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Turning the Tide: Power from the Sea and Protection for Nature

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Turning the Tide: Power from the Sea and Protection for Nature Turning the tide Power from the sea and protection for nature Iwan Ball December 2002 All rights reserved. All material appearing in this For further information, publication is subject to copyright and may be please contact: reproduced with permission. Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must credit WWF-UK WWF Cymru as the copyright holder. Baltic House Mount Stuart Square The views of the author expressed in this publication Cardiff CF10 5FH do not necessarily reflect those of WWF. Tel: 029 2045 1306 The authors have used all reasonable endeavours Fax: 029 2045 4971 to ensure that the content of this report, the data E-mail: [email protected] compiled, and the methods of calculation and research are consistent with normally accepted WWF-UK standards and practices. However, no warranty is Panda House, given to that effect nor any liability accepted by the Weyside Park, Godalming authors for any loss or damage arising from the use Surrey GU7 1XR of this report by WWF-UK or by any other party. Tel: 01483 426444 Fax: 01483 426409 Author: Iwan Ball www.wwf.org.uk Project Co-ordinators: Dr. H.D. Smith Dr. R.C. Ballinger The Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales Marine and Coastal Environment Group (MACE) Department of Earth Sciences Nature Centre, Fountain Road Cardiff University, Main Building Tondu, Bridgend, CF32 0EH PO Box 914, Cardiff CF10 3YE Tel: 01656 724100 Tel: +44(0)29 2087 4830 Fax: 01656 729880 Fax: +44(0)29 2087 4326 http://www.earth.cardiff.ac.uk The Wildlife Trusts The Kiln, Waterside Acknowledgements Mather Road The author wishes to thank WWF Cymru and the Newark, NG24 1WT Wildlife Trusts for their support and for their Tel: 01636 677711 valuable comments on the draft report. The author is Fax: 01636 670001 also indebted to staff at WWF-UK for their technical www.wildlifetrust.org.uk assistance in producing the report. Maps and figures were produced with the assistance © WWF-UK, 2002 of Mr. Alun Rogers, Cartographic Unit, Department Panda symbol © WWF 1986 of Earth Sciences, Cardiff University. ® WWF Registered trademark Registered Charity No 1081247 The assistance of Nigel Langford (Renewable Energy Enquiries Bureau, ETSU) and Kevin Griffiths WWF Cymru is part of WWF-UK (Transport, Environment and Sustainable Development Statistics, Welsh Assembly Government) in providing information and statistics is also gratefully acknowledged. 2 Turning the tides Contents Executive Summary 5 Introduction 5 Triggers for marine renewable energy development 5 Tidal energy 6 Tidal barrage 7 Tidal lagoons 8 Tidal stream (non-barrier tidal) 9 Wave energy 9 Offshore wind 11 Strategic issues common to all marine renewables 12 Conclusion 14 Recommendations 16 1 Introduction 17 1.1 Background 17 1.2 Structure of Report 18 2 Energy demand and consumption in the UK 20 2.1 The overall energy situation 20 2.2 Final energy consumption 20 2.3 Electricity supply, availability and consumption 23 2.4 The Welsh context 26 2.5 Greenhouse gas emissions and global warming – implications for Wales 31 2.6 Climate change policy and measures 33 3 Marine renewable energy resources – current situation and future potential for Wales 40 3.1 Overview of renewable energy in the UK 40 3.2 Renewable energy targets and greenhouse gas abatement for Wales 43 3.3 The case for developing marine renewables 46 3.4 Overview of the resource potential 49 4 Tidal energy 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Technology description 63 4.3 Technical status in the UK 75 4.4 Technical viability 79 Turning the tides 3 4.5 Commercial competitiveness 82 4.6 Environmental aspects of tidal energy 83 4.7 Socio-economic impacts and sea-use conflicts 91 5 Wave energy 93 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Technology description 93 5.3 Technical status in the uk 101 5.4 Technical viability 103 5.5 Commercial competitiveness 104 5.6 Environmental aspects of wave energy conversion 105 5.7 Socio-economic impacts and sea-use conflicts 109 6 Wind energy 111 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Technology description 111 6.3 Technical status in the UK 115 6.4 Technical viability 122 6.5 Commercial competitiveness 123 6.6 Environmental effects of offshore wind-farms 125 6.7 Socio-economic impacts and sea-use conflicts 139 7 Strategic issues affecting the development of marine renewables 146 7.1 Introduction 146 7.2 Network connections 146 7.3 Legislation and policy framework 155 7.4 Strategic environmental assessment 162 7.5 Strategy and actions required to develop marine renewable energy in Wales 165 8 Conclusions and recommendations 171 References 180 4 Turning the tides Executive Summary INTRODUCTION The UK government’s commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto agreement, and the National Assembly for Wales’ commitment to sustainable development and review of energy policy in Wales, has stimulated consideration of all options for renewable energy. The UK has a target to supply 10 per cent of electricity from renewables by 2010. Specific targets for Wales are currently being debated. A report by the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, Energy – the Changing Climate (June 2000), has ensured that the proposal for a 16km tidal barrage across the Severn Estuary has remained on the agenda. However, since the last studies on the Barrage were reported in Energy Paper 57 (commonly referred to as the tripartite studies) in 1989, renewable energy technology has progressed, and other less expensive options have been developed that could have less of an environmental impact. These include stand-alone tidal stream turbines, constructed tidal lagoons, shore-based and offshore wave energy devices, and marinised offshore wind turbines. Against this background, this study sets out the options for harnessing marine renewable energy resources, and the effects of these technologies on coastal and marine ecology, with a particular focus on Wales, where there is a potentially large renewable energy resource base. In particular, the study aims to: • describe the technological options available for harnessing tidal, wind and wave power; • describe their possible application in Wales and the implications of these technology options for wildlife and coastal/estuarine ecosystems; and • discuss the need for wide consultation and appropriate assessment of any marine renewable energy proposals. TRIGGERS FOR MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT • The Kyoto Protocol, agreed in December 1997, set a goal for developed countries to reduce their annual emissions of the six main greenhouse gases to below 1990 levels by 2008-2012. In June 1998, the UK agreed to cut its emissions by 12.5 per cent. Subsequently, the UK government set a more challenging domestic goal, to reduce CO2 emissions to 20 per cent below their 1990 level by 2010. • Energy generation is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Many of the means by which emissions can be reduced have been devolved to the National Assembly for Wales (NAW), reflecting the government’s aim to provide a positive strategic approach to planning for renewable energy from the regional level downwards. As part of the NAW’s obligation to contribute to the abatement of greenhouse gas emissions, there is a compelling case for increasing the proportion of energy generated by renewable sources. Turning the tides 5 • While the overall energy scene in Wales currently appears relatively healthy, the long-term position remains more uncertain. Gas is the primary fuel for electricity generation in Wales. Above average growth in demand for gas is predicted in Wales, against a background of a projected decline in UK North Sea gas reserves. Although reliability of supply is not considered to be a significant issue, increased dependence upon imports and associated price increases and fluctuations may subject the future supply of energy in Wales to a high degree of uncertainty. The situation is exacerbated by the expected closure of most of the UK’s nuclear capacity at the end of their currently predicted lives, mostly in the period 2010-2020. The removal of this form of zero-carbon energy production, providing 22 per cent of UK electricity, will be difficult to replace. Concerns about future security of energy supply in Wales therefore present a powerful argument for investing in energy efficiency measures and renewable energy generation. • Wales has a potentially large renewable energy resource base, due to its climate and geography, and there are commercial and rural development opportunities associated with the development of several renewable technologies. Recognising this potential, the NAW intends to develop Wales as a “global showcase” for clean energy production. However, most renewable energy technologies require significant space, mainly because the energy sources they harness are diffuse. Land-based renewable schemes are already facing constraints due to conflicts over land use and lack of suitable sites where planning permission is likely to be forthcoming. Marine renewable energy resources can make a potentially significant contribution to meeting future energy needs, as schemes could be deployed on a much larger scale at sea than on land. TIDAL ENERGY • Tidal power can be harnessed either through the energy stored in tidally impounded water, or by extracting energy from the tidal movement of water (tidal streams) using tidal turbines, analogous to underwater wind turbines. The former can utilise naturally occurring tidal basins, for example by building a barrage across an estuary, or by offshore tidal power generation based upon the relatively new concept of constructed offshore tidal lagoons. • The coast of Wales probably has the most favourable conditions anywhere in the world for tidal power development, due to the high tidal range. These average seven to eight metres on the spring tides in several estuaries, and as much as 11 metres in the Severn Estuary.
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