E. radiata subsp. narrow-leaved cineole 65-75% 2.5-3.5 radiata peppermint & phellandrine and piperitone, which occur in different proportions depending & piperiione on the species, and can vary within species depending on sub- species and specific environmental condition^.^ Table 1 lists E. sideroxylon mugga, iron bark cineole 60-75% 0.5-2.5 the principal eucalypt species that have been utilised for their E. globulus Tasmania blue gum cineole 60-85% 0.7-2.4 oil, and the type of oil they contain. Of the more than 600 species of Eucalyptus less than 20 appear to have been used for E. viridis green mallee, cineole 70-80% 1.O-1.5 the commercial extraction of oil, either in Australia or red mallee overseas.3 E. smithfi gully gum cineole 70-80% 1.O-2.2 There are three broad categories of uses for Eucalyptus oil: E. cinerea argyle apple cineole? av. 1.2 medicinal, industrial and perfumery/flavouring, the latter being -- little produced in Australia. Medicinal oils are defined by the E. morrisii grey mallee cineole? av. 1.6

British Pharmacopoeia as containing not less than 70% E. consideniana yertchuk cineole & phellandrine cineole; industrial oils contain principally piperitone and phellandrene as their main constituents; and perfumery and E. amygdalina black peppermint cineole & pinene & flavouring oils contain high percentages of citronella1 (a lemon (E. phellandra) phellandrine scent) and geranyl acetate (a rose scent). Raw oils are often Industrial oils treated by distillation and blending (known as 'rectification') E. dives broad-leaved phellandrine 60-80% 1.5-5.0 to produce an oil with the necessary proportions of desirable (phellandrine variant) peppermint & piperitone & cineole constituent parts to meet particular commercial needs. This E. dives broad-leaved piperitone 40-56% & 3.0-6.5& allows the mixing of oil from different species and different (piperitonevariant) peppermint phellandrine & cineole qualities of raw oil, to produce a saleable product.4 - E radfata narrow-leaved phellandr~ne35-40% av 3 5 Medicinal oils are used primarily as a agent peppermint & plperltone & and in , sprays, embrocations, gargles, cineole 20-50% lozenges, emulsions and ointments and other preparations. E elata river pepperm~nt piperrtone 40-50% av 25 Industrial oils are used in the manufacture of , deodorants, liquid , germicides and in the manufacture of Perfumery and flavouring oils synthetic and thymol. Earlier in the century, E. citriodora lemon scented gum citronella1 6540% 0.5-2.0 eucalyptus oil was also used extensively in the flotation- E. macarthurii Camden woolybutt geranyl acetate 60-70% 0.2-1.0 separation of base-metal ores. Perfumery and flavouring oils (Sources: Boland et al 1991: 14; Penfold 1933: 5; Kelly 1983: vol 1.: Small 1985:171; Baker & Smith 1902.) 99 are used either directly as a scenting agent and food flavouring, working stills in NSW in the 1950s, were popular because of @r in the synthesis of other scents and flavour^.^ their low establishment cost, which made them popular with The extraction of eucalyptus oil from the leaves is very independent distillers, and their portability, an important factor s5mple. The process described here refers to historical, rather in mountainous country where it was easier to take the still to than current, distillation practice. Leaves are gathered by Ieaf supplies than it was to transport leaf long distances to the cutting branches from the then plucking the leaves from still. l2 Figure 1 shows the schematic operation of a field still the branches, or by mechanical harvesting of low-growing of this type. p lantation species such as mallee. The leaf is placed in a sealed More sophisticated stills were used in other areas, especially container, usually a large tank or vat, and steam is introduced. where flatter terrain allowed the easy importation of leaf from In the most simple stills the steam is produced by directly a large surrounding district. These stills had external steam heating the tank holding the leaf, which has water in its base sources, often supplied by Cornish boilers, and ranged from which is constantly replenished to prevent it running dry. More simple in-ground brick pits, as in the mallee country of western sophisticated stills have steam produced in a separate boiler, New South Wales, , and eastern South Australia, to which is then piped into the leaf tank. As the leaf is heated by more elaborate commercial stills in victoria.13 Modem oil the steam, the essential oils volatise and are carried with the producers have gone a step further, and now often use portable sEeam through pipes placed near the top of the tank. The trailer-mounted still tanks, into which mechanically harvested volatised oil and steam is then condensed, either by passing it leaf is fed directly in the field, and the tanks transported back through a coil condenser, or 'worm', or by simply running it to the steam source for distillation. l4 through a pipe that is resting in cool water. The condensed An example of the more elaborate still of the nineteenth water and oil is gathered in a container at the end of the century is the Hartland still at , Victoria, established in condenser, the oil floating to the top. The oil is then ready for 1890, that has an in-ground brick still tank 12 feet (3.6 m) deep packaging, or more usually is sent off for rectification by an oil and 8 feet (2.4 m) in diameter. Similar stills existed in New distributor, before sale. South Wales (where they were less common than in Victoria), Throughout much of south-eastern Australia, and particu- with in-ground cylindrical tanks 5-8 feet (1.5-2.4 m) in larly in New South Wales, oil production was largely by means diameter, and 9-14 feet (2.74.2 m) deep, holding 2-5 tons of of simple field stills (sometimes referred to as 'pot stills' or leaf. One such still, supplied with steam at 40 psi from a 'stewpot stills'). These consisted of one or two iron tanks, often Cornish boiler, was at Rosewood, near ~urnbarumba.~~ simply 400 gallon ship-tanks with their tops cut off and refitted An advantage of stills with external steam sources was that as removable lids6 Stronger steel tanks, up to 6 feet cubed, and the steam could be delivered under pressure, which dramati- army-surplus steel pontoons were also common still tanks. The cally speeded up the distillation process. For example, lid usually sat in a channel fabricated around the top of the distilling E. dives by the direct-fire field still method took 14 - tank, in which mud or clay was placed to create an air-tight seal 18 hours for 800 Ibs (362 kg) of leaf, while a still with steam when the lid was bolted, clipped or wedged closed. The tanks supplied under pressure would take just 3-4 hours to distil 5000 were usually set on slightly sloping ground and heated by a fire lbs (2268 kg) of leaf or more.i7 set in a shallow trench below them. The back of the hearth was usually connected by a short tunnel (often made of drums with HISTORY OF EUCALYPTUS OIL DISTILLING their ends removed) to a drum chimney, to create a draught. The base of the tank had an iron pipe fitted to it that was assistant surgeon Denis Considen, in 1789, is connected to a 44-gallon drum which held water. This credited as the first to send a sample ('14 gallon) of eucalyptus maintained a constant level of water inside the tank, and was oil to Britain for testing. Considen, together with Surgeon- replenished by topping up the drum either by hand, or by General John White, took a strong interest in testing the connecting it with a water supply system such as a race or a commercial potential of the flora of the new colony. The oil pipe from a dam. The leaf inside the tank was kept above the was claimed to be better for 'collicky complaints' than the water level by laying logs in the base, or by inserting a steel English peppermint, and the was therefore named 'Sydney mesh floor about 9-12 inches (23-30 cm) above the base of the peppermint' (E. piperita).18 No industry stemmed from this tank.7 From the top of the tank another iron pipe to carry off early discovery, despite the setting up of a still in Hobart by the volatized oil ran downslope and along the bottom of a Robert Officer in the 1830s, and the report by the Colonial section of water race or trough, which was kept full of water so Botanist Mr Fazer in the Sydney Gazette in 1839 that he had as to condense the oil in the pipe. The condenser pipe ran extracted oil from E. globifera and had treated rheumatism through the wall of a small dam at the end of the race, and the with it. l9 condensed oil and water dripped into a collector drum. Quite The eucalyptus oil industry had its effective genesis in the elaborate water race systems were sometimes constructed to activities of Victorian government botanist, Baron Ferdinand maintain a constant supply of water to the still tank and to the von Mueller, and , Joseph Bosisto. Von condensing race. The degree of complexity in the construction Mueller experimented with eucalyptus oils, and at his urging, of field stills varied, ranging from the simple stills described in Bosisto established a distillery on Dandenong Creek in 1854, this article, to more elaborate plant with tanks sunk into brick to gather the oil of E. radiata20 Bosisto exhibited his oil at pits and substantial furnace arrangements, as recommended for seventeen exhibitions between 1854 and 1891, and spread the use in South Australia in 19 19.~ word about the potential of the industry, probably stimulating The stills were fired with timber, and distillation times varied the commencement of oil distilling in New South Wales and from 34hours for E. radiata to 14-18 hours for E. dives.9 To Tasmania in the 1880s.~~ operate such a still, an area of forest between 1 000 and 4 000 As the local industry gathered strength, the chemical acres (404-1618 hectares) was required, depending on the analysis of eucalyptus oil began to be put on a scientific basis, species. Trees of the target species were cut down about 50 cm with the properties of the E. globulus oil being established by above the ground (though in some areas the branches alone French chemist Cloez in 1870.~~Even at this time, however, were cut from the tree), and the leaves and terminal branchlets the idea persisted that the eucalyptus was a ' tree', and if removed by hand axe, cane knife, or a 'eucy' hook (a sickle- planted in areas affected by such as malaria, would shaped knife). Regrowth of the stumps could usually be absorb moisture and produce vapours to counter 'miasmas', harvested again after two years.1° In mallee areas the mallee held to be a cause of fever. This belief was stimulated in part was often rolled and flattened, then dried and bu-mt-off, the by the known efficacious affects of eucalyptus oil. Joseph subsequent regrowth being harvested for distilling.ll Bosisto himself published articles on this subject, supporting These simple field stills, which represented 90% of the the eucalypt as a fever tree by pointing out how few fevers Fig: 1 Schematic cross-section through a simple field still. existed in ~ustralia!~~Eucalyptus trees had been exported and plants using field stills operating elsewhere on the island.31 propagated in California, Italy, France, Algeria, , New South Wales and Victorian distiliers shared in the boom. , , Argentina and Hawaii as a malaria-reducing tree A field still establishment using three field stills, coil from the 1850s, with von Mueller's encouragement. It was not condensers and a crane, was set up by George Ashton at until the late nineteenth century that the true cause of malaria Wingello, south of Sydney, in 1912, to produce oil for mineral was isolated, by which time eucalypts had become established separation. This still, which has been described in detail as an element of the landscape in these countries.24 Research elsewhere, utilized oil production methods typical of the on the chemical composition of different eucalyptus oils was period.32 further progressed by Smith and Baker at Sydney's Technical The industry continued to boom during the First World War Museum in the early 1900s, and by Penfold and Momison in and immediately following, eucalyptus oil being much in the 1930s. demand for medicinal purposes throughout the war and in the In the 1880s the first large-scale commercial eucalyptus oil world-wide epidemic of 1919. Domestic prices operations commenced in the Mallee-Wimmera area of north- crashed in 1920, however, and production did not boom again western Victoria. Joseph Bosisto, backed by Melbourne until the Second World War. Australia was able to maintain its businessmen Alfred Felton and Frederick Grimwade, position in the international market because two companies, established the 'Eucalyptus Mallee Company' in 1882, based Bosistos and H.M. and W.K. Bumside, dominated the bulk at the 600 acre Antwerp Station, near the town of ~irnboola.~~ production of oil during the 1920s, and Australia retained 90% By the turn of the century eucalyptus oil was being produced of the world market, with Spain holding the rest.33 This in many places. By 1902 large-scale plants operated at situation started to deteriorate during the 1930s as other Ockenden's works at Spring Bay, Tasmania (2,000 gallon countries commenced to produce eucalyptus oil from trees tank), Bosisto's plant in Victoria, and Faulding's plant at initially imported from Australia in the nineteenth century. Punyelroo in South Australia (4-5,000 gallon tanks), while Australia's export market share began to decline, a situation smaller field stills were in operation in parts of NSW, Victoria not helped by the fact that Australia experienced difficulties in and Kangaroo Bosisto died in 1898, and in 1905 the guaranteeing consistency of oil quality. Felton Grimwade Company bought a leasehold on 40,000 During the Second World War, up until 1943, production acres at Ki Downs near Euston in NSW, and subdivided the increased significantly over the preceding decade, then fell to Antwerp property for sale in 1907.~~The Ki Downs plant had an annual rate of about half the 1930s average for the rest of the still tanks with a capacity of 4.5 tons of leaf each, but the war. This was possibly due to man-power problems, even operation could not compete with independent distillers, and though eucalyptus distilling was in theory a reserved closed in 1908.~~ occupation, at least at the start of the war. Production picked up Until 1904 eucalyptus oil was used only for pharmaceutical quickly for a time immediately after the war, 1947 being the purposes, and only that fraction of oil then called '' industry's record year with 1,000 tonnes of oil produced.34 (now called cineole and piperitone) was utilised. In 1904, Following this Indian summer, however, Australia's market however, Herbert Lavers of Broken Hill discovered the value of share declined progressively, and by the mid- 1970s Australian the phellandrene portion of eucalyptus oil in the separation of imports of eucalyptus oil exceeded its exports.35 By the early metallic sulphides in ores, which process he patented in 1980s the only areas producing oil were the Southern 1909.~~By 191 1 Broken Hill Zinc Corporation was using 600 Tablelands of NSW, the West Wyalong area, and the St Ibs (272 kg) of oil per day in the separation of 600 tons of ore, Arnaud-Inglewood-Wedderbum area in Victoria. By then most of the oil coming from Kangaroo ~sland.~~E. cneorifolia Australia's share of the world market was exceeded by was being exploited for oil on Kangaroo Island at this time, (45%), (Is%), Portugal (17%), Spain (9%), with with one large still owned by a Mr Burgess able to hold 5,000 Australia holding on to only 3% of the world lbs of leaf giving 100 lbs of oil per distillation, and 13 smaller The domestic industry boomed again during the 1950s in New South Wales, where basic field-still technology remained degree of use and maintenance it received, while still tanks the mainstay of the industry. The dominance of New South (mainly ship tanks or slightly larger) usually only lasted 2 Wales during this period, when it overtook Victoria in oil years. The oil-purchasing companies sometimes also financed production, has been attributed to the different expectations of the purchase of a truck by the distiller, though most distillers labour in the New South Wales and Victoria, the New South still relied on horse and cart. Wales eucalyptus oil workers being more willing to work in The District Forester pointed out the general inefficiency of primitive circumstances than their Victorian cousins, who had the oil industry in the district, depending as it did on crude become accustomed to centralised sophisticated stills, and distillation processes. He estimated that loss of oil due to bad hence working conditions more akin to other areas of industrial distillation methods amounted to as much as 33% of total operation.37 production, pointing out that the output of a 1,000 gallon tank could vary between 10 and 15 gallons per boil using identical THE INDUSTRY ON THE GROUND leaf. Another result of poor methods was the low grade of oil recovered, due to incomplete distillation of some fractions of A report written by the District Forester for the Queanbeyan the oil. For example, an accepted percentage range for Forestry Sub-District in 1951, described the organisation and piperitone production was 40-50% of total oil from E. dives, economics of the industry in the Queanbeyan district at that whereas the majority of local distillers fell as low as 30% date.38 This report provides a very useful insight into the piperitone. A similar situation occurred with cineole industry at the local level, and the following description is distillation. This inconsistency in oil quality increased the cost drawn from it. The species utilized within the district were of rectification in secondary distilling plants, and affected the E. dives and E. radiata (yielding phellandrene and cineole). demand for the local product. The problem of low grade oil A central factor in the organisation of the local industry were was not helped by the alleged practice of adding a gallon of ten oil-purchasing companies, who acted as both facilitators kerosene to each nine gallons of eucalyptus oil as a filler. and marketing middle-men for the disti~lers.~~These It was estimated that the local production could be doubled companies held the Forestry Department licenses for oil- if the inefficient crude stills were improved. Apart from the producing country, financed individual distillers, and paid the poor distillation practices, other problems included generally royalties to the government on oil produced on Crown and poor water supplies, which were seasonal, heavy demands on leasehold lands. Between April and September 1951, for man-power and time in cutting, transporting, loading and example, 70 licenses were issued in the district for eucalyptus unloading stills, cutting fuel and supervising long distillation leaf gathering operations. Of these only 22 were issued to periods. Many of the local stills did not even have a crude crane individual distillers, the rest going to five oil-purchasing pole to assist in the loading and unloading of the leaf. Several companies, one of which held 28 licenses. The independent plants of the 'improved type' had recently appeared in the distillers would have sold their oil to the same companies. The district, costing between £300 and £1,000 to set up, but unfor- licenses attracted substantial guarantee deposits, which were tunately these are not described in detail. paid by the companies. Royalties paid for production of oil Many of the disti.!!ers were post-war migrants frem central under the licenses was based on monthly returns by the Europe, who found the independence of the industry attractive. companies purchasing the oil, showing amounts of oil A still in the Snowy Mountains, set up at that time by locals purchascd from distillers operating on the licensed land. The and manned by German and Yugoslav migrants has been royalties were based on still-site prices paid for oil, which recently described.40 The majority of involved in ranged from 4 shillings per pound (royalty 3 pence per pound), the industry were said to be seasonal workers, who in some to 5 shillings and 11 pence per pound (royalty 5 pence per instances owned areas of land and combined wool growing pound). That the system was open to blatant abuse by the with oil production.41 The lifestyle and working conditions of companies supplying the returns was recognised by the District the 'eucy' workers has been described by a number of authors, Forester, one means of avoiding royalties being to claim oil of whom Des Shiel stands out.42 gathered on crown land as coming from private land, where This description of the eucalyptus industry in the royalties were not demanded. Queanbeyan district in the 1950s provides the context for the The oil-purchasing companies also controlled the still-site discussion of the still-sites described in the next section, which prices paid to distillers. In the 10 years preceding 1951, prices are within the Queanbeyan district and appear to date to this ranged from 7 pence to 7 shillings per pound of oil, and period. production fluctuated accordingly. Some protection from monopolistic practices was provided, in that individual THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF distillers were not bound to sell to the company licensing the land or owning the still, and there was considerable EUCALYPTUS DISTILLING competition at the still-site for oil purchases. As competition forced up still-site prices, production and employment in the The eucalyptus distilleries described here are simple field stills, industry increased, until still-site prices exceeded the price of the type that has been common across the nation since the obtainable in the market place, and prices dropped and the last century, and were the mainstay of the New South Wales industry contracted again. The industry had expanded greatly eucalyptus oil industry. The stills are located in or around the in the late 1940s due to the high prices for E. dives oil, and Tinderry Nature Reserve, near the town of Michalego, south of between 800 and 1,000 men had been employed locally in the Canberra, and were recorded by the author in 1982. They are industry. In late 1951 approximately 130 plants were operating within the Queanbeyan Forestry Sub-District described in the in the district, employing 500 men, and it was feared that if last section, and probably date from the 1950s and later demand again increased the spread of distilleries might exceed decades. Precise locational information is not provided here, the supply of bush available for production. because of access and management problems this could cause. The oil-purchasing companies, in most cases, financed the The stills are described because they are typical and there are setting-up of a new still, which in 1951 cost about £150. The likely to be many other examples in other parts of south-eastern Customs Department required a guarantee of £100 for each Australia. still up to 1951, bur reduced that figure subsequently. The The stills are of the field still type described at the start of the individual distiller was then charged for the use of the still, article, and the typical arrangement is that the still tanks are dependent on the current demand for oil. In periods of high located within about 10 metres of a seasonally flowing creek. demand the companies did not charge for the use of the stills. Upstream is a dam or stream diversion, directing water into one The life of a still was estimated at 2-5 years depending on the or more races, which provide water for the replenishment of the still tank during boiling, and for the trench in which the condenser pipe lies. The site of a bush hut is located near each still site, with clay ovens being a common feature, some attached to what appear to be tent sites. Domestic items such as bottles, tins, billys, kerosene refrigerators, iron bedstead parts, and assorted ceramic, glass and metal fragments, are scattered around the living areas. Still No. 1 has a steel still tank 215 x 155 square x 146 cm deep (7 x 5 ft x 4 ft 8 in) built into the steeply sloping bank of the creek, the tank being supported on two stone walls which provide a 40 cm high fire hearth beneath the full base of the tank. A steel lid rests beside the tank and what is probably a collapsed crane used to load and unload the leaf, and several beams used to fasten the lid, lie nearby (Figs. 2 and 3). Behind the still and one metre away is a short chimney made from a 44 gallon drum, which is connected by a short tunnel to the rear of the hearth beneath the still. Seven metres to the north of the still tank is a drum connected to the base of the tank by a 2 inch (5 cm) iron pipe. This provided the water level regulation within the tank, and appears to have itself been filled by hand. From the top of the tank a 2 inch iron condenser pipe, now with missing section, leads steeply down to creek level, where it runs north in the base of a water race for about 40 metres, to where the pipe stops at creek level. The oil collection system has been dismantled and its operation is not clear. The condenser race originates at a washed-out dam site 200 metres south of the still. The remains of a collapsed hut, 5 x 4 metres, is located 15 metres east of the still. An Electrolux refrigerator and assorted domestic items lie in the hut site, and the engine and chassis of a 1930s vintage Buick truck is a short distance away. About 10 metres to the south are two 1.5 metre square camp ovens, .+L:,LlI1btl maj have been origina!!y bui!t =n the side sf text-huts. There is no definitive evidence to suggest a date for this site, though the remains are consistent with a 1940s-50s operation. A severe bushfire burnt out the area in 1957, and is said locally to have put an end to many of the local distilleries, by destroying leaf supplies which would take two years to recover. Still No. 2 has a cylindrical tank of riveted steel plate, 21 1 cm in diameter and 120 cm deep (7 ft diam x 4 ft deep). The tank is built into the creek bank, and is supported by two parallel stone walls giving a 40 cm hearth beneath the tank. A flue extends from the rear of the hearth, and surfaces through a 44 gallon drum chimney 2 metres behind the tank (see Figs. 4 and 5). A trench extends a further 5 metres west from the chimney, and is possibly an earlier extension of the flue or the collapsed trench of another still tank. The tank is full of leaf, not having been discharged after its final distillation, and the channel around the top of the tank is still full of clay, used to make the seal with the lid. The lid rests against the edge of the tank, and would have been held tight by the four steel stirrups welded onto the tank's side, into which timber beams would have been wedged across the top of the lid. The beams lay beside the tank, as does a 'Y' shaped pole, possible part of a crane used to load the tank. The water-level regulating drum is located 2 metres west of the tank, to which it is connected by a 2 inch pipe. In this case the regulator drum appears to have been automatically filled by a pipe running from a water race and cistern 7 metres west and slightly above the level of the drum. However, the feed pipe, if such existed, has been removed. A 2 inch pipe runs from the top of the still tank down-slope 5 metres to a water race, along which the condenser pipe is laid. The condenser pipe runs through three dams which sub- divide the race and maintain a sufficient water level in each division. Beyond the third dam the condenser pipe empties into a half-44 gallon drum, about 26 metres from the still. The two water races originate at a dam on the creek about 100 metres south-west of the still. Fig. 3: Detail of arrangement of Still No. 1, with the tank lid und collapsed The remains of a 4 x 5 metre hut lie 15 metres south of the crane and beam,for,fastening lid. 103 being used at this site, so the leaf and lid would have had to have been handled manually. The water-level regulating drum is located 5 metres from the tank, connected to it by a 2 inch pipe which is buried for half its length. The regulator drum is fed by a pipe running from a race-fed cistern 4 metres away. This same cistern feeds an underground pipe which supplies water to the condenser race. The condenser pipe has a double connection to the top of one side of the tank, and runs north 9 metres to the condenser race (or more accurately, trough), through which it runs for 29 metres before passing through a small dam wall at the end of the trough, and emptying into a half-44 gallon drum. The second still, now devoid of its tank, was 3 metres from the first, and sat over a hearth cutting 3 x 2 metres and 1 metres deep, with a flue to a 44 gallon drum chimney behind. The water regulator drum is located 6 metres to the north, and appears to have been filled by hand. The condenser pipe for the second still survives, and joins onto the condenser pipe from the first still. With this arrangement, the two stills could have been used independently or in tandem, depending on the supply of leaf and the demand for oil at a given time. North-east of the still site a wooden bridge crosses the creek, and a rough track leads to a standing hut about 30 metres away. The hut has a bush-timber frame clad in corrugated galvanised iron. A broken cane-knife, of the kind used to harvest leaf, was found lodged in a tree nearby. The still site is said locally to have been used since the 1920s as a eucalyptus distillery (though the tanks and fittings would not be original), and the current plant was last used in 1980 for a short period. Even on sites where the still tanks have been removed, there survives a distinctive archaeological signature. The hearth Fig. 4 Still No. 2, with self,filling water level regulator drum, and more trenches and water races are persistent features in the complex condenser race system. !anciscape: 2 inch galvazised iron pipe was ~sedin lzige quantities and is often left behind: cutting of eucalyptus leaf often resulted in distinctly coppiced trees, branching lower

I dam -

Fig.5: Stdl No.2, showing lid resting on the tunk, [he clzrtnney to the left, and the hearth and condenser piupe to the right. still, and at least two tent-hut sites are benched into a slight slope nearby, with clay camp ovens adjacent to each site. A chicken coop or other animal enclosure is also nearby. Bottles at the site date to the 1940s and 50s, suggesting the operating period of the still. Still No. 3 is on private land adjacent to the Tinderry Nature Reserve. This site has two still tanks which operated in unison (see Figs. 6 to 9), though only one tank still remains in situ, the other being used by the landowner as a feed bin. The remaining tank is steel and is 246 x 125 x 123 cm deep (8 x 4 x 4 ft or 800 gallon capacity). It is built into the sloping bank of the creek, supported by two walls of stone and brick, providing a hearth

40 cm deep which was connected by a flue to a 10 gallon drum -- chimney 2 metres to the rear of the still. '&l--coiiecioi drum The sealing channel around the top of the surviving tank is still full of clay, and the lid is still sealed in position, held down Fig. 6: Still no. 3, with two still tanks, und more complex water race with three parallel timber beams wedged into steel stirrups system ,feeding one of the water level regulator drum and a condenser welded at each side of the tank. There is no evidence of a crane trough. waier race 3- I,,

\ / cistern \

Water level regulator drum

Fig. 9: The wuter level regulutor drum (it Still No. 3. The pipe bringing water from a race empties info the drum from c~hove.and the pipe con- nected to the still exists from the base cf the drutn. The still tank is seen at the reuc with the condenser pipes showins.

than free-grown trees of the same species: and the living areas I not to scale are usually able to be identified by the scatter of fragmented Fig. 7: Detail of the arrangement of one of the still tanks ur Still No. 3. The domestic artefacts, often little disturbed because of their tank is stilljitted, with beams secured by stirrups. isolated locations, their absence from maps, and the low density and relative poverty of the material making the sites unattractive to bottle hunters and metal detectors.

DISCUSSION Eucalyptus distilling is seen today as a somewhat exotic and romantic activity, having shared in the general veneration shown to traditional bush pursuits over the iast decade. it has, however, not always been a well regarded industry, as is suggested not least by the absence of a Banjo Paterson or Henry Lawson having immortalised it at an earlier time. Eucalyptus oil workers occupied a lower status than their brothers in other industries, even in other 'bush' industries such as saw-milling. The industry received little of no government assistance, other than the research and publicity provided by the Technological Museum in Sydney early in the century and its recognition by the man-power regulating authorities during WWII, and it was subject (at least in theory) to reasonably hefty government fees arid royalties. On the other hand, despite the often arduous nature of the work, it was an attractive option for men seeking independent and flexible employment not requiring particular skills or experience. Both the historicai and archaeological contexts of this marginal industry deserve further research. The eucalyptus oil industry has probably had a more widespread impact on the environment than has been recognised. As shown by the Queanbeyan example, the forested areas of south-eastern Australia were extensively exploited for oil, and the practices of the distillers had a dramatic impact on the nature of the forests. Targeted species were coppiced (cut down low on the trunk and encouraged to bush-out), 'over-mature' trees were ring-barked to provide space for younger saplings, and the practice of ring-barking non-oil-producing species to allow increase in oil-producing species may have been .widespread. The long-term ecological impact of this intervention has not, to the author's knowledge been thoroughly researched, and indeed seems to have been totally overlooked in. for example, the attribution of Fig. 8: The surviving tank at Still No. 3, showing the method of securing 'biophysical naturalness' to areas of forest as part of the the lid by means ofbeums held down by stirrups at the side of the tank. The shallow hearth beneath the still and the drum-chimney at the rear can be process of identifying wilderness quality.43 seen. There seems to be great scope for including the impacts of the eucalyptus oil industry in future ecological history research in Australia. The information provided in this article may help in the identification of eucalyptus distilleries as an important element of Australia's forest environment. NOTES 39. the oil-purchasing companies were: I. Boland et a1 1991:ll. A. J. Bedwell Pty Ltd, agencies at Braidwood and Adaminaby. 2. Bolandetal1991:ll. Sheldon Harris Oil Industries, agencies at Braidwood, Jerangle, Cooma and Yass. 3. Small 1981:171. W. K. Burnside Pty Ltd, agencies at Braidwood, Captains 4. Boland et a1 1991:ll-15. Flat and Nerriga. Cox Findlayson & Co Ltd, agencies at Braidwood and 5. Small 198 1: 171; Penfold and Willis 1961:245-8; Silman Cooma. 1938:39-42. Affiliated Eucalyptus Oil industries, agencies at Cooma 6. see Penfold 1932 for a detailed description. and Captains flat. Nightinggale Supply Co Ltd, agencies at Braidwood and 7. Penfold 1932:20-21 claimed raising the grate to 12-18 Nerriga. inches reduced distillation time. Bon Manufacturing Pty Ltd, agencies at Braidwood and 8. Journal of Agriculture of South Australia, July Nerriga. 1919:1033-4. Blok Van Rooyen Pty Ltd, agencies at Braidwood and Captains Flat. 9. for descriptions, see Penfold and Morrison 1952; Penfold M. Nomchong & Co, a Braidwood firm selling to Reckitt and Willis 1954; and Baker and Smith 1902. & Colman. H. Hatnck Pty Ltd, Pioneer Company. 10. Penfold and Willis 1954:320-21. 11. Chemical Trades Journal and Chemical Engineer; 192733-4. 41. Crumpton 1951. 12. Penfold and Morrison 1952:15. 42. Shiel 1985. 13. Boland et a1 1991: 187; Penfold and Morrison 1952:15; 43. see discussion in Robertson et a1 1992:20-21. see Shiel 1985 for some good illustrations of the different types of still. BIBLIOGRAPHY 14. Boland et a1 1991:193; Small 1981:172. ASHTON, G. 1973. 'The memoirs of George Ashton', Part 1, 15. Birmingham 1976:3-4. Canberra Historical Journal Sept. 1973:36-37.

16. Penfold and Willis 1954:322-4. BARER, R. T. and SMITH, h'. G. i902. k research on ihe 17. Penfold and Morrison 1952: 14, 18. Eucalyptus especially in regard to their essential oils Technical Museum of NSW, Technical Education Series No. 18. Penluld and Willis 1961:245; Boland et a1 1991:3. 13, Sydney. 19. Shiel 1985:9; Jervis 1949. BAKER, R. T. and SMITH, H. 6. 1911. 'Phellandrene oils', Lone 20. Boland et a1 199 1:3; Penfold and Willis 196 1:245-6 gives Hand Sept 1911 :45 1-54. the date as 1852. BIRMINGHAM, J. 1976. 'Eucalyptus Distilleries', Australian 21. Shiel 1985; Boland et a1 1991:3. Society for Historical Archaeology Newsletter 6 (2):3-5. 22. Chemical Trades Journal and Chemical Engineer; BOLAND, D. J. AND BROPHY, J. J. AND HOUSE, A. P. N. 1927:553-4. 1991. Eucalyptus leaf oil: Use, Chemistry, Distillation and Marketing, ACAIR/CSIRO, Inkata Press, Melbourne. 23. Bosisto 1876. 24. Thompson 1970; Bolton 198 1:41. BOLTON, G. 198 1. Spoils and spoilers: Australians make their environment 1788-1980, George Allen & Unwin, Sydney. 25. Boland et a1 1991: 4; Poynter 1967:16-17. BOSISTO, 5.1876. 'Is the Eucalyptus a fever-destroying tree?', 26. Baker and Smith 1902:257. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of 27. Poynter 1967: 18,108. Victoria 12: 10-23. 28. Eastbum 1984:2, 6. CHEMICAL TRADE JOURNAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEER, 1927. 'Eucalyptus oil-Progress in Austraiia 29. Baker and Smith 191 1:451-4; Woodward 1952:87. Distilling Industry', Chemical Trade Journal and Chemical 30. Smith 191 1. Engineer 80553-554. 31. Smith 1911 :20-22. CRUMPTON, J. H. 1951. 'General report on the eucalyptus oil industry of the Queanbeyan Forestry Sub-district by J. H. 32. Ashton 1973; Baker and Smith 1902:256-7. Crumpton, Forester', unpublished report in Forestry 33. Shiel 1985:xx. Commission files, Queanbeyan Office. (copy obtained by the author in 1982) 34. Small 1981: 172; Poynter 1967:237; Shiel 1985: 169. EASTBURN, D. R. 1984. Eucalyptus distillery, Euston, Local 35. Small 1981:174; Boland et a1 1991:4. History Information Series-Industry. 36. Small 1981:174. HILL, H. 1994. 'Eucalyptus cutter's camp at Morris Creek', 37. Shiel 1985:25. Kosciusko Huts Association Newsletter 85: 19-21. JERVIS, J. 1949. 'Notes and Queries', quoting Sydney Gazette 38. Crumpton 1951. 28/81 1830, Royal Australian Historical Society Journal 35:304. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. ROBERTSON, M., VANG, K. AND BROWN A. J. 1992. 1919. Note from the Macgillivray Branch, Journal of Wilderness in Australia: Issues and options-A discussion Agriculture of South Australia July 1919: 1033-4. paper, Minister for the Arts, Sport, the Environment and Territories, Australian Heritage Commission, Canberra. KELLY, S. 1983. Eucalypts, 2 vols, Nelson, Melbourne. SHIEL, D. 1985. Eucalyptus: Essence of Australia-The story of PENFOLD, A. R. 1932. Guide to the extraction of Eucalyptus oil the Eucalyptus oil industry, Queensbury Hill Press. Carlton. in thefield, Bulletin 4, Technological Museum, Sydney. SILMAN, H. 1938. 'Eucalyptus oils', Manufacturing Per&mer PENFOLD, A. R. 1933. Commercial Eucalyptus oils, Bulletin 2, 3:39-42. Technological Museum, Sydney. SMALL, B. E. J. 1981. 'The Australian Eucalyptus oil industry-an PENFOLD, A. R. and MORRISON, F. R. 1952. Guide to the overview', Australian Forestry 44 (3): 170- 177. extraction of Eucalyptus oils in the field, Department of Technical Education, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, SMITH, H. G. 1911. 'The present state of the eucalyptus oil Bulletin No. 4, Sydney. industry', The Technical Gazette of NSW 1:20-22. PENFOLD, A. R. and WILLIS, J. L. 1954. 'The THOMPSON, K. 1970. 'The Australian fever tree in California: industry of Australia', Economic Botany 6 (2):316-336. Eucalypts and malaria prophylaxis', Annals of the Association of American Geographers 60 (2): 230-44. PENFOLD, A. R. and WILLIS, J. L. 1961. The Eucalyptus, Leonard Hill Books, London. WOODWARD, 0. H. 1952. A review of the Broken Hill Lead - Silver - Zinc industry, Australia Institute of and POYNTER, J. R. 1967. Russell Grimwade, Melbourne University Metallurgy, Melbourne. Press. Melbourne.