bulletin of the european atomic energy community december 1965 vol. IV no. 4

D Η M aa ι ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ I ■ ■ mm m ■ I I Π Γ Γ π π G ■ ■ π π D Π 1 Π π

e υ rat o m

Quarterly information Bulletin of the Euro­ pean Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)

1965­4

Contents:

98 The British atomic programme

104 Nuclear slang and nuclear terminology

111 Euratom joint enterprises

116 How radiation causes cell death

122 Towards an ORGEL prototype

127 Euratom news:

First criticality of HARMONIE reactor; A glandular extract helps to cure radiation damage; Prestressed concrete vessels for water reactors ï An interexecutive for scientific research; Letters to the Editor.

Published and edited by:

Euratom, Dissemination of Information Directorate, 51­53 rue Belliard, Brussels 4. Telephone: 13 40 90

For subscription rates please see overleaf.

The Advanced Gas­cooled Reactor (A.G.R.) prototype in Windscale (see page 98) The Euratom Commission or any persons acting on its behalf disclaim all liability with respect to the completeness of the in• formation contained in this periodical as well as to any damage which might result from the use of information disclosed or of equipment, methods or processes described therein.

Any article published in this bulletin may be reproduced in whole or in part without restriction, provided that the source is mentioned.

Picture credits: page 2 of cover: U.K.A.E.A.; pages 101-103: U.K.A.E.A.; page 111: U.S.A.E.C.; page 112: Euratom JRC Ispra/ Ulrich Zimmermann; page 113: National Film Board, Canada; page 114: Alain Perce• val, Paris; page115: Erich Bauer, Karlsruhe.

Cover by Gaston Bogaert, Brussels.

Quarterly

Five editions:

English, German, French, Italian and Dutch

Subscriptions to: Agence et Messageries de la Presse (A.M.P.), 34, rue du Marais, Brussels 1, Belgium. or: H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569, London S.E. 1, U.K. or: European Communities Information Service, Suite 808, Farragut Building, Washington 6, D.C., U.S.A.

Yearly subscription rates:

United Kingdom 18/-; United States $ 3.50; Basic rate:

Europe: 125 Belgian Francs

Other countries: 175 Belgian Francs

Single copies:

United Kingdom 6/-; United States $ 1.-

Printed in the Netherlands by A. W. Sijthoff, Leiden aaioisotopes raaioiso topi radioisotopen s hip propulsion schiffs antrieb propulsion na vale propulsione nava le scheepsvoortstuwi ng biology biologie biologie biologia bio logie medicine medi zin médecine medicin a geneeskunde healt h protection gesundh eitsschutz protection sanitaire protezione s anitaria bescherming van de gezondheid automatic data proces It is both an honour and a pleasure for us to sing automatische inf ormation information present in this issue of Euratom Bulletin an automatique informa article by Sir William Penney, Chairman of the zione automatica auto matische verwerking United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. van gegevens insura nee yersicherungswes A year ago exactly, we launched a series of en assurances assicura zione verzekeringen articles devoted to the nuclear programmes economics Wirtschaft of the European Atomic Energy Community's économie economia e Member States. Although Sir William's article Quarterly Information Bulletin of the Euro• conomie education and training ausbildu pean Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) cannot strictly speaking be considered as part ng enseignement inse gnamento onderwijs of it, since the United Kingdom is not a Mem• en opleiding power ber State of Euratom, there can be no doubt reactors leistungsreak toren réacteurs de pu that in spirit it holds a place in this series. issance reattori di po tenza energie reactor There are two main links between the United en nuclear fusion ke rnverschmelzung fusi Kingdom and the European Community in the 1965-4 on nucléaire fusione field of nuclear energy. One is afforded by the nucleare kernversmei ting radioisotopes r O.E.CD. Dragon project, in which both are adioisotope radioisot major partners, and the other by an Agree• opes radioisotopi ra dioisotopen ship pr ment for co-operation, signed in 1959, covering opulsion schiffsantrie a wide range of exchanges. b propulsion navale propulsione navale Some three years ago, negotiations over the scheepsvoortstuwi ng biology biologie biolo United Kingdom's entry into the European gie biologia biologie Atomic Energy Community were under way medicine medizin me decine medicina gene and it was assumed by all that they would eskunde health pro succeed. However, the failure early in 1963 tection gesundheitssc hutz protection sanit of the negotiations over the United King• aire protezione sanita dom's entry into the Common Market, which ria bescherming van de gezondheid auto had been proceeding at the same time, en• matic data processing tailed that the Euratom negotiations had to automatische informa tion information auto be broken off. matique informazione automatica automatis Far from weakening the links between the che verwerking van g egevens insurance v United Kingdom and Euratom, this event ersicherungswesen as gave renewed significance to the 1959 Agree• surances assicurazioni verzekeringen econ ment and led to a gradual expansion of the omics Wirtschaft èco areas of co-operation. nomie economia eco nomie education and The arrangements which are being made at The Community's mission is to create the training ausbildung conditions necessary for the speedy estab• enseignement ¡nsegn the moment to extend the Agreement to amento onderwijs en lishment and growth of nuclear industries exchanges of information on fast reactor opleiding power reac in the member States and thereby contrib• tors leistungsreakto physics are evidence that this process is still ute to the raising of living standards and ren réacteurs de pu continuing. Our sincere hope is therefore the development of exchanges with other issance reattori di po tenza energie reactor that the future will reserve opportunities for countries (Article 1 of the Treaty instituting en nuclear fusion ke ever closer contacts. the European Atomic Energy Community). rnverschmelzung fusi on nucléaire fusione nucleare kernversmei ting radioisotopes r adioisotope radioisot opes radioisotopi ra dioisotopen ship pr oDulsion schiffsantrie The Atomic Energy Authority Act of 1954 recognised the need for a large and con• certed effort on the development of nuclear power for civil use. The Act created the U.K.A.E.A. as a body financed by the Government and subject to Ministerial direction, but free of some of the day to day restrictions on a Government Department. The Authority have therefore had consider• able freedom in choosing the direction of much of their research and development work on the civil side. EUBU 4—15 The Atomic Energy Authority have capital assets of some £250m. and the civil research and development programme employs nearly 3,000 graduate and professional engineers and scientists. The cost of this programme is about £50m. a year. Half of this is spent directly on the development The British atomic programme of reactors for nuclear power production to meet the requirements of the U.K. electricity generating programme and of export markets. The rest is spent on more general research related to this objective, SIR WILLIAM PENNEY, Chairman, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority on isotopes and on fusion research. The Authority is also continuing to examine nuclear reactors of lower power output, including their use for nuclear marine Harwell (Research Group): Founded in 1946, pons Group is, in the main, outside the propulsion, although the economic pros• Harwell is responsible for research work, subject of this article. However, Aldermas• pects of the present concepts of marine largely concerned with materials, their ton is also doing substantial research and reactors are not good. properties (particularly nuclear properties) development work in aid of the civil The Authority, in addition to its research and the effects on them of radiation. Its programme. function, is a major production organisation programme covers nuclear as well as Risley (Production Group): Risley in Lan• in the fields of nuclear fuel fabrication and theoretical physics, and physics of the solid cashire is the Headquarters for our Produc• reprocessing, enriched uranium production state, nuclear chemistry, radiation chemis• tion Group which directs the operation of and radioisotope preparation. try and irradiation damage studies, physical our factories:—at Springfields for the More recently, the Science and Technology metallurgy and certain specialised lines of manufacture of nuclear fuel for the elec• Act 1965 has widened the powers of the chemical engineering. Harwell, of course, tricity power stations; at Windscale the Authority to conduct research work not in have a number of reactors and particle Chemical Separation Plant for the repro• the nuclear field. The intention is to work accelerators which are the essential tools of cessing of irradiated fuel from the Authori• for the exploitation of skills and hardware thei r work. ty's power and research reactors, from the developed for or closely associated with Culham (Research Group): A laboratory U.K. nuclear power programme and from nuclear matters. The first task given under near Harwell and Oxford where we are various types of reactors in other countries; this Act by the Minister is the development carrying out research into controlled at Capenhurst where the gaseous diffusion of desalination techniques, in conjunction thermonuclear reactions, plasma physics plant for the enrichment of uranium is with British industry. and the feasibility of using nuclear fusion of situated. The Group also manages the two light isotopes as a source of industrial power power-producing nuclear stations of Calder in the longer term. The work at Culham is Hall and Chapekross. This Group conducts The Authority's organisation at present aimed at understanding and large commercial operations with sales of controlling the many instabilities which the order of £30 million a year, mainly of The Atomic Energy Authority is constituted prevent magnetic fields from confining fuel elements from Springfields but in• as a Board of some 15 Members, of whom extremely hot ions and electrons (i.e. cluding the sale of electricity from Calder about half have full-time executive posts. plasma) for more than a relatively brief Hall and Chapekross. The organisation comprises several Groups moment. Culham has also been concerned Also at Risley are the Headquarters of the responsible respectively for research, reac• in aspects of the U.K. space programme Engineering Group, responsible for the tors, production, engineering and weapons. including the first stages of a study of the design and construction of our complicated The following are the main sites at which solar corona and the chromosphere. and sophisticated plant and for some work our work is carried out: Aldermaston (Weapons Group): The Wea• for other organisations, and of the Reactor

98 U.K.A.E.A. establishments capable of putting the results of the Author­ ity's research and development work to Research Group good use. The Generating Boards, the J Production Group Authority and ¡ndustry work in close association on the development and con­ I Weapons Group struction of prototype power reactors. The I Reactor Group Authority also makes design studies, in Engineering Group collaboration with ¡ndustry, on concepts of Other establishments full­scale power stations, thus giving in­ dustry an early opportunity of applying the C.E.G.B. and S.S.E.B. developing techniques to the best economic Nuclear power stations advantage. The nuclear consortia of private industrial firms have as a result successfully collaborated with the electricity generating boards in the United Kingdom and with the Operation of the P.L.A. began in 1959 and Authority in establishing the largest nation­ 50 nuclear physicists now use the machine. al nuclear power investment in the world. NIMROD has been in use for high energy The first phase of the national nuclear power physics since February, 1964 and about 120 programme consists of the construction and physicists are involved in the experimental commissioning of 5,000 MW of nuclear programme. The full range of techniques power by 1969—all magnox stations, based which are needed to investigate the proper­ on the design of the Authority's Calder Hall ties of fundamental particles is found in this and Chapekross stations which were the Laboratory. Bubble chamber experiments prototypes. The programme consists of nine have recently begun, using an 80 centimetre stations: Hunterston in Scotland; two in hydrogen chamber, on loan from the North Wales and the remainder in the Saclay Laboratory near Paris. South of England. There are good reasons Group, who are primarily responsible for Eventually three large chambers (a 1.5 for this distribution: coal stations are at the design and development of new types metre hydrogen, a 1.4 metre heavy liquid their cheapest when situated near the coal­ of power reactors. The Reactor Group and an 80 centimetre helium) will be used fields, and nuclear stations therefore are of operates four R. & D. laboratories (at with NIMROD. most advantage in areas which are furthest Windscale, Springfields, Risley and Culcheth A further large high energy project in the from coalfields but near to large load cen­ near Risley) and two sites where reactor U.K. is that for a 4 GeV electron synchro­ tres. experimentstake place—Winfrith in Dorset tron, NINA, at Daresbury in Cheshire, not Table 1 shows the capital costs and the and Dounreay on the north coast of Scotland. far from Risley. More will be said about reactor develop­ design performance for each station. ment later in this article. You will see that as the programme pro­ Amersham: The Radiochemical Centre sells The U.K. nuclear power programme Figure 1: Vertical cross­section of an A.G.R. and distributes isotopes and now does considerable business of nearly £ 2m. a year. The electricity generating stations of the Dungeness 'β' type of station Over half of Amersham's output is ex­ U.K.'s industrial nuclear power programme ported: recently the Centre has notably are owned and operated by the national extended its range of labelled compounds. electricity boards of the country and are built by British industry. High energy physics The relationship between the Authority and i ndustry was defined in 1955 as one of close An important element in the national facili­ partnership. In order to ensure the maxi­ ties for research in high energy elementary mum practicable use of existing facilities, particle physics is the Rutherford High research and development would be the Energy Laboratory, one of the establishments responsibility of the Authority, who would of the newly formed Science Research place contracts with industry in suitable Council. Established on a site adjacent to circumstances, while industry would be Harwell it is used mainly by scientists from responsible, with appropriate support from British Universities. the Authority, for the commercial exploita­ Work at the Laboratory is centred on the tion of the results of the Authority's nuclear use of two proton accelerators—a 7 GeV research and development programme. synchrotron, NIMROD, and a 50 MeV proton The Authority have encouraged the growth linear accelerator (P.L.A.). of a strong nuclear engineering industry

99 Figure 2: Temperature and steam conditions of 2315 P.S.I.A. a 600 MWe A.G.R. reactor BOILER 105O°F. TURBO-GENERATOR

REHEATER 550 p.s.l.A. 1050°F. O

629 P.S.I.A. 710°F.

& i FEED PUMP 3015 P.S.I.A. 325°F.

gressed there has been a very big increase for Oldbury, and in fuel rating (which gives covering last winter these stations had load in size of stations. Each of these stations has the electrical output for each tonne of uran• factors of over 90%. The Scottish station twin reactors. The first two at Bradwell and ium) rising from 0.6 MWe to over 1.0 MWe Hunterston came on power early in 1964 Berkeley have reactors of 150 MW or less; per tonne of uranium. and appears to be capable of generating at the last at Wylfa consists of 2 590 MW Already five of these stations are on power perhaps 25% above its design output. reactors. The last column shows the fall ¡n and two more are now loading. The U.K. Magnox stations have also been constructed capital costs per kW of the stations. These nuclearstations have already generated over by British industry in Italy and Japan. falls are in part due to the effect of increases 36,000 million units and by the end of this With the first 5,000 MW programme now in size; and in part, as can be seen from the year there will be over 3,000 MWe on well under way, the Authority's role in the costs of the middle group of stations, as the power. The early stations, Bradwell and magnox programme ¡s now limited tothe result of improvements in design. The 4th Berkeley, have now been on power for manufacture and reprocessing of the fuel. and 5th columns show improvements in three years and the reactors have performed Further improvements in the design and performance, with thermal efficiency rising satisfactorily with high availabilities; over construction of the magnox reactor are now from around 24% for Berkeley to over 33% the six months' period December to May the task of the consortia.

The reactor development programme Table 1: Civil magnox stations capital costs and performance data (a) i.e. Total station cost including tender price, site costs and Generating Board engineering charges. The Authority's work in the last few years (b) Under negotiation. (c) Actual output is above 320 MWe. has been concentrated on developing more advanced systems. Here again, the Authority work closely with the industrial consortia Guaranteed and with the electricity generating boards. Station reactor on output efficiency rating pressure Capital The main aim is to reduce the capital costs. power MWe % MWth/teU p.s.i.g. cost £/kW

Berkeley 1962 275 24.4 2.4 125 186 A.G.R. Bradwell 1962 300 28.2 2.3 132 176 Hunterston 1964 300(c) 28.3 2.3 150 -(b) In this development work the Authority Hinkley Point 1965 500 26.4 2.55 200 150 first sought to exploit further the potential Trawsfynydd 1965 500 29.4 2.9 240 137 of the gas-cooled graphite-moderated Dungeness 1965 550 32.9 2.8 268 114 system, building on our experience of the Sizewell 1965 580 30.5 2.96 279 107 magnox system. This led to the develop• Oldbury 1966 600 33.6 2.85 364 108 ment of the advanced gas-cooled reactor Wylfa 1968 1180 31.5 3.2 400 100 (A.G.R.). The A.G.R. has C02 cooling and graphite moderation. The fuel is slightly

100 enriched uranium oxide canned in stainless reactor systems of proved design (in practice a high load factor (above 75%) for many steel, as opposed to the uranium metal rods B.W.R. or P.VV.R.) to be judged on a com­ years. canned in magnesium alloy of the magnox parable basis. They received seven tenders; station. The A.G.R. prototype, built at the three for A.G.Rs, and four for U.S. designs. Figure 1 shows a diagram of a Dungeness Authority's Windscale establishment, went The detailed and thorough tender assess­ 'B' type of station with the concrete pres­ on power two-and-a-half years ago. Notable ments carried out by the C.E.G.B., with the sure vessel, which, among other features of features of the A.G.R. system are high ther­ Authority's assistance on technical aspects, the A.G.R., can refer to the full-scale ex­ mal efficiency, on-load fuelling giving high in the early part of this year showed that perience of the magnox stations. Amongst availability and excellent safety characteris­ the A.G.R. tendered by Atomic Power the advantages for this are the small size of tics. Constructions Ltd. had clear advantages the reactor leading to less construction This prototype has worked well with a high both economically and technically over the costs, and simplicity of construction with availability and electricity generation. It has other systems, and the contract has been little requirement for special equipment. averaged 85% since it went on power awarded accordingly. The attractive safety features of the Dun- excluding shut-downs for experimental The details and costs of this station were geness 'B' station are also in part due to the purposes. The fuel has behaved excellently. released by the C.E.G.B. in July, 1965 in a use of concrete pressure vessels. These in Its task has been to demonstrate on the full and precise form. The station will have turn should open up a greater range of actual reactor the technical soundness of the a 41% efficiency. Assuming 20 year life, sites for future A.G.R. stations. Dungeness system.TheWindscale A.G.R. is also a valuable 75% lifetime average load factor and 7%% 'B' will also have on-load refuelling with testbed for improved fuel elements devel­ discount rate, C.E.G.B. assess the generating high availability, will meet standard conven­ oped to achieve better performance (e.g. cost at 0.457d/u.s.o.This is some 10% below tional steam conditions and will use com­ higher gas temperatures) and lower the nearest competing water-moderated pletely standard turbines and associated fabrication costs. system. equipment.

Figure 3: A cutaway model of a 36 pin A.G.R. fuel assembly

Our hopes for the A.G.R. were confirmed in If less conservative assumptions are made, Now that the A.G.R. has proved itself for mid-1965 when the Central Electricity the A.G.R. generating costs are still the power programme, the Authority will Generating Board placed an order for a further improved. With a 30 year life be concerned in consultation and advice on 1200 MW power station of this design, and 75% load factor they fall to just over the construction of the industrial power comprising 2 600 MW reactors each linked 0.41d/u.s.o. With 30 year life and 85% stations, and in continued development to a single standard 600 MW turbine, called load factor, they become just under particularly of the fuel to improve both the Dungeness 'B' station. (Dungeness Ά' 0.38d/u.s.o. The C.E.G.B's tender assess­ performance and economics. is a magnox station—see Table 1). ment also referred to the particularly good In 1964 the British Government announced development potential of the A.G.R. It was in a White Paper that, all the stations of the estimated that the reduction in total first 5000 MW power programme having generating costs below those of Dungeness S.G.H.W. been ordered, there should be a second 'B' which might be achieved within a five- nuclear power programme of stations to be year period is about 20%. The Authority have always maintained an commissioned in the period 1970-75. For active interest in water reactor systems. planning purposes this was put at 5000 MW, Thus, with the A.G.R., nuclear power in the After careful consideration of the possibili­ with the possibility of subsequent review. U.K. is now established as cheaper than ties we decided a few years ago to select for Under the terms of the White Paper, the conventional methods of generation for major development the Steam Generating Central Electricity Generating Board in stations operating at high load factors. In Heavy Water Reactor. We are at present 1964 invited tenders for an A.G.R. station the U.K., with our integrated generating building a prototype S.G.H.W.R. of 100 and indicated their readiness to consider systems, nuclear stations will, even with a MWe output at Winfrith, to be commission­ also tenders from British industry for water large nuclear programme, be able to enjoy ed in 1967 and on power in 1968.

101 The S.G.H.W. is an advanced boiling water Dragon culminating point of the development of reactor of pressure tube construction gas-graphite reactors which has been pursu• (similar to the Canadian Candu, except that A reactor system in which the Authority ed with such success in both Britain and the tubes are vertical, not unlike the U.S. has a shared interest with other Western Europe. It is still an open question how pressure-vessel ß.VV.Rs) with facilities for European countries is the High Temperature large a place we can see for the H.T.R. in the development of nuclear superheat. The Gas-cooled Reactor. the power programme of the U.K. When light water boiling or superheating takes The 20 MWth Dragon reactor became critical the Dragon reactor has operated at full place in the fuel channel pressure tubes. a year ago. Although built on British soil at power for a year or so it should be easier to Moderation is effected partly by the heavy the Authority's Winfrith establishment, make forecasts of the future of the H.T.R. water in the tank surrounding the pressure Dragon is a European Nuclear Energy tubes and partly by the light water coolant. Agency project in which Britain is a partner The fuel is in the form of long clusters of with the six Euratom countries and with Fast reactor pins containing ceramic uranium dioxide Austria, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and pellets. The canning material is Zircaloy for Switzerland. The objective of the Dragon Finally I come to the fast reactor on which the boiling channel fuel and stainless steel Project is to provide the participants with the largest single part of our development for the superheat fuel. information and experience to enable this effort is now concentrated. This promises The S.G.H.W. fuel could be low-enrichment reactor concept to be assessed for large to be the most economic system because of U02, natural uranium dioxide or metal or competitive nuclear power plants. the hope it offers from the costs angle, and natural uranium dioxide enriched with This is a very advanced system and we do because of its breeding characteristics. The plutonium. There are thus several possible not yet know its exact economic prospects, fast reactor is the best user of plutonium as routes to select. The design also offers the but—as stated in the Project's sixth annual a fuel. During the 1970's increasing supplies promise of combining low enrichment report—it is thought that the most appro• of plutonium will become available from the requirements, low capital costs and low priate size for a Dragon-type power plant magnox and A.G.R. stations of the U.K's generating costs. These advantages are would be based on a 500-600 MWe reactor electricity programmes. By using this as a likely to apply over a wide range of station unit in a pre-stressed concrete pressure fuel the fast reactor should help to improve outputs. vessel. This system could well be the the economics of the whole British nuclear power programme. In the long run an even more Important aspect of the fast reactor will be its potentiality for breeding more plutonium than it consumes. Ultimately this could enable us to extract 30 or 50 times Water from Steam to condenser turbine Fuel Steam drum more energy from uranium than would otherwise be possible, which should remove any fear of the growth of nuclear power Figure 4: Flow diagram being restricted by the economics of urani• of the Steam Genera• um supplies. It is interesting to note that ting Heavy Water with such nuclear fuel conservation reasons Reactor ¡n mind several other leading industrial countries, e.g. the U.S.A., Russia, France and Germany are all working energetically on fast reactors. The Authority have a growing confidence that the fast reactor offers promise of lower power costs as well as much improved utilisation of natural uranium. Our work has convinced us that fast reactors can operate at substantially lower fuel costs than any other system. The capital costs, by the time that the Generating Boards are ready to build commercial fast reactor stations, should be similar to those of advanced thermal neutron stations built at the same period. Our experimental 60 MWth fast reactor at Dounreay has operated at full power for long periods since July 1963 and supplies

Boiling channels Pump electricity to the grid. It is the first fast reactor to have produced electricity for

102 Figure 6: The Fast Reactor Experiment, Dounreay, Caithness. The Fast Reactor Experiment at Dounreay attained its full power of 60 MWth in July 1963 and since then has been used primarily as an irradiation test facility for future fast reactors, though it is generating about 15 MW of electricity, some of which is fed to the grid.

Figure 5: Fuel element transfer flask in the upper loading facility of the O.E.CD. Dragon reactor, Winfrith, Dorset, England

public use and to have operated at such very sharply their construction programmes enabled to keep in close touch on matters high power levels. It is being used as a test of nuclear power stations. Estimates suggest of common interest through the U.K./ facility and for the development of fuel. We that there may be between 100,000 and Euratom Continuing Committee set up have now decided on the main design 200,000 MWe installed nuclear power capa• under the Agreement for Co-operation features of a much larger prototype power city in the Western World by 1980. In the signed in February, 1959. All of us, whether producing reactor and the Authority hopes U.K. there is much speculation on the future members of the Community or not, have shortly to submit proposals to the Govern• rate of growth of electricity demand and on much in common where nuclear power is ment for the building of this prototype to the trend in nuclear power programmes by concerned. We are all highly-industrialised come on power around the end of the the time that we have completed oursecond densely-populated countries with a rising present decade. This is the next major step national programme in 1975. I myself am demand for electric power. We have a towards the installation of commercial fast- convinced that the U.K. and other develop• common interest in helping each other in reactor power stations of 500 or 1000 MW ed countries will rather rapidly increase the this exciting work. in the later 1970's. rate of building nuclear stations. The continuing work I have described above will prove of great benefit in helping to meet Conclusion future needs for economic power. I am honoured that I should have been given A large effort and large sums of money are the opportunity to describe our national being spent by the United Kingdom in effort in the nuclear field in Euratom's developing economical forms of nuclear official bulletin. Although the United King• power. Several other highly industrialised dom is not a member of Euratom, we are countries are also now planning to increase partners in the Dragon Project and we are

103 The tower of Babel (15th century woodcut)

Is EUBU 4—16

\ ν Nuclear slang myj and nuclear terminology

lì HEINRICH KOWALSKI, Head of the Terminology Bureau at Euratom, Brussels

From a lecture given to the International Con­ purpose there is a need for afixed terminol­ gress of Translators and Interpreters (CITI), ogy with clearly­defined concepts and a held in Giirzenich Hall, Cologne carefully chosen nomenclature, just as the Eskimos, for example, have a specific ice terminology which contains some 20 des­ ignations to distinguish between the various Of all the scientists and technologists who kinds of ice. have ever walked the earth, more than 90% are living in our own time. All over the From Confucius to Hertz world they are assiduously extracting new knowledge and describing new discoveries The terminology problem in the widest in such an enormous range of different sense has been with us since time imme­ fields and on such a vast scale that we are morial. We need only think of the tower of justified in speaking of an "information Babel or of Confucius who, when asked V' explosion". All these branches of science 2,400 years ago what he would do first of have their own peculiar vocabulary or all if he had to rule the country, replied: specialised jargon. "I should first improve the use of language. The time is long past, and probably for ever, If the language is not used correctly, then when there was a uniform physical or that which is said fausto reflect the speak­ *.*­ technical, or even a universally intelligible er's meaning. Art and morality cannot and generally recognised,scientific terminol­ thrive, justice is not done and the people ogy. In the laboratory, on the test­rig or in do not know which way to turn. Let us sfcrV » a reactor no difficulties arise. The people therefore tolerate no arbitrariness in engaged in these activities are all birds of a words." feather and if necessary, they can even make In our labours in the field of terminology themselves understood with slang expres­ we are concerned primarily with solving the sions: e.g. 'a bit more juice!', 'up one problems of technical language in everyday . notch !', 'back to zero!'. It is only at the next practice and with clearing a frequently higher level that problems begin to crop up, impenetrable linguistic jungle, in which i.e. in the summarising of results and in the laboratory slang is hopelessly entangled drafting of reports with the object of passing with technical jargon,and legitimate scien­ on information, especially when this is tific terms with the parlance of popular A intended for the uninitiated, who may be science. Our object is to help establish a 'M experts working in other fields. For this technical terminology which,

Ik.' . > t) neutrons causing nuclear fission in its fission plate which has been heated to several right images and basic responses in the mind zone possess an extremely high energy, hundred degrees, you will be surprised to of the recipient. And how can this be done which in this case is synonymous with fast, find that although part of the water rapidly if the information vehicle is defective? and bare denotes that it is not surrounded evaporates in the normal way, some of it Language—in this case technical language— by a reflector. The age of neutrons is given gathers into separate drops which continue is, in the words of R. W. Jumpelt, "the basis not in years but in units of surface: you may to roll about wildly for quite a while of all scientific thought, even though we perhaps remember that a light­year, too, is without boiling. The solution of the puzzle may be aware of it merely as a means of not what it seems, i.e. a unit of time, but a is this : between the hot­plate and the water communication". measure of astronomical distance. Finally, drops a protective cushion of vapour is dollars and cents may, of course, refer to money but in this context it is more likely that reactivity is meant. These terms are not rare specimens of "contaminated laboratory slang"; they have ^vvw^K become established in standard scientific language, appear in specialist literature and are used both in research centres and at conferences. In this case, moreover, the situation is comparatively harmless because we are still entirely within the sector of nuclear technology. It deteriorates when a number of scientific and technical disciplines are involved and becomes really complex when, in addition, the subject matter is in several languages, and has to be translated

105 formed which considerably reduces the The jungle of nuclear terminology sympathise with the interpreter who, to the further transfer of heat. This phenomenon astonishment of the assembled experts, is known as the "spheroidal state" (Ger• In such cases, as in a thousand and one spoke of a tail reactor (Schwanzreaktor). In man: Leidenfrost'sches Phänomen; French: others, even good technical dictionaries are point of fact the term that had been used caléf'action). of no help; the only solution is to compare was not, as he thought, réacteur à queue but Incidentally, in the Middle Ages some of the appropriate technical publications in the réacteur aqueux, that is to say a reactor in unfortunate women who were made to original languages. A useful indication will which the fuel takes the form of an aqueous walk over red-hot coals in trials for witch• then often be obtained from the physical solution. craft were saved from burning their feet units ¡n which the quantity is expressed, i.e. In some languages use is often made of severely by this vapour film. From the what appears in square brackets after a metaphorical designations which have to be present-day standpoint this gruesome test figure. An example of this is the word paraphrased, since a literal translation was based on false premises insofar as it "power" with its various meanings of force, would sound either unduly morbid or could tell us more about the relationship energy, output, etc.; frequently the correct somewhat comical : to quote some examples between the perspiration rate and com• meaning can only be ascertained from the from English, mortuary facilities are equip• bustion temperature of human feet than units quoted. ment for the handling of radioactive waste, a about the necromantic proclivities of the The energy released per unit of mass by coffin is a transport container, and a burial ladies concerned. nuclear fuel is called burn-up in English and ground or graveyard is a storage site. Abbrand in German. The French exasperated The English term "rabbit" which denotes a In the hot zone of a water-cooled reactor us for some time with such expressions as small pneumatically or hydraulically propel• this phenomenon can be dangerous. The taux d'irradiation, taux d'épuisement, com• led container used in a reactor, becomes great quantities of heat evolved as a result bustion massique, durée d'irradiation and furet (i.e. ferret) in French and Rohrpostbüch• of nuclear fission processes in the atomic niveau d'intégrité until It turned out that all se (one of the gadgets used in department fuel must be evacuated from the fuel-ele• these terms referred to the number of stores which push money about through ment walls. However, the untimely forma• megawatt-days per tonne, i.e. they always tubes) in German. The apparatus known as tion of such a vapour film at certain points meant "burn-up". "cutie pie", which was thus christened by causes an accumulation of heat and the wall Nuclear engineers are fond of using ellipti• its American inventor in honour of his wife, becomes so severely overheated locally that cal forms on the pattern of "longhaired whom he used to call by that name, can destruction of the heating surface may dogowners", especially ¡n reactor designa• unfortunately not receive such an affection• occur; this is known as burn-out (German: tions—a practice of American origin. Thus ate designation in other languages; the Durchbrennen; French: brûlage). besides the previously mentioned fast translator will have to keep his feet to the As is so often the case, these conditions can reactor—or, more correctly, fast-neutron ground and render the equivalent of best be illustrated by means of a graph, the reactor—we have the thermal breeder which "portable radiation monitor". so-called Nukiyama curve. But it is also operates with thermal neutrons and pro• Even such apparently innocuous words as necessary to describe them in words—and duces, or "breeds" more fuel than it con• "fissionable" and "fissile" must be treated here is where the trouble starts: in Ger• sumes (although it is by no means an exam• with caution, since, strictly speaking, the many the basis is usually taken as thethermal ple of perpetual motion!), the enriched former means capable of undergoing fission load on the heating surface (Wärmebelastung converter reactor in which enriched fuel is in the general nuclear sense, whereas the der Heizfläche), whereas in France it is the present, and so on. One can therefore latter refers to material in which fission can vapour film effect,and in Britain and the U.S.A. be produced by thermal neutrons; in the theoretical boiling curve; consequently, German these terms are properly rendered one and the same quantity, namely the by spaltbar and thermisch spaltbar res• thermal flux at which burn-out occurs is pectively. termed respectively kritische Heizflächen• French, too, gives us many a hard nut to belastung, flux de caléfaction and DNB-flux, in crack: for instance, it is not always easy to which connection it is also necessary to ascertain whether by "diffusion" a French• know that DN8 stands for departure from man means diffusion or scatter or propaga• nucleate boiling, that is to say the transition tion. from bubble- to film-boiling. For a time we were puzzled by the expres• There are about a dozen more confusing sion "les zones périphériques dégavées d'un terms for this; they are all the more réacteur", and it was only by wading through confusing because they are frequently used the proceedings of the Geneva Conference indiscriminately to denote both the phenom• that we found the answer to the riddle. At enon itself and the physical value, as is the first sight "gaver" and "gavage" will no case, for example, with radioactivity: doubt suggest to you—as it did to us—the strictly speaking, radioactivity refers only to practice of cramming, or forced feeding, e.g. the phenomenon, while the correct term of geese; here, however, it means in the for the corresponding physical value is peripheral zones of a reactor core the fuel activity. is less tightly "crammed" I.e. less highly

106 enriched than in the central zone. The term "vache à radio­éléments" refers not to a cow that yields radioelements instead of milk, but to a so­called "milking" system consisting of a column with a tap at the bottom for drawing off radionuclides; and in this connection it would be wise to take a closer look at the confusion frequently encountered in the use of the words element, isotope and nuclide.

Nomen est omen

To conclude this chapter of examples I should like to mention a not uninteresting trend that is discernible in some countries as regards the naming of nuclear installa­ tions. Abbreviated names which may seem quite arbitrary very often have a logic of A technician of the H ARMON IE reactor staff.. their own and convey more information than would appear at first sight, and it can doubtless be assumed that, like so many other apparently fantastic designations, they are based on mnemonic principles. For instance, there is a sodium­cooled fast reactor in France called RAPSODIE, the name being formed from the first few letters of Coventry to conclude that the reactor is formulation and on the other hand to the "rapide" and "sodium" respectively. In the bare and fast! fact that for some time now steps have been same way a breeder mock­up at Cadarache taken, chiefly through the International which is a further development of this type Standardisation Organisation (ISO), to is known as MASURCA, the letters in this Standardisation—or else achieve international uniformity of termino­ case standing for "maquette surrégénéra­ logy, and this, of course, entails further trice Cadarache" and the next stage of Whereas in other fields there is already a delay. development—which is being carried out on high degree of terminological stability, in In this standardisation work the accent for a basis of harmonious European collaboration nuclear science there is still a need for the most part is not so much on purist —is called the HARMONIE project, because vigorous pruning of the fertile but frequent­ activity or the coining of the new words— in Greek mythology Harmonia was Europa's ly over­abundant linguistic outgrowth in although this too is done—as on the sister­in­law. order to prevent uncontrolled proliferation definition of words and expressions in A zero­power reactor designed by the of terminology in our own language and a current usage. And this is where opinions Argonne Laboratories in the U.S.A., i.e. the Babylonian confusion of tongues among frequently differ on opposite sides of the Argonne Naught Power Reactor, was translators and interpreters. Atlantic; for what is current usage on one dubbed ARGONAUT. There are also other Standardisation must be carried out wher­ side may sound like hideous laboratory members of this reactor family in Britain; ever possi ble and any term that is ambiguous slang on the other. However, the discoverer like the Argonauts of old, these have or superfluous must be eradicated, even of a new star or a new chemical element crossed the sea and consequently bear such though this may mean that many words will has always been privileged to christen his names as JASON. To give a further example, become ossified into formulae and many own discovery, and since—in the past at JANUS is, of course, a reactor with two concepts be represented purely by symbols, any rate—most of the inventions and faces, or, more accurately, two experimen­ e.g. α­particle, v­factor, k­capture. developments in nuclear technology were of tation surfaces, one for low­ and one for This task is being tackled at a national level transatlantic origin, we in the Old World high­flux irradiations. And if I now tell you by the Terminology Committees of the must in many cases give way and, whether that KIWI is a reactor which was designed official standardisation bodies, whose publi­ we like it or not, allowthe nuclear inventors for space research but which—like the cations—although for the most part uni­ to give thei r "babies" whatever names they New Zealand bird after which it was named lingual—are certainly the most reliable choose. —is still incapable of flight, you will easily documents available. Unfortunately, the The European Atomic Energy Community guess the characteristics of the GODIVA work of terminology standardisation pro­ with its four official languages, namely reactor. You need only picture Lady Godiva gresses comparatively slowly. This is due on French, German, Dutch and Italian, is on her legendary ridethrough thestreets of the one hand to inherent difficulties of particularly interested in such attempts to

107 The Euratom Glossary ¡n the making

arrive at a well-defined nuclear terminology, Information sources i.e. at an adequate measure of correspond• ence between the technical vocabularies of the various languages; indeed, as long ago as -w^* 1957 the Euratom Treaty expressly stated onal and interna- ^^B=**J Technical and scienti- that one of the tasks of the Community's standards bu- Specialist publications fie linguistic services Joint Nuclear Research Centre should be to ". . . ensure the establishment of uniform nuclear terminology. . ." Consequently it is only natural that at Euratom the terminologist has been work• ing side by side with the translator and the interpreter from the very outset. Since the Terminology Bureau is attached to the Linguistic Division it must also be equipped to answer queries from our own translation sections or from other sources both inside and outside Euratom. To this end we have compiled a central card-index and built up a specialised library adapted to our specific requirements, in addition to which we have established, either directly or via terminology cor• respondents, contacts with research centres and other useful sources of terminology. As far as our terminology work in the strict sense is concerned, I must say at once that there is, of course, no question of setting up in competition with the existing standard• isation bodies: in the first place we should not have enough staff to doso, and secondly this would entail the risk of overlapping and duplication of effort. What we can do—and are doing—is, wherever possible, to co• operate actively with the existing national and international standardisation organisa• tions, to submit proposals and express wishes—and to take what steps we can to ensure that the standardised designations are in fact used. Moreover, we consider it a success ¡f ¡n a given case we have managed to persuade the standardisation authority of this or that country that certain concepts should be dealt with as a matter of priority. First and foremost, therefore, we collect what has been defined in one, or occasional• ly two languages by the various standardisa• tion authorities working in the fields of particular concern to us, set these defini• tions side by side in the languages in which we are primarily interested, and see to it that the gaps are filled. Secondly—and I have already mentioned the inevitable time-lag in the standardisation process—we also endeavour to fix provi• sional nomenclature for concepts for which no official terminology has yet been Euratom Glossary with several thousand concepts and definitions (in established, and for this purpose we book form)

108 naturally rely mainly on original publica­ In addition to the four official Community indexes. The computer programme was tions in the languages concerned. languages the Euratom Glossary also covers drawn up in accordance with our require­ In this connection the card­indexes com­ English, which in many cases is the working ments by the Scientific Data Processing piled by individual translators are another language and ultima ratio of scientists and Centre (CETIS) of the Euratom Joint Nuclear valuable aid, since in order to keep abreast technicians. The Glossary is issued in loose­ Research Centre at Ispra. of developments the translators read leaf form in separate unbound instalments The continuously numbered main section of numerous technical journalsand—according of format DIN A4. The first two of these the Glossary remains unchanged—except to their temperament—evaluate the in­ have so far appeared; they contain about insofar as errors may necessitate the formation they contain. 3.000 terms and 400 definitions from nuclear replacement of individual pages—and is The results obtained are filed in the technology, nuclear physics and related supplemented from issue to issue. With each previously mentioned central card­index. subjects. For each term we have given what new issue—and this is an important point— From time to time we also compile smaller seemed to us the most reliable source, i.e., the machine turns out five entirely new, technical glossaries on various subjects, for wherever possible, publications by stan­ consolidated indexes which supersede the instance on the use of radioisotopes, or on dardisation bodies or appropriate technical previous ones. nuclear ship propulsion, or on the basic literature. Terms which are defined in the It will be several years before the Euratom standards for radiological protection. reference cited are indicated by a cross; Glossary assumes its final form; in the A Terminology Bureau Bulletin, which at useful definitions which are less easily meantime, however, thanks to the proce­ present contains some 25 pages, is issued accessible are quoted in full—if possible, in dure adopted, the translators of the three monthly and serves for the information of all five languages—in the definition section of European Communities can benefitfrom the the translators and other circles interested the Glossary, and the relevant term is then various instalments compiled and from the in our activities, besides providing a sort of identified by an asterisk in the actual alphabetical indexes, as and when they forum for discussion. dictionary section. appear. Since the number printed is very small, only The Euratom Glossary a few copies can at present be made Lexicographical projects are notoriously available to outside parties, and these are As a long­term objective we have under­ time­consuming and attended by an exces­ confined to establishments which collab­ taken the compilation of a five­language sive amount of drudgery. Think of the orate with the Euratom Terminology technical dictionary entitled "The Euratom alphabetical indexing alone! To cover 1,000 Bureau, for example on an information­ Glossary". We are quite aware of the fact compound terms in five languages, at least exchange basis. that this will be approximately the 5507th 10,000­15,000 entries are necessary. Fortu­ Later on, when this Glossary has attained technical dictionary to have appeared since nately, we are aided by a device which a certain size, it is planned to publish it the turn of the century, but R. W. Jumpelt's some people call an "electronic brain" and under the Euratom imprint, and we hope complaint about the inadequate cataloguing others a "mechanical moron with special that we shall thereby have made a modest of technical language to date is valid in our gifts". The vocabulary is recorded on punch­ contribution to the harmonisation of field too, and we therefore believe that this cards and transferred to the magnetic tapes nuclear terminology in five languages and project is justified, the more so in view of of an IBM 1401 computer, which then sorts to the facilitation of its use, and thus to have our own particular needs and the task the material and prints the five­language fulfilled our obligation under Article 8 of entrusted to us. main section and the five alphabetical the Treaty of Rome.

TCRE AO ESSICNE REACT REATTORE AD ACQUA IN PRESSIONE A CICLO INDIRETTO REACT 1250 REATTORE AC ACQUA IN PRESSIONE E A CIRCOLAZIONE FORZATA REACT 1255 REATTORE AO ACQUA LEGGERA BOLLENTE REACT 1249 REATTORE AC ACQUA NATURALE IN PRESSIONE REACT 1245 REATTORE AD ACQUA PESANTE REACT I 1254 REATTORE AC ACCUA PESANTE EELLENTE REACT Ein Re.Trttort in dem für Streuungs- oder andere Zwecke 1254 tREATTORE A0 ACCUA PESANTE IN EBOLLIZIONE REACT aar, Neutroncnnpektrum durch Variieren von. Eipennchnften 1248 «REATTORE AO ACQUA PESANTE IN PRESSIONE REACT oder Menge des Moderatorn in geeigneter //eise eingestellt 14C0 REATTORE AO ALTA TEMP. HCCERATO A GRAFITE E RAFFR. AD ELIO REACT 1398 «REATTORE AO ALTA TCCPEPATLRA REACT werden kann. 1191 .REATTORE AD ALTC FLUSSO REACT 1338 REATTORE AD ELEREWI SFERICI REACT réacteur à déviation spectrale I ¡ï!

R E AC TE UÀ ΤΓΊ N S TRUC Τ ION Réacteur dane lequel, pour en asnurer le contrôle ou REACTEUR OIDACTICUE dans d'autres butn, le spectre don neutrons peut être REATTORE DICATTICC ajusté en modifiant los proprieten ou la quantité de ONCEAWIJSReACTCR Lia LOW FLUX REACTOR ISM 63 MEDERFUJSSREAKTCR FMC b2 I reattore a deviazione ;;pcttrnlc HEACTEIR A (JAS FLUX ISN t.3 REACTELR Λ BAS ELL* CE NtUTRClSS Reattore nel quale, per fini di controllo nitri, lo ♦REATTORE Δ BASSO FLUSSC LAGE­FLUXREACTCR spettro neutronico può encere modificato riendo le Ζ NEK 62 1 proprietà o la quantità del moderatore. Li." FLUX RESEARCH nüACtCR IS"· " NltDERfLCSS­FCRSCt­LNGSREAKTCR FN* 62 6 lì Re a c tor met π pectru invera c huiving REACTEUR DE RECHCRCHE A DAS FLU* ISN bi REATTCRE DI RICERCA A HASSC r|.L5SC Een reactor waarin voor de regeling of voor rindere " j^­CNCERZCEKREACrOR doeleinden het neutronenspectrum kan worden pjewi.jzi •PElflhERKREACTCR door variatie van de eigenschappen of de hoeveelheid erator.

109 • ■ ι.

* I Lill m t r -

«*ν^ -tí mvmw*I w J The nuclear power plant at Gundremmingen on the Danube. The Kernkraftwerk RWE/ Bayernwerk GmbH (KRB) received joint enterprise status on 18 June 1963.

A view of the gaseous diffusion uranium isotope separation plant at Portsmouth, Ohio, U.S.A. According to present estimates, the Community will require enriched uranium to the tune of over 25,000 tonnes (in natural uranium metal equivalent) during the period 1970-1979.

m joint ¡enterprises

HUBERT TOURNÉS, Directorate-General for Industry and Economy, Euratom

At a time when a European Community work aiming at the harmonisation of sources of energy, will shortly begin to industrial policy on nuclear energy is taking company law. assert itself. The consequences of this shape, closer attention is being paid to the It was within the framework of the ENEA evolution are adumbrated in Euratom's first means which Euratom has at its disposal for that the first joint ventures were launched, target programme: 4,000 MW of installed the creation of "a powerful nuclear In• the most important of these being Euro- nuclear capacity in 1970, 12,000 MW in dustry". In general, this attention relates to chemic, an international undertaking in 1975,40,000 MW in 1980. In order to keep Euratom's power to constitute as joint which twelve countries participate and in pace with this expansion the nuclear enterprises those undertakings which are of which more than half the capital is owned industries will have to develop rapidly and fundamental importance to the develop• by Member States and enterprises of the immediate consideration must therefore be ment of nuclear industry in the Community, Community. Its object is the chemical given to the pertinent question of how the and to confer substantial advantages on reprocessing of irradiated fuel elements. creation of joint enterprises can facilitate them. As far as Euratom ¡s concerned, the authors their growth. The concept of the European joint enter• of the Treaty intended that the joint First of all, what are "joint enterprises" in prise in the nuclear field was born at the enterprises should occupy a central position the sense of the Euratom Treaty ? same time as the European urge to set up in the construction of a nuclear community. a powerful nuclear industry. It was formu• The nuclear common market, common lated more or less simultaneously in the nuclear policies and the joint enterprises A European statute Euratom Treaty and in the statutes of the can be said to constitute the three bases of European Nuclear Energy Agency (ENEA). such a community. Joint enterprises come into being through Thus, ever since 1957 a need has been felt a decision of the Council of Ministers by for "the emergence of enterprises on a The joint enterprise: instrument of an virtue of which they acquire legal personal• European scale" : this need has recently been industrial policy? ity, that is to say they constitute juridical strongly emphasised by the EEC Commis• persons in Community law. Nowhere in the sion, among others, and has induced the Nuclear energy, now within an ace of Community do they have alien status: in Commission to press on vigorously with the attaining competitivity with conventional each of the member states they enjoy the

111 The ESSOR reactor (ESSoi ORgel) under construction at Euratom's Joint Research Cen• tre, Ispra. As the name suggests, this reactor is intended to serve as the test rig for the ORGEL reactor string (organic-liquid-cooled and heavy-water-moderated) which belongs to the advanced converter class. Two or three advanced converters with capac• ities of 200 or 300 MWe should come into operation between 1970 and 1974; one of these might be an ORGEL industrial prototype.

fullest recognition granted to juridical per• sons under national law, including t he right to call upon the capital market in each member state on the same terms as the juridical persons ofthat state; in particular, through• out the Community the joint enterprises are entitled to bring civil actions before the courts and to acquire and transfer movable and immovable property. Joint enterprises are only secondarily, and to be more precise, to the extent laid down by the Council of Ministers, subject to the regulations applying in each Member State The Community procedure is an internal On the other hand, the tax relief is hardly of to industrial and commercial concerns. one and is consequently much simpler: importance to public undertakings, whose Their statutes, which the Council must every joint enterprise project is examined liabilities in respect of capital yield can be approve, may therefore contain any original by the Euratom Commission, and it is on much less onerous than those of private provisions with regard to the organisational the Commission's proposal that the Council enterprises; they frequently enjoy exemp• setup which is considered necessary. This of Ministers gives its ruling, in principle by tion from national taxes and, above all, do applies, for example, to a joint enterprise a qualified majority, though on certain not operate for profit. taking the form of a commercial company points unanimity is required. Thus joint However, any enterprise, whether public or of a member country, which is the case for enterprise status constitutes a Community private, is interested in "exemption from the joint enterprises set up to date. Thus seal and warranty serving to facilitate the all customs duties or charges with equiv• it is possible, to visualise joint enterprises recipients' access to the capital market. alent effect and from any import or export possessed of the widest possible diversity of prohibitions or restrictions, whether of an juridical forms, ranging from the commer• economic or fiscal character". Such exemp• cial company to the corporation under The "advantages" tion can cover "scientific and technical public law. This flexibility makes it possible material" as well as "any substance that has to cover the wide variety of purposes which Hitherto the interest of industrialists has been or is to be subjected to processing by may be involved. However, the activities of been aroused mainly by the "advantages" the Joint Enterprise", i.e. a range of joint enterprises as well as their relations that can be conferred on joint enterprises. materials to be determined from case to with third parties, remain in principle Among the chief advantages enumerated in case. subject to the provisions of national law. Annex III to the Euratom Treaty is "exemp• As regards intra-Community duties, the Apart from having a utility value in keeping tion from all direct taxation to which Joint advantage will retain a certain practical with the extent of the barriers which still Enterprises and their goods, assets and importance during the transitional period exist between the economies of the member income would otherwise be liable". The of the general Common Market Insofar as it countries and to the diversity of national resultant easing of the financial burden applies to products other than those legislation in those countries, joint enter• obviously varies from one member state to pertaining to the nuclear common market, prise status can entail considerable practical another according to the fiscal regulations which has not undergone any transitional benefits, e.g. in the case of undertakings for i n force, which at present differ widely. For period. This advantage, in conjunction with which an international statute would other• i nstance, exemption from taxation on goods others (such as freedom to employ nationals wise have to be drawn up by means of a and assets is of interest primarily to German of any Member State), means that as far as convention between the states concerned. firms, which are subject to a tax on capital. the joint enterprise is concerned the

112 The mining plant at Blind River, Ontario, Cana­ da. Ρ resent estimates predict that the Commu­ nity will require 54,000 tonnes of natural ura­ nium during the period 1970-1979 and 122,000 tonnes during 1980-1989. The Community's known reserves do not suffice to cover more than half of the consumption expected up to the end of 1979, so that prospecting activities will have to be stepped up for the discovery and ex­ ploitation of fresh resources. The Community's enterprises should also make an effort to acquire their own sources of supply in non- member countries.

not only a framework for concerted action but also an incentive to that end.

In the nuclear field

The spheres in which joint enterprises can be established is not expressly defined in the Treaty, which lays down as the basic condition that the undertaking must be of "outstanding importance to the develop­ ment of the nuclear industry in the Com­ munity". It therefore sets not a field but an common market has been fully achieved. A framework for vast achievements aim, which allows of much greater flexibility. Exemption from external import duties— Annex II to the Treaty specifies the branches and this is the most important factor— Joint enterprise status offers Member States of industry the investments of which must enables Community protection to be and firms within the Community a frame­ be declared to the Euratom Commission, adapted so as to accommodate activities work within which to marshal all the means but the authors of the Treaty also had in involving co-operation with non-member required for undertakings of the greatest mind other activities such as the production countries. In the case of the first nuclear magnitude. There are no restrictions on of radioisotopes and specialised apparatus; power plants this made it possible to reduce their initiative as regards the submission of furthermore, they left open the possibility the cost of reactor components which the projects for joint enterprises. The Com­ of joint enterprises in the field of research Community's industry was not in a position mission itself has the power to draw up and training. to manufacture, as well as that of the first such projects. The Treaty does not lay down any criteria cores for these reactors. of "outstanding importance"; it leaves to These advantages call to mind the facilities Given a unanimous decision of the Council, the Community institutions the responsi­ which the states grant to enterprises which participation in a joint enterprise can be bility of deciding whether an undertaking are in the public interest or which facilitate made open to : the Community, non-member which applies for joint enterprise status the achievement of precise aims of economic states, enterprises in non-member states does in fact possess the fundamental policy, such as the development of a and, finally, to international organisations. importance required. This decision has to be particular region. This character of public Both private and public participation are taken according to the circumstances and, interest can in point of fact be attributed, permitted; in fact it can scarcely be seen in particular, from the standpoint of indus­ in conformity with national legislation, to what type of participation the Treaty trial policy. At all events, therefore, it the acquisition of such immovable property excludes. For that matter, it makes no follows from the concept of "outstanding as is necessary for the installation of joint stipulations on the subject: it does not importance" that the status of joint enter­ enterprises. require, for instance, that, in order to be prise was devised with the object of By alleviating the burdens of the enterprises admissible, a project must emanate from a promoting ventures which make a signifi­ these advantages also have an effect on multi-national group. As far as outside cant contribution to the development of competition. In each case it is the responsi­ participation in finance and management is nuclear industry in the Community, bility of the Community institutions to concerned, this opens the widest possible whereas the harmonisation of company law gauge them and to fix their conditions and door to industrial co-operation with non- undertaken by the EEC aims at providing duration, these being decisions which member countries. a common legal framework for private arise out of industrial policy. Joint enterprise status therefore constitutes initiative.

113 Site of the Franco-Belgian nuclear power plant situation it is intended that these shall be in the Ardennes, at Chooz (France). The reactor withdrawn as soon as the enterprises and its cooling circuits are installed in two become profitable and have made good the caves hollowed out of the hillside. The Franco- losses incurred since their inception. Belgian SENA (Société d'Energie Nucléaire Moreover, with a view to ensuring that the Franco-Belge des Ardennes) received joint experience gained during the design, con• enterprise status on 9 September 1961. struction and operation of the plants is widely and rapidly circulated in the Com• munity's industry the advantages were granted only on condition that the know- how acquired be communicated to Euratom and subsequently of prototypes, both for for dissemination within the Community. the development of the techniques and for As regards advanced-type and breeder the training of qualified teams. Such ventu• reactors, the commercial success of the res entail considerable financial burdens and European techniques will clearly depend on risks for the constructors and operators. how soon they attain industrial maturity, They call for large-scale co-operation i.e. the stage at which they become attrac• between firms as well as for public aid. tive to operators. What is true of supersonic Thus three nuclear power plants are at commercial aircraft applies also to tomor• present being built under the joint enter• row's nuclear reactors. The commercialisa• prise arrangement: one at Chooz in the tion of these reactors at a reasonable cost French Ardennes, a few miles from the and an adequate pace in the face of outside Belgian frontier, another at Gundrem- competition calls for the concentration of mingen in Bavaria, and a third at Lingen in effort on the smallest possible number of Lower Saxony. In addition, a fourth types, these being selected against the back• proposal, submitted by the Obrigheim ground of a common industrial policy. power plant undertaking in Baden-Würt• In the case of ORGEL, for example, which is being developed by the Euratom Joint The joint enterprise and current temberg, is currently under study. Research Centre and is therefore a joint problems relating to the development These plants are being equipped with reactor project, the economy in time and of a European nuclear industry "proven-type" light water reactors which, judged by the standards of the installations money spent on the construction of the one or more prototypes required will depend The accelerated rate of expansion generally already in service when work was started on the degree of concerted effort by the forecast for nuclear energy production in on their construction, can be considered as operators and constructors. Joint enterprise the Community, as in all the major indus• high-capacity units, and each of which status offers various means of facilitating trial countries, might give rise to the presents a technical advance as compared implementation of the projects. impression that the main problem that with its predecessors. Furthermore, the industrial policy will have to face in the proportion of orders placed with firms nuclear sector is a quantitative one of inside the Community has increased greatly investment. However, the magnitude of the from one plant to another, ultimately The joint enterprise in the production problem should not be overestimated, since accounting for very nearly all components of nuclear fuels and other reactor the nuclear investments will dovetail into of the plant. In view of the foregoing materials the entire complex of investments for the considerations these plants, which benefit development of energy production. To an from other forms of Community or national We are concerned here with a chain of increasing extent it is acknowledged that aid, are deemed to be of "outstanding activities ranging from the extraction of the main accent in the Community's importance" to the development of the ores, via numerous transformation proces• industrial policy should be placed on the nuclear ¡ndustry in the Community. One of ses, to the final burial of radioactive waste. rapid "industrialisation" of nuclear tech• the aims of the Community's industrial The transformation industries make use of niques if European enterprises are to gain a policy at this stage was to encourage the physical, chemical and metallurgical tech• foothold in the home market as well as building of full-scale power plants which niques: uranium enrichment, heavy-water abroad. would make use of the research results and production, reprocessing of irradiated fuels, enable reactor constructors and nuclear fabrication of fuel elements. fuel manufacturers, as well as electricity The problem of industrialising these tech• producers, to acquire technical and eco• The joint enterprise in the reactor field niques involves effecting the transition from nomic experience. the pilot plants, orat any rate small-capacity The "industrialisation" of a reactor type, by Owing to the non-profitability of these units, now in existence in the Community which is meant its transition to the stage of plants they have been granted most of the to installations of a size as near as possible series production, presupposes the previous advantages enumerated in the Treaty, but to the economic optimum. In fact safety and construction of experimental installations in order not to distort the competitive nuclear quality requirements entail a high-

114 level of investment, and installations that munity. This distribution of effort could market has already been depressed for meet such demands are only economic take the form of joint projects such as the several years and the prospect of four or when they have a high capacity. construction of a uranium enrichment five more slack years make it difficult to Consequently, in several of these sectors facility or a heavy-water plant. It could also finance the essential operations. Moreover, the transition to the industrial stage will lead to specialisation on the part of the the larger the scale on which they are involve building plants with an output which enterprises concerned. The g ranting of joint carried out the greater is the chance of in many cases (e.g. fuel reprocessing) will enterprise status and of the advantages that discovering new deposits. Concerted action exceed the entire national demand and this can entail is calculated to encourage by Community firms in the shape of a joint which sometimes (e.g. in the case of Member States and Community enterprises enterprise can therefore be envisaged. In uranium enrichment) will even outstrip the to follow the path of co-operation while still the case of exploration activities in non- national investment capacity. This may leaving room for healthy competition. member countries this would be bound to apply not only in the short but also in the In addition, two activities forming the two facilitate the granting of favourable opera• medium term. ends of the industrial chain involved in the ting conditions. If the Community's industry for the production of nuclear fuels and reactor At the other end of the chain are the production of nuclear fuels and other reac• materials could be carried out on a co• processing and final disposal or storage of tor materials is to reach economic maturity operative basis by joint enterprises posses• radioactive waste, activities which are in• at a satisfactory rate in relation to that of sing as decentralised a structure as is desired disputably in the public interest. nuclear power-plant construction in the and charged with the task of co-ordinating It is conceivable that, in collaboration with Community and to the growth of the and encouraging activities rather than of the Member States and the enterprises nuclear sector in other countries—and this carrying them out. concerned, the Community may assume is vital if it is to be in a position to meet The first problem is that of uranium responsibility for these operations and outside competition—then it is manifest extraction. The increased civilian demand possibly take over part of the cost, a move that Community enterprises must strive for uranium which can be expected, as from which would make it easier to find the funds towards an increasingly rational division of the beginning of the next decade, will required. Community management of the labour. To do otherwise would amount to require of the industry an Immense effort in installations, especially of the storage sites, allowing the mammoth foreign firms to reap exploration and prospection which, in the would contribute to a high degree of the entire benefit of the vast and attractive opinion of the experts, must be undertaken uniformity in the safety standards as well as market opened up by the European Com• without delay. However, the fact that the to a geographical distribution satisfactory from the public health angle.

In conclusion, the joint enterprise frame• work can provide an essential but un• profitable undertaking with a measure of assistance which, slight though it may be, is nonetheless vital. It also enables the Com• munity to supply the impetus, if necessary, and even to take the initiative in accom• plishing certain major tasks of nuclear development. It is seen, so to speak, as an all-purpose instrument which, given a vigorous determination to work on the scale of a large economic unit, will evoke a commensurately satisfactory response to the problems that beset the rapid develop• ment of the European Community's nuclear industry.

A technician in the process of testing the leaktightness of a glove-box at the European Transuranium Institute, Karlsruhe. One of the main tasks of the Institute is to develop for European industry fabrication techniques for plutonium-based fuel elements. During the period 1970-1979, the Community's proven- type and advanced reactors will produce 34,000 kg of plutonium, while for the period 1980-1989, a production of 177,000 kg is expected.

115 The story of a piece of funda• mental radiobiological research, which not only threw light on the events which lead up to the death of an irradiated cell, but EUBU4—18 produced a new method of measuring the dose received by a person exposed to How radiation radiation. causes cell death

JAMES F. WHITFIELD, Department of Biology, Ispra Establishment of Euratom's Joint Research Centre

With the increasing use of nuclear power, For many years now, there has been a very tion of the mitotic capacities of the stem the potential hazards of radiation have great effort expended on the study of the cells, which bytheirdivision and maturation assumed great importance in people's effects of radiation on mitosis (the name constantly generate functionally active cells. minds. Much has been written about the given to the process of cell division) and the Bone marrow collapse will be a delicately unpleasant death which follows irradiation structure of the chromosomes which are balanced function of the degree of mitotic with high doses of radiation. In addition, the filing cabinets of the cell and contain the inhibition and actual cell death. Again, the there is a general anxiety about the long- genetic information for the construction of loss of the ability to resist disease is possibly term hazards to the future generations from new cells and tissues. In particular, there largely dueto immediate cell death since the the ingestion of the radioactive waste- has been a vast amount of research energy production of antibodies against invading products of nuclear explosions. In this spent on the effects of radiation on the bacteria or viruses depends on the lympha• article, an attempt will be made to assemble st ruet ure and synthesis of desoxy ribonucleic tic cells, which are particularly radio• some facts and hypotheses into a general acid (DNA) which is the compound into sensitive. picture, showing how radiation damages the which is built the genetic Information. This To study this type of swift death (which is most radiosensitive cells of the body and mental fixation on DNA has relegated called interphase death since it occurs in cells how this damage leads to the death of these another, perhaps equally vital, phenomenon which are in the phase between two cells. to the background. mitoses), we have resorted to using a After having received a fairly large dose of When certain cells such as lymphocytes (a particular type of lymphocyte, called the radiation (a few hundreds of roentgens), a type of white blood cell which makes anti• thymocyte, which forms the major part of man will die after first suffering from nausea, bodies to fight diseases) and the younger, the cell population of the thymus (a large vomiting, diarrhoea, depletion of his bone immature cells of the bone marrow popu• lymphatic gland lying over the heart in the marrow and blood cells, loss of the ability lation are irradiated with relatively low chest cavity). Since this gland reaches its to resist infections, and destruction of the doses of radiation, a surprisingly large maximum size in very young animals and intestinal epithelium. Much lower doses will fraction of them will actually die in a couple regresses with increasing age, we have produce no obvious symptoms, but more of hours (Figs. 1, 2, 7, 8). This death is not chosen the thymus of the very young (3- insidious changes will have been unleashed related in any way to mitosis (cell division) nor week-old) Sprague-Dawley rat as our main which can lead to leucemia or other is it likely that damage to DNA or its synthesis material. Cultures of thymocytes can be tumours in the man himself and can spell plays any role in it. Conversely, other cell very easily obtained by simply removing the deformation and tragedy for his descend• types such as fibroblasts may have their thymus and mincing the gland in a few ants. ability to divide and multiply completely millilitres of a nutrient solution (medium). The death of a man is the last event in a destroyed by radiation, yet they will During mincing, the gland simply dissolves complex series of cellular changes. If we continue to live and grow in size for several into a homogeneous suspension and very examine the changes in those large social days. concentrated cell cultures are thereby groups of cells called tissues, we will find If we divorce ourselves from the "every• produced. These cultures can then be that the most striking change has been a thing is due to mitotic-DNA-chromosome irradiated and there are more than enough cessation or deformation of the process of damage" theology and heretically consider cells to carry out any biochemical or cell division. In irradiated bone marrow for this immediate death as well as the other cytological determinations. instance, the inhibition of cell division will forms of damage, we will be able to achieve The most striking symptom of radiation reduce the number of cells which can a much more balanced view of radiation damage displayed by the thymocyte, and replace the worn out cells of the circulating damage to the man or animal. The imme• cells like it, is the complete loss of nuclear blood and the distortion of the process of diate killing of cells of the bone marrow or structure (Figs. 5, 6). In the normal nucleus cell division will prevent those cells which lymphatic tissues will seriously deplete the there is agroup of DNA-containing granules do manage to divide from reaching a reserves of cells which would otherwise be lying against the nuclear membrane and functionally normal maturity. able to fill the needs created by the reduc• these, in turn, are connected by finer

116 filaments to a central granular aggregate. liberated histone then depresses nuclear These granules are concentrations of heavily metabolism: radiation kills the cell via a condensed chromosomes (Fig. 3). The normal component which in the free state intense chromosomal condensation is pro• ¡s a metabolic poison. bably due to the concentration in these We may even go one step further and regions of the basic proteins called histones. suggest that the probability of a cell suffer• DNA is a large, negatively-charged, helical ing interphase death may very well be a molecule and if histone attaches to the function of its histone content. This would DNA, the charge will be neutralised, explain the fact that cells with very little the DNA molecule will coil up and the cytoplasm in relation to the nuclear volume chromosomal region which contains the seem to be the types which are very DNA-histone complex will appear con• radiosensitive and suffer this death. The densed when examined under the micro• amount of cytoplasm (which consists largely scope. The specific pattern of granules of protein) in a cell isafunction of its protein in the nucleus of any given type of synthesis which, in turn, is related to the cell is probably a negative picture of the activity of the nucleus in sending out operational genetic regions of the particular informational RNA. If the genetic material cell type, since it is known that the com• be saturated with histone (and the histone bination of histone with DNA will inhibit content be therefore very high), then little the DNA from synthesising, and hence informational RNA will be synthesised and transferring its instructions to informational sent out to establish a large protein synthe• ribosenucleic acid (RNA) which in turn tic machinery and the cytoplasm will be directs the synthesis of specific proteins. sparse. These points are pictorially summarised in What causes the dissociation of histone? Fig. 3. The first clue came when we studied the The disaggregation of the granules in the effect of changing the phosphate concentra• nucleus of the irradiated cell would be tion of the medium. The rate of nuclear expected to be due to a dissociation of the changes (both the loss of structure and histone from its combination with DNA and seepage of histones into the cytoplasm) the consequent uncoiling of the DNA. varied directly with the phosphate con• H. Ernst working in Germany confirmed centration; the higher the phosphate con• this expectation when she showed that centration, the more rapidly did the nuclei during the first hour after irradiation the lose their structure after irradiation. It has histone content of isolated thymocyte nuclei been well established by other workers that decreased. Direct evidence was then found isolated nuclei lose their structure when in our laboratory at Ispra when we observed exposed to phosphate compounds. Along that very shortly after the loss of nuclear with this loss of structure, there is a loss of structure large amounts of histone left the metabolic activity. The basis for the action nucleus and accumulated in the cytoplasm of phosphate is its ability to competitively (see Fig. 3 forthe location of the cytoplasm). This could only mean that histone had dissociated from DNA since the normal cells contained no demonstrable histone in their cytoplasms. Fig. 1. The effect of 500 r of x-radiation on the The liberation of histone should have a very nuclear structure of rat thymocytes. Radiation grave effect on the cell since free histone causes the nuclei to lose all of their normal can inhibit many nuclear as well as cyto• granular structure and they become struc• plasmic metabolic processes. The normal turally homogeneous. This graph shows the thymocyte nucleus accumulates phosphate, speed with which the cells of an irradiated respires (i.e. consumes oxygen), makes population develop structureless nuclei. protein (Fig. 3) and ribosenucleic acid and, unlike the cytoplasm, accumulates sodium Fig. 2. The powerful effect of various doses of along with the intermediates needed for x-rays on the rate of appearance of damaged, protein and RNA syntheses. The liberation structureless nuclei in the younger cells of the of histones will reduce, or inhibit these bone marrow. The older cell types which were 0 2 4 activities. Therefore we may conclude that nearer to being ready to enter the blood and Hours after irradiation irradiation causes some metabolic alteration carry out their mature tasks were much less which releases histone from DNA and the affected during this short time after Irradiation.

117 Chromatin granule Cytoplasm

Mitochondrion

Fig. 3. This is a diagrammatic representation of some of the metabolic activity occurring within the nucleus of a thymocyte. A part of a thymocyte is cut out and is magnified. We see the phosphate entering into the nucleus through the double membranes where it is mated with adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Meanwhile, amino acids enter the nucleus and they are assembled into proteins according to plans sent out from the DNA via its agent, RNA. The energy needed to do this work is provided by the ATP which is I) RNA (information from DNA) 2) DNA 3) RNA' (ribosomal) 4) Histone converted to ADP. It should be noted that the DNA which is held tightly 5) Chromatin granule 6 + 7) Nuclear membranes 8) Cytoplasm 9) RNA + coiled by histone is not able (because of this coiling) to send out informa• RNA' (protein-making RNA) 10) Protein (chain of many amino acids) II) Amino acid 12) Mitochondrion 13) Cytoplasmic membrane (cell boundary) tion; only the histone-free DNA can do this. 14) Phosphate

remove the histones from their salt-like into the cell from the medium and concen• formation of water) and its associated linkages to the phosphate groups of DNA. trate in the regions of respiratory activity uptake of inorganic phosphate will continue, (mitochondrion or nuclear membrane). The but the phosphate will not be joined to However, we are still not at the crucial energy is trapped by attaching a molecule of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to make point in the chain of events which result in this phosphate to another compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Therefore, the "nuclear disaster". We have merely adenosine diphosphate (ADP); the new the accumulating phosphate will be free to pushed the events back one step to impli• energy-rich compound thus formed is called attack the histone-DNA complex (see Fig. cate phosphate. However, before we go any adenosine triphosphate (ATP). When ATP 4). The only thing which could possibly further we must outline the relations enters into various reactions in the cell, it blunt such a phosphate attack on the between respiration and phosphate uptake gives its phosphate to other molecules and histone-DNA complex is calcium. Calcium by the cell. The primary source of energy thereby imparts the energy to them and ions are passively pulled into the cell along for the cell is the sugar called glucose. The this permits the reactions to proceed. with phosphate. If there be a lot of calcium glucose is gradually broken down in many Normally, the uptake of phosphate is closely in the medium, then the accumulating stages into several molecules of carbon tied to the transport of electrons along the phosphate will probably be combined with dioxide. At these stages, the energy con• chain of respiratory enzymes. Also, the calcium to form insoluble, and therefore tained in the molecule is released in the system is adjusted so that the phosphate harmless, calcium phosphates. We have in• form of electrons which pass along a chain which is taken up from the environment is deed found that the rate of appearance of of enzymes (large molecular catalysts) lo• bound into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) damaged cells in irradiated cultures depends cated ¡n the walls of membranous structures and is put to good use in building and very much on the calcium concentration of such as mitochondria (see Fig. 3) and the repairing the cell. Biochemists say that the the medium; a lot of calcium reduces nuclear boundary. The electrons are processes of respiration and phosphoryla• nuclear structural changes. Even more eventually united with hydrogen ions and tion (binding of phosphate to ADP to form striking is the fact that increasing the oxygen to form water. During the passage ATP) are coupled. However, if respiration amount of calcium in the bone marrow of of electrons along the respiratory chain, and phosphorylation should be uncoupled, the irradiated animal by injecting a certain molecules of inorganic phosphate are drawn respiration (comsumption of oxygen by the hormone (parathyroid hormone) can reduce

118 the number of animals which die. populations and nicotinamide at such levels ATP from respiration which, in turn, causes One of the very earliest changes consistently strongly inhibits respiration. Cyanide, which an accumulation of free phosphate which observed shortly after irradiation is the is a classical inhibitor of respiration, also attacks and breaks the association between inability of the cells to mate inorganic strongly inhibits the nuclear changes after DNA and histone (Fig. 4). It is also clear phosphate with ADP. However, we have irradiation. Curiously enough, very high that if this dangerously unbalanced situation found that the respiration of the cells doses of radiation (doses above 5000 r) of a normally functioning respiratory remains perfectly normal until the nuclei inhibit rather than cause the loss of nuclear machinery with an inhibited phosphoryla• lose their structure (which would be structure; such doses, like nicotinamide and tion system be corrected by reducing expected since only when histones are re• cyanide, cause the immediate depression of respiration (and therefore phosphate up• leased will respiration be stopped). We have the respiration rate. These facts are all take), the cell can be saved from the ravages further found that high concentrations of perfectly consistent with the hypothesis of nuclear metabolic paralysis resulting from nicotinamide (a vitamin) prevent all symp• that the first change to occur after irradia• histone release. toms of radiation damage in the thymocyte tion is the uncoupling of the formation of We also might be able to prevent nuclear

Fig. 4. The Model I nuclear homogeniser. This strange machine illustrates our concept of the relation between oxidative phosphorylation, phosphate uptake and histone-DNA complexes. Normally phosphate is pumped into the cell by the movement of electrons along the chain of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) respiratory enzymes to their final combination with hydrogen and oxygen to form water. This ê movement of electrons is also accompanied by the union of the phosphate with the compound Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) ADP to give ATP (see text). Therefore, not much phosphate is free to disturb the histone-DNA o complex. However, radiation (represented by the scissors) cuts out the system which binds the Inorganic phosphate phosphate to ADP. However, phosphate is still pumped in. This phosphate is now free to accumulate around the histone-DNA complexes. Soon the complexes are split and the histone murderously Histone diffuses into the nucleus stopping essential reactions. This machine in the living cell is a system of enzymes which probably operate in the double membranes which surround and enclose the nucleus (see also Fig. 3). Desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

coiled chromosome Energy poured into uncoiling chromosome The normal system life processes The irradiated systen

119 Fig. 5. The cytologicai and chemical events known to follow irradiation of the thymocyte. 0-30 mins 30-60 mins 1-2 hours Major changes after irradiation: The normal cell after after after irradiation irradiation irradiation 0-30 minutes after irradiation: vacuolation of nuclear membrane; inhibition of the reaction ADP + Ρ -> ATP; respiration normal. 30-60 minutes after irradiation: nuclear structure disappears; respiration still normal; loss of histones from nucleus and decrease of histonejDNA ratio; evidence of weakening of protein DNA bonds. 1-2 hours after irradiation: histones appear in cytoplasm; respiration falls; coenzyme NAD is destroyed; lactate is produced.

changes if we could find some chemical this crucial destruction of the cell's ability which form the double membrane of the which could directly inhibit phosphate up­ to mate phosphate with ADP? It is probable nucleus and the mitochondrion (these take instead of indirectly via inhibition of that the nuclear site of respiration and double membranes are illustrated in Fig. 3). respiration. Such a chemical is 2,4 dini- phosphorylation is to be found in the double The cause of the paralysis of phosphory­ trophenol (DNP). Low concentrations of membrane which surrounds and encloses lation of ADP in the irradiated nucleus is DNP stop phosphate uptake and, like the nuclear material. This can be shown probably due to the formation of blisters or radiation, stop the making of ATP. However, cytologically by exposing cells to particular bubbles (technically called vacuolation) in such concentrations of DNP actually increase stains (Janus Green Β and neotetrazolium) the nuclear membrane and the consequent respiration. Under these conditions, DNP which colour those structures which are separation of its two layers which H. Braun very strongly inhibits the development of active in electron transport (i.e. structures (working in Germany) has found to appear nuclear damage. Since the only difference active in respiration). These compounds immediately after irradiation. between radiation and DNP is that the latter colour the nuclear membrane (and, of cour­ In conclusion, I should like to give a factual- inhibits phosphate uptake (they both inhibit se, the very active mitochondria in the hypothetical sequence of events which phosphorylation of ADP while leaving cytoplasm). It is known that the co-ordinated follow the irradiation with 25 to 1500 r of respiration intact), it is clear that phosphate processes of electron transport and phos­ x-rays of a rat thymocyte (also summarised is the vilain of this nuclear tragedy. phorylation of ADP require the combined in Fig. 5). During the first 15 minutes, the However, we are still not at the beginning efforts, structural integrity and close lipoprotein sheets which form the double of this lethal chain of events. What causes association of the two lipoprotein sheets membrane of the nucleus are so affected

Fig. 6. A pictorial summary of the way we 1. Irradiated blood 40 rpm at 37° C in salts-glucose medium determine the amount of radiation which an 2. Centrifuge for 6 to 7 hours animal has received. 3. Separation of white cell layer from red cell 5. Fixation and staining of culture sample layer 6. Microscopic examination shows that 5 out of 4. Incubation of white cells while rotating at 10 white cells are damaged in this case

120 that vacuoles develop between them. As the Fig. 7. The relation between dose of radiation vacuoles increase in size, they separate the and cellular damage sustained by rat lympho­ sheets. When the sheets are separated, the cytes. The cells were removed from irradiated processes of phosphorylation and electron blood, cultivated in a glucose­salts medium transport are uncoupled. However, since containing a high concentration of phosphate

electron transport is not affected, phosphate (30 mM Na2 HPOJ and a lowered concentra­ uptake continues and the phosphate ac­ tion of calcium (0.63 mM CaCIJ. The promise cumulates around the histone­rich granules extended by the type of experiment described lying against the nuclear membrane. The in Fig. 8 was finally realised when we studied histones begin to slip away from their blood lymphocytes in experiments such as this anchorage on the phosphate groups of the one. DNA and the nucleus begins to lose its structure by 45 minutes after irradiation. The liberated histones now start to leak into the cytoplasm and to diffuse throughout the nuclear space. Between 1 and 2 hours after blood are separated from the red cells by irradiation, the histones do their lethal centrifugation. These cells are then culti­ work by stopping nuclear function. The vated in a glucose­salts medium for 6 or 7 joyously normal respiration which has been hours. The cells are then fixed in neutral killing the cell begins to feel the grip of the formalin, stained with haematoxylin and the Dose (roentgens) histones, which combine with the cytochro­ fraction of cells with structurally homoge­ me enzymes of the respiration chain, and neous nuclei is determined. From Fig. 7 it is Fig. 8. The relation between dose of radiation even it starts to slow down. The suffocating clear that there is a linear relation between and cell damage in cultivated rat thymocytes. cell now signals its metabolic desperation dose and nuclear homogenisation between The thymocytes were irradiated and cultivated by a violent outburst of lactic acid produc­ 25 to 100 r. If we use our standard thymo­ in glucose­salts medium containing 60 mM tion. However, the struggle for life has cytes and grow them in a medium with very Na2 ΗΡ0Λ and 0.62 mM CaCI2. This sort of ended and previously well­controlled en­ high phosphate concentration to accelerate experiment with the thymocyte gave us the zymes go wild and start to destroy the the nuclear changes, then there ¡s a linear idea of using the frequency of cells with structures of DNA and vital coenzymes such relation between the rate of homogenisation structurally homogeneous nuclei as an indi­ as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(NAD) of nuclear structure and dose within the cator of absorbed radiation dose. The cell is dead. very low range of 10 to 30 r (Fig. 8). It might well be asked why no one has used this before. The answers to this are Practical applications rather simple. The change cannot be seen to any extent in the circulating blood of the We have just gone on a very hypothetical whole animal because the damaged cells are voyage through the intricacies of cell death. eliminated by being collected in certain The research required for this study is very organs where their débris is eaten by fundamental. However, it is the duty of the scavenger cells. The method we use pre­ radiobiologist who carries out his work in serves the irradiated cells from the scav­ a nuclear centre to contribute to the enging mechanisms of the body by taking practical needs of that centre. The pheno­ them out of the body and putting them into menon of interphase death can be the a test­tube culture and accelerates the rate consequence of irradiation with very low of nuclear homogenisation by cultivating doses of radiation and the loss of nuclear the cells in the presence of a high con­ structure which is such a vivid symptom of centration of phosphate and a low con­ this death is a very simple thing to demon­ centration of calcium (it should be re­ strate and quantitate. Therefore, we have membered that these are the most deadly devised a type of biological dosimeter which conditions we can use to stimulate the uses the proportion of lymphocytes from development of nuclear damage). circulating blood which contain structure­ I hope that I have shown that a combination less nuclei as an indicator of the amount of of fundamental biological research and radiation received. Since blood lymphocytes practical development can yield valuable circulate rapidly throughout the body, this fruit. That fruit is the understanding and dosimeter will average the dose received eventual prevention of cell death and the by any part of the body over the whole biological evaluation of dose received either body and it is pictorially summarised in by accident in the peaceful halls of a reactor Fig. 6. Briefly, the white cells in irradiated or in the turbulent chaos of war. Dose (roentgens)

121 EUBU 4—19

Towards an ORGEL prototype

JEAN-CLAUDE LENY, Director of the ORGEL project, Ispra Establishment of Euratom's Joint Research Centre

At the moment there is a great deal of more on private initiatives, which will discussion in European nuclear circles of the develop favourably to the extent to which "ORGEL prototype". The study of the they are based on precise and complete heavy-water-moderated and organic-liquid- information. It was in this spirit that a cooled reactor concept was launched in 1960 colloquium was held towards the end of by Euratom. Thanks to work which has October at Ispra, during which the in• gone on in the Community since then, the dustries, electricity producers and certain main difficulties facing thisconcept have been state authorities of the six countries were overcome and the body of information informed of the results of the current already obtained may now be considered as research projects, and were able to judge sufficient to justify planning the construc• the possibilities of the reactor. tion of a prototype. In fact—and that is the main justification for The decision-making responsibility on this the construction of a prototype—the task subject rests with the Euratom Council of henceforward is to reap the fruits of past Ministers. The Commission has therefore efforts and to enable European ¡ndustry to submitted to it a paper setting out the consolidate a position acquired after five technical, economic, industrial and financial years of unremitting labour over ORGEL. problems raised by the construction of an These efforts have sometimes been of an ORGEL prototype; this paper should isolated nature, particularly from the day in constitute an adequate basis for a useful 1962 when the United States announced its discussion. decision to abandon its research work on We thought it desirable to clarify here the reactors moderated and cooled by organic main considerations which will underlie this liquid. But a spectacular change in this discussion. The fact that we have now situation has taken place with the fairly begun to think in terms of a prototype recent American decision to reconsider an proves clearly that ORGEL is no longer organic liquid as coolant, this time in merely a matter for research laboratories, combination with heavy water as modera• but is ready to embark upon the transition tor; thus making a reactor type identical to to the industrial stage. The future of ORGEL ORGEL. Since the USAEC has announced its will therefore come to depend more and intention of allocating substantial funds to its development, and in particular to the construction of prototypes, we may expect very rapid progress on the other side of the Atlantic. Storing uranium carbide, to be used in ORGEL In these circumstances, if the construction fue/-e/ements. of the prototype is not rapidly decided and

122 begun in Europe, the Europeans will first find their position weakened and will then fall behind. 12 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 In addition, the research and development projects at present under way in the Com• munity, and particularly at Ispra, will not be able to converge as they would normally do at the present stage of their progress. In fact the construction of a prototype should have Schedule I the effect of channelling the projects in hand towards a set of concrete solutions. The outlook for the reactor is extremely promising as regards power production, desalination, the conservation of fissile materials, the use under good conditions of new fertile materials such as thorium, and lastly the production of the plutonium Schedule 2 necessary for fuelling fast reactors. It there• fore seems probable that large numbers of ORGEL reactors will be built as soon as a prototype has been put through Its paces.

What size prototype ? Schedule 3

What should be the size of the prototype? It seems that the choice must be made in the light of two main considerations: first of all the prototype must be big enough to give information which can be easily extra• From the site preparation for an ORGEL prototype up to the commissioning of the first 500 MWe polated to larger units; in other words, it reactor, how many years will it take ? Above are three possible timetables. must be "representative" of the ORGEL concept, and must consequently be built on an Industrial scale. On the other hand, a reasonable desire to save money dictates the choice of a solution offering the least hazard from the economic angle. buta research and development programme necessary to construct a 300 MWe plant If a comparison is made with the industrial has already been completed and the ESSOR before proceeding to a 500 MWe plant. Let development of proven-type reactors, it (ESSai ORgel) reactor constitutes a large- us compare the advantages and the draw• emerges that after the construction of low- scale facility for studying the behaviour of backs of these three possibilities, examining capacity prototypes (e.g. 37 MWe for the fuel elements and channels. All these factors first of all the respective timetables. G2 and G3 graphite-gas reactors, 35 MWe should make it possible to make slightly On the first hypothesis a 300 MWe plant is for Calder Hall, 5 MWe for the EBWR boiling faster progress. constructed, followed by a 500 MWe plant. water reactor and 60 MWe for the Shipping In practice there should be an interval of It is reasonable to assume an interval of at Port reactor), there was only a gradual about 6 years between the start of work on least five years between beginning work on transition to the 500 MWe plants which may the ORGEL prototype and on the 500 MWe the first plant and commissioning it. Before be considered as the final industrial stage plant. It remains to decide the best method constructing the first in the 500 MWe series, of these concepts. The principal steps were of setting about the development of this it will be necessary to let the prototype 150 MWe, 250 MWe and 300 MWe. reactor. operate for a year or two. A minimum Furthermore, there was a long time-lag period of seven years must therefore be left between the commencement of work on the between the decision to construct the first prototype and on the competitive Three hypotheses prototype and the start-up of the 500 MWe 500 MWe plant, and the necessary technical reactor. level was reached only after construction One might immediately construct either a On the second hypothesis there is first a had started or in some cases after a number large power plant, e.g. 300 MWe, or a 125 MWe plant, followed by a 300 MWe of plants had already been commissioned. medium-capacity power plant, e.g. 80 MWe plant, and later by a 500 MWe plant. Here With ORGEL not only is there a wider range or 125 MWe. It should be noted that in the it is necessary to allow at least four years for of general knowledge available at the outset, last two hypotheses it would still be constructing the prototype, but, during this

123 period—let us say three years from the start of work—a 300 MWe plant might be in millions of u.a. begun; the head of the 500 MWe series Investment Total actual could be launched about one or two years expenditure First hypothesis: to begin with a 300 MWe after the commissioning of the prototype. prototype ORGEL 150 I 93 In this case it must be borne in mind that the Thus 5 or 6 years in all are required to pass Conventional power plant 38 I I3 initial outlay would be very high, at least from the prototype to the first-of-series 500 u.a.'KWe, and the fuel cost would also Difference: be high, at least 1.5 mills/KWh. plant. The third hypothesis is essentially the same as the second, except that the reactor out• Investment Total actual put would be 80 MWe instead of 125 MWe. expenditure Approximately the same timetable there• Second hypothesis: to build a 125 MWe power ORGEL I25 MWe 80 98 plant first, followed by a 300 MWe plant fore results. 300 MWe I 05 I 20 The initial outlay for the I25 MWe plant would be 640 u.a.'KWe, and the fuel cost total 185 2I8 I.5 mills/KWh. The subsequent 300 MWe plant would reap the benefit of experience Conventional 125 MWe I6 47 with the first one; this would be quite sub• power plant 300 MWe 37 95 Cost stantial from the technical and industrial standpoint. The initial outlay would therefore total 53 142 It is not easy to make economic comparisons be no more than 350 u.a. 'KWe, the fuel cost Difference: I 32 76 being 1.2 mills/KWh. between the three hypotheses. However, a few ideas may be clarified at the outset by quoting some capital costs. Taking into account the results of certain economic Investment Total actual surveys and other data, the following expenditure estimates are obtained : ORGEL 80 MWe 60 72 1 - 80 MWe ORGEL prototype: 60 million u.a. 300 MWe 120 133 Third hypothesis: to build an 80 MWe plant first, followed by a 300 MWe plant or 750 u.a./kWe total 180 205 The initial outlay for the 80 MWe plant would be 750 u.a./KWe plus fuel cycle cost of -125 MWe ORGEL prototype: 80 million Conventional 80 MWe 10 30 1.5 mills/KWh. As the 300 MWe plant would piwpr piai t 300 MWe 37 95 u.a. or 640 u.a./kWe benefit less from technical progress than -300 MWe ORGEL prototype: 150 million under hypothesis 2, its initial cost would be total 47 125 400 u.a./KWh but the fuel cost would still be u.a. or 500 u.a./kWe Difference: 133 80 1.2 mills/KWh. these being of course tax-free costs, i.e. without direct duties on investment capital or indirect taxes, such as the added value tax or the turnover tax. The justification for quoting these tax-free prices is that the first ORGEL plant might be exempted from taxation in the same way as the Franco- Belgian plant in the Ardennes (SENA) or the But the plant costs are only one aspect of years was taken as a basis for this last Gundremmingen plant (KRB). the question. The variable costs must also computation. Whichever solution is preferred, it ¡s clear be taken into account, i.e. the fuel cost and If the three initial hypotheses are appraised that it will result in the supply of a certain the operating and maintenance costs. As in this light, no single one of them appears number of megawatts, which will be in• with the plant costs, the important to have any edge on the others from the cluded in the overall construction plan for quantity to bear in mind is not absolute cost economic standpoint (see tables). In fact new electricity generating plants. In other but additional cost. As regards fuel charges, they all entail extra costs of the order of words a prototype, although by definition the ORGEL consumption characteristics are 80 million u.a. as compared with the con• more expensive than a conventional instal• such that the situation is reversed. Whereas ventional-plant-only possibility. On the lation, produces a certain amount of elec• a figure of 4 milis/kWh was adopted for a other hand, if only the cost of the first tricity. In all cost estimates, therefore, conventional thermal plant, it proved prototype is taken into account, the 80 attention should be directed primarily to possible to take 1.2-1.5 mills/kWe for an MWe plant obviously entails the lowest the additional expenses entailed by a proto• ORGEL prototype, and it should be added additional expenditure (42 million u.a. as type as compared with a plan making that these figures are very much on the against 51 million for the 125 MWe and provision only for conventional plants or cautious side. 80 million for the 300 MWe prototype). proven-type nuclear plants. For a conven• Any fair comparison must therefore be tional plant for example, the investment based on total expenditure, including the cost has been calculated at 125 u.a./kWe. financing of both capital costs and variable Technical considerations costs, and assuming a certain working life and annual output. From the technical standpoint, however,

I. I u.a. = I US dc A figure of 5,000 hours per year for 20 there is something to choose between them.

124 Prototype ORGEL channel head

It seems that the first solution, namely the entails a risk of postponing the prototype How is the prototype to be built? i mmediate construction of a 300 MWe plant, commissioning date, and in consequence, will be the one which the USAEC will choose the finalisation of the concept. for the ORGEL prototype which it intends Furthermore, the need to gain operating A prototype, by definition, is not an end in to build. However, the object there is only experience with this prototype before itself; its whole purpose is to start a new to perfect the techniques involved in the launching the construction of a 500 MWe technique on the road to practical success. heavy-water-organic-liquid combination, plant would interrupt the work going on in Thus the judicious choice of characteristics while using fuel elements already proven in the design offices and in industry, while with for the ORGEL prototype is not, alone, other reactors. In the Community, on the the two other hypotheses continuity of enough to guarantee the reactor's success, other hand, the aim would be to exploit work is assured. forthe basic aim is to achieve power plants knowledge obtained under the ORGEL pro• capable of competing not only with the gramme, which has related primarily to the From the technical standpoint therefore, it traditional thermal plants but with other development of new materials, such as seems preferable to decide in favour of a nuclear plants. Without underestimating sintered aluminium-alumina powder (SAP) smaller prototype. The 125 MWe plant, for the peculiar advantages offered by heavy- and uranium carbide, to permit the use of example, would be a good point of de• water power plants, and ORGEL in particular, natural or nearly-natural uranium fuel. parture. It makes possible the design of as regards plutonium output and the use of In these conditions the 300 MWe project equipment which could easily be extra• natural uranium, the fact remains that would be a considerable risk, for we do not polated even to reactors of more than production costs must be cut to a competi• at present possess all the data necessary to 300 MWe. As for an 80 MWe plant, it un• tive level. Hence the parties most directly be certain of putting into practice in the doubtedly offers the minimum risk. How- interested in development of the reactorare prototype stage what might be called the everfrom the technical and industrial stand• the public authorities, the electricity pro• "ORGEL reactor philosophy". point, it would be a less valuable reference ducers, and the constructors. Moreover, it would be necessary to develop than a plant of about 125 MWe, and would practically full-scale versions of a range of provide less useful information for the In these circumstances the proper course is equipment of which as yet only small models development of the concept; it would there• to push on with ORGEL development side by have been built, for example the ORGEL fore entail an increase in the cost of the side with the construction of the prototype channel, the organic liquid pumps etc. This subsequent 300 MWe plant. and, indeed, after it is completed. This

125 implies continuity of technical work; for the lowered construction costs that technical progress can achieve depends intimately on keeping the design offices together. In consequence, the procedure adopted for constructing the prototype should be able to call on a powerful, competent and lasting organisation, capable of spotting likely markets, financing the prototype and the research and development work on which the future of the reactor depends, and providing the financial backing essential for later constructions. Furthermore, whatever type of organisation is adopted, one condi• tion is imperative—it must be a Community enterprise, that is to say, access to it must be open, under equal terms, to any Com• munity concern with serious intentions. The Euratom Commission has submitted to the Council of Ministers several possible schemes which try to allow for all these requirements. For example, one of t hese schemes envisages the simultaneous creation of two companies, Section of a SAP-SAP (sintered aluminium possibly in the form of "joint enterprises" powder) flash weld. SAP will be playing an within the meaning of the Euratom Treaty2. important part in ORGEL-type reactors. One of them, operating as an engineering office, would be responsible for preparing plans and, later on, as industrial architect, would be in charge of the construction work; the other, composed basically of power producers, would own and operate the reactor, which it would order from the first company. Euratom would participate Micrograph of a specimen of stoichiometric in both companies. Its role in the first would natural uranium carbide. Uranium carbide is be considerable in technical matters; in the the reference fuel for the ORGEL concept. second, it would cover any operating deficit by comparison with a conventional installa• tion; it would probably diminish and finally disappear after a certain time.

Conclusion

It is difficult to predict how the Council will react to the Commission's proposal. It is probable, and natural, that so important a move will give rise to heated arguments; but we must hope for a positive decision, within a reasonable time, if we are to make an honourable showing in the competition over this type of reactor that has recently started with the United States.

2. Mr. H. Tournés gives more precise information on the status of "joint enterprise" on pages I 11-115 of this issue.

126 EURATOM NEWS

First criticality of HARMONIE reactor in diameter and has a total height of about 129 mm. The upper slug is itself made up of a pile of The HARMONIE source reactor went critical near the core, to thermal spectra (by thin discs of enriched uranium, the exact during the night of 25-26 August 1965. This means of the graphite thermal column), via number of which was determined during the reactor, the name of which has faint Euro• degraded spectra (by means of the inter• experimental research on the critical mass, pean associations, (Harmonie, or Hermione mediate steel column). These neutron plus a number of discs of depleted uranium. in Greek mythology being the wife of fluxes can be used for adjusting and cali• The run-up to criticality is in fact carried Cadmus, brother of Europa) forms part of brating nuclear detectors, such as fission out as follows: initially, all the discs in the the installations set up at Cadarache, near chambers, and also for supplying neutrons upper slug are made of various thicknesses Aix-en-Provence, France, under a Contract to exponential masses whether surrounded of depleted uranium, in the manner of a of Association concluded between Euratom by shielding or not. set of weights. They are gradually replaced, and the French Atomic Energy Commission In the case of this second kind of experiment one by one, by enriched uranium discs of (C.E.A.). These are intended for use in the a special feature of the reactor is that it can uniform thickness, the reactivity in the design and development of fast-neutron be removed from its biological shielding different configurations of the control reactors, and, in addition to HARMONIE, with all its control devices, so that parasitic system being measured after each replace• include the RAPSODIE reactor and the neutron reflections are reduced to a ment operation. critical assembly MASURCA, both of which minimum. When criticality was reached, the height of are under construction, together with In other respects, however, HARMON IE is the pile of enriched uranium discs necessary liquid-sodium-cooled test loops and various fairly similar to the AFSR (Argonne Fast for criticality was found to be 31 mm, experimental mock-ups. Source Reactor), which has been in operation which corresponds to a total mass of about HARMONIE is a low-power (2 kWth) pile, at the Arco centre since 1960. 25 kg of enriched uranium in the core. the purpose of which is to supply not energy The core of the reactor consists of a stock of The core is surrounded by a blanket of but, mainly, stable neutron fluxes of various three cylindrical slugs of 93% enriched depleted uranium, which is in turn enclosed spectra, ranging from very hard spectra, uranium clad in stainless steel. It is 123 mm by a stainless steel reflector. The entire core-blanket-reflector unit makes up the core. Fourteen experimental channels provide access to various parts of the core. In particular, there is a central channel going right through the core. The heat produced in the reactor is removed by air circulated at underpressure and passed through abso• lute filters. Reactor control is effected by displacement of the axial blanket and the lower reflector (the whole unit being known as the safety block) and two safety rods, two shim rods and a depleted uranium control rod. All these rods are led into the blanket. The mechanisms for them and the safety block are housed in a kind of cage, which also supports the core and can be moved to• gether with it. Exponential masses of a maximum weight of 20 tonnes can be placed on top of the core, which can be set in two positions above its normal one (0.25 and 1.75 m above the low position). A 400 kV elec• trostatic accelerator can be connected up to the reactor to act as a modulated or pulsed neutron source. The unit is installed in a 26 14 m hall

127 EURATOM NEWS

fitted with lightweight walls. The control is surrounded by a forbidden zone 300 m in The Belgian company of BelgoNucléaire and experimental rooms are in the base• radius. acted as the industrial architect, while the ment and are suitably shielded in antici• Construction work on the reactor, which draft design of the reactor was drawn up by pation of experiments in which the reactor was in the hands of the C.E.A. Pile Construc• the Fast Neutron Critical Experiments has to be extracted from its biological tion Department, was started at the be• Section of the Euratom/C.E./\. Association, shielding. For the same reason the reactor ginning of 1964 and ended in July 1965. which is also in charge of operation.

fruits of observations made by Prof. Simon after the Medical Service of the Euratom Commission under the direction of Dr. Mas• A glandular extract helps to cure radiation damage sart had discovered a new application for a glandular extract which had already been known since 1945 for its cicatrising proper• Among many other scientific results of out• by external irradiation of the tumor. Un• ties but had not hitherto been considered standing importance revealed at the 11th fortunately the rays produced festering for use in connection with radiation damage, World Congress on Radiology, which took ulcers on the skull surface, which often because it was generally believed that place in Rome from 22 to 28 September made it impossible for the patient to carry "nuclear" diseases could only be treated by 1965, was the information that to all on normal activity. specific methods. appearances mastery has been achieved Prof. Susanne Simon of the University of In order to examine all possible further over a "nuclear" disease which had hitherto Brussels read a paper to the Rome Congress developments in the new therapy and to been considered incurable. The disease in in which she reported 100 cases of radiation ascertain the underlying mechanism, Eura• question is the radiation damage which damage which had been cured in the course tom has financed experimental researches usually occurs as a consequence of the of the last five years. It is particularly note• the chief of which are being conducted at therapeutic use of radiation in the treat• worthy that in the majority, if not all, of the the University of Strasburg by European ment of cancer. For example, patients with cases treated, there was found to be a research groups under the direction of brain tumors could in many cases be saved complete recovery. These results are the Prof. Mandel.

Prestressed concrete vessels for water reactors?

Present-day boiling-water reactors are equipped with steel pressure vessels. As a result, the greater the size of the reactor, the more intractable are the problems that arise, in particular those relating to trans• port when the vessel has to be transferred en bloc from workshop to construction site. If, on the other hand, in orderto circumvent this difficulty the vessel is assembled on site, the welding operations have to be carried out in extremely awkward conditions.

128 ORDER FORM

EURATOM BULLETIN

I wish to subscribe to EURATOM Bulletin In Π English Π Italian Π German Π Dutch Π French as from

D direct

índex Π through my bookseller volume IV (1965)

Name

Issue and page are indicated. Address

Signature

GENERAL & MISCELLANEOUS Production of uranium carbide single crystals Euratom Bulletin annual subscription (four at Ispra 2/64 Dr. Wolfgang Finke: Nuclear energy in Prestressed concrete vessels for water reac­ issues) in the United Kingdom 18/—; in the Germany 2/34 tors? 4/128 United States: $ 3.50 Eduard Hoekstra: N uclear energy In the Netherlands 3/66 Payment can be made by cheque or inter­ PHYSICS Sir William Penney: The British Atomic national money order to A.M.P., 34 rue du Programme 4/98 Josef Spaepen: Nuclear measurements 1/2 Heinrich Kowalski: Nuclear slang and Marais, Brussels 1, or transfer to postal nuclear terminology 4/104 account C.C.P. 416.69 of A.M.P., Brussels. An interexecutive for scientific research . . 4/l28a REACTORS

Wolfgang Rojahn: Nuclear merchant BIOLOGY, MEDICINE & AGRICULTURE ships 1/12 A composite steam­electricity power plant Dr* Michael Bernhard: The atom fishers 1/8 of the ORGEL type ­ is this a practical pro­ James F. Whitfield: How radiation causes position? 1/32 cell death? 4/116 Professor R. Schulten: Energy out of A glandular extract helps to cure radiation "pebbles'* 2/44 ORDER FORM damage 4/128a What is ORGELr­A brief "recap". . . . 2/49 Serge Orlowski: How far have we got EURATOM BULLETIN with the ORGEL Project? 2/50 GEOLOGY & MINERALOGY Abraham Bahbout; CIRENE­ A natural­ uranium boiling­water reactor project 2/54 I wish to subscribe to EURATOM Bulletin In Leopold Van Wambeke: Prospecting for ORGEL­Safety studies 2/64 uranium 3/80 Higher burnups in graphite­gas reactors . . 2/64a □ English D Italian Symposium on fuel cycles of high tempera­ HEALTH & SAFETY ture gas­cooled reactors 3/95 Π German D Dutch Gas turbines for high­temperature reactors? 3/95 J.­C. Leny: Towards an ORGEL proto­ □ French How radioactive is the Rhine? 1/31 type? 4/122 First criticality of HARMONIE reactor. . . 4/127 as from INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF ISOTOPES AND RADIATIONS WASTE DISPOSAL & PROCESSING D direct Georg Pröpstl: Radioisotopes and radia­ Dr. H. Krause: The storage of radio­ □ through my bookseller tions in the textile industry 1/24 active effluents in salt formations . . . 3/87 Tech netiu m­99 ­ a weapon in the fight against corrosion ? l/32a Can you use a trial analysis by activation ?. . 3/94 LAW, ECONOMICS & INDUSTRY World's first thickness gauge for sheet glass 3/94 Name Nuclear energy aid to coal industry? . . . 3/94 Nuclear energy from today until 2000 ­ A Community programme for radioisotopes forecasts for the European Community . . 2/61 Address in the textile industry 3/95 Jean Leclercq and Michel Van Meer­ Harmless tracers: the "activable" tracers . 3/95 beeck: The impact of natural gas on Europe's energy economy 3/74 Fernand Spaak: Uranium prospecting­ METALS, CERAMICS AND OTHER An introduction 3/79 Signature MATERIALS Dr. Hans Michaelis: Euratom's target programme 3/91 Testing a new zirconium alloy 1/30 Progress made with the Euratom power­ Euratom Bulletin annual subscription (four Plutonium recycling 1/31 reactor participation programme 3/96a issues) in the United Kingdom 78/—; In the A step towards nuclear superheat in water Hubert Tournés: Euratom Joint Enter­ reactors 2/64 prises 4/111 United States: $ 3.50

Payment can be made by cheque or Inter­ national money order to A.M.P., 34 rue du Marais, Brussels 1, or transfer to postal account CC.P. 416,69 of A.M.P,, Brussels. How often in a year do you order the translation of a document on a subject of nuclear or para-nuclear φ> ι-ί interest from a non-western language? td C Π) ι—* tn crq Pu The answer need only be: "about once" for it to be ι—. - m i- co worth your while to subscribe to g l-H £ •-J Ρ TRANSATOM BULLETIN

because Transatom Bulletin may well reveal that the translation already exists, giving you precise data on how to obtain it and thus saving you the expense of having it made.

In order to secure complete information on translations of nuclear documents published in the Soviet Union and in other Eastern countries, you would be obliged to consult hundreds of lists, descriptive catalogues and individual communications issued by translating agencies.

Transatom Bulletin does this for you.

Every month it brings you a comprehensive list not only of translations which have just been completed, but also of translations which are being prepared. To receive a specimen copy of Transatom Bulletin and CO find out more about it, write to: td td •1 Π> C crq to P- Η-· CO EURATOM, CID-TRANSATOM, *d 3 51-53, rue Belliard, Brussels 4, Belgium. Virtually identical problems were encoun• would offer additional advantages, such as hitherto applied in gas reactors and their tered in the case of gas-graphite reactors the possibility of trying out natural circu• working conditions are different, it is neces• developed in France and the United King• lation. Hence the conclusion of two recent sary to make a detailed study of the dom. As is known, the solution has been contracts under the United States/Euratom technical and economic consequences of found in the form of prestressed concrete Agreement, one with the Soc/été d'études adaptation. This is precisely the subject of vessels. et d'équipements d'entreprises (SEEE), Paris, the two contracts, which are to be carried It has accordingly been considered desirable and the other with General Electric in the out jointly. The final phase in the studies to extend this technique to boiling-water United States. would consist in drawing up a design for the reactors, which, as well as enabling large As boiling-water reactors operate at ap• construction of and experimentation with units to be constructed in better conditions, preciably higher pressures than those a small-scale mock-up.

An ¡nterexecutive On 14 October 1965 the three European decision contributes to meeting the need, Communities (Coal and Steel Community, voiced for some time with increasing for scientific research Common Market and Euratom) created an urgency in the six countries, to lay the ¡nterexecutive for scientific research, under foundations of a common scientific research the chairmanship of Prof. De Groóte, policy. Member of the Euratom Commission. This

detected. An instrument already exists— price for the Euratom Bulletin in the case of LETTERS TO THE EDITOR developed by the C.E.A. (French Atomic Energy students. Commission) and manufactured by the Saphy- I am convinced that such a decision would mo Company, which simultaneously detects meet with a response in student circles. deposits and identifies the gamma emitters A. H. J. M. de Mönninck by means of discriminators. Viaardingen J. Fort, Brevatome, Paris

Dear Sir, Having read the very interesting Dear Sir, I have always read the Euratom article by Mr. Leopold Van Wambeke in the Bulletin with great interest and eagerness. Euratom Bulletin (Vol. IV, No. 3), may I This is due to the fact that at the Technische We have recently received several letters draw your attention, and the author's, to a Hogeschool (Technical College) in Delft in which it has been suggested that we fact which, we believe, can be added to the Nuclear Chemistry is one of the courses should introduce a special reduced sub• information given in the published text. On offered by the Chemical Engineering Depart• scription rate for students. This letter has page 84 the author mentions that aerial ment. been selected at random. prospecting is usually carried out with light It is a laudable practice in Delft to allow a We are pleased to inform you that we have aircraft equipped with a very sensitive scin• certain discount on periodicals, books and acceded to these suggestions. Henceforth, tillometer, and that it is advisable to use a other such requisites, which naturally applies students may take out subscriptions to the gamma spectrometer in order to distinguish to students only. This may suggest to you the Euratom Bulletin at a special rate of 12/6 or which element is emitting the radioactivity possibility of introducing a special reduced $2.50.

129 adioisotopcs radioiso topi radioisotopen s hip propulsion schiffs antrieb propulsion na vale propulsione nava le scheepsvoortstuwi ng biology biologie biologie biologia bio logie medicine medi zin médecine medicin a geneeskunde healt h protection gesundh eitsschutz protection sanitaire protezione s ankaria bescherming van de gezondheid automatic data proces sing automatische inf ormation information automatique informa zione automatica auto matische verwerking van gegevens insura nee versichern ngswes en assurances assicura zione verzekeringen economics Wirtschaft économie economia e conomie education and training ausbildu ng enseignement inse gnamento onderwijs en opleiding power reactors leistungsreak toren réacteurs de pu issance reattori d¡ po tenza energie reactor en nuclear fusion ke rnverschmelzung fusi on nucléaire fusione nucleare kernversmei ting radioisotopes r adioisotope radioisot opes radioisotopi ra dioisotopen ship pr opulsion schiffsantrie b propulsion navale propulsione navale scheepsvoortstuwi ng biology biologie biolo gie biologia biologie medicine medìzin me decine medicina gene eskunde health pro tection gesundheltssc hutz protection sanit aire protezione sanita ria bescherming van de gezondheid auto matic data processing automatische informa tion information auto matique informazione automatica automatis che verwerking van g egevens Insurance v ersicherungswesen as surances assicurazioni verzekeringen econ omics Wirtschaft èco nomie economia eco nomie education and training ausbildung enseignement insegn amento onderwijs en opleiding power reac tors leistungsreakto ren réacteurs de pu issance reattori di po tenza energìe reactor en nuclear fusion ke rnverschmelzung fusi on nucléaire fusione nucleare kernversmei ting radioisotopes r adioisotope radioisot opes radioisotopi ra dioisotopen ship pr opulsion schiffsantrie