Volume One: 1957-2063

Home , Kosmos 1686, Liquid rocket booster, Long March 2C, Long March 2D, Long March 2E, Mercury spacesuit

SPACECRAFT of EARTH Volume One: 1957-2063

7TH EDITION 2380

Edited by Lieutenant General Scott A. Akers, SFMC

The definitive reference guide to historical spacecraft

SPACECRAFT OF EARTH Volume One: 1957-2063

By Lieutenant General Scott A. Akers, SFMC

A joint project of The Jaxon Information Institute Panda Press Interstellar & the Defense Forces Institute

Masthead CHIEF EDITOR / PUBLISHER Lieutenant General Scott A. Akers Chief Historian, Office of Fleet Historian TECHNICAL EDITOR Admiral Chris Wallace Chairman– Starfleet Advanced Starship Design Bureau PRODUCTION EDITORS Admiral Allyson M. W. Dyar Vice Admiral Kurt F. Roithinger Starfleet Command PROJECT COORDINATOR Major William M. Myers Office of Fleet Historian HISTORICAL CONSULTANTS Admiral Alex Rosenzweig Starfleet Command Copyright © 2380 by the Office of Fleet Historian, Starfleet Command, New Masada Facility General Robb J. Jackson Previous Editions: 2366, 2360, 2348, 2331, 2326, and 2302 Starfleet Marine Corps Historian LAYOUT CONSULTANT This document prepared and published by Jaxon Information Institute (Seattle Metroplex, Earth) for the Office of Colonel John Adcock Fleet Historian Starfleet Marine Corps Memory Alpha Cataloging Data: GRAPHICS UFPI ITP/SP 3632459346-3000/18 Commodore David Pipgras Office of Graphic Design This edition of Spacecraft of Earth is authorized for viewing only in member star systems of the United Federation SUPPORT STAFF of Planets, its territories and possessions, affiliated star systems, and select independent and neutral star systems. Doctor Michael Okuda, PhD. Doctor Rick Sternbach, PhD. Special acknowledgements to Anthony Rowley, Don Willits, John Adcock, Chris Wallace, Alex Rosenzweig, Kurt Doctor Andreas Kitabatu al-'Qalb, PhD. Roithinger, Allyson Dyar, and Donna Francis without whose much needed assistance this project could not have been completed.

For Dawn CONTENTS

Preface

08 Chronology 31 Ship Classifications 101 Appendix 137 Index 141 Credits

PREFACE

This work is different in many ways, from the publications usually presented in this format. Its name SPACECRAFT OF EARTH implies that it is a technical manual, and it is. But it is also much more. This work is a short cut to the history of that planet, whose influence upon the Federation is so obvious that it is often taken for granted. While Vulcan is known as the mind of the Federation; the citizens of Earth, known as Man, Human, or Terran, and sometimes dero- gatorily as Earthers are the heart of the Federation. And with heart, emotions, drive, guts, and even greed the Humans have led the expansion of the Federa- tion into the galaxy. This has caused conflict, it has caused growth but most of all it has left an indelible human stamp upon interstellar affairs in the Alpha Quadrant. Seventy-eight years ago, General Robb J. Jackson I, SFMC-ret. wrote the first official vessel history of Earth and founded the now famous Jaxon Information Institute on Earth, and now six editions later you hold the latest version of this chronology. Read this history, brief as it is, allow it to lead you to further study. Use it as a reference guide. Ask questions, and understand that History like the Present and even the Future is very fluid, and the more we understand yesterday, the further we will understand today and tomorrow. As an ancient Earth Politician was paraphrased to say: “those who do not understand the past, are condemned to repeat it”. Time and time again, the political leaders of the Federation and of her enemies have made mistakes that a simple study of Earth’s past would have shown what would happen BEFORE thousands even millions of lives had been lost. So read, enjoy, and question and most of all, learn.

LGen Scott A. Akers, SFMC “Duke” Akers

SPACECRAFT OF EARTH Volume One: 1957-2063

Chronology

1903 1936

Orville and Wilbur Wright conduct the first powered heavier Hitler's Germany takes over Czechoslovakia, the US and UK continue to Honor Washington than air flight on Earth. Treaties, & World Peaceways rises to the level of 4th largest political party in both countries.

1912 1939 April 14th, the HMS Titanic sinks in route from Lon- don to New York, of the few survivors is a young Poland invaded and France and England declare War, Churchill is appointed First Sea Lord woman named Edith Keeler, a baby named James again. Japan cordons off China. A. Kirk, and a doctor Gottfried Weissnacht who later recovers and returns to Europe. 1940

Germany overruns all of France, bombs London, Churchill becomes Prime Minister. Lend Lease defeated in US Senate and Neutrality vigorously restated. Japan occupies the Dutch East Indies. 1926

Robert Goddard launches the first liquid fuel rocket from his research 1941 facility in Auburn, Massachusetts. Russia attacked, Spain join the Axis powers, Brazil join the Axis. British retaliates in North Africa and defends Egypt - Axis bombs 1930 and closes Suez Canal. World Peaceways prevent passing of the Edith Keeler founder of World Peaceways dies in a pedestrian/automobile accident on the "OIL" act; the German European way to see a movie. World Peaceways continues on under the leadership of Dr. Gottfried POGROM begins. Japan attacks Weissnacht who returns from Europe, where is genetic research is held in high regard. Pearl Harbor - but misses the US Carriers, Japan also attacks Phil- ippines and Guam. 1933

Adolph Hitler takes over Austria, the US Government charters World Peaceways, and Gen- 1942 eral Douglas McArthur is censored and dismissed. Russia retreats and loses Leningrad, World Peaceways declared subversive, and Dr. Weissnacht disappears. Montgomery pushes Rommel back to Tobruk, US wins at Midway. 1943 1946

Russia loses Stalingrad, evacuates Moscow. US -British forces take North Africa, US takes United Nations is established along lines of the US Model. Germany & Japan become UN Guadalcanal, US on full war footing. Russia begins to regain territory. Doctor Gottfried protectorates. Marshall Plan proposed. US Begins with A-4 and High Altitude Jets. Soviets Weissnacht sets up his Eugenics Lab in Brazil with Nazi backing. occupy German and Italian Borders in the East. Greece goes communist. Turks threatened by Soviet Encroachment.

1944 1947 Moscow occupied and then retaken by the Soviets. The US takes the Solomon Islands and Marshall Islands. Allies take Italy, Brazil and Spain quit the Axis and surrenders to the Allies. Roswell Incident US and British field jets against the Nazis, who field their own. France invaded at Normandy Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1 Glamorous Glennis break in November. Sound Barrier Iron Curtain Goes up US army helps Turkey, while the Marshall Plan begins India and Pakistan declare Independence Princess Elizabeth marries Prince Phillip Mountbatten

1948

Gandhi is assassinated 1945 Marshal Plan Proposed as the Constantinople Airlift Begins The State of Israel comes into existence Allies surge through France steamroller to the Ardennes Forest. Soviets retake territory to Kai Shek elected in China prewar borders. US retakes the Philippines. Allies capture V2 facilities intact, and Allied Sci- Truman elected entists are able to build A-2 version and shell Berlin. Hitler killed in an A-2 Attack that de- Atlee appoints Lindsey Tribunal, Churchill chairs Hague Conference on European Unity stroys his bunker, (rumors abound he committed suicide). Germany surrenders to the western Allies as the Soviets reach the pre-war eastern border. Japan is nuked via a newer missile the A-3 and they subsequently surrender. 1949

Mainland China goes Communist as Kai Shek's forces take over Tai-Wan/Formosa Eire, and Indonesia gains Independence Israel enters UN Apartheid becomes law in South Africa Mysterious Multinational organization takes over Eugenics Program, moves labs to the Pun- jab area of India. J. Edgar Hoover assassinated. German V1 “Buzz bomb” and V2 Rockets Constantinople Airlift ends; Soviets withdraw front line forces from Greece. 1950 1955

Korean War Italy, Germany and France establish European Union Eugenics baby - Noonian Singh is born in Agar India Churchill resigns as Prime Minister Peron survives constitutional challenge in Argentina Raids across Israel/Jordan border Increase United States Air Force Academy opens 1951 AFL and CIO merge Atomic powered Electricity first used in USA Churchill becomes Prime Minister again Albert Einstein Dies Korean War Continues First report on the artificial manufacture of Diamonds at 2700C Peron elected President of Argentina- supports the Eugenics Secret Society in his country

1956 1952 Tito, Nasser and Nehru meet discuss alliance Korean War Continues France, Great Britain and Israel attack Egypt: the US and Odessa dissolved, random elements absorbed by mysterious shadow organization the USSR force France and Great Britain to withdraw Eisenhower elected president USSR invade Hungary Pakistan becomes an Islamic Republic 1953 Oral Vaccine against Polio developed. Eisenhower reelected Korean War Finishes Japan admitted to the United Nations Mossad destroys Odessa’s last HQ in Brazil, Dr. Weissnacht Martin Luther King emerges as the Civil rights Leader in the United States. dies and the eugenics program suffers set back Attack on Chimera HQ destroys much of the information and controls on the First Generation Stalin Dies, Beria disappeared, and Khrushchev comes to power of Eugenics Children. New Headquarters is set up in the Punjab. Queen Elizabeth II crowned Tito becomes president in Yugoslavia Coup in Persia 1957

1954 Harold Macmillan become Prime Minister of England Eisenhower formulates the American Eisenhower Doctrine First evidence of an international crime syndicate known as CHI- Israel withdraws from the Sinai and the Suez Canal is reopened MERA who are willing to use terrorism to further its aims. This organi- Andre Gromyko becomes Foreign Minister of the USSR zation unites various factions of the Chinese Tongs, Sicilian Cosa Common Market of Europe opens Nostra Families, exiled Nazis and other dissident movements. They International Atomic Energy Agency established set up headquarters in Argentina. The Teamsters expelled from the AFL-CIO Segregation struck down as illegal in the US by its Supreme Court Theodore Weisel writes the "Cat in the Hat" Nasser seizes power in Egypt USSR Launches Sputniks I & II French Defeated in Indochina. International Geophysical Year proclaimed 1958 1961

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) JFK becomes 35th President founded. JFK establishes Peace Corps United Arab Republic Formed Constantinople Wall Constructed Fidel Castro begins total war against Batista in Cuba Bay of Pigs DeGaulle forms a new government in France Heinlein's Stranger in a Strange Land Alaska become the 49th state of the United States Yuri Gagarin orbits Earth following Vladimir Aswan Dam begins construction Ilyushin’s crash into China after the third Desegregation tensions begin in Alabama-USA orbit of his flight three days earlier. Dr. Zhivago published Alan Shepard makes first US Space Flight US Launches Explorer I, the USSR launches Sputnik III

1962 1959 US-MAC in Vietnam Castro conquers Cuba Attempted Assassination of DeGaulle DeGaulle proclaimed President of the Fifth Republic of France Cuban Missile Crisis Hawaii becomes the 50th State of the United States U2 Pilot Gary Powers returned to US USSR launches rocket with two dogs aboard Rachel Carson writes "Silent Spring" Lunik I probe from USSR reaches Moon, Lunik III photographs moon First US Nuclear powered merchantman "Savannah" launched 1963

Riots in Alabama as reactionary forces oppose desegregation The UAR, Syria, and Iraq unite as the Greater Arab Republic Nuclear Test Ban treaty goes into effect Buddhist Coup in South Vietnam convinces President Kennedy to begin withdrawal of US Forces. However, Lee Harvey Oswald as- sassinates Kennedy in Dallas TX, Conspiracy rumors, but none ever proven. Johnson be- 1960 comes President and appoints Hubert Humphrey as new Vice President. Dr. DeBakey uses first artificial Heart during major heart surgery, to maintain blood flow, but Brezhnev becomes the #2 in the USSR it will be years before one is placed within a human for post operative use. Former Gestapo Chief Adolph Eichmnan is arrested Belgian Congo becomes independent 1964 First Televised US Presidential debate between Nixon and Kennedy Optical Microwave laser constructed Martin Luther King receives the Nobel Peace Prize First weather satellite "Tiros I" launched by the US Johnson renews commitment to reach the Moon in this decade. Earth Based Radio telescopes are used to listen for evidence of radio signals from Tau Ceti Brezhnev replaces Khrushchev as Premier of the Soviet Union and Epsilon Eridani. Crown Prince Faisal replaces Saud as King of Saudi Arabia 1964 cont. 1967 LBJ reelected as President with Humphrey as his VP US begins withdrawal of forces from Vietnam until the Gulf of Ton kin and Saigon incidents Third Arab-Israeli war when North Vietnamese Forces attack US Naval Forces, infiltrate Saigon Airport and blow North Vietnam attacked directly in order to decrease pressure on withdrawing US troops up five US transports withdrawing troops FROM Vietnam, Johnson asks for and receives au- DeGaulle makes "Free Quebec" Speech thorization from Congress to secure Southern Vietnam until US military and civilian person- Shah of Iran crowns himself nel can be withdrawn in an orderly and safe manner. 25th Amendment to the US Constitution Yassar Arafat takes over leadership of Arab Guerilla force Al-Fatah People's Republic of China explodes its first Atomic Weapon US Begins crash program to orbit a weapons platform in response to the "Chinese" threat. Nigerian/Biafran civil war begins 1965 1968 Winston Churchill dies Despite growing domestic conflict President Johnson continues US Nuclear Weapons Platform explodes on launch armed withdrawal from Vietnam. While casualties mount, US forces North Korea captures and releases USS Pueblo continue controlled and orderly removal of forces. Newly trained re- Martin Luther King Assassinated public of Vietnam forces man positions vacated by US troops. Pierre Troudeau sworn in as Canadian Prime Minister The Klu Klux Klan escalates racial violence in Alabama Intersat 3A, the first of the second generation US Communication The 750th anniversary of the signing of the Magna Carta celebrated. Satellites is launched Race riots erupt in Watts, California Bobby Kennedy Assassinated Both the United States and the Soviet Union conduct Space Walks USSR invades Czechoslovakia Nixon elected over Humphrey Ulster civil rights campaign leads to sectarian violence between 1966 Irish Protestants and Irish Catholics Apollo 8 and crew circle moon and return to safely splash down DeGaulle inaugurated for his second seven-year term as President of France in the Pacific Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru, becomes Prime Minister of India Aswan Dam completed in Egypt Dr. DeBakey of Houston, uses an artificial heart to successfully complete a Jackie Kennedy weds Aristotle Onasis 3.5 hour heart transplant operation Both the United States and the Soviet Union soft-land vehicles on the moon (Surveyor 1 and Luna 9) 1969 The Salvation Army celebrates its Centennial Violent fighting arises in Northern Ireland Yasar Arafat becomes head of PLO DeGaulle resigns Final Phase of withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam begins Luna Surveyor Ho Chi Minh dies Nine One My-Lai massacre occurs, US military court martials Lt. Calloway Alexander Solzhenitsen expelled from Soviet Union 1969 cont. 1971 cont: On July 20th Apollo 11, makes first manned landing on Moon India and Pakistan go to war DDT bans begin in USA USSR and US sign ocean floor test ban treaty Manson Cult murders occur in southern California Three Soviet Cosmonauts die when their Soyuz 11 capsule devel- August 15, Woodstock ops an air leak while reentering earth’s atmosphere Air Force Pilot John Christopher pursues UFO, finding nothing USSR soft lands a space capsule on mars NORAD decides radar sighting must have been a technical error. Astronomers discover two "new" galaxies adjacent to the Milky Way Charles Manson and followers are convicted

1972

US Apollo 16, 17 & 18 crews become the fifth, sixth and seventh to explore the moon's surface Nixon visits China and Russia Bangladesh established as an independent state Watergate break in occurs, Nixon administration implicated Governor George Wallace of Alabama is shot but survives 1970 Militant Palestinians murder 11 Israeli athletes at the summer Olympic games in Munich Biafra capitulate to federal Nigeria government; end of civil war which began 2.5 years ago. Britain imposes direct rule in Northern Ireland Conservatives win election in England; Edward Heath succeeds Harold Wilson as Prime Minis- Ceylon becomes a republic and changers its name to Sri Lanka ter At years end fewer then 24,000 American troops remain in Vietnam Gamal Abdel Nasser dies in Egypt Philippine President Marcos declares martial law The Kent State “Massacre” occures US launches Pioneer 10 & 11 space probes for Jupiter and Saturn. Apollo 13 Charles DeGaulle dies 1973 The 150" reflecting Telescopes in Arizona and Chile are completed US Apollo 19, & 20 crews become the eight and ninth to explore the Moon’s surface. Apollo program ended successfully, Skylab Program begun with launching of Skylab I Preliminary and unofficial recognition of Mainland China by the United States 1971 Major Sing appointed as Military Liaison from India to Bangladesh Watergate crisis leads to impeachment hearings for President Nixon, Vice President Agnew re- The People's Republic of China admitted to the United Nations signs and is replaced by Congressman Gerald Ford. Whitney Young, American civil rights leader dies Palestinians begin full scale Civil War in Jordan against King Hussein US Apollo 14 and 15 crews become the third and fourth groups to explore the moon surface. Britain faces large-scale insurrection in Northern Ireland US Satellite Mariner 9, orbits Mars American troops completely evacuate Vietnam, American involvement in that civil war is over. Lt. William Calley found guilty of murder in My-Lai massacre The 1973 or Yom Kippur War erupts in Middle East as Egypt and Syria attack Israel in surprise The Pentagon Papers begin to be published attacks that are eventually repulsed with huge losses on both sides. Violence worsens in Northern Ireland after Britain institutes policies of Preventative Detention Juan Peron resumes control of Argentina, with his young son Colonel Rafael Peron as the new and internment without trial. Defense Minister Anti-Apartheid guerillas expand battles in South Africa. 1974 1976

Skylab Missions 1, 2, & 3 are great success in long range endurance USSR's Soyuz spacecraft docks successfully with Salyut space station. and extra-atmospheric research. Skylab Missions 7-10, begin the expansion of Skylab Low Earth orbit station. Nixon resigns and Vice President Ford becomes President USSR and US begin exchanges between Salyut and Skylab. The United States extends full recognition to both Mainland China Governor James Earl “Jimmy” Carter Jr. of Georgia capitalizes on his "outsider" image and wins and Taiwan the presidency. President Ford attempts to rebuild American confidence in govern- United States celebrates its Bicentennial with much gala and historical retrospection. ment, with new economic policies. James Callaghan succeeds the resigning Harold Wilson as Prime Minister of England. OPEC Oil Embargo of the West cripple most western economies, Rafael Peron succeeds his father as President General of Argentina especially that of the more industrialized nations. US VIKING I and II set down safely on Mars and transmit to Earth first close-up photos of the North Vietnamese troops push into South Vietnam surface, scientific experiments remain inconclusive about the existence of life on Mars. Soviet Space Probe lands on Mars and detects more water va por Quebec Separatist Party wins majority of seats in Quebec Parliament and then wins Secession- present then was previously surmised ist ballot; Quebec becomes independent state. Five women are brutally knifed to death in Kiev, USSR. The mur- Mao Tse-tung Founder and Leader of Communist China dies. derer nicknamed "Ivan the Ripper" was never found. Civil war between Christians and Moslems expands in Lebanon and involves Syria and Israel Portugal elects first President in a free election in over fifty years. Howard Hughes - American Billionaire dies. 1975 Inaugural flights of scheduled supesoninc passenger service occur when two Concorde jets take off simultaneously from London and Paris. Skylab Missions 4, 5, & 6 are even more successful then the first three, Skylab Module II is First Appearance of Legionnaire’s Disease appears at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. launched and is joined with the First Module, the entire project is now manned continuously, with each new crew swapping with the previous one. President Ford's W.I.N. economic program fails, US economy and inflation at a post WWII high. 1977 North Vietnam completes conquest of South Vietnam, reunifies nation and renames Saigon, as Ho Chi Minh City. US Space Shuttle Test Platform Enterprise makes five test flights. Portuguese Military completes a constitutional coup, and grants independence to its former Skylab Missions 11-14, continue the expansion of Skylab Low Earth orbit station. colonies.Civil war between Christians and Moslems erupts in Lebanon US launches two Mariner Spacecraft to Venus, and Voyager I & II to explore the outer planets. US VIKING probe launched for Mars. President Carter begins Energy Conservation "War", also signs treaty giving Panama Canal to Communist forces take control of Cambodia and Laos the people of Panama. Egypt reopens Suez Canal Indira Ghandi resigns as Indian Prime Minister; Lt. Colonel Noonian Singh disappears from the Turkish/NATO forces win show- Public Eye. down with Greek Communists in Pierre Troudeau becomes Premiere of Quebec a battle for Cyprus’s independ- Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Menachim Begin of Israel begin peace negotiations ence Sadaharu Oh, Japanese First Baseman hits his 756th home run, to become the most prolific Apollo/Soyuz Project - Joint US/ home run hitter in Professional Baseball. USSR space meeting is a suc- Cuban and Russian "advisors" assist Angolan government in battles against anti-Communist cess, this signals the highpoint of insurgents. the Kissinger Détente era. The Palestinian National Front calls for a Separate State on Palestinian soil Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Amnesty international 1978 1980

US Space Shuttle Enterprise tests successful construction on five Type I, Orbiters begins. US launches Columbia Space Shuttle in its first test; it replaces the Skylab Missions 15-20, continue the expansion of Skylab Low Earth orbit station. Skylab-Apollo launches as a supply vehicle for the SLEOS. Discovery of a moon orbiting Pluto. With the Shuttle "taxi" service to and from Skylab Low Earth Orbit Sta- President Carter hosts Camp David Accords where Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Menachim Begin tion, the SLEOS begin to rapidly expand. International aerospace of Israel complete peace negotiations firms bid upon an inter-orbital transfer vehicle nicknamed “The Mule”. Violence sweeps Nicaragua as Sandinista guerillas try to overthrow Somoza Soviets launch the first part of the their planned "MIR" space station. Quebec is isolated by Canada as standoff occurs over Canadian closure of St Lawrence Water- Bitter political campaign in the United States elects Ronald Reagan, way, US Coast Guard reopens it, US-Canadian relations cool. president of the United States. Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Begin and Sadat. Iranian militants continue to hold US Embassy and embassy officials’ The Jim Jones cult in Guyana commits mass suicide hostage. On October 1st, the American National Aeronautical and Space Administration holds its 20th The Sandinistas under Ortega consolidate their hold of Nicaragua, and Anniversary celebration. attempt with Cuban help to export their revolution to El Salvador. Iran in a state of turmoil as Shah Pelahvi fights to retain control versus Muslim religious mili- Soviet Forces in Afghanistan are bogged down in their war against the tants. Mujeiheidin. Dissident elements in Afghanistan encouraged by Iranian uprising begin open revolt of the So- United States and western bloc boycott the 1980 summer Olympics viet Backed government in Kabul. held in Moscow in protest of the Afghan invasion.

1979 1981

USSR begins construction of Prototype Orbiter "Buran" US conducts 5 launches of the Columbia Space Shuttle providing continued "taxi" service to Skylab Missions 21-24 begin "taxi" service to and from Skylab Low Earth orbit station, (SLEOS), and from Skylab Low Earth orbit station, the SLEOS begin to rapidly expand. the SLEOS crew begins construction of Inter-Orbit Port Module. Soviets launch their first test of the "Buran" shuttle. Mariner spacecraft send data and visuals back from Venus's atmosphere and surface. Ronald Reagan inaugurated as president of the United States, within hours Iran releases the Iranian Civil War and Coup occur, Shah Pehlavi escapes and abdicates, the Ayatollah Khomeni American Hostages held for 444 days. assumes leadership in Iran. The Sandinistas and Ortega continue their covert war in El Salvador Iranian militants capture US Embassy and take embassy officials as hostages. Soviet President Brezhnev dies, Vice Premier Chernenko becomes Chair, Premier and Presi- In Libya, the former Colonel Muhamar Quadaffi begins steering Libya to the left and supports dent. world terrorism. President Reagan is shot in a failed assassination attempt. The Sandinistas under the leadership of Daniel Ortega assassinate Somoza and seize power in US and Soviet Naval forces almost clash as Soviet Ballistic Missile Submarine Krazny Oktyaber Nicaragua. defects, this defection in the end is not revealed to the world for another 14 years. Inflation and economic ills begin runaway in both American and world economic markets. Soviet Forces invade Afghanistan, impose puppet regime in Kabul and begin civil war between rebels in countryside and the Soviet controlled cities.

1982 1984

USA conducts 6 shuttle launches, two each of the Columbia, Challenger and Discovery Space USA continues routine Shuttle launches, and opens SLEOS to ESA and Japanese shuttles. Shuttles providing continued "taxi" service to and from Skylab Low Earth orbit station, the SLEOS inter-orbit dock becomes waystation to materials going to GEOS. SLEOS continues to expand. Three MULES now in service between SLEOS and GEOS renamed FREEDOM Space Station. First MULE prototype delivered to NASA for testing. Salyut II Station near 3/4 of completion. Soviets begin use of both the Buran Shuttle and the Progress Contras reach deadlock with Sandinistas in Nicaragua. Rockets to begin assembling Salyut II station to replace the US Marines enter Beirut in an attempt to halt civil war there, those forces come under fire from Salyut station. all sides and after bombing disaster and death of over 200 marines, US withdraws. European Space Agency begins building of its Hermes Space Ronald Reagan wins reelection despite rumors of clandestine arms sales in Central America Plane, smaller then either the Soviet or American Space Shut- and the Middle East. tles, but still able achieve low earth orbit for rendezvous with Iran-Iraq War begins to spill over into neighboring nations. Both sides have had several huge SLEOS. invasions of each others territory to only be bogged down and destroyed. Neutral Flagged England and Argentina go to war over the Falkland Islands; tanker vessels come under fire from both sides, while transiting the Arabian Gulf. the English forces quickly overcome the occupying Argentine- Canadian electorate okays Quebec's request to re-enter Union but discontent remains high, ans and throw them off the Islands. Peron is overthrown despite his attempts to tighten his Provincial Politics decay into anarchy, with only police and medical services being provided by control because of the "European" attack. the province. The El Salvador Civil War stalls as Moderates gain control of the government. Israel invades Southern Lebanon to create buffer zone to protect its citizens from the widening civil war. Soviet Leader Nikolai Chernenko dies; KGB head Yuri Andropov becomes new Soviet Leader. Western economies start rebuilding, will begin a growth cycle that is only interrupted by the Eugenics War, and then lasts until the mid 21st Century.

1983

USA conducts 8 shuttle launches, two each of the Columbia, Challenger, Discovery and the latest the Atlantis Space Shuttles providing continued "taxi" service to and from Skylab Low Earth 1985 orbit station, the SLEOS completes the inter-orbit dock. First MULE lifted by Atlantis to SLEOS, first lift of GEOS platform modules. USA continues routine Shuttle Launches US, Soviet, European and Japanese shuttles run to Salyut II Station nearing 1/2 way completion. and from SLEOS. Japanese Space Agency begins building of its Celestial Dragon Space Plane, similar to ESA's Five MULES now in service between SLEOS and FREEDOM Space Station and Saylut II Sta- Hermes, capable of achieving low earth orbit for rendezvous with SLEOS. tion. Once Salyut II Station is complete, it is renamed MIR. The "Contras" begin counter guerilla war against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua. Nicaragua civil wars stalls, as both sides lose backing with US Congress cutting off aid pipeline Andropov begins partial withdrawal of Soviet forces in Afghanistan. to the Contras. Lebanese Civil War expands Israeli forces attacked as well as the Syrians. Yuri Andropov takes ill and dies; Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union US Military forces oust Communist Coup regime and Cuban Advisors in Grenada. Iran-Iraq War continues, US decides to reflag vessels transiting the Arabian Gulf. Pioneer 10 spaceprobe, becomes first human built spacecraft to leave the solar system. Quebec situation stabilizes as Popular Scot-French politician Jean MacBruce rises to power. Troudeau loses election in Quebec, which then requests readmission into Canadian Union. 1986 1987 cont. Soviets launch MIR Station Expansion for Salyut II, re- Space Shuttle Challenger explodes 73 seconds after liftoff, killing crew of 7 immediately, routine name entire complex Mir Station I or Mir for short. Shuttle Missions halted and only crew transfers of Space Stations are permitted during the in- Nicaragua elects first female President, Ortega resigns in vestigation. disgust, and his protégé Joaquin Olivera becomes Vice The MULES continue in service between SLEOS and FREEDOM Space Station and Mir Sta- President. tion. In Panama, General Noriega continues his assault on op- Members of the Afghani opposition attack a post inside of Russian territory that housed the So- position parties. viet Military Space Applications Laboratory, intervention by a combined US-Soviet Strike team, Mikhail Gorbachev faces opposition but goes ahead and stops the slaughter of Soviet Civilian scientists. signs the START treaty with President Reagan In England, Irish terrorists fail in attempt to kidnap or to assassinate the Prince of Wales and Iran-Iraq War begins to wind down as both sides experi- Family, this act is foiled by a junior US Military (USMC) attaché. ence exhaustion. Truce in Nicaragua civil wars called. El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala have free and rela- In the Philippines, Quorzon Aquino leads Electoral Upris- tively clean elections electing civilian govern- ing after the assassination of her Husband by pro-Marcos ments, however in Panama General Noriega forces. begins strong-arm tactics that lead to his eventually assuming control of that state, and aligns himself with Colombian Drug Cartels. Mikhail Gorbachev begins Glasnost - a period of 1988 economic opening with the West and the Soviet Union The head of the Soviet KGB defects to the United States under mysterious circumstances. Iran-Iraq War continues, US decides to reflags Gorbachev declares a secret initiative before the Politburo to send a mission to Mars to rival the vessels transiting the Arabian Gulf. American Moon Program, however this mission will establish a permanent Soviet Base upon the In the US, a Doctor Nichols, scientists, and plant Red Planet. The whole program will bolster the Soviet economy and lift Russian morale. The manager at Plexicorp in San Francisco begins rocket with a large cargo module will be lifted by a ring of eight boosters into Low Orbit and the to develop the molecular matrix for transparent Delta's engine will complete the lift to either LEO or GEO. The craft is referred to as the DY-100 Aluminum. series. In India, General Khan Noonian Singh becomes The Second-Generation Inter-orbital transfer Vehicles, the CONESTOGAS, developed by SSI of Minister of Defense in the Ghandi Government. Houston and its President Deke Slayton, begin delivery to NASA, ESA, and JSA. Iran-Iraq War ends with both sides declaring victory. The Communist Government of Greece collapses, soviet forces withdraw through Rumania to Besarbia. Within months the communist leaderships of Greece, Rumania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, 1987 Czechoslovakia and Poland fall. An illegal CIA/US Army mission into Columbia following the assassination of Columbia’s leading Investigation of the Shuttle Challenger explosion reveals O-Rings degradation were primary candidate for President is discovered. This leads to more questions on Reagan’s foreign policy. cause of a fuel leak, which led to the explosion. All boosters are reexamined and the design With the Oliver North testimony, and the death of the Deputy Director of the FBI, President process for the Advanced Shuttles receives additional funding, in addition alternative Heavy Lift Reagan assumes all responsibility for the actions in a televised speech two days before the Designs are researched. election. His successor George Bush wins in a landslide as the American People accept the out- The MULES continue in service between SLEOS and FREEDOM Space Station and Mir Sta- going President’s responsibility in this matter. tion, as Space Shuttles restart service with stricter preflight inspections. 1989 1991 cont.

Endeavor Space Shuttle delivered to NASA, the last of the first generation Space Shuttles Kazakhistan’s government is overthrown in a coup led Boeing wins the bid for the Challenger II - Advanced Deployment Shuttle to replace the Colum- by younger officers of its military. bia Class shuttles in the Mid to late 1990's. McDonald Douglas begins construction of the Alter- General Singh of India’s Military, seizes power in the native Heavy Lifter, delivery expected in the early 1990's. Punjab in a joint Sikh/Hindu/Tamil coup that promises NASA takes delivery of its first three CONESTOGAS and lifts them to SLEOS. racial equality for all of India’s ethnic peoples. President Saddam Hussain of Iraq begins CBR and Conventional Buildup of Forces. Soviet Hard Liners fail in an attempted coup of Premier General Noreiga of Panama seizes power and arrests civilian political opposition. US Forces Gorbachev. The coup is defeated by the resistance of enter Panama and within two weeks capture Noreiga, neutralize his military allies and install a Boris Yeltsin, former mayor of Moscow, and current neutral and Panamanian Gendarme in Panama. head of the Russian Republic.

1990

India launches its first Manned Orbital Rocket. The United States, Russia, ESA, China, Japan, and now India have all orbited manned space craft. In Sweden, development of the first practical suspended animation for humans is unveiled for 1992 medical purposes. Iraq begins massive buildup on Kuwaiti border, late in the year, Iraq invades and captures Ku- The Yugoslavian Federation falls apart into splintering and combating ethnic nations. Ethnic wait, US, NATO, Arab and UN forces begin massive buildup to first protect Saudi Arabia (Desert “cleansings” erupt through out the Balkans. Shield) and hopefully to coerce Iraq to leave Kuwait. The Book Chicago Mobs of the Twenties is published in New York. President of Nicaragua is assassinated, Jouchin Olivera becomes head of state. The Freedom Space Station mysteriously explodes. The cause is undetermined but increased safety and security measures are put into effect on SLEOS and MIR. In a rapid and obviously preplanned invasion, Khan’s Indian & Sikh forces invade and conquer Pakistan in a five-day war following the assassination of President Zia of Pakistan when his Jet is shot down by forces loyal to Bhutto. In the United States, the shock of these acts allow De- mocratic Candidate Bill Clinton to sweep by President Bush - despite his previous popularity as the victor in the Gulf War; third party candidate Ross Perot, comes in a distant third. In December, the leaders of Afghanistan, Iran, and 1991 Bangladesh are assassinated. Jean MacBruce is elected Premiere of Quebec. NASA sends the Marco Polo lunar polar orbiter to Moon to begin search for frozen water at its Soviet Union collapses and is replaced by Confederation of Independent States. Boris Yeltsin poles. rises to power by June of the year, in time for the Gulf War crises. The Russian economy near Allied forces first conduct massive Air Strikes, and then in a lightning fast ground war (Desert collapse, Khan of India secretly bankrolls the DY-100 project. Khan also funds the Swedish Storm) defeat Iraq’s “feared” Republican Guards in a 100-hour campaign. sleeper technology research. 1993 1995 cont.

Complete chaos erupts in the former Yugoslavian. NATO troops rush to the Balkans. In the Phillipines, Pro Khan supporters are chased out of the country. Gen- Khan declares the Caliphate of Central Asia and invades Khazakistan, Central India, and Blan- eral Ramos, gains control of the nation, and calls for free elections. gadesh, within weeks he has conquered both nations and occupies half of While withdrawing from southern India, Khan unleashes his nastiest India. The Peoples Republic of China fully mobilizes to stop Khans East- weapon yet, Biological Warfare., It is a Pseudo-Leprosy Disease, a combi- ward march, as he prepares to invade Tibet. In Argentina, the younger nation of the Flu, Plague, with Leprotic symptoms. By years end over 60 Peron seizes complete power and declares war on Chili. In Nicaragua million in India are affected, almost 11 million dead. It quickly spreads to Juachim invades El Salvador. The government of South Africa is seized by Africa in pandemic numbers. AWB extremists and the black opposition is butchered; Winnie Mandela is In Kazahistan, a joint US-Russian assault team captures the eugenics executed while Nelson Mandela barely escapes when he is rescued by leader of that nation, within weeks he is executed. Control of the former Russian journalists. Soviet Missile force is returned to the Russians. However in a lightning In his first year in Office Bill Clinton desperately tries to hold the nation to- strike Khan's forces seizes control of the Baikanur space launch facilities gether and appoints former Joint chiefs Head General Colin Powell, as a and the DY-100 Launch vehicle, however the Security Forces manage to combined National Security Advisor and Secretary of Defense, with a mas- destroy the Command Capsule "Peter the Great" before Khan's troops can sive vote of approval by the US senate. secure it. Mathematician Andrew Wiles, a professor at Princeton University, develops a remarkable proof for Fermat’s last theorem, ending a quest that has baffled mathematicians for hundreds of years.

1996 1994

With NATO troops bogged down in the Balkans, Khans forces invade Tibet, defeating the first PLD is now pandemic in Africa and begins to spread to West Asia and Europe, by years end, two Chinese counter attacks sent to stop him. Southern India capitulates to Khan’s forces and 200 Million are effected and 25 million dead from the disease. he begins maneuvers to bring Sri Lanka under his control. The United States uses the three just coming on line CHALLENGER II Shuttles to maintain high The first use of cryogenics on the critically ill begins. orbit control of Earth's skies, Khan and his allies are prevented from launching of missiles from Baikanur. Khan seeing an end is near, negotiates a surrender, for his and his followers lives in ex- 1995 ile, he promises to release the cure for PLD if a replacement capsule is provided for the DY100. The allied nations provide Khan China begins a massive attack through Burma and Bangladesh quickly overrunning Khan’s and 96 of his "supermen" the S.S. Botany Bay, which is launched forces . The AWB attempts to ally itself with Khan but is defeated when Nelson Mandela re- into space, but telemetry is soon lost. It is later learned that Khan turns and restores South Africa’s government in a surprise counter coup. had smuggled 105 of the Swedish sleeper capsules on board be- McBruce begins campaigning for Quebec independence again. It is later learned that Khan’s is fore launch. The promised cure is quickly developed into a short- financing this move to distract the US and Britain from his attempt to consolidate power in India. term treatment. Earth scientists discover signs of ancient life on Two months later McBruce dies mysteriously. Some claim Khan’s allies are responsible, some Mars. Microscopic fossilized traces in meteorites are the first the United States, while others blame an organization know only as “SEVEN” . In the ensuing physical evidence that humans are not alone in the universe. chaos, a Pro Commonwealth government is established that immediately begins tearing down the McBruce regime’s controls. 1997 2000

A treatment for PLD is found, while not a cure, does stop the disease from progressing. NASA deploys the seventh Advanced D. Shuttle the BADEN-POWELL and retires the vener- After the war, The United States, Europe, Japan, and Russia begin construction of the new able Shuttle Discovery FREEDOM II space station in orbit. It had been discovered that Khan had arranged the sabo- A cure for the PLD virus is found; as a result, within the next ten years most Auto-Immune vi- tage and destruction of the first Freedom station. ruses are eradicated. Africa is still reeling from the effects of PLD, quarantining the continent is effective in the short term, as new cases outside of Africa dwindle. Talks begin to revise and rejuvenate the United Nations. Revising the power of the Security 2001 Council is the main topic of disagreement. Allied troops in India and around Africa begin forming a long-term hierarchy known as the UN Construction of the International Space Station Freedom II continues. The new Millennium is Constabulary. heralded by formation of a United Earth (governed by a revised and strengthened New United Nations) and UESPA (United Earth Space Probe Agency) NASA deploys its last Advanced D. Shuttle the ROBERT BYRD and retires the original Shuttle 1998 Columbia. The UN Constabulary is called in to separate the Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, The FREEDOM II space station is halfway complete. as the British abandon the attempt. A joint US-ESA-Japanese mission is planned to return men to the Moon in 2006. Talks continue for the “New” United Nations. The UN Constabulary establishes its headquarters on the Island of Ceylon, which saw some of 2002 the fiercest battles of the Eugenics War. Tony Blair is elected Prime Minister to replace John Majors of the Conservative Party. Space probe Nomad launched from Earth, the first interstellar probe intended to seek out new life forms. The probe designed by scientist Jackson 1999 Roykirk, is later believed destroyed in a meteoroid collision. Work on FREEDOM II space station continues and will be com- NASA retires the Atlantis and the Endeavor in an- pleted by 2004. NASA launches the Voyager 6 space probe con- ticipation of the launching of the VENTURE STAR tinuing its commitment to planetary science and deep space series of SSTO Orbiters. The Endeavor becomes probes. After a flyby of the outer planets, it transmits a signal to the training platform for NASA pilots. Earth that it picks up from the Saturnian moon Titan and then The United Nation’s Scientific Council releases a completely disappears. 15-year projection estimating that off world and The New York Yankees baseball team has an extraordinary year space-oriented industry to grow at an exponential winning the World Series with what is considered the greatest rate. team ever. NASA accepts bid from Lockheed for a Reusable Single Stage to Orbit Vehicle the Venture Star to be delivered in 2005.

2003 2007 cont.

The United Space Initiative is signed in New York City. This landmark agreement will focus The Diana Program continues with 7 mis- and accelerate Human exploration of the Sol System for the benefit of all humanity. sions in 2007. The Clavius and Faustius craters are selected for bases. A third base on the far side of the moon at the Tsiolkovsky 2004 crater will be set up as well for long range telemetry and astronomy free form Earth The International Space Station Freedom II is completed. The Ad- electromagnetic pollution, this project is vance D. Shuttle Magellan suffers a total engine failure. The crew is named CYCLOPS. rescued by the Japanese Shuttle – Himawari, but the Magellan is destroyed in a controlled manner to prevent it from causing damage while reentering orbit. 2008

The Diana Program continues with 12 missions in 2008. Work begins on the Clavius, Faustius, 2005 and Tsiolkovsky moon bases.

Lockheed delivers to NASA the first VENTURE STAR Orbiter, the VENTURE STAR is the first of twenty planned orbiters planned. 2009 Japan announces it will construct its own second generation SSTO Orbiter the KIRIN class. The United States begins a massive economic downturn in the heavy industrial sector; only the High Tech, Retail, Information and Space Industries are still showing growth. Economic fore- 2006 casts predict 10-20% unemployment within 10-15 years. NASA takes delivery of the third SSTO, the SHINING STAR. The US launches new missions to the Moon, with the goal to begin construction of three new The lunar base at Clavius Crater is completed and is officially christened the Moon Base Alpha, Moon Bases in 2008. The craft to be used is the joint Russian-American developed DY -150 however Clavius Base remains its day-to-day name. Earth-Moon liner. These craft will travel from the International Space Station to Lunar Orbit and use an advanced version of the Lunar Lander to explore the Moon’s surface. The entire project is referred to as the DIANA PROGRAM in honor of the Greek goddess of the Moon. Four Runs 2010 the first year begin regular route. Puerto Rico becomes the 51st State of the United States.

2007 2011 NASA takes delivery of the second SSTO, the BRIGHT STAR. The United Nations Space Inspectorate is commissioned as part of the UN Constabulary, with NASA takes delivery of its fourth SSTO, the LONE STAR limited powers to inspect, and if need be ground ALL spacecraft. The United States, Japan, Japan launches its first SSTO, the SHOGUN Russia, and Great Britain sign on immediately, Canada, China, and France hold out, while India The polar Moon base O’Neill at the Faustius crater is com- is far behind in restarting its space programs. pleted.

2012 2016

The International Space Station begins upgrading The crews for Mars One and Two begin preparations. to the new World Space Station with the addition The DY -200 series of vessels designed, the class ship will be called the ADVENTEUR, typed as of a rotating habitat ring that allows for Earth stan- Fast Cutter ships they are expected to revolutionized space travel in the solar system, and make dard gravity. the need for sleeper technology obsolete. The ADVENTEUR’s will be first tested on the Mars One and Two missions. 2013 Japan launches its second SSTO the AMARATSU

The United States announces its intention to send humans to Mars by 2019. The European and Japa- 2017 nese Space Agencies, along with Russia agree to Mars Observer 2 arrives safely in Martian orbit and begins its mission. A list of sites is prepared join the project as junior partners. NASA will assume 65% of the cost of the project, with the and prioritized. ESA 15% and Russia andthe JSA each taking 10%. NASA takes delivery of its final SSTO, the RISING STAR. France launches its first SSTO, the DeGAULLE The London Treaty Alliance is formed with the reorganization of the Confederation of Independ- NASA takes delivery of the MORNING STAR and assigns it to the UN Space Inspectorate. ent States, NATO and the Scandic Confederation. France annuls its membership within NATO. China launches its first Moon Mission, while Canada signs the Space Inspectorate treaty.

2019 2014 Unemployment in the United States alone reaches 15%, worldwide; it reaches 20% in the indus- The first return of unmanned explorations and investigations of the asteroid belt. trial nations. The far side Moon base at Tsiolkovsky crater is completed and christened the Goddard Moon January 1, 2019 Bade, the CYCLOPS project is started immediately to track both the Mars Observers and the new Voyager 6-8 Missions. In a world ceremony to rival the Millennium Celebration, Mars One launches from the World Space Station on an eighteen-month 2015 journey to Mars. Aboard is a crew of three The World Space Station is completed and comes Americans, two Russians, a Frenchman, a online. Construction begins on Mars One and Mars Brit, and a Japanese. Two in specialized dockyards near the WSS. Mars Observer 2 is launched from Cape Kennedy to begin an intensive study of Mars in preparation for Mars One and Two. July 19, 2019 The London Kings baseball team has a good year, bolstered by the performance of rookie Buck Bokai. Mars One arrives at Mars and settles into NASA takes delivery of the EVENING STAR. orbit. Communication is made with Mars Observer 2, The Neo-Trotsky party defeats the Gaullist Party in final site selection is made while the crew prepares for the landing. France as the economic conditions in Europe worsen. July 20, 2019 2023

On the fiftieth anniversary of the moon landing, American Kara Michelle The third DY200/Adventuer Class the LTASS LEWIS and CLARK is launched. Inokuma becomes the first human to set foot on Mars. Her two colleagues, who raise the American flag on Mars, join her. Shortly thereafter, the other crew raise the Russian, ESA, and JSA flags. Finally, all seven 2024 raise the United Nations flag above them all, to demonstrate Student unrest in Europe makes France an undesirable tourist destination for international trav- that no one nation has territorial elers. Although France’s Neo-Trotsky government tries to quell the protests, they have no claims on Mars. more luck than the earlier Gaullist government. The Voyager Six Probe in the Tensions in the American Sanctuary District A (San Francisco Area) mount and district resi- orbit of Saturn picks up artificial dents take over an administrative processing center, holding six center employees hostage. Electromagnetic Transmissions from the Titan moon. The ensuing riots know as the Bell Riots are named for Gabriel Bell, After being redirected into Titan orbit, telemetry is sud- Sanctuary Resident who manages to keep control of the angry resi- denly lost with the probe and it is declared lost. dents. Mars Base 1 begins search for extraterrestrial life. The residents manage to gain access to Earth’s computer network, and many residents are able to tell their stories of imprisonment to the outside world. As a result, the American public becomes aware of the 2020 great injustice that has been hidden from them. The Bell Riots end when the governor of California orders Federal The American government, reacting to the serious problems of homeless and jobless peoples, troops to retake the processing center by force. Hundreds of sanctu- creates special Sanctuary Districts in most cities where such people can be cared for. Unfortu- ary residents are killed, although none of the hostages are harmed as nately, while established with benevolent intent, the Sanctuary Districts quickly degenerate in Gabriel Bell sacrifices his life to save the hostages. In the wake of the inhumane internment camps where the unemployed, the mentally ill, and other outcasts are im- Bell Riots and the senseless death of prisoned. so many people, American public opin- The LTASS DISCOVERY II, the second DY -200 is launched on Mars Mission Two. In light of ion turns against the Sanctuary Districts. In the ensuing election, the Voyager Six discovery, the DISCOVERY is to pick up the pilot of the Mars One Mission who both major political parties are demolished in the voting retaining will continue on in a parabilic orbit of Saturn to investigate the signal from Titan. only 10% of the electorate combined. New independent, progressive, student, and veteran parties arise owing no political favors and abolish the sanctuaries, as the United States begins 2021 to face serious social problems it has struggled with for over a century. France launches its second SSTO the BONAPARTE. Japan launches its the third SSTO the SAMURAI 2025

2022 The reunification of Ireland is brought about by the use of violence as a tool for political reform. The fourth DY200/Adventuer Class ship the LTASS PROGRESS is launched. The ship was to More massive layoffs occur in the United States, especially in the Californian, Texan, and East- be named the MAGELLAN II, but was renamed in honor of those who gave their lives in the ern Seaboards. Bell Riots. 2026 2031

Harmon “Buck” Bokai, a shortstop from the London Kings who becomes Debate begins at the New United Nations on whether to combine the LTA, Japanese, French, knows as one of baseball’s greatest players, hits in his 57th consecutive and Space Inspectorate fleets into a combined UN Solar Fleet. game, breaking Joe DiMaggio’s long-standing record. The hit is a Ares 3 discovers that the Martian moon Deimos has traces of extra solar metals. squeaker that just goes under Eddie Newsom’s glove. In the 2026 elections in both the United States and the other LTA nations the “Progressive” candidates continue and or gain domination in the elec- 2032 tive offices, the old guard “liberal” and “conservative” parties continue to lose strength. China’s economy begins a major slide towards recession. Japanese eco- Japan launches its fourth SSTO the TOKUGAWA nomic assistance is offered immediately. The New United Nations commissions the UESPA Solar Fleet for security and rescue purposes throughout the inhabited Sol System. 2027 The second UESPA spacecraft the Galileo Class UES COPERNICUS is launched. The fifth DY200/Adventuer Class the LTASS MAGELLAN II is launched. Ares 4 disappears when an unknown phenomenon engulfs the main capsule, neither the ship or its commander are ever seen 2028 again, as the phenomenon disappears a few hours later. The third French SSTO the FRATERNITIE is launched In a joint LTA-Japanese project headed by the UN Space Inspectorate and UNESPA launch a new class of Space Craft. The UES GALILEO Class Interplanetary Space Cruiser is launched. With a crew of 6 and passenger complement of 92, the Galileo’s open up colonization of the moon and eventually Mars, the Asteroid Belt, and the Jovian Moons. 2033

2029 The fifty-second state Guam is admitted to the United States. Project Cyclops at Farside Moon base detects first intelligent signals Japan, Philippines, and China files protests con- heard from space by Terrans. cerning the Statehood of Guam. The sixth DY200/Adventuer Class the LTASS ARES is launched and begins yearly missions of a solely scientific nature. Ares 1 discovers that Mars has its own Van Allen belts albeit of a much smaller and less American Flag circa 2033 detectable nature. 2034

The seventh Adventuer Class ship is launched as a UESPA flagged vessel, the UES CRISTO- 2030 PHER COLUMBO. A joint Sino-Japanese project launches the UES KUBLAI, a new class of interplanetary escort. Zefram Cochrane, inventor of warp drive, is born. Pan-European Party wins elections in France. France petitions to re-enter European Union. Ares 2 is launched and studies the 2030 Solar Flares from the Mars orbit. 2035 2039

The third Galileo Class ship the UES NEWTON is launched. The UES Base on Pluto becomes operational. Korea joins Japan, China and the Philippines in an Asiatic The first Eastern Coalition flagged space ship the EC RYUUJIN class ship, which is an entire Economic Union and Trade Coalition, which is quickly referred new development for the EC over the previous UES KUBLAI class. to as the Eastern Coalition.

2040 2036 Television no longer survives as a significant form of entertainment. In a landmark case the United Nations and the Hague rule that The Adventuer class ship the UES VASCO DE GAMA is launched. the Citizens of Earth may not be held responsible for the crimes committed by their ancestors, The UES CHRISTOPHER COLUMBO is hit by an uncharted micro comet and destroyed, all thus seemingly ending the centuries long conflict in the Balkans. hands are lost. Hover cars come into popular use. New space-time research finds holes in the general theory making faster then light communication and maybe even travel theoretically possible, though not yet 2041 an actuality. Developments in interplanetary travel continue, UESPA begins development of the COLUM- BUS class, an advanced and longer range version of the ADVENTUER class. 2037 Thailand’s government falls in elections, the new government reinstates the monarchy and calling itself the Kingdom of Siam joins the Eastern Coalition. Under contract to UESPA, NASA launches the UES CHARYB- DIS, under the command of Colonel Steven Richey. An experimental long-range version of the GALILEO class, it is the third 2042 attempt to explore beyond the solar system. Professional baseball dies after this year’s season. The fi nal game of the last World Series draws only 300 spectators. 2038 The last Adventuer the UES HERNANDO DE SOTO is launched. The Ryuujin Class ship the EC YURIKAZI is launched. Development of “Star liners” for inter- An apparent arms race has begun between the London Treaty Alliance dominated United Na- planetary travel begins. tions and the Eastern Coalition. Neutral Nations begin choosing which coalition to join as the The Adventuer Class ship the UES specter of Global War arises again. HENRY HUDSON is launched. The fifth Galileo Class ship the UES TYCHO BRAHE is launched. 2043

First Mind Control riots begin in Indonesia, with the next four years all local governments attempting to use drugs and be- havioral implants to control their populations, cease the practice as it begins to backfire.

2043 continued 2049 The UES COLUMBUS is launched it is the first of its class, and is expected to make great inroads The Eastern Coalition launches the fourth Ryuujin class cruiser the EC HIRYU. into interplanetary and maybe even interstellar travel. 2050

In the United States, a second generation Serbian-American Colonel Stanley Sergeyvich Green is assigned oversight of the NORAD facility, as the LTA begins restoring these old facilities in light of EC buildup. 2044

All contact with the UES CHARYBDIS is lost in this year, as telemetry is lost. 2051

United Nations Geneva headquarters is destroyed by terrorists. 2045

The New United Nations celebrates 100 years of cooperation among the peoples of Terra. 2052 People throughout the Solar System take part. UES ENTERPRISE the second COLUMBUS class explorer is launched and heads for the last The Eastern Coalition launch the fifth Ryuujin class cruiser the EC reported position of the CHARYBDIS KAGENA. The LTA launches the first of the GLENN class corvettes as a counter to the EC RYUUJIN class. 2046 Tensions mount between the Eastern Coalition and the London Treaty Alliance, when the delegates from the Eastern Coalition na- The Eastern Coalition launches the third Ryuujin class cruiser the EC RYUUZA. tions walk out on the New United Nations.

2047 2053, July 6th

The LTA and Eastern Coalition begin a series of trade tariff disputes that continues until 2057. Earth’s civilization is devastated by World War III. The infamous Colo- nel Green is a key figure in this horrific conflict, which results in the death of untold millions (best figures surpass 500 million dead from di- 2048 rect strikes alone) of humans, and nearly returns Earth society to the stone age. The planet’s climate experiences a serious “nuclear winter” Scientists from Cal. Poly. present evidence of a temporal incursion in San Francisco early in caused by thousands of tons of dust and debris kicked into the atmos- this year, they are researching the possibility of a similar incursion in 2024. phere by the nuclear explosions. The UES ENTERPRISE arrives off Saturn at the last known position of the CHARYBDUS. They detect a still strong ion trail heading out of the Solar System towards Alpha Centauri, the (some confusion exists with the numbering of the “World Wars” of Earth His- crew is directed to follow the trail, which they do, expecting to arrive in 6 years. tory. While some historians notably of Non-Terran origin labeled the Eugenics War the third, and Colonel Green’s War the fourth, current usage is as this text denotes. Further study may be made in Gerard Stein’s Earth’s Five World Wars, an Analysis of Humanities Total Wars.) 2054 2057 cont. Within three days the space platform, all three of the YAMAMOTO cruisers, and eight of the ten The UES ENTERPRISE reaches Alpha Centauri and finds the 7th planet already inhabited, remaining RYUUJIN destroyers are destroyed. The EC quickly sues for peace, the EC Head- apparently by the descendents of the ancient Greeks transported from Earth by the Preservers. quarters in Northern Japan refuses to capitulate and is destroyed from space. Thus ends the Fighting between the LTA and the EC continues in space, as both sides savage each other’s Third World War. fleets, each side races to launch new ships to overwhelm the other and end the war. 2058

2055 The non-LTA nations of Europe and Scandinavia unite to form the European Federation. The LTA turns over operational control and authority of their military spacecraft to the UESPA. Almost simultaneously the LTA and the EC launch their new cruisers the LIBERTY and the YAMATO classes respectively. An uneasy truce continues as both sides attempt to out build the other. 2059

The LTA and the European Federation begin joint expeditions to the Middle East and South America to help rebuild the infrastructure in those areas, a revitalized “United Nations Peace Corps” is the basis of this endeavor, thousands of youth and newly discharged veterans flock to his humanitarian effort that as a side effect keeps unemployment in the LTA and EF at ac- ceptable non-crises levels.

2056

The UES ship VASCO DE GAMA is destroyed when it collides with the EC RYUUJIN as the Ryuujin tried to ram itself into the UES Base on Pluto, the Pluto base is thereafter abandoned and is not re-manned until the mid 2060’s.

2060 2057 A revolt of Special Forces units of the The EC launches a mobile LTA, is put down, Revolt Leaders and weapons platform into near Troops undergo extensive rehabilitation in Earth orbit. In its first pass an effort to reintegrate them into the civi l- the LTA headquarters in ian world, many opt for passage on new Greenland is destroyed. The long range colony ships instead. LTA then launched its new These colony ships begin to emerge as a battleshipS the UES TEXAS method for many disenfranchised groups and the UES WASHING- to seek out new lives. Contact and teleme- TON. try is lost with most, as these DY ships depart the SOL system. 2061

Advanced Energy and Propulsion Scientist Zephram Cochrane disappears from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory research facilities. Later it is found he has set up an experimental spacecraft inside of an abandoned Missile Silo in Mon- tana with the backing of unknown sources.

2062

Japan, China, Korea and Indonesia withdraw from the EC, while the smaller nations remain in the organizations, its focus becomes one of a Trade Alliance among developing nations.

2063

Zephram Cochrane pilots Earth’s first faster-than-light space flight. Cochrane’s ship, the Phoe- nix, is a tiny vessel that, ironically, was built from an unused nuclear missile left over from the third world war. The warp signature of the Phoenix attracts the attention of a passing Vulcan ship, indicating that humankind now has the capacity for interstellar travel. Within a day of the Phoenix’s epic flight, Cochrane becomes the first human to officially make contact with extraterrestrial life, when the Vulcan ship lands at Cochrane’s Montana base on the North American continent. The event sparks a remarkable turning point in the difficult recovery from Earth’s terrible nuclear war and marks the beginning of humanity’s interstellar age.

Ship Classifications Sputnik: A voice from the Heavens

01 June 1946 - Groettrup team completes R-2 design. 30 January 1958 - LV Configuration: R-7 8K71 M1-12. R-7 test flight. Failure: The missile ex- 01 September 1946 - Groettrup team designs 2 stage IRBM. ploded a few seconds after liftoff. Launch Site: Baikonur . More details 23 October 1946 - Groettrup team transported to Soviet Union. 29 March 1958 - R-7 test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 July 1947 - Kapustin Yar selected for missile tests. Launch Site: Kapustin Yar . 01 April 1958 - Plesetsk construcion begins. Launch Site: Plesetsk . 01 September 1947 - R-10 designed by Groettrup team. 04 April 1958 - R-7 test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 March 1949 - Groettrup team completes R-12 design. 24 May 1958 - R-7 test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . More details 01 June 1949 - Groettrup team designs R-13. 24 December 1958 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 test flight. Failure: Failure. Launch Site: 01 October 1949 - Groettrup team designs R-14. Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details 21 March 1951 - First Germans returned to Germany. 17 March 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 04 October 1951 - Russian satellite predicted. Launch Complex: LC1. More details 01 April 1953 - USSR Council of Ministers approve Korolev R-7 ICBM 25 March 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 28 November 1953 - Groettrup and last Germans return to Germany. Launch Complex: LC1. More details 30 May 1954 - Go-ahead for R-7 ICBM by designers council Launch Site: Baikonur . 31 March 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Failure. Failure: Failure. 12 January 1955 - First 30 construction workers arrive at Tyuratam Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details 12 January 1955 - Tyuratam selected for ICBM test range. Launch Site: Baikonur . 09 May 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 April 1955 - Housing/road constructions starts at Tyuratam Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details 19 June 1955 - First surveyors arrive at Tyuratam. Launch Site: Baikonur . 31 May 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 August 1955 - LC 1 launch pad excavation starts Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details 04 April 1956 - First concrete poured at pad A at Tyuratam Launch Site: Baikonur . 09 June 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 June 1956 - Work begun on the Soviet Union's first satellite Launch Complex: LC1. More details 01 August 1956 - First ground equipment installed at Tyuratam Launch Site: Baikonur . 18 July 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 04 March 1957 - Checkout of first R-7 starts Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details 05 May 1957 - 1st R-7 rolled out to pad Launch Site: Baikonur . 30 July 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 15 May 1957 - LV Configuration: R-7 8K71 M1-5. R-7 test flight. Failure: Failure of Block D Launch Complex: LC1. More details strapon, which tore away from the core 98 seconds after liftoff. The booster crashed 400 km 14 August 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . from the pad. A fuel leak in the pump outlet led to a fire in the engine compartment from Launch Complex: LC1. More details the time of liftoff. Launch Site: Baikonur . More details 18 September 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: 11 June 1957 - LV Configuration: R-7 8K71 M1-6. R-7 launch attempt Launch Site: Baikonur . Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details Launch Complex: LC1. 30 September 1959 - R-7 test flight. Failure: Failure. Launch Site: Baikonur . More details 12 July 1957 - LV Configuration: R-7 8K71 M1-7. R-7 test flight. Failure: Failure of the control sys- 31 October 1959 - First R-7 missiles go on alert at Plesetsk. Launch Site: Plesetsk . tem due to a short circuit of the battery. Rapid roll developed, resulting in all four strap-on 02 November 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. Full range R-7 development test flight. Launch boosters flying away from the co re at 33 seconds in the flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . More Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details details 21 November 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. Full range R-7 development test flight. Launch 21 August 1957 - LV Configuration: R-7 8K71 M1-8. R-7 test flight - first successful intercontinen- Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details tal Launch Site: Baikonur . More details 27 November 1959 - LV Configuration: 8K71. Final R-7 development test flight. Launch Site: 26 August 1957 - R-7 ICBM announced publicly. Launch Site: Baikonur . Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. More details 07 September 1957 - LV Configuration: R-7 8K71 M1-9. R-7 test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . 20 January 1960 - R-7 test flight. Launch Site: Baikonur . More details More details 04 June 1960 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 readiness verification test. Launch Site: Baikonur . 04 October 1957 - LV Configuration: Sputnik 8K71PS s/n M1-1PS. Sputnik 1 Launch Site: More details Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. Total Payload Mass: 84 kg. More details 27 February 1961 - LV Configuration: 8K71. R-7 readiness verification test. Launch Site: 03 November 1957 - LV Configuration: Sputnik 8K71PS s/n M1-2PS. Sputnik 2 Launch Site: Baikonur . More details R7/Sputnik Class Rocket/Satellite

R7 Launcher Sputnik Satellite Flag Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Dates of Service 15 May 1957 - 27 February 1961 04-24 October 1957 Displacement 267 mt 84 Kilograms Overall Length 30 m .58 m Overall Draft 8.4 m .58 m Overall Beam 8.4 m .58 m Propulsion: LOX-Kerosine. RD-107-8D74PS (1+4)Engines Inertial Momentum (combined 396,300 kgf thrust) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 308 seconds 21 Days Embarked Craft: N/A N/A Complement: Unmanned Unmanned Navigation: NII-885 - Ryazanskiy, Pilyugin – N/A Guidance control system Computers: Remote Ground Controled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none 2 mm thick Aluminum AMG6T alloy Life Support: N/A N/A Explorer: America talks Back

Part of the Explorer program

Explorer I was the first United States satellite. It consisted of the fourth stage of the Jupiter C rocket, and was built by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and JPL. The satellite provided preliminary information on the environment and conditions in space outside Earth's atmosphere. It resulted in the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts, named after the cosmic ray instrument scientist, Dr. James A. Van Allen. Spacecraft The spacecraft was built within the fourth stage section of the rocket. It consisted of a lower fiberglass ring with external temperature sensors mounted onto it along with four turnstile antenna wires for the high power transmitter. Above that were the science instruments and just below the nose cone was the low power transmitter and batteries. The nose cone held another temperature gauge. Payload Instruments included a cosmic ray and micrometeorite package, a micrometeorite impact microphone, micrometeorite erosion gauges, and internal and external temperature gauges. Status as of Circled the Earth more than 58,000 times before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere over the South Pacific March 31, 1970.

Country of Origin United States Customer/User US Army Manufacturer(s) Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Size 2.05 m long x 16.5 cm diameter Orbit 347 x 1859 km @ 33.2 degrees inclination Design Life ~ 4 months operational

Name Int'l Desig. Date Site Vehicle Orbit Mass(kg) Notes Explorer 1 1958-[Alpha]1 1/31/58 ESMC Jupiter C LEO 5 kg

Discovered Van Allen radiation belts; 1st successful US orbital launch JupiterC/Explorer Class Rocket/Satellite

Jupiter C Launcher Explorer Satellite Flag United States of America (USA) Dates of Service 20 Sep. 1956 - 23 Oct.1958 31Jan. 1958 to 30 Mar. 1970 Displacement 29,060 kg 39.6 kg Overall Length 23 m 2.032 m Overall Draft 1.8 m .1524m Overall Beam 1.8 m .1524m Propulsion: LOX/Hydyne. Rocketdyne A-7 Resdtone Engine Inertial Momentum (combined 37,630 kgf thrust) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 797 seconds (combined burn) 22 years, 2 months Embarked Craft: N/A N/A Complement: Unmanned Unmanned Navigation: ERA Atlas I /Univac 1101 N/A Guidance control system Computers: Remote Ground Controlled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none 2 mm Aluminum Life Support: N/A N/A Yuri Gagarin, First Human in Space

Every nation has its own glorious anniversaries to celebrate, but few are shared by the whole ture, to spark a similar U.S. surge. world. The 200th anniversary of human spaceflight, April 12, understandably is a red-letter day in In the meantime, international coordination and Russia, homeland of the world's first space traveler, but it is a logical candidate for world-wide joint projects are attractive for many reasons, but celebration as well. speed, economy and efficiency are not among Centuries from now, it may be one of only a few earthborn anniversaries to be celebrated by off- them. world humanity. In anticipation of such a multi-planetary future for humanity, forward-looking Third, Vostok gave the Soviets another, crowning first people all over our present single planet should pause to consider What April 12, 1961, gave to of which to be genuinely proud. Consider the pre- Earth. ceding years, as the Russians struggled with their First, of course, it gave a young, cocky hero: Yuri Gagarin, the jet pilot who was selected to be first fear of The West and their inferiority complex toward in flight and whose first words in flight -- "Poyekhali," or "Off we go!" -- perfectly epitomized the ad- Western science, technology and weapons. Phony venture. Gagarin was a confident, action-oriented young man, neither profound nor convoluted series of what were called Russian firsts were a poor in his thinking, reliable and sturdy in his response to the challenge of the Vostok spacecraft. His domestic propaganda substitute for reality, and image benefits from its eternal youth, since his early death a few years later preserved his fame xenophobia (stoked for political purposes by the against growing old. Such a man was needed to step across the frontier where unknown physical Kremlin) expressed itself in both internal and external and psychological dangers lay in wait. Today we have forgotten just how much was feared violence. But with the space successes of Sputnik, about spaceflight, and that is another implicit tribute to what Gagarin did. Lunik, Vostok and others, the Russians basked in new Gagarin's flight marked the most frantic lap in the space race, a competition that taught us les- world-wide admiration, and they reveled in the un- sons about space projects that are forgotten only at our peril. As with any military offensive, it is accustomed respect. the short term concentration of forces and their coordination in pursuit of swell defined goal that This in turn coincided with (and may in no small part lead to success. have contributed to) the relaxation of paranoia with Space projects that worked - Vostok, Apollo, Viking, even the first shuttle mission--were character- which the Russians had viewed the outside world. Their space successes allowed them to feel ized by a crash style over a short span of years, were staffed by the best people drawn from they had come of age and could take their place in the big league of modern nations. many different backgrounds and were success-oriented. Space projects that have not worked Details of that world-shaking, world-circling feat have faded over the decades. Contemporary (or are not working) lack these features. Soviet propagandistic lies about the flight path and landing profile have been exposed, repudi- Second, the Vostok flight gave the United States the last and greatest kick in the pants to launch ated and forgotten. Equally shameful Western rationalizations, such as the false belief that the a crew to the moon Newly inaugurated U.S. president John Kennedy was confronted with a spiri- flight was a fake, or was preceded by the slaughter of a legion of secret cosmonauts, or was due tual challenge which demanded energetic, visionary response. Had the manned Mercury- only to the Soviet Union's capture of "better Germans" also have faded into deserved obscurity. Redstone flight been a few weeks earlier, in time to beat the Vostok into space, few people The fact that the pioneering flight was made is bound to survive in human consciousness indefi- would have later cared about the technical difference between sub-orbital and orbital missions. nitely, as further details begin to fade. Uncounted millennia from now, when the names of 20th The United States could have declared the space race won and gone on to other interests, and century presidents, premiers and even nations will slip from human memory, Yuri's name and smile the decades that followed might have been filled with, at best, Gemini-class orbits and Skylab- will shine on, and rightly so. class space stations. It is a truism that the great est athletic records are set when the best athletes compete head to by James Oberg head, each wringing out the superior performance from other competitors. Originally appeared in Space News, April 8-14, 1991 In the same vein, Vostok spurred on Americans via a combination of humiliation, egotism and Reproduced with permission outright terror, and similar motivations drove Soviet space officials. Today, the Cold War that fu- James Oberg was a space engineer in Houston & author of books on the Soviet space program. eled the space race is gone, but perhaps another Vostok-type shock may come again in the fu- A1/Vostok 1 * Class Rocket/Capsule

A1 Launcher (Vostok 8K72K) Vostok I Capsule Flag Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Dates of Service 22 Dec 1960 – 16 June 1962 12 April 1961 Displacement 281.375 metric tons 4,725 Kilograms Overall Length 30.8 m 4.4 m Overall Draft 8.4 m 2.4 m Overall Beam 8.4 m 2.4 m Propulsion: LOX- Kerosene RD-107/108 -8D74PS OKB-2 - Isayev - TDU (1+4) Engines retrofire rocket (combined 397,103 kgf thrust) engine system Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 13 minutes and 4 seconds 100.8 minutes / 1 Orbits Embarked Craft: N/A N/A Complement: Unmanned 1 Pilot (Major Yuri Gagarin) Navigation: NII-885 - Ryazanskiy, Pilyugin – LII - N S Stroev Guidance control system Guidance system Computers: Remote Ground Controlled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Aluminum Armor Life Support: N/A OKB-124 - G I Voronin - Oxy Re gen. System Mercury 7: America’s Venture into Space

Crew: Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Pilot Mission Duration: 15 Minutes, 22 Seconds Number of Orbits: Sub-orbital Recovery: U.S.S. Lake Champlain (Atlantic Ocean) Mission Summary: Shepard became the first American astronaut. Although this was a sub-orbital flight only, the Freedom 7 capsule climbed high enough for Mission MR-3 to be considered a true space flight. After reaching a peak altitude of 116.5 miles and peak velocity of 5,180 miles per-hour, the Mercury capsule splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean 302 miles downrange of the launch site. Shepard and the capsule were recovered by helicopter within six minutes of splashdown and placed aboard the recovery vessel about five minutes later. During the flight, Shepard experienced a maximum six times normal gravity during ascent, about five minutes of weightlessness and slightly less than 12 times normal gravity during capsule re-entry. Shepard successfully completed all tasks he was assigned, including manually guiding the Freedom 7 capsule in a specific direction from the time it separated from the Red- stone booster. This demonstrated to NASA that a human could control a vehicle during weightlessness and high gravity stresses without adverse physiological effects. The Freedom 7 capsule did not have a window, but Shepard was able to see outside through a periscope. Unfortunately, his view was in black-and-white because a gray fil- ter was mistakenly never removed from the periscope lens. Both the Freedom 7 capsule and Shepard were recovered in excellent condition, and Shepard was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal by President John F. Ken- nedy during a White House ceremony on May 8, 1961. Note: The Soviet Union launched the first human into space on April 12, 1961. Cosmo- naut Yuri Gagarin, aboard the Vostok 1 capsule, completed one Earth orbit at a maximum altitude of 203 miles.

Redstone / Mercury * Class Rocket/Capsule

Redstone Launcher 9 (RS/CC/MR-7) Mercury 1 Capsule: Freedom 7

Flag United States of America (USA) Dates of Service 21 Nov 1960 – 15 May 1993 05 May 1961 Displacement 28.440 metric tons 1,290 Kilograms Overall Length 21.0 m 3.5 m Overall Draft 4.2 m 1.9 m Overall Beam 4.2 m 1.9 m Propulsion: LOX-Alcohol. One Rocketdyne A-6 Engine (1)1,578 kgf (42,251 kgf thrust) Retropack, Reaction Control Sys. System: Six 11 kgf each Velocity: 11,628 km/h Stand. Cruising Speed 11,628 km/h 11,628 km/h Max. Cruising Speed 11,628 km/h 11,628 km/h Max. Attainable Velocity 11,628 km/h Duration: 6 minutes and 30 seconds 15 minutes/Su-Orbital Embarked Craft: N/A N/A Complement: Unmanned 1 (LCDR Alan Shepard) Navigation: ERA Atlas I /Univac 1101 N/A Guidance control system Computers: Remote Ground Controlled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Molybdenum coated Aluminum Armor Life Support: N/A Mark III, Renox - - Oxy Regen. System

Vokshod: Leonov takes

the first space walk.

18 March 1965 07:00 GMT. Duration: 1.08 days. Call Sign: Almaz (Diamond ). Backup Crew: Gorbatko, Khrunov, Zaikin. Nation: USSR. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. Launch Vehicle: Voskhod 11A57 . Program: Voskhod. Class: Manned. Type: Spacecraft. Spacecraft: Voskhod 3KD. Payload: Voskhod 3KD s/n 4. Mass: 5,682 kg. Location of Spacecraft : RKK Energia Museum, Korolev, Russia. Perigee: 167 km. Apogee: 475 km. Inclination: 64.8 deg. Period: 90.9 min. First spacewalk, with a two man crew of Colonel Pavel Belyayev and Lt. Colo- nel Aleksey Leonov. During Voskhod 2's second orbit, Leonov stepped from the vehicle and performed mankind's first "walk in space." After 10 min of extrav e- hicular activity, he returned safely to the spacecraft through an inflatable airlock. This mission was the original raison d'etre of the Voskhod series, with the original name 'Advance'. It almost ended in disaster when Leonov was unable to reenter the airlock due to stiffness of the inflated spacesuit. He had to bleed air from the suit in order to get into the airlock. After Leonov finally managed to get back into the spacecraft cabin, the primary hatch would not seal completely. The env i- ronmental control system compensated by flooding the cabin with oxygen, creating a serious fire hazard in a craft only qualified for sea level nitrogen-oxygen gas mixes (Cosmonaut Bondarenko had burned to death in a ground accident in such circumstances, preceding the Apollo 204 disaster by many years). On re-entry the primary retrorockets failed. A manually controlled retrofire was accomplished one orbit later (perhaps with the backup solid rocket retropack on the nose of spacecraft - which did not exist on Vostok). The service module failed to separate completely, leading to wild gyrations of the joined reentry sphere - service module before connecting wires burned through. Vostok 2 finally landed near Perm in the Ural mountains in heavy forest at 59:34 N 55:28 E on March 19, 1965 9:02 GMT. The crew spent the night in the woods, surrounded by wolves, before being located. Recovery crew had to chop down trees to clear a landing zone for helicopter recovery of the crew, who had to ski to the clearing from the spacecraft. Only some days later could the capsule itself be removed. Although trumpeted to the world as a triumph (with suspect TV pictures and film of the spacewalk which did not match), this was the swan song of the Soviet space program and for Korolev. Follow-on Voskhod missions were cancelled as too dangerous, and America took the lead with Gemini 4 and subsequent missions taking the records for duration, rendezvous and docking, and spacewalking.

A2/Voskhod 2 * Class Rocket/Capsule

A2 Launcher (Voskhod 11A57) Voskhod 2 Capsule

Flag Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Dates of Service 06 October 1964 – 22 February 1966 18 March 1965 Displacement 298.400 mt 5,682 Kilograms Overall Length 49.8 m 5.0 m Overall Draft 8.4 m 2.4 m Overall Beam 8.4 m 2.4 m Propulsion: LOX-Kerosine. RD-107/108 -8D74PS (1+4)Engines Solid Fuel: Retro (combined 407,879 kgf thrust) rocket engine system Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h

Duration: 11 minutes and 0 seconds 25 Hours, 55.2 Minutes /17 Orbits Embarked Craft: N/A Inflatable Airlock Complement: Unmanned Lt. Colonel P Belayev Captain A. Leonov Navigation: NII-885 - Ryazanskiy, Pilyugin – LII - N S Stroev Guidance control system Guidance system Computers: Remote Ground Controled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Aluminum Armor Life Support: N/A OKB-124 - G I Voronin - Oxy Regen. System Gemini Program: America’s Space Program Take Two

It was obvious to NASA that there was a big gap of three to four years between the last Mercury flight and the first scheduled Apollo flight. There would therefore be no experience in the US in understanding the problems of orbital maneuvering, rendezvous, docking, lifting re-entry, and space walking before the Apollo flights, which required all of these to be successfully accomplished to complete the lunar landing mission. Gemini began as Mercury Mark II to fill this gap. The concept was to enlarge the Me rcury capsule's basic design to accommodate two crew, provide it with orbital maneuvering capability, use existing boosters to launch it and an existing upper rocket stage as a docking target. The latest aircraft engineering was exploited , resulting in a modularised design that provided easy access to and change out of equipment mounted external to the crew's pressure vessel. In many ways the Gemini design was ahead of that of the Apollo, since the project began two years later . The crew station layout was similar to that of the latest military fighters; the capsule was equipped with ejection seats, inertial navigation, the pilot's traditional 8-ball attitude display, and radar. The escape tower used for Mercury was deleted; the propellants used in the Titan II launch vehicle, while toxic, corrosive, poisonous, and self-igniting, did not explode in the manner of the Atlas or Saturn LOX/Kerosene combination. The ejection seats served as the crew escape method in the lower atmosphere, just as in a high -performance aircraft. The seats were also needed for the original landing mode, which involved deployment of a huge inflated Rogallo wing (ancestor of today's hang gliders) with a piloted landing on skids at Edwards Dry Lake. In the event, the wing could not be made to deploy reliably before flights began, so the capsule made a parachute-borne water landing, much to the astronauts' chagrin.

Titan 2 Gemini - The Titan 2 ICBM was used for launch of the Gemini manned spacecraft.

TitanII / Gemini VI * Class Rocket/Capsule

Titan II Launcher Gemini VI Capsule Flag United States of America (USA) Dates of Service 8 April 1964 – 15 Nov. 1966 15-16 Dec 1965 Displacement 150.530 mt 3,851 Kilograms Overall Length 36.0 m 5.7 m Overall Draft 3.1 m 3.0 m Overall Beam 3.1 m 3.0 m Propulsion: Two Stage N204/Aerozine fueled 2@LR87-7 RCS N2O4/MMH And 1@LR91-7 Engines Fueled 16 @ 10kgf (combined 407,879 kgf thrust) Reaction Control System Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 6 minutes and 58 seconds 25 Hours, 15.96Minutes /16 Orbits Embarked Craft: N/A Rendevous with Gemini VII vice Agena D Complement: Unmanned Captain W. Shirra, USN Major T. Stafford, USAF Navigation: IBM Ground Control Guidance System Honeywell Internal Navigation System Computers: IBM 360 Mainframe Computer System Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Molybdium coated Alumnium Armor Life Support: N/A Mark III, Renox - - Oxy Regen. System The Long March for China into Space

Launch Vehicle: CZ-2C. satellites into polar and sun-synchronous orbits. The CZ-4's typical payload capability is 1,650kg into a 600km sun- Definitive low earth orbit launch vehicle derived from DF-5 ICBM, FB-1 launch vehicle. Provided basis for subsequent synchronous orbits and 4,680 kg into a 200km circular orbit. On September 7, 1988, the CZ-4A made its first flight, suc- family of launch vehicles. The Long March 2C was a two-stage launch vehicle with storable propellants, suitable for cessfully launching China's first experimental meteorological satellite. Another meteorological satellite was success- launching a variety of low earth orbit satellites. The CZ-2C's typical payload capability was 2,800 kg into a 200 km fully launched by a CZ -4A on September 3, 1990. The CZ-4B introduced in 1999 was an improved model with en- circular orbit. The CZ-2C could be launched from either the Jiuquan or Taiyuan launch sites. On October 6, 1992, the hanced third stage and fairing. It measured 44.1 metres in length with a first stage thrust of 300 tons. Swedish Freja satellite was successfully launched as a co-passenger on the CZ-2C's thirteenth flight. On April 28, 1993, the Chinese Great Wall Industrial Corporation and Motorola signed a launch services contract for multiple Launch Vehicle: CZ-2 Space plane Launcher . launch of Iridium communications satellites using CZ-2C/SD launch vehicles. The main differences between the CZ- Tsien’s manned spacecraft design proposed in the late 1970’s was a winged space plane, launched by a CZ-2 2C and the CZ-2C/SD were: a modified fairing with a diameter of 3.35m; a newly developed Smart Dispenser; m-i core booster with two large strap-on boosters. It so strongly resembled the cancelled US Dynasoar of 15 years earlier proved second stage fuel and oxidizer tanks; and second stage engines with higher expansion ratio nozzles. Each that US intelligence analysts wondered if it wasn’t based on declassified Dynasoar technical information. First public CZ -2C/SD had the capacity of delivering two Iridium system satellites. A successful CZ-2C/SD demonstration launch announcement of the manned program came in February, 1978. In January, 1980 the Chinese press reported a visit was conducted from Taiyuan on September 1, 1997. The first three deployment launches for the Iridium program with the Chinese astronaut trainees at the Chinese manned space flight training center. Photographs appeared of were successfully conducted on December 8, 1997, March 26, 1998 and May 2, 1998. the astronauts at the controls of a space shuttle-like space plane cockpit. But then, suddenly, in December, 1980, Wang Zhuanshan, the Secretary General of the New China Space Research Society and Chief Engineer of the Launch Vehicle: CZ-2D. Space Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, announced that Chinese manned flight was being postponed The Long March 2D was a two-stage launch vehicle with storable propellants, suitable for launching a variety of low because of its cost. Fundamental economic development was given priority. earth orbit satellites. Developed and manufactured by the Shanghai Academy of Space flight Technology, the CZ- Masses, performance estimated based on two strap-on boosters identical to CZ-2 first stage on a CZ-2 core. 2D had a typical payload capability of 3,500kg in a 200 km circular orbit. Its first stage was identical to that of the CZ -4. The second stage was essentially the same as that of the CZ-4, except for an improved vehicle equipment Launch Vehicle: Project 921. bay. In April 1992 the Chinese leadership decided that an independent manned space program could now be af- forded. The State Council directed that a manned spacecraft be launched before the new millennium in order to Launch Vehicle: CZ-2E. establish China’s place as one of the Great Powers. The Chinese National Manned Space Program was given the Largest Chinese launch vehicle, using four liquid rocket booster strap-ons to reach LEO payload capabilities ap- designation Project 921. An early design of the spacecraft was presented to the International Astronautical Federa- proaching the Russian Proton, US Titan, or European Ariane rockets. The Long March 2E had a maximum payload tion in 1992. To launch the spacecraft a new rocket using liquid oxygen and kerosene was proposed. This would capability of 9,500 kg. The CZ-2E was based on the mature technology of previous versions of Long March launch eliminate the toxic propellants used in the CZ-2E. Clustering of identical first stages would allow heavier payloads, vehicles. With a solid Perigee Kick Motor (EPKM, built by Hexi Company, China), the CZ-2E could put 3,500 kg into a such as the 921-2 orbital laboratory, to be placed into orbit. This concept is very similar to the American EELV systems geo-synchronous transfer orbit. (Delta 4 and Atlas 5) and the Russian Angara. The original Project 921 proposal was issued by the Shanghai Astronautics Bureau in October 1993 for inclusion in the Launch Vehicle: CZ-3. Eight and Ninth Five Year Economic Plans. Shanghai proposed the development of six large carrier rockets and The Long March 3 was a three-stage launch vehicle designed for delivery of satellites of 1,500 kg mass into geo- eight new spacecraft. But the plan was not approved in its entirety. The program for the new liquid oxygen and synchronous transfer orbit. The first and second stages were based on the CZ-2C, and designed and manufactured kerosene rockets was delayed, and resources were put instead into the development of large solid motors for mili- by the Shanghai Academy of Space flight Technology. The majority of the technology and flight hardware used in tary use. The Project 921-1 spacecraft was approved for launch on a modification of the CZ-2E, called CZ-2F. the CZ-3 had been qualified and proven on the CZ-2C. The third stage, manufactured by CALT, was equipped with Basic research work continues on the new launch vehicle. It will use high performance Lox/Kerosene and Lox/LH2 an LOX/LH2 cryogenic engine. Long March 3 was also capable of placing spacecraft into an elliptical or circular engines, possibly incorporating licensed Russian technology. In the absence of full development funding, it seems low earth orbit and sun synchronous orbit. unlikely to be operational until well into the 21st Century. Such a time scale brings it into competition with the more ambitious 921-3 reusable space transport system, and perhaps only one of the two will go into production. Launch Vehicle: CZ-4A. The Long March 4 was a three-stage launch vehicle using storable propellants. The CZ-4 was developed and manu- Launch Vehicle: CZ-3A . factured by the Shanghai Academy of Space flight Technology. Its first stage was essentially the same as that of the The Long March 3A was a three-stage launch vehicle. By incorporating the mature technologies of the CZ-3 and CZ -3 and the second stage was identical to that of the CZ-3. The CZ-4's third stage, however, is newly developed, adding a more powerful cryogenic third stage and more capable control system, the CZ-3A had a greater geo- featuring a thin wall common intertank bulkhead tankage and two-engine cluster with both engines gimbling synchronous transfer orbit capability, greater flexibility for attitude control, and better adaptability to a variety of about two perpendicular axes. The 3rd stage engine cluster connects to the tank aft bulkhead through the engine launch missions. The CZ-3A's geo-synchronous transfer orbit payload capability was 2,700kg. By June 30, 1998, the bay. The CZ-4 had two payload fairing configurations: Type-A and Type-B. The CZ -4 was designed for launching CZ -3A had made three consecutive successful launches, and was offered to international customers. Long March / SJ1Launcher/Satellite

CZ1 Launcher China 2 Satellite Flag Peoples Republic of China (PRC) Dates of Service 01 Nov. 1969 – 03 March 1971 03 Mar 1971- 17 Mar 92 Displacement 81.31 metric tons 221 Kilograms Overall Length 30 m .8 m Overall Draft 2.3 m .8 m Overall Beam 2.3 m .8 m Propulsion: Nitric Acid/UDMH (4+1) YF-2A Engines Inertial Momentum (combined 112,290 kgf thrust) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 380 seconds 21 years, 14 days Embarked Craft: N/A N/A Complement: Unmanned Unmanned Navigation: Navigation/Computers: Remote Ground Controled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none 5mm thick Tugsten/Aluminium Alloy Life Support: N/A N/A Lunar Lander RANGER 7 * Class Probe

Flag United States of America (USA)

Dates of Service 28 July 1964 – 31 July 1964 Dates of the Program 23 August 1961 – 25 Mar 1965 Displacemen 362 Kilograms Launch Vehicle Atlas LV3A -Agena B Overall Length 1.1 m Overall Draft 3.6 m Overall Beam 4.6 m Propulsion: 224-N thrust monopropellant hydrazine engine with 4 jet-vane vec- tor control Power: by 9792 Si solar cells contained in the two solar panels, giving a total array area of 2.3 square meters and producing 200 W. Two 1200 28 July 1964 Launch Site: Cape Cannev- Ranger 7 reached the Moon on 31 July. Watt-hr AgZnO batteries rated at 26.5 V with a capacity for 9 hours eral . The F-channel began its one minute warm of operation provided power to each of the separate communica- up 18 minutes before impact. The first im- tion/TV camera chains. Two 1000 Watt-hr AgZnO batteries stored age was taken at 13:08:45 GMT at an alti- power for spacecraft operations. Ranger First successful Ranger; returned tude of 2110 km. Transmission of 4,308 Primary Mission Eqpt: The spacecraft carried six television vidicon cameras, 2 wide angle 4,308 photos before lunar impact. The At- photographs of excellent quality occurred (channel F, cameras A and B) and 4 narrow angle (channel P). The las- Agena B inserted the Agena and over the final 17 minutes of flight. The final cameras were arranged in two separate chains, or channels, each Ranger into a 192 km altitude Earth park- image taken before impact had a resolu- self-contained with separate power supplies, timers, and transmit- ing orbit. Half an hour after launch a section of 0.5 meters. The spacecraft encoun- ters so as to afford the greatest reliability and probability of obtain- ond burn of the Agena engine injected tered the lunar surface in direct motion ing high-quality video pictures. the spacecraft into a lunar intercept tra- along a hyperbolic trajectory, with an in- Launch Velocity: 39,600 km/h jectory. After separation from the Agena, coming asymptotic direction at an angle Impact Velocity: 9,432 km/h the solar panels were deployed, attitude of -5.57 degrees from the lunar equator. Total Duration: 68.6 Hours control activated, and spacecraft trans- The orbit plane was inclined 26.84 degrees Embarked Craft: None missions switched from the omniantenna to the lunar equator. After 68.6 hours of Complement: Unmanned to the high-gain antenna. The next day flight, Ranger 7 impacted in an area be- Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Conrol Systems the planned mid-course maneuver was tween Mare Nubium and Oceanus Pro- Computers: Remote Ground Controled successfully initiated at 10:27 GMT. The cellarum (subsequently named Mare Energy Weapons: N/A only anomaly during flight was a brief loss Cognitum) at approximately 10.35 S lati- Projectile Weapons: N/A of two-way lock on the spacecraft by the tude, 339.42 E longitude. Impact occurred Defense: 5mm Aluminum Armor DSIF tracking station at Cape Kennedy fol- at 13:25:48.82 GMT at a velocity of 2.62 Life Support: N/A lowing launch. km/s. Diamant/Asterix Class Rocket/Satellite

Diamant Launcher Asterix Satellite

Flag Republic of France (CNES) Dates of Service 26 Nov 1965 - 15 February 1967 26 Nov. 12 Dec. 1965 Displacement 18.4 metric tons 42 Kilo- grams Overall Length 20 m .6 m Overall Draft 2.3 m .6 m Overall Beam 1.3 m .6 m Propulsion: N2O4/UDMH Vexin B(4) Engines, and Inertial Momentum N204/UDMN Topaz (1) Engine, and Solid Fuel P6 Final Boost (1) Engine (combined 27,070 kgf thrust) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 178 seconds 17 Days Embarked Craft: N/A N/A Complement: Unmanned Unmanned Navigation: Remote Ground Controlled N/A Computers: Remote Ground Controlled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none 3 mm thick Aluminum Theresk alloy Life Support: N/A N/A

Soyuz 11A511 / Soyuz 13 * Class Rocket/Capsule

Soyuz Launcher Soyuz 13 Capsule Flag Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

Dates of Service 28 November 1966 – 24 May 1975 18-26 Dec. 1973 Displacement 308.000 mt 6,900 Kilograms Overall Length 45.6 m 7.5 m Overall Draft 10.3 m 2.7 m Overall Beam 10.3 m 2.7 m Propulsion: LOX-Kerosine fueled three stage Sytem H2O2 fueled Reaction First Stage 4 @ RD-107/11D511 Engines Control System Second Stage 1 @ RD 108/11D512 Engine 18 @ 10kgf thrusters Third Stage 1 @ RD 0110 Engine 8 @ 1kgf Backup (combined 411,731 kgf thrust) Thrusters Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 10 minutes and 56 seconds 7 Days, 20 Hrs, 53 Min /127 Orbits Embarked Craft: N/A Inflatable Airlock Complement: Unmanned Major Pyotr I. Klimuk Captain V. Lebedev Navigation: NII-885 - Ryazanskiy, Pilyugin – LII - N S Stroev Guidance control system Guidance system Computers: Remote Ground Controled Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Aluminum Armor Life Support: N/A OKB-124 - G I Voronin - Oxy Regen. System A small step for Man, a giant leap for Mankind

16 July 1969 09:32 GMT. Duration: 8.14 days. Call Sign: Columbia/Eagle. Backup Crew: An- At 8:50 a.m. July 20, Armstrong and ders, Haise, Lovell. Nation: USA. Agency: NASA. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Aldrin reentered the LM and checked Complex: LC39A. Launch Vehicle: Saturn V . LV Configuration: Saturn V s/n SA-506. Pro- out all systems. They performed a ma- gram: Apollo. Class: Manned. Type: Lunar spacecraft. Spacecraft: Apollo CSM. Payload: neuver at 1:11 p.m. to separate the Apollo CSM 107. Mass: 28,800 kg. Location of Spacecraft: National Air and Space Museum LM from the CSM and began the de- (Smithsonian Institution), Washington, DC. scent to the moon. The LM touched down on the moon at 4:18 p.m. EDT First landing on moon. Apollo 11 (AS-506) - with astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, July 20. Armstrong reported to mission and Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., aboard - was launched from Pad A, Launch Complex 39, KSC, at control at MSC, "Houston, Tranquillity 9:32 a.m. EDT July 16. The activities during earth-orbit checkout, translunar injection, CSM Base here - the Eagle has transposition and docking, spacecraft ejection, and translunar coast were similar to those landed." (Eagle was the name given of Apollo 10. to the Apollo 11 LM; the CSM was named Columbia.) Man's first step on At 4:40 p.m. EDT July 18, the crew began a 96-minute color television transmission of the the moon was taken by Armstrong at CSM and LM interiors, CSM exterior, the earth, probe and drogue removal, spacecraft tun- 10:56 p.m. EDT. As he stepped onto nel hatch opening, food preparation, and LM housekeeping. One scheduled and two un- the surface of the moon, Armstrong scheduled television broadcasts had been made previously by the Apollo 11 crew. described the feat as "one small step for a man - one giant leap for man- The spacecraft entered lunar orbit at 1:28 p.m. EDT on July 19. During the second lunar orbit kind." a live color telecast of the lunar surface was made. A second service-propulsion-system burn placed the spacecraft in a circularized orbit, after which astronaut Aldrin entered the LM for two hours of housekeeping including a voice and telemetry test and an oxygen- Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface of the moon at 11:15 p.m. July 20. The astronauts un- purge-system check. veiled a plaque mounted on a strut of the LM and read to a worldwide TV audience, "Here men from the planet earth first set foot on the moon July 1969, A.D. We came in peace for all mankind." After raising the American flag and talking to President Nixon by radiotele- phone, the two astronauts deployed the lunar surface experiments assigned to the mission and gathered 22 kilograms of samples of lunar soil and rocks. They then reentered the LM and closed the hatch at 1:11 a.m. July 21. All lunar extravehicular activities were televised in black-and-white. Meanwhile, Collins continued orbiting moon alone in CSM Columbia. The Eagle lifted off from the moon at 1:54 p.m. EDT July 21, having spent 21 hours 36 minutes on the lunar surface. It docked with the CSM at 5:35 p.m. and the crew, with the lunar samples and film, transferred to the CSM. The LM ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit. The crew then rested and prepared fo r the return trip to the earth. Edwin “ Buzz” Aldrin Neil Armstrong Michael Collins

The CSM was injected into a trajectory toward the earth at 12:55 a.m. EDT July 22. Following systems to be ready in case something happened and they had to leave the lunar surface a midcourse correction at 4:01 p.m., an 18-minute color television transmission was made, in quickly. A short break in this activity gave Armstrong a chance to pass along more informa- which the astronauts demonstrated the weightlessness of food and water and showed tion about the landing site: shots of the earth and the moon. ". . . The local surface is very comparable to that we observed from orbit at this sun angle, At 12:15 p.m. EDT July 24 the Apollo 11's command module Columbia splashed down in the about 10 degrees sun angle, or that nature. It's pretty much without color. It's . . . a very mid-Pacific, about 24 kilometers from the recovery ship U.S.S. Hornet. Following decontam i- white, chalky gray, as you look into the zero-phase line [directly toward the sun]; and it's nation procedures at the point of splashdown, the astronauts were carried by helicopter to considerably darker gray, more like . . . ashen gray as you look out 90 degrees to the sun. the Hornet where they entered a mobile quarantine facility to begin a period of observa- Some of the surface rocks in close here that have been fractured or disturbed by the rocket tion under strict quarantine conditions. The CM was recovered and removed to the quar- engine plume are coated with this light gray on the outside; but where they've been bro- antine facility. Sample containers and film were flown to Houston. ken, they display a dark, very dark gray interior; and it looks like it could be country basalt. " All primary mission objectives and all detailed test objectives of Apollo 11 were met, and all Setting up the spacecraft systems took another hour and a half to complete; then they crew members remained in good health. were ready to get out and explore. The flight plan called for them to eat and then rest for four hours, but Aldrin called Mission Control to recommend starting their surface exploration At 9:32 a.m. Eastern daylight time on July 16, 1969, Apollo 11 left Launch Complex 39A at in about three hours' time. Houston concurred. Although they had been awake almost 11 Kennedy Space Center, bound for the moon. Four days later, at 4:18 p.m. EDT on July 20, hours and had gone through some stressful moments during the landing, it seemed too Neil Armstrong skilfully set the lunar module Eagle down in the Sea of Tranquility and re- much to expect the first men on the moon to take a nap before they made history. ported, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." For the next 10 minutes Arm- strong and Aldrin were occupied with several post -landing procedures, reconfiguring While Armstrong and Aldrin tended to their postlanding chores, Mike Collins, orbiting 60 nau- switches and systems. Armstrong found time to report to Mission Control what he had been tical miles (112 kilometers) overhead in the command module Columbia, had little to do. too busy to tell them during the landing: that he had manually flown the lunar module over Houston enlisted his aid in an attempt to locate Eagle, giving him the best map coordinates the rockstrewn crater where the automatic landing system was taking it. Then he made his they could derive from the sketchy information available. With his navigational sextant first quick-look science report : "We'll get to the details of what's around here, but it looks like Collins scanned several spots, without success; Columbia passed over the landing site too a collection of just about every variety of shape, angularity, granularity, about every variety rapidly to allow him to search the area thoroughly and he never found the lunar module. of rock you could find. . . . There doesn't appear to be too much of a general color at all. Determination of its exact location had to wait for postmission analysis of Armstrong's de- However, it looks as though some of the rocks and boulders, of which there are quite a few scriptions of the area and examination of the spacecraft's landing trajectory. in the near area, it looks as though they're going to have some interesting colors to Getting ready to leave the lunar module took longer than the crew had anticipated. It was them. . . . " after 9:30 p.m. in Houston, an hour and a half later than they had hoped, when they opened the hatch. Armstrong carefully worked his way out onto the "porch," then climbed After giving Houston as many clues as he could to the location of their module, he added down the ladder, pausing on the lowest rung to comment on the texture of the surface and some more description: the depth to which the footpads had penetrated. At 9:56 p.m. he stepped onto the moon's surface, proclaiming, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind" - inadver- "The area out the left -hand window is a relatively level plain cratered with a fairly large num- tently omitting an "a" before "man" and slightly changing the meaning he intended to con- ber of craters of the 5- to 50-foot variety, and some ridges - small, 20, 30 feet high, I would vey. guess, and literally thousands of little 1- and 2-foot craters around the area. We see some angular blocks out several hundred feet in front of us that are probably 2 feet in size and Armstrong made a cursory inspection of the lunar module and reported his reactions to the have angular edges. There is a hill in view, just about on the ground track ahead of us. Diffi- new environment. Aldrin then lowered a camera on the lunar equipment carrier - a clothes- cult to estimate, but might be half a mile or a mile. " line and pulley arrangement that seemed out of place in the high-technology environment Armstrong and Aldrin then started preparing their spacecraft for takeoff, setting up critical of Apollo - which Armstrong immediately began using. Mission Control reminded him to scoop up the contingency sample, which he did. "I'll try to get a rock in here. Just a couple." The geologists in Houston watching this surface activity on television were quite pleased He noted that the collecting tool met resistance after penetrating a short distance into the with the astronauts' performance. At one point Armstrong disappeared from the field of surface material. He then stowed the sample in a bag that he tucked into a pocket of his view of the TV camera, causing some momentary anxiety at his apparent departure from suit. To the scientists on earth he remarked, "Be advised that a lot of the rock samples out the plan. It turned out that some unusual rocks had attracted his attention and he had here, the hard rock samples, have what appear to be vesicles in the surface. Also, I am gone off a few meters to collect them. That was exactly the kind of thing the geologists had looking at one now that appears to have some sort of phenocryst." hoped people on the moon would do. By the time the crew had taken two core samples, again experiencing difficulty in driving a sampling tool into the surface, and filled their sample return containers, Houston notified them that it was time to wind up their activity. Just Aldrin then joined Armstrong on the sur- before midnight CapCom Bruce McCandless told Aldrin to "head on up the ladder," and face, and they spent the next several at 12:11 a.m. Houston time both men and their samples were back in the lunar module minutes inspecting the landing craft and and the hatch was sealed. Humanity's first excursion on the surface of another celestial reporting on its condition, adjusting to body had lasted 2 hours, 31 minutes, and 40 seconds. the low ul nar gravity and trying various ways of getting around on the surface. Back inside the lunar module, Armstrong and Aldrin removed their lunar surface suits and After a brief commemorative ceremony portable life-support systems and used up their remaining film. Houston passed up some (reading the plaque attached to the u-l more instructions in preparation for liftoff and tentatively signed off for the night, but before nar module) and a short conversation long CapCom Owen Garriott, who had relieved McCandless, came on the line with some with President Richard Nixon, they began questions from the scientists about the nature of the surface and the problems in driving unloading and emplacing the scientific sampling tools into the surface. Three hours after they returned to the lunar module, the instruments and collecting samples. They lunar explorers finally were able to turn in for a few hours of fitful sleep. supplemented earth's limited television Next morning Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins spent most of their time setting up Eagle and view of their activities with descriptions of Columbia for liftoff and rendezvous. Before the lunar module left the moon, however, Arm- what they were seeing and doing. On a strong gave Mission Control a detailed description of the landing approach path and couple of occasions they acted like field landing area, in the hope of helping scientists locate their exact landing spot, and summa- geologists. Aldrin reported that he saw a rized the characteristics of the soil and rocks around the area. rock that sparkled "like some kind of bio- tite," but he "would leave that to further Liftoff and rendezvous went smoothly. When the two spacecraft were locked together analysis." After closely examining some Collins cracked Columbia's oxygen supply valve and Aldrin opened the lunar module's rounded boulders near the spacecraft, vent valve, to create a gas flow into the LM when the hatches were opened - part of the Armstrong said they looked "like basalt, procedure to minimize back-contamination-while Aldrin and Armstrong vacuumed the and they have probably two percent lunar dust from their suits as best they could. Their vacuum cleaner, a brush attached to white minerals in them. . . . And the thing the exhaust hose of the LM suit system, was not very powerful and the tenacious dust that I reported as vesicular before, I don't came off only with difficulty. There was not nearly as much loose dust in the lunar module as believe that any more. . . . they look like Buzz Aldrin descends from the lunar Module they had expected when they returned from the surface; evidently it stuck tightly to what- little impact craters where BB shot has hit to the Moons Surface. ever it touched. They passed the rock boxes and other items over to Collins and then clam- the surface." bered into the command module, where they removed their suits and stowed them in the bags provided. After jettisoning the lunar module and straightening up the command module, the three astronauts settled in for an uneventful trip back to earth.

In the early morning hours of July 24, 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes, and 18 seconds after leaving Kennedy Space Center, Columbia plopped down into the Pacific Ocean about 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) south of Johnston Island. Re- covery crews from the U.S.S. Hornet arrived quickly and tossed the biological isolation garments into the spacecraft. After the cocooned astronauts emerged from the spacecraft the swimmers swabbed the hatch down with Betadine (an organic iodine solution); then astronauts and recovery personnel decontaminated each other's protective garments with sodium hypochlorite solution. The biological isolation garments were not uncomfortable in the recovery raft, but aboard the helicopter they began accumulating heat. Both Collins and Armstrong felt that they were approaching the limit of their tolerance by the time they reached the ship. An hour after splashdown they were inside the mobile quarantine facility. As soon as they had changed into clean flight suits, the astronauts went to the large window at the rear end of the mobile quarantine facility to accept the nation's congratulations from President Nixon, who had flown out to the Hornet to meet them.

Meanwhile, recovery crews brought Columbia on board and connected it to the astronauts' temporary home by means of a plastic tunnel. Through this, the film magazines and sample return containers were taken into the quarantine trailer, then passed out through a decontamination lock. Sample return container no. 2, holding the docu- mented sample, was packed in a shipping container along with film magazines and tape recorders and flown to Johns- ton Island, where it was immediately loaded aboard a C- 141 aircraft and dispatched to Ellington Air Force Base near MSC. Six and a half hours later the other sample return container was flown to Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii, and thence to Houston.

Saturn V / Apollo 11 * Class Rocket/Capsule

Saturn V Launcher Apollo 11 Capsule Flag United States of America (USA) Dates of Service 26 Feb. 1966 – 13 Nov. 1979 14-24 July 1969 Displacement 2,847.590 mt 45,025 Kilograms Overall Length 83.3 m 17.4 m Overall Draft 19.0 m 4.3 m Overall Beam 10.1 m 3.9 m Propulsion: Three Stage LOX/Kerosine fueled 5@F1, RCS N2O4/UDMH LOX/LH2 fueled 5@J2, and fueled 16 @ 45 kgf and LOX/LH2 1@J2 Engine Reaction Control System (combined 3,400,740 kgf thrust) (comb. 9,979 kgf thrust) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 7,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 15,200 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 14 minutes and 55 seconds 195 Hours, 18.3Minutes Lunar Landing & Return Embarked Craft: N/A Lunar Lander Complement: Unmanned CO: Neil Armstrong CMP: LCol Michael Collins, USAF LMP: LCol Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, USAF Navigation: IBM Ground Control Guidance System Honeywell Internal Navigation System Computers: IBM 360 Mainframe Computer System Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Molybdium coated Alumnium Armor Life Support: N/A Mark III, Renox - - Oxy Regen. System SALYUT: Man’s First Space Station

Program: Salyut. Objective: Manned. Type: Spacecraft. Sergei Korolev had proposed, designed, and built mock-ups of large manned space stations to be launched by his giant N1 rocket throughout the 1960’s. None of these proposals was ever approved by the military beyond the mock-up stage. Meanwhile the competing Chelomei OKB-52 bureau was given the task in 1965 to develop Almaz, a The spacecraft that emerged was a hybrid of the Almaz and the Soyuz counterpart to the US military Manned Orbiting Laboratory space sta- spacecraft. The Soyuz control panel was used almost unchanged, as tion. First flight with one year operational period was originally planned was the forward docking mechanism and the aft propulsion module. for 1968. Chelomei's influence waned, and the project was badly be- The spacecraft was to be called Zarya, or ‘Dawn’, but the name was hind schedule by the time the competing American MOL was cancelled changed just before launch to prevent confusion with the identical in July 1969. ground control call sign. Instead DOS-1 became known as Salyut 1. This Having lost the moon race, but seeing a chance to beat the Americans was the first manned orbital space station, but the triumph was de- in the space station race, Brezhnev ordered Mishin's OKB-1 to undertake stroyed when the crew perished during the return to earth. The next a crash program to develop a 'civilian' space station using components DOS, Cosmos 557, reached orbit but control was lost soon thereafter. Sa- from Chelomei's Almaz program. Mishin was given control over the Al- lyut 4, Salyut 6, and Salyut 7 were all successful, each space station be- maz production line at Chelomei's Khrunichev facility in order to build ing an evolutionary improvement over the previous model. The Salyuts the DOS-7K civilian station using the Almaz spaceframe but proven allowed the Soviet Union to obtain an unmatched lead in manned or- Soyuz components. With the beginning of work on the DOS station the bital spaceflight experience and flight durations. The design line culmi- large, long term N1-launched station was cancelled. nated in the Mir base block module.

Salyut 1 * Class Space Station

Salyut 1 Space Station Flag Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Dates of Service 19 April 1971 – 16 October 1971 Displacement 18.210 mt Overall Length 13.1 m Overall Draft 4.2 m Overall Beam 4.2 m Propulsion: none, uses Earth’s Gravitational Effect Power Generation: 1.00 total average kW. Electrical System: Solar Panels, 4 Wings each 8.25 m Velocity: 11,054 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 11,054 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 175 days Embarked Craft: N/A Complement: Three Crewmembers Navigation: Ground Control Guidance Computers: Ground Control Univac Computers Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: 2cm thick Composite Alumnium Armor Life Support: OKB-124 - G I Voronin - Oxy Regen. System America’s Workhorse: Skylab

Skylab in 1984

Dateline SLEOS: March 18th, 1984 Finally when the hydroponics module was added in 1979, and the fourth of the solar By Allyson M.F. Dyar panel blocks replaced the aging windmill panels, the space station was as self-sufficient Special correspondent for the Space Sciences Institute as it was going to get. With the First Shuttle mission visiting the station, Earth became end of the line of several bushels of space grown zucchini and tomatoes, as well as In a celebration on the 10th Anniversary of the original launching of the first Skylab Mis- nearly a metric ton worth of electronics grade crystals. sion, NASA conducted its 50th docking with the venerable facility. Now called SLEOS for Skylab Low Earth Orbit Station, it is the oldest continually manned facility above our blue In the past three years the station has blossomed as it prepares for the Freedom Station planet. I am sitting here in the observation bubble looking down upon a beautiful at Geo-synchronous Earth Orbit or GEO for short. While the three extra blocks of solar planet that has no boundaries and only the wonderful colors of the rainbow cascading panels store energy, large tanks store water shipped up from through Earth’s gravity across the surface as it turns in pursuit of the sun. well. These tanks are left over fuel tanks from the early shuttle launched equipped with motion baffles and can store tens of thousands of water. The water is then broken Sent up into low earth orbit ten years ago, as a cap to the Apollo Missions, it was con- down into base rocket fuel using the abundant energy of the sun captured by the solar structed from off the shelf technology. No fancy composite materials, no super com- panels. This fuel is important to not only the self sufficiency of the Space Stations, but puter designs, but brute force engineering combined with ingenuity befitting any sailor allows short range vehicles like the Mules to move in between the different orbits at will. marooned on a desert island. Initially planned as a laboratory for four space science missions, which would prove the value of space manufacturing. As the extended living Ten years of growth, and peace, what will the next bring us of these marvels? We shall module, and the crystal growth lab modules were added, it became apparent, that see and wait with the hope that has brought us this far. humanity was in space to stay. This is Allyson Dyar signing off, good night.

Skylab * Class Space Station Skylab Space Station Flag United States of America (USA)

Dates of Service 14 May 1973 – 12 April 1980 When it was renamed SLEOS (Skylab Low Earth Orbit Station) Displacement 76.295 metric tons Overall Length 36.1 m Overall Draft 6.6 m Overall Beam 6.6 m Propulsion: none, uses Earth’s Gravitational Effect Power Generation: 11.00 total average kW. Electrical System: Solar Panels, 2 Wings + 4 Windmill, each 14.94 m Velocity: 11,054 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 11,054 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 6 years, 1 month, 27 days Embarked Craft: N/A Complement: Three Crewmembers Navigation: Ground Control Guidance Computers: Ground Control Univac Computers Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: 3 cm thick Composite Molybdenum coated Aluminum Armor Life Support: Mark III, Renox - Oxy Regen. S Two Superpowers choose Peace

Vance Deke Tom Valeri Aleksei Brand Slayton Stafford Kubasov Leonov

APOLLO – SOYUZ TEST PROJECT

15 July 1975 19:50 GMT. Duration: 9.06 days. Call Sign: Apollo. Backup Crew: Bean, Ev- 15 July 1975 12:20 GMT. Duration: 5.94 days. Call Sign: Soyuz (Union ). Backup Crew: ans, Lousma. Nation: USA. Agency: NASA. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Filipchenko, Rukavishnikov. Support Crew: Andreyev, Dzhanibekov, Ivanchenkov, Ro- Complex: LC39B. Launch Vehicle: Saturn IB . LV Configuration: Saturn IB s/n SA-210. Pro- manenko. Nation: USSR. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Complex: LC1. Launch Vehicle: gram: ASTP. Class: Manned. Type: Lunar spacecraft. Spacecraft: Apollo CSM. Payload: Soyuz 11A511U . Program: ASTP. Class: Manned. Type: Spacecraft. Spacecraft: Soyuz Apollo CSM 111. Mass: 14,768 kg. Location of Spacecraft: Kennedy Space Center, ASTP. Payload: Soyuz ASTP s/n 75 (EPSA). Mass: 6,790 kg. Perigee: 186 km. Apogee: 220 Cape Canaveral, FL. Perigee: 152 km. Apogee: 166 km. Inclination: 51.7 deg. Period: km. Inclination: 51.8 deg. Period: 88.5 min. 87.6 min.

Mars Lander VIKING I * Class Probe Flag United States of America (USA) Dates of Service 20 August 1975 – 20 July 1976 (Lander reported until 11 November 1982) Displacement 3,399 Kilograms Launch Vehicle Titan 3E Overall Length 1.75 m Overall Draft 1.45 m Overall Beam 1.375 m Propulsion: Monomethyl hydrazine rocket with 12 nozzles that provided 35 N thrust, giving a delta-V of 180 m/s. Ground Power: Power was provided by two radioisotope thermal generator (RTG) units attached to op- posite sides of the lander base, each containing plutonium 238, providing 70 W continu- ous power. Four nickel-cadmium 8-amp-hour rechargeable batteries were also on- board to handle peak power loads. Orbiter Velocity: 14,956.8 km/h Lander Velocity: 14,956.8 km/h Flight Duration: 11 Months, 1 day Total Duration: 7 years, 2 months, 22 days Embarked Craft: Mars Lander Complement: Unmanned Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Conrol Systems Computers: Remote Ground Controled Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: 5mm Aluminum Armor Life Support: N/A The US continued the exploration of Mars with two landers to the surface. About a mile above the Martian surface the jected to three separate tests to incubate the microbes and Viking 1 and 2. Two Titan III E's launched the craft on August craft fired three retro rockets to slow the spacecraft to 5 to detect waste products such as carbon dioxide. Initially 20 and September 9, 1975. Viking consisted of two major mph and the craft settle d gently on Mars at a place desig- the soil samples showed water and a very active chemical parts: a Mariner-like orbiter to photograph the entire planet nated as the Plains of Chryse. On July 20, 1976 the first pic- reaction to the tests. The biologists disappointedly stated and a lander to photograph the Martian surface with a tures of the Martian surface appeared at the Jet Propulsion that this activity could be explained in terms of chemical re- laboratory to search for Martian microbes. The two landers Laboratory in Pasadena, California. The surface appeared action rather than biological activity. Another experiment were the size of a jeep and each contained three scientific to be like an Arizona desert with large rocks and red soil into detected no forms of the organic compounds of which life is laboratories. Both landers contained two cameras and a ten the far distance and the sky was a light pink. composed on Earth. The search for life on Mars was foot arm for collecting soil samples. Small nuclear generators Viking 2 landed two weeks later on the Plains of Utopia. The deemed to be inconclusive. powered these machines and their control was accom- lander's instruments determined that the highest tempera- The Viking missions were giant successes. The landers and plished by on-board computers ture at the landing area was about -24ºF in the Martian sum- the orbiters produced more than 50,000 images and oper- In June 1976 the craft began orbiting Mars and began to mer, its atmosphere contained 3% nitrogen and water was ated much longer than the original design specifications. inspect potential landing sites. When the intended landing found as ice under the dry ice caps of the poles. This led sci- The Viking 1 orbiter was designed for 90 days of operation; it sites were determined to be unsuitable, the Vikings searched entists to be optimistic about the search for Mars microbes. lasted four years until it ran out of gas. The Viking 1 lander for another location. Upon finding a suitable landing site the The search for Martian life was accomplished on its soil sam- lasted until 1982 when a mistaken computer command Viking lander separated from the orbiter, fired a retro rocket ples. The arm took the sample and conveyed the soil into erased part of the lander's memory. to leave orbit and deployed a parachute to slow its descent the Viking Lander laboratory. There the sample were sub- The Search for Something …. Out There

Deep Space Voyager 6 * Class Probe

Flag United States of America (USA)

Dates of Program 20 August 1977 – 20 July 1976 Dates of Service 02 February 1987 – 16 July 1999 (Telemetry Lost) Later discovered that the Voyager 6 probe had entered some form of a rogue wormhole and was transported into the Delta Quadrant. Displacement 800 Kilograms Launch Vehicle Titan 3E Overall Length 3.7 m Overall Draft 1.3 m Overall Beam 2.1 m Propulsion: Monomethyl hydrazine rocket with three paris of tw o nozzles each that provided 317.5 N thrust, giving a delta-V of 90 m/s. Power: Power for the spacecraft was obtained by four SNAP -19 radioisotope thermonuclear generators (RTG), which were held about 3 m from the center of the spacecraft by two three-rod trusses 120 degrees apart. A third boom extended 6.6 m from the experiment compartment to hold the magnetometer away from the spacecraft. The four RTG's generated about 155 W at launch. Probe Velocity: 23,118.03 km/h Total Duration: 12 years, 5 months, 142 days Embarked Craft: None Complement: Unmanned Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Control Systems Computers: Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: 5 mm Aluminum Armor Life Support: N/A Europe Weighs In

Arianne/Eutelsat Class Rocket/Satellite

Arianne A1 Launcher Satellite Flag European Space Agency (ESA) Dates of Service 24 Dec 1979 – 22 Feb 1986 16 Jun 1983–15 Feb 95 Displacement 207.2 mt 1,050 Kilograms Overall Length 50 m .95 m Overall Draft 8.3 m .75 m Overall Beam 8.3 m 3.75 m Propulsion: N204-UDMH 4 Viking2 Engines Inertial Momentum N204-UDMH 1 Viking4 Engine Solar Panel generated LOX-LH2 1 HM7-A Engine electrical power Solid Fuel 1 Mage 1 Engine (combined 249,470 kgf thrust) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 308 seconds 11 Years, 242 days Embarked Craft: N/A N/A Complement: Unmanned Unmanned Navigation: Minitel N/A Guidance control system Computers: Minitel Main Frame Remote Ground Controlled Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none 3m thick Aluminum Alloy Life Support: N/A N/A

The Challenger Disaster … and a New Commitment

By Claudia Glenn Dowling From the February 1996 issue of LIFE

Three, two, one . . . "Roger. Go with throttle up," shuttle commander Dick Scobee radi- oed on a freezing January morning 10 years ago. His daughter Kathie, 25, huddled with her mother, brother and infant son on a roof at Cape Canaveral, along with the assembled families of the six other Challenger astronauts about to blast into space. She felt the rumble of liftoff and hugged her baby closer in the cold. "Wow, look how pretty," she said 74 seconds later. "Is that normal?" someone else in the crowd asked. "They're gone," said Jane, wife of pilot Michael Smith. "What do you mean, Mom?" asked her son. "They're lost," she replied. All over the country, the millions watching that awful bloom spread across their television screens realized that something had gone wrong before they heard the voice of Mission Control: "Obviously . . . a major malfunction." Blam.

The bolt out of the blue shattered the U.S. space program. The 25th shuttle flight was scheduled to kick off the busiest year ever for the National Aeronautics and Space Ad- ministration, a year in which Halley's comet would be observed, the Hubble telescope lofted and no fewer than 15 shuttle missions flown. Moreover, space travel for everyman was to be popularized by Christa McAuliffe, a gung-ho schoolteacher from Concord, N. H., selected from 11,000 applicants to be the first average American in space. Her motto was "reach for the stars." During four months of training at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Christa kidded that her greatest fear of flying was of waste compartment malfunction. Calling himself a "space husband," lawyer Steve McAuliffe cared for their two children, who seemed to take space exploration for granted. Christa, more aware lutely, terribly wrong," she recalls. The families waited for news in the crew's quarters. of the risks, told LIFE's David Friend, "If anything happened, my husband would have to Steve McAuliffe, with Scott, nine, and Caroline, six, sat in Christa's dorm room, her sneak- deal with that as the time came." ers still on the floor. "This is not how it's supposed to be," he said.

On January 28, 1986, as schoolchildren everywhere gazed skyward, what Christa had Mission Control turned rapidly to spin control. Rather than delivering the State of the Un- promised would be "the ultimate field trip" ended in disaster. The families were hustled ion address that evening as scheduled, President Ronald Reagan made a brief speech. off the roof, down elevators, into buses. Still bewildered, Kathie clung to baby Justin and "We'll continue our quest in space," he promised traumatized Americans, for whom the eyed the NASA staff. "The looks on their faces told me that something was really, abso- word shuttle had once sounded so routine. "There will be more shuttle flights and more shuttle crews and, yes, more volunteers, more civilians, more teachers in space." But dent to occur. The survivors' first response was anger. "It shouldn't have happened," says there would be no shuttle flights for almost three years. There would be no teacher in Christa's mother, Grace Corrigan. "They were told not to launch, and they decided, space. And for those left on the ground, for the families of the seven adventurers who 'Twenty-four other shuttle flights went off O.K.' They were complacent." died, there would be years of bitterness, of grief and pain and anger before, finally, lives could heal. On the tenth anniversary of the explosion, this January 28, the Challenger The government scrambled to settle with the survivors. In December 1986 the families of commander's son, Rich Scobee, now an Air Force pilot, will fly his F-16 over the Super Christa McAuliffe, Ellison Onizuka, Gregory Jarvis and Dick Scobee accepted some $7.7 Bowl in Tempe, Ariz., leading a formation of jets in a memorial tribute. million from the U.S. and Morton Thiokol. The unrevealed sums designated for each family were based on the age and number of dependents of the deceased. The families of Ten years ago, NASA planes flew the McAuliffes home to New Hampshire, the Scobees Ronald McNair and unmarried astronaut Judith Resnick sued Morton Thiokol and settled and three other families who lived near Johnson Space Center back to Houston. Each independently more than a year later, reportedly for multiple millions. The last suit to be family was assigned an astronaut to help out--to run interference with the reporters resolved was that of Jane Smith, who, on the second anniversary of the Challenger ac- camped on their lawns, respond to roomfuls of mail, arrange insurance payments. In cident, filed a $1.5 billion suit against Morton Thiokol. "No one in big business should be the midst of their own mourning, the parents' first concern was for the children. Cheryl, allowed to make a faulty product and profit from it," she said. Her suit was settled for an the wife of astronaut Ronald McNair and a technical writer for NASA explained to her undisclosed sum in 1988, just before the shuttle resumed flying. Like several of the other toddlers that "we wouldn't be able to see Daddy anymore, physically, but that we widows--Cheryl McNair works for a foundation for teenage mothers, and Marcia Jarvis would be able to feel him, spiritually." In addition to their grief, the children had practi- clears hiking trails near her Mammoth Mountain, Calif., home--Jane has a favorite char- cal worries. Hawaiian-born astronaut Ellison Onizuka's daughters asked: "Are we going to ity, the Virginia Beach Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Her dogs, she have enough money to eat? Am I like a child from a divorced family? Will we still live in says, helped her through mourning. Despite her marriage five years ago to a Naval this house?" Recalls mother Lorna, "There were so many things to be done, so many Academy pal of her first husband's and a move to Virginia, she still misses Mike Smith wounds to salve." every day: "I waited, and he never came back."

In those early months, the Houston women often gathered in the Scobees' living room. At the time of the accident, television host Larry King asked June Scobee, "Do you think "As the commander's wife, I felt such responsibility," recalls June. "I needed help myself, you will ever remarry?" She responded, "Dick Scobee loved me enough to last a life- and I was trying to carry the weight of the world." With new information, the wounds re- time." But two and a half years afterward, she felt "alone." Her son, Rich, was in the Air opened. At the outset of a search for shuttle debris that would take seven months, 31 Force, as his father would have wished. Her daughter, Kathie, had her own problems ships, 52 aircraft and 6,000 workers, Christa McAuliffe's lesson plans for space were with an unraveling marriage. And suddenly, June found, "I couldn't function." She found floating in the Atlantic Ocean. The crew compartment was found 40 days later. checked into a hospital, then saw a psychologist. "I knew that I had to let Dick Scobee When the bodies were brought up, it became clear that some of the astronauts had go," she says. In 1989 she married Lt. Gen. Don Rodgers, whose wife had died, and been alive during the three-to-four-minute fall to the sea. moved to Tennessee. For her part, after agonizing about a decision contrary to her Christian upbringing, daughter Kathie got a divorce: "Daddy was so young when he Shortly after the last funerals were held, a commission chaired by former Secretary of died--I just thought, life is too short." State William Rogers revealed the conclusions of its investigation: The explosion of the $1.2 billion spacecraft was due to a faulty O-ring seal on the solid rocket fuel booster, a There were delayed reactions in the other families, too. Lorna Onizuka, who hasn't re- $900 synthetic rubber band that engineers had warned was vulnerable at temperatures married, noticed the changed dynamics without a man in the house: "He was an equi- below 51 degrees. The Challenger launch, canceled three times, had finally taken librium for us. With no El to come in and say, 'Ladies,' it was like a den of she-lions." When place in 36 degree weather. The Rogers Commission found both the company that she overheard her younger girl "talking" to her father on the telephone, she built a house made the O-rings, Morton Thiokol, and NASA itself guilty of allowing an avoidable acci- without so many memories. In the attic is a cedar closet storing her husband's fishing tackle and flight bag. On the household's Buddhist altar, she makes offerings of flowers, favorite foods and, on El's birthday, a can of Coors Light --"He used to enjoy a beer now and then." The older daughter, now out of college, works for NASA like her mother, who deals with the Japanese space agency. "Ten years down the road, there are still moments that my daughters break down and cry," Lorna says. "Moments, usually, of accomplishment. When one wins a soccer tournament, when she's invited to be a debu- tante and doesn't have a father to escort her, when she graduates and we're missing one person." But the anger has long passed. "I could spend the rest of my life being angry at something I couldn't change," says Lorna. "My husband believed that this mission was worth his life."

The families wanted a living memorial. "We didn't want to dwell on how the crew died, but what they had lived for," says Chuck Resnik, brother of astronaut Judy. June Scobee quit her job as an education professor at the University of Houston to found the Chal- lenger Center, an organization promoting space science for kids. Members of each of the seven astronauts' families sit on the board. Among the initial supporters: Morton Thiokol and Rockwell International, which built the orbiter.

"O.K., astronauts, let's go." A team of fifth-graders at a Challenger Center in Framing- ham, Mass., one of 30 around the U.S., receives its orders: Launch a probe to Halley's comet. "We don't dwell on the sad part," says teacher Mary Liscombe. "We say, 'The mission continues.'" Grace Corrigan, who lives nearby, often visits the center, which she supports with proceeds of her 1993 book, A Journal for Christa. "That's Christa's mom," the kids whisper. Christa's own kids, kept out of the public eye, are big now. Scott is in college, downloading musical riffs from the Internet. Caroline is 16 and a horsewoman. Their father, now a federal judge, took up flying and, three years ago, married a read- "Today we can say at long last to Dick, Mike, Judy, to Ron and El, and to Christa and ing teacher. He too supports the centers. The faculty nationwide includes some of the Greg, dear friends, we have resumed the journey that we promised to continue for you. 114 Teacher in Space finalists--not least, Christa's backup, Idaho teacher Barbara Mor- Your loss has meant that we can confidently begin anew. Your spirit and your dream are gan. NASA chief Daniel Goldin has appointed a committee to decide whether to end still alive in our hearts." the Teacher in Space program. But for now, Barbara, 44, still has a flight physical every -- The crew of STS-26, the next space shuttle to fly after Challenger, to the lost astronauts. year. "What happened was horrible, and you can't ever erase that," she says. "But our job as teachers is to help kids reach their potential. Challenger reminds us that we Oh, I have slipped the surly bonds of earth And danced the skies on laughter-silvered should never quit reaching for the stars." wings; Sunward I've climbed, and joined the tumbling mirth Of sun-split clouds -- and done a hundred things You have not dreamed of -- wheeled and soared and swung One frequent visitor to the Challenger Center in Houston is Dick Scobee's grandson, the High in the sunlit silence. Hov'ring there, I've chased the shouting wind along, and flung infant in Kathie's arms when she watched that fatal flowering in the sky. "I like the shuttle My eager craft through footless halls of air. Up, up the long, delirious, burning blue I've simulator best," says Justin. "It would be fun in space. You can float because it's zero g. I topped the windswept heights with easy grace Where never lark, or even eagle flew. would like to become an astronaut." And, while with silent, lifting mind I've trod The high untrespassed sanctity of space, Put out my hand, and touched the face of God. Space Shuttle COLUMBIA * Class Orbiter

Shuttle Launcher System Columbia Orbiter Flag United States of America (USA)

Dates of Service 12 April 1980 – 18 June 2002 12 April 1980 – 24 Sept. 2001 Displacement 1,575.493 mt 99,117 Kilograms Overall Length 56.0 m 37.2 m Overall Draft 24.6 m 24.6 m Overall Beam 23.8 m 23.8 m Propulsion: 2 LOX/LH2 fueled Liquid Rocket Booster Engines 1 Engine (3 Nozzle) (combined 1,052,154 kgf thrust) LOX/LH2 fueled Main Engine (696,905 kgf thrust) 2 Orbital Manuever System Pods N204.NMH fueled thrusters for orbit insertion, maneuver, and de-orbit. (5,443 kgf each) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 10 Minutes and 1 second Primary Burn 7-10 Days, 30 day max Embarked Craft: Orbiter 2-4 “SAFER” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Payload Commander, 1-4 Mission Specialists, 1-3 Payload Specialists, 1-3 Su- pernumeraries Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Control 23 @ Sperry Systems Space Systems: Honeywell multi-plexers/ demulti-plexers (MDMs) Computers: Remote Ground Controlled IBM AP -101B Later AP-101S units Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Dual Layer Ceramic tile with a thermal barrier of Inconel wire mesh spring with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: N/A Space Systems USA: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization sys-tem, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control sys -tem, active thermal control system, supply water & waste water system, waste collection system & airlock support system. Russia Catches the Shuttle—Bug

Third BURAN class shuttle “SELNAYA” launched by Russia

Dateline October 12th, 1992 Baikonur Cosmodrome, Russia By Allyson M.F. Dyar Special correspondent for the Space Sciences Institute

A new era for the Russian people is inaugurated with the launching of their third Buran type Space Shuttle, the Selnaya which means Blizzard in Russian. Like the Buran (storm) and Eragan (hurricane), the Selnaya will service both the Mir Space facility and the burgeoning International Space Station in high Earth orbit. The Mir-Buran program has been in operation now for several years and with the opening of Russia with Glasnost, so has the Russian Space program. Americans, ESA, and Japanese astronauts regularly exchange visits with their Russian counterparts, and it is with the Russian lifting of the Initial heavy components with their Energia Rockets that the Freedom station was actually able be opened on time. Today’s launch of the Selnaya is doubly important as it is carrying two of the newly developed hydroponic space labs. One will be delivered to Mir and the other to Freedom. These HSLs developed from the lessons learned from the Hydroponic Module of SLEOS, will provide not only fresh vegetables to the crew of the two stations, but also take up production of oxygen aboard the stations meeting 33-66% of the needs of the crews, and extending the life of the oxygen generation equipment many years. What are the plans for the future of the Russian Space program? Great contribu- tions to the International Space Station, and a long-range reusable spacecraft utilizing lessons learned from all things, the Russian Navy. For years the Russian Navy had led the world in utilization of titanium hulled submarines, now they are using that same technology to design a spacecraft that will be able to conduct long range exploration of the solar system.

Space Shuttle BURAN * Class Orbiter

Shuttle Launcher System Buran Orbiter Flag Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

Dates of Service 15 November 1981 – 12 May 2006 Displacement 1,236.248 mt 79,400 Kilograms Overall Length 90.3 m 36.37 m Overall Draft 21.15 m 16.35 m Overall Beam 25.9 m 23.92 m Propulsion: 4 LOX/LH2 fueled Liquid Rocket Booster Engines 1 Engine (3 Nozzle) (combined 1,252,315 kgf thrust) LOX/LH2 fueled Main Engine (654,875 kgf thrust) 2 Orbital Manuever System Pods N204.NMH fueled thrusters for orbit insertion, maneuver, and de-orbit. (7,433 kgf each) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 8 minutes and 39 seconds Primary Burn 6-9 Days, 24 day max Embarked Craft: Orbiter 2-4 “SAFER” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Payload Commander, 1-3 Mission Specialists, 1-2 Payload Specialists, 1-2 Supernumeraries Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Control 26 @ Gorshko Systems Space Systems: multiplexers/ demulti-plexers (MDMs) Computers: Remote Ground Controlled Pudisto AH 453M units Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Dual Layer Ceramic tile with a thermal barrier of Inconel wire mesh spring with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: N/A Molniya: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitaliza tion pressure control system, act-ive thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system.

Death of a Dream

FREEDOM I – INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

Dateline Houston: March 26th, 1992 By Allyson M.F. Dyar Special correspondent for the Space Sciences Institute The Freedom I International Eight years ago the SLEOS station celebrated its tenth anniversary. Seven months after that the International Space Station Explosion as Space Station was launched and shortly after that was opened for business. Two years after that America suf- seen from Earth fered its worst space disaster ever with the explosion of the Shuttle Challenger, and the tragic death of its seven crewmembers. Until yesterday.

Yesterday high above the Earth, the first incident of Space Terrorism occurred. A rocket launched from and uni- dentified ship in the Indian Ocean, raced to the Space Station, intercept rockets failed to reach the weapon in time and at 22:49 Greenwich Mean Time the Freedom Station was destroyed with a full crew of eight, five Ameri- cans, two Russians, and a French astronaut died instantly as a small nuclear weapon completely destroyed the station.

No agency, nation, or organization has taken any credit for this horrific action. What motivation could justify this action, what motivation could justify killing these explorers of the high frontier. What gain could any party hope for.

Tonight we pray, for the lost crew members, for their families, and for the future.

This is Allyson Dyar signing off, good night. International Space Station – Freedom I Class Space Station

Intenational Space Station- Freedom I

Flag Joint Mission of USA – Russia – NASDA – ESA

Dates of Service 31 October 1984 - 25 March 1992 Displacement 98.54 mt Overall Length 43.3 m Overall Draft 32.2 m Overall Beam 4.2 m Propulsion: none, uses Earth’s Gravitational Effect Power Generation: 1.60 total average kW. Electrical System: Solar Panels, 2 Wings each 26 meters and 2 Wings each 36 meters each Velocity: 11,054 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 11,054 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 17 years, 4 months, 25 days Embarked Craft: 1-2 “MULE” Inter -orbital Transfer Vehicles. Complement: Six-Eight Crewmembers Navigation: Ground Control Guidance Computers: Ground Control Cray Computers Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: 5 cm thick Composite Aluminum Armor Life Support: OKB-124 - G I Voronin - Oxy Regen. System In Russian Mir means: Peace ….. and Sea

ules. Buran would The Mir-2 space station was originally authorised in the February 1976 resolution setting also have been able forth plans for development of third generation Soviet space systems. It would undergo to dock at the many changes over the year, with only one thing remaining constant: the starting point adapter on the end was always the DOS-8 base block space station core module, built as a back -up to the of the docking tun- DOS-7 base block used in the Mir station. Eventually Mir-2 would be merged with the In- nel, but it appears ternational Space Station, and DOS-8 was finally scheduled to be launched by the end that normal opera- of 2000 as the Service Module of the ISS. tions would have DOS-8 serial number 128 was originally designed to have a three year service life in been supported by space. This was later increased to five years. The spaceframe was completed in Febru- large ballistic cap- ary 1985 and major internal equipment was installed by October 1986. Until Reagan's sules. 1983 announcement of the Star Wars programme, Mir-2 was to be a relatively modest These ballistic cap- station, a near-duplicate of Mir assembled after the end of its planned five year life. sules were 'stretched' The decision by Soviet Premier Andropov to compete with America in military domi- versions of the reus- nance from space lead to a huge expansion of Soviet space station plans. Several able VA capsule de- space battle stations were proposed, and there seems to have been a design competi- signed for the TKS tion for a drastically revised Mir-2. manned station ferry. They were KB Salyut Mir-2 called Orfar by V.V. Pallo of KB Salyut in a This version of Mir-2 was designed by KB Salyut from 1981 The prototype of the central description of a Long Range—Best Expectation for Mir. Sadly it de-orbit module was flown six years later as the Polyus star wars test-bed. The overall design of commercial deriva- came long before it could reach its full potential. the station was shown by the Soviets in 1987 at the 38th meeting of the IAF in Montreal. tive of the Polyus Most of the demand for electricity was met by solar panels mounted on a docking tunnel providing 2 degrees of freedom for following the sun. Radiators were mounted in the called the SKIF-DM. Orfar was the equivalent of the NPO Energia Zarya capsule and would be shadow of the solar cells. Additional electrical power was provided by a solar dynamic launched by the Proton launch vehicle. system. The concentrator for this was mounted on tracks running around the core's body which allowed the concentrator to follow the sun. Movement of the concentra- Only the central core and the solar panels and docking tunnel would have had to have tor's mass would have been offset by movement of the mass of the docking arm. been launched by the Energia booster. All other components could have been launched by the Proton and operation of the KB Salyut Mir 2 space station did not depend upon the suc- The docking arm would have been used to move modules from the bay of the Buran cess of Energia or Buran. Mir 2 would have been capable of docking at least four modules in shuttle, which could dock at a special adapter mounted on the end of one of the mod- ordinary operation. Mir * Class Space Station

Mir Space Station

Flag Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

Dates of Service 20 February 1987 – 06 March 2001 Displacement 20.100 metric tons Overall Length 13.1 m Overall Draft 4.2 m Overall Beam 4.2 m Propulsion: none, uses Earth’s Gravitational Effect Power Generation: 1.00 total average kW. Electrical System: Solar Panels, 3 Wings each 29 m Velocity: 11,054 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 11,054 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 13 years, 5 months, 6 days Embarked Craft: N/A Complement: Four Crewmembers Navigation: Ground Control Guidance Computers: Ground Control Kroshkov Computers Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: 2cm thick Composite Aluminum Armor Life Support: OKB-124 - G I Voronin - Oxy Regen. System Space Shuttle HERMES * Class Orbiter

Shuttle Launcher System Hermes Orbiter

Flag European Space Agency (ESA)

Dates of Service 14 July 1992 – 16 March 2007 Displacement 471.38 mt 23,000 Kilograms Overall Length 73.00 m 19.00 m Overall Draft 6.80 m 6.8 m Overall Beam 5.40 m 2.3 m Propulsion: Multi Staged Engine System 1: 1 Solid Fuel Engine- 1 Engine (3 Nozzle) 660,000 kgf, 2: 1 Lox/LH2 fueled Engine – 109,619 N204/NMH fueled main kgf, 3: 1 N204/NMH fueled Engine 2,800 kgf Engine Orbital (8,300 kgh (combined 772, 419 kgf thrust) each) combined 24,900 kgf thrust Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 17 minutes and 17 seconds Primary Burn 6-9 Days, 60 day max Embarked Craft: Orbiter 3 “SAFER” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Mission Specialists Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Conrol 12 @ Minitel Systems: Systems multiplexers/ demulti-plexers (MDMs) Computers: Remote Ground Controled Minitel VX 321c units Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: none Dassault Chobham Dual Layer Ceramic Tile with a thermal barrier of Mihanic wire mesh with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: N/A Rolls Royce: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collec tion system & airlock support system.

Challenger II Shuttles, the next Generation

The Advanced Deployment (Defense) Shuttles came on line in 1996, just in time to serve as overhead command control and low earth orbit anti-missile defense as Khan and his allies tried to launch ICBMs from Baikanur. The Lewis & Clark the third of these was instrumental in preventing 17 separate MIRVed missiles from reaching sites in both Northern China, Eastern Russia and Western North America.

Design for the Class of Eight vessels began in 1989 when Boeing won the bid for the Chal- lenger II - Advanced Deployment Shuttle to replace the Columbia Class shuttles in the Mid to late 1990's. While McDonald Douglas begins construction of the Alternative Heavy Lifter, delivery expected in the early 1990's. A total of eight of these vessels were built.

1. Challenger II 2. Magellan 3. Lewis & Clark 4. Vespucci 5. Hudson 6. LaSalle 7. Baden-Powell 8. Robert Byrd

After the war, the Lewis & Clark continued on with many years of excellent service, specializ- ing in ferrying crews and equipment to and from the Hubble Space Telescope facility, and other High Atmosphere long range telescopes. The most important of these was the launch of the Chandra X-Ray observatory in 1999.

Hubble Telescope Space Shuttle CHALLENGER II* Class Orbiter

Shuttle Launcher System Challenger II Orbiter Flag United States of America (USA)

Dates of Service 23 Sept. 1996 – 9 Nov. 2022 23 Sept. 1996- 9 Nov. 2022 Displacement 1,654.875 metric tons 107,118 Kilograms Overall Length 56.0 m 38.1 m Overall Draft 24.0 m 24.0 m Overall Beam 25.8 m 19.8 m Propulsion: 2 LOX/LH2 fueled Liquid Rocket Booster Engines 1 Engine (3 Nozzle) (combined 1,052,154 kgf thrust) LOX/LH2 fueled Main Engine (712,000 kgf thrust) 2 Orbital Maneuver System Pods N204.NMH fueled thrusters for orbit insertion, maneuver, and deorbit. (6,300 kgf each) Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 10 Minutes and 1 second Primary Burn 7-14 Days, standard 450 days maximum Embarked Craft: Orbiter 3-7 “CSJP” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Payload Commander, 1-4 Mission Specialists, 1-3 Payload Specialists, 1-3 Supernumeraries: Seven Maximum regardless of Crew Mix. Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Control Systems 23 @ Sperry SpaceSystems: Honeywell multiplexers/ demulti- plexers (MDMs) *NOTE Computers: Remote Ground Controled IBM AP -201 units Both the Laser and Missile systems were modular and could be Energy Weapons: N/A Type III Chemical TRW Corporation – swaped out for cargo space and/or science/lab modules. Tactical High Energy Laser anti-missile defense system. Projectile Weapons: N/A SIM-54S Space Phoenix Missile Life Support: Space Systems USA: ECLSS consists of an Launcher with 12 Tactical Nuclear air revitalization sys-tem, water coolant warhead Phoenix Missiles loop systems, atmo-sphere revitalization Defense: triple Layer Ceramic tile with a ther pressure control sys -tem, active thermal mal barrier of titanium wire mesh control system, supply water & waste w a- spring with a ceramic fiber braided ter system, waste collec-tion system & air- sleeve. lock support system.

A Weary World looks the other way

The DY-100 Manned Interplanetary Spacecraft. It was the first of the Human vessels that could both reach outside the trans-lunar system, AND carry a manned crew with it. It was also the last vessel developed primarily by the Soviet Union, before its collapse and reemer- gence as the Russian Federation.

The most famous vessel of this class was the BOTANY BAY, originally named the RODINYA. The vessel that carried the tyrant Khan Noonian Singh and his eugenic followers off of Earth after their defeat at the end of the Eugenic Wars. Renamed by Khan as some form of perverse hu- mor, then name was accepted by the exhausted peoples of Earth, as the ship sped away, its passengers placing themselves into cryogenic tubes, and were not found again until 2267 by the USS Enterprise under the command of then Captain James T. Kirk.

In lat e 1995 forces seizes control of the Baikanur space launch facilities and the DY-100 Launch vehicle, however the Security Forces manage to destroy the Command Capsule "Rodinya" before Khan's troops can secure it.

By 1996 Khan seeing an end is near, negotiates a surrender, for his and his followers lives in ex- ile, he promises to release the cure for Pseudo Leprosy Disease if a replacement capsule is provided for the DY100. The allied nations provide Khan and 96 of his "supermen" the S.S. Bot- any Bay, which is launched into space, but telemetry is soon lost. It is later learned that Khan had smuggled 105 of the Swedish sleeper capsules on board before launch. The promised cure is quickly developed into a short-term treatment.

DY-100 * Class Long Range Sleep Ship Explorer

Flag Joint United States (USA) – Russian Federation (PF) project

Dates of Service 1996-2268 Number in Class 50 Displacement 2,700,000 Kg Overall Length 100 m Overall Draft 34.9 m Overall Beam 23.27 m Propulsion: 6 Rocketol Chemical Boost Engines for Earth Escape and planet-capture 4.2 million kilograms thrust 1 Amjet Hydrogen Fission Thruster for interplanetary transfer 68,000 kilograms thrust Velocity: 55,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 80,000 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 80,000 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 934 Days, Indefinite max with sleeper modules. Embarked Craft: 2 MULE Inter -orbital Transport, 24 @ “CSJP” Jet Packs Complement: 2-4: Captain (Mission Commander) and three Lieutenants (Pilot, Flight Engineer and Payload Commander), 0-20 Pas- sengers depending on Mission. Navigation: Unisys Licensed Optical Tracker -Controlled Inertial Guid ance System Computers: Stolkov Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory sys tem Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: Micro Layers of Titanium and Ceramic flms (21 each) creating a thermal barrier at 10 percent of standard tile weight. Life Support: Molniya: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, wa ter coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pres sure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system.

Space Shuttle HIMAWARI * Class Orbiter

H-2 Shuttle Launch System Himawari Orbiter Flag Japanese Space Agency (NASDA)

Dates of Service 23 August 1998 – 19 October 2015 Displacement 48438 metric tons 25,000 Kilograms Overall Length 73.56 m 19.50 m Overall Draft 7.2 m 5.4 m Overall Beam 5.40 m 5.4 m Propulsion: Multi Staged Engine System 1: 1 Solid Fuel Engine- 1 Engine (3 Nozzle) 675,000 kgf, 2: 1 Lox/LH2 fueled Engine – 112,000 N204/NMH fueled kgf, 3: 1 N204/NMH fueled Engine 3,100 kgf main Engine Orbital (combined 796,300 kgf thrust) (8,100 kgf each) cobined 24,300 kgf thrust Velocity: 39,600 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,600 km/h 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity 39,600 km/h Duration: 16 minutes and 10 seconds Primary Burn 6-9 Days, 60 day max Embarked Craft: Orbiter 3 “SAFER” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Mission Specialist Navigation: Ground Controlled Guidance Conrol 12 @ Fujitsu Systems: Systems multiplexers/ demulti-plexers (MDMs) Computers: Remote Ground Controled Hitachi J400X units Energy Weapons: N/A N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A N/A Defense: None Dual Layer Ceramic tile with a thermal barrier of Inconel wire mesh spring with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: N/A Mitsubishi Heavy Industries: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, act-ive thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system. And then a new beginning….

Dateline Freedom II Space Station: February 29th 2012 By Allyson M.F. Dyar Special correspondent for the Space Sciences Institute

Today marks both an anniversary and a new beginning for the Free- dom II Space Station. Originally baptized eight years ago today, to replace the Freedom I Station destroyed by terrorists now k now to be working for the Dictator Khan Noonian Singh on March 26th, 1992. Now the International Space Station has gotten both a facelift AND a new name, the World Space Station. From here the people of Earth will begin their exploration of the Solar System and beyond. The final modifications to the station are expected to be completed in three years, and the first of the Manned Mars Missions are expected four years after that. Before the end of this decade, man will finally step upon the Red Planet, and renew that journey began by Neil Armstrong more than forty years ago, from Earth to the Stars.

As seen from Earth the WSS Freedom II is visible during the day, and often at night one can see with the naked eye the Diana Lunar Craf t leaving for another mission to the Moon, and the construction of the bases there especially the Clavius Base (officially Moon Base Alpha) erected in the Clavius Crater. These base provide the WSS with raw materials, especially frozen water embedded in the lunar slag that is brought back to the station cheaper from the moon, then would be able to lift plain water out of the Earth’s gravity well. With this water, the station’s facilities can break down the raw material into breathable oxygen, hydr o- gen fuel, and yes even a cool glass of water.

Most important to the continued success of the space programs on the various partner nations in WSS, is the manufacturing facilities. Contracts exist with all of the major electronics firms, and with the Biomedical corporations to provide materials whose purity can only be provided in the micro-gravity of space. These contracts as of the end of 2011 help defray 60% of the costs of the various space programs.

Yesterday the Moon, tomorrow Mars, next year …………… We shall see. From Freedom II, this is Allyson Dyar, good night. The World Space Station – Freedom II Class Space Station

World Space Station- Freedom I Flag Joint Mission of USA – Russia – NASDA – ESA

Dates of Service November 9th, 2004 - July 7th, 2053 Displacement 465.8 mt Overall Length 204.8 m Overall Draft 42.2 m Overall Beam 12.4 m Propulsion: none, uses Earth’s Gravitational Effect Power Generation: 14.875 total average kW. Electrical System: Solar Panels, 28 Wings each 36m each Velocity: 11,054 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 11,054 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 48 years, 4 months, 2 days Embarked Craft: 2-4 “MULE” Inter -orbital Transfer Vehicles. Complement: Ten – Twenty Crewmembers Navigation: Ground Control Guidance Computers: Ground Control Cray Computers Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: 15 cm thick Titanium Aluminum Composite Armor Life Support: Triple Redundant OKB-124 - G I Voronin - Oxy Regen. System VENTURE STAR * Class Single Stage to Orbit Orbiter

Venture Star SSTO Orbiter Flag United States of America (USA)

Dates of Service 7 April 2005 – 1 Aug 2031 Number in Class 6 Ships in Class Venture Star, Bright Star, Shining Star, Lone Star, Morning Star, Evening Star and Rising Star Displacement 1,195,454 Kg Overall Length 45.76 m Overall Draft 18.11 m Overall Beam 48.8 m Propulsion: 8 LOX/LH2 – fueled Rocketdyne Propulsion Linear Aerospikes Take-off thrust – 1,607,727 kg Payload to Low Earth Orbit – 25,455 kg Velocity: 27,500 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 7-10 Days, 30 day max Embarked Craft: 1 MULE Inter -orbital Transport, 10@ “CSJP” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Payload Commander, 1-4 Mission Specialists, 1-3 Payload Specialists, 1-3 Supernumeraries: Maximum Complement 10 Navigation: Quadruple Independent/Redundant Honeywell Inertial Navigation System/Global Positioning System Computers: 12 Interconnected IBM AP -307A units Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: Triple Layer Ceramic tile with a thermal barrier of titanium wire mesh spring with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: Martin Marietta: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waste water system, waste collection system & airlock support system. DY-150 DIANA * Class Trans-Lunar Transport

Flag Joint United States (USA) – Russian Federation (PF) project

Dates of Service 2006-2036 Number in Class 20 Displacement 1,996,578 Kg Overall Length 88.82 m Overall Draft 26.96 m Overall Beam 26.96 m Propulsion: 1 Amjet II Hydrogen Fission Thruster for interplanetary transfer 38,000 kilograms thrust Velocity: 25,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 40,000 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 40,000 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 24 Days. Embarked Craft: 2 MULE Inter -orbital Transport, 24 @ “CSJP” Jet Packs Complement: 2-4: Captain (Mission Commander) and three Lieutenants (Pilot, Flight Engineer and Pay- load Commander), 0-20 Passengers depending on Mission. Navigation: Unisys Licensed Optical Tracker -Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Stolkov Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory system Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: Micro Layers of Titanium and Ceramic films (21 each) creating a thermal barrier at 10 percent of standard tile weight. Life Support: Martin Marietta: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system.

The US launches new missions to the Moon, with the goal to begin construction of three new Moon Bases in 2008. The craft to be used is the joint Russian-American developed DY-150 Earth-Moon liner. These craft will travel from the International Space Station to Lunar Orbit and use an advanced version of the Lunar Lander to explore the Moon’s surface. The entire project is referred to as the DIANA PROGRAM in honor of the Greek goddess of the Moon. Four Runs the first year begin regular route. SHOGUN * Class Single Stage to Orbit Orbiter

SHOGUN Orbiter Flag Japanese Space Agency (NASDA)

Dates of Service 12 August 2011 – 6 October 2046 Displacement 954,000 Kilograms Overall Length 44.50 m Overall Draft 19.42 m Overall Beam 31.75 m Propulsion: 8 LOX/LH2 – fueled Mitsubishi Propulsion Linear Aerospikes Take-off thrust – 1,585,000 kg Payload to Low Earth Orbit – 26,000 kg Velocity: 27,500 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 7-10 Days, 30 day max Embarked Craft: 1 MULE Inter -orbital Transport, 10@ “CSJP” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Payload Commander, 1-4 Mission Specialists, 1-3 Payload Specialists, 1-3 Supernumeraries: Maximum Complement 10 Navigation Quadruple Independent/Redundant Fujitsu Inertial Navigation System/Global Positioning System Computers: 12 Interconnected Toshiba/Hitachi J1250 units Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: Triple Layer Ceramic tile with a thermal barrier of titanium wire mesh spring with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries: : ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waste water system, waste collection system & airlock support system

DeGAULLE * Class Single Stage to Orbit Orbiter

DeGaulle SSTO Orbiter Flag Republic of France (RoF)

Dates of Service 11 August 2013 – 15 Nov 2054 Number in Class 5 Ships in Class DeGaulle, Mitterand, Chirac, d'Estaing, Pompidou Displacement 885,000 Kg Overall Length 48.25 m Overall Draft 22.50 m Overall Beam 22.50 m Propulsion: 4 LOX/LH2 – fueled Dassault Propulsion Advanced Linear Aerospikes Take-off thrust – 980,000 kg Payload to Low Earth Orbit – 17,545 kg Velocity: 27,500 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 39,360 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 7 Days, 14 day max Embarked Craft: 1 MULE Inter -orbital Transport, 7@ “CSJP” Jet Packs Complement: Mission Commander, Pilot, Payload Commander, 1-4 Mission Specialists, 1-3 Payload Specialists, 1-3 Supernumeraries: Maximum Complement 7 Navigation: Triple Independent/Redundant Minitel Inertial Navigation System/ Global Positioning System Computers: 12 Interconnected Gerleman GX-425 units Energy Weapons: Dassault Xeon-Based High Energy Laser anti-missile defense system Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: Dassault Chobham Dual Layer Ceramic tile with a thermal barrier of Mihanic wire mesh with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: Peugot: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system. To the Red Planet …..

Serious plans for a manned mission to Mars began in 2012, when the International Space Station and opposition to the Mars mission and the massive funds being invested into it started to grow. was renamed the World Space Station and placed under the control of the United Nations. As However, with both ships almost complete and the crews trained, it was decided to continue with part of the renaming ceremony, a rotating Habitat Ring was added to allow the generation of the mission. It was hoped that a successful landing would help raise world morale. Earth-standard gravity. The following year, the United States President announced that the US would send a manned team to Mars in 2019, hoping to land on July 20th – the 50th Anniversary of On January 1, 2019, “Mars One” launched from the WSS. Aboard was Mission Commander Colo- the first mission to the Moon. While economic conditions in the United States remained down, it nel Steven Andrews (USAF), Pilot Commander Alan Carter (USN), Senior Specialist Kara Michelle was hoped that this would provide a “kick-start” much as the Apollo program in the 1960’s did. Inokuma (USA), Geophysicist Colette Caccione (ITA), Geologist Sakura Kinomoto (JPN), and Cli- The European Space Agency, the Japanese, and the Russian Federation joined these plans over matologists Sergei Andropov (RUS) and Jean-Michele Ligier (FRA). The trip went as expected and the next six months. “Mars One” settled into Martian orbit on July 19, 2019. The team reviewed final information from Mars Observer 2 and, in consultation with the WSS, a final site was selected for touchdown the fol- Lockheed-Martin Aerospace and Boeing were named Joint Contractors on the DY-200 Adven- lowing morning. turer class of Interplanetary Cutter in 2014. Honda and Pratt and Whitney won the engine contract and IBM and Group Bull of France shared the avionics package. Airbus Industrie was chosen Unlike with the first Moon mission, no formal decision had been made ahead of time as to who to provide interior furnishings and the fabrication was spread throughout the four partners. The rise would be the first person to step on Mars, the decision being left to the crew of “Mars One” them- of the Neo-Trotsky party in France in the 2015 elections for a time threatened Group Bull and Air- selves. They took a vote that night and, in a 6-1 decision, Kara Inokuma was chosen. The daugh- bus in the consortium, but this was averted and construction of the two DY-200’s (named “Mars ter of renowned Japanese scientist Yuki Inokuma and an American software tycoon (himself of One” and “Mars Two”) began in late 2015 in special dockyards near the WSS. In preparation for Russian, British, and Italian decent), the rest said they voted for her because she best represented the mission, Lockheed-Martin was chosen to build a replacement Mars Observer spacecraft and the countries that had come together to take on this mission. launched it in 2015 towards the Red Planet to begin intensive surveying for a landing spot. So, at 12:00 hours GMT (Earthside), Kara Michelle Inokuma set her right boot onto Martian soil, be- Crew training began in 2016. Astronauts from all four partners are chosen, with the fourteen di- coming the first human to set foot on another planet in the solar system. Unlike Astronaut Neil Arm- vided as follows: five Americans, two each from Britain and Russia, one Australian, one German, stong in 1969, Miss Inokuma did not utter any words, rather choosing to say a silent Japanese one Italian, one Frenchman, and one Japanese. At this time, the crews trained as one group, with prayer for good fortune. She was joined within minutes by Colonel Andrews and Commander individual training slated to begin in 2018. Mars Observer arrived in Martian orbit in 2017 and be- Carter and the three raised a large American flag. Once that ceremony was done, the other gan searching out suitable landing sites. crew members exited the lander and raised their own flags (ESA, RUS, JPN). After posing for numerous group photos, the team set out to begin their exploration and work. By late 2018 economic conditions across the Western Democracies were worsening even more, DY-200 * ADVENTUER Class Long Range / Interplanetary Cutter

Flag Joint United States (USA) – European Union (ESA) Russian Federation (PF) – Japan (NASDA)

Dates of Service 2019-2143 Number in Class 10 Displacement 2,200,000 Kg Overall Length 108 m Overall Draft 32.7 m Overall Beam 32. m Propulsion: 4 Honda / Pratt-Whitney Hydrogen Fission Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 19.500 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 77,500 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 116,000 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 116,000 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 730 Days, Indefinite max with sleeper modules, Sleeper modules being phased out Embarked Craft: 1 Planetary Command Module Lander, 1 Planetary Rover 14 @ “CSJP -II” Jet Packs Complement: 4-14: Captain (Mission Commander) and three Lieutenants (Pilot, Flight Engineer and Payload Commander) and ten passengers Navigation: Unisys Licensed Optical Tracker -Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Hewlett Packard 11000 Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory system Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: Micro Layers of Titanium and Ceramic films (21 each) creating a thermal barrier at 10 percent of standard tile weight. Life Support: Space USA Systems: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system. GALILEO Class Long Range / Interplanetary Cruiser

Flag Joint London Treat Alliance (LTA) and Japanese (NASDA) development UNESPA flagged Ships.

Dates of Service 2028-2084 Number in Class 35 Displacement 350,000 Kilograms Overall Length 58 m Overall Draft 37 m Overall Beam 63 m Propulsion: 3 Honda / Pratt-Whitney Hydrogen Fission Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 19,500 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 112,500 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 168,000 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 168,000 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 600 Days Embarked Craft: 1 Planetary Command Module Lander, 100 @ “CSJP -II” Jet Packs Complement: 6: Captain (Mission Commander) and three Lieutenants (Pilot, Flight Engineer and Pay- load Commander) and two Ensigns (Attendants) Passengers: 92 Navigation: Unisys Licensed Optical Tracker -Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Hewlett Packard 11000 Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory system Energy Weapons: N/A Projectile Weapons: N/A Defense: Micro Layers of Titanium and Ceramic films (21 each) creating a thermal barrier at 10 percent of standard tile weight. Active force pressers navigational deflectors. Life Support: Space USA Systems: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system. KUBLAI Class Long Range / Interplanetary Escort

KUBLAI Interplanetary Escort Flag Joint Chinese (PASA) Japanese Space Agency (NASDA) Project

Dates of Service 5 February 2034 – 4 January 2058 Number in Class 21 Displacement 321,600 Kilograms Overall Length 53.5 m Overall Draft 28.1 m Overall Beam 47.8 m Propulsion: 3 Honda / Pratt-Whitney Hydrogen Fission Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 19,500 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 112,500 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 168,000 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 168,000 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 600 Days Embarked Craft: 1 Planetary Command Module Lander, 76 @ “CSJP-II” Jet Packs Complement: 6: Captain (Mission Commander) and three Lieutenants (Pilot, Flight Engineer and Pay- load Commander) and two Ensigns (Attendants) Passengers: 70 Navigation: Fujitsu Systems: Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Toshiba 7500 Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory Energy Weapons: One – Dual Barreled Laser Type III Chemical Mitsubishi Corporation –Tactical High Energy Laser anti-missile defense system. Projectile Weapons: Two CSS-22 Space Huang Missile Launchers with 36 Tactical Nuclear warhead Huang Mis- siles Defense: Dual Layer Ceramic tile with a thermal barrier of Inconel wire mesh spring with a ceramic fiber braided sleeve. Life Support: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system.

RYUUJIN Class Long Range Interplanetary Cruiser

RYUUJIN Interplanetary Cruiser Flag Joint Chinese (PASA) Japanese Space Agency (NASDA) Project

Dates of Service 7 April 2039 – 4 January 2058 Number in Class 12 Displacement 365,000 Kilograms Overall Length 84.2 m Overall Draft 31.4 m Overall Beam 31.4 m Propulsion: 8 Honda Hydrogen Fission Pulse Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 9,800 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 127,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 190,500 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 190,500 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 2 years Embarked Craft: 1 Planetary Command Module Lander, 42 @ “CSJP-II” Jet Packs Complement: 6: Command and 24 Crew Passengers: Up to 12 embarked Passengers Navigation: Fujitsu Systems: Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Toshiba 7500 Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory Energy Weapons: Four – Single Barreled Laser Type II Chemical Mitsubishi Corporation –Tactical High Energy Laser anti-ship/missile defense system. Projectile Weapons: Two CSS-22 Space Huang Missile Launchers with 36 Tactical Nuclear warhead Huang Mis- siles Defense: 17.5 cm Plastisteel Armor Life Support: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system.

COLUMBUS Class Long Range Interplanetary Cruiser

COLUMBUS Interplanetary Cruiser Flag Joint London Treat Alliance (LTA) and United Nations (UESPA) development UNESPA flagged Ships.

Dates of Service October 12th 2043- December 31st 2087 Number in Class 52 Displacement 525,000 Kilograms Overall Length 72 m Overall Draft 34 m Overall Beam 67 m Propulsion: 2 General Dynamics Hydrogen Cold Fusion Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 42,000 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 121,750 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 182,625 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 182,625 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 2 years Embarked Craft: 2 Planetary Command Module Shuttles, 6 Aerospace Fliers, 42 @ “CSJP -II” Jet Packs Complement: 8: Command and 22 Crew Passengers: Up to 12 embarked Aerospace Flier Pilots Navigation: Intertel Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Intertel 54 Bravo Limited AI Digital Memory system Energy Weapons: 2 Type II – Medium Ranged (1,000 KM) Xenon Lasers Projectile Weapons: 4 Launchers with 8 Long Range Space Patriot Missiles with Fusion Bomb Warhead Defense: Plastisteel Armor – 25 cm Active force pressers navigational deflectors. Life Support: Standard UESPA Essential Life Support (ELS-I) (Atmosphere/Air/Food/ Temperature) support system. Glenn Class Long Range Interplanetary Corvette

GLENN Interplanetary Corvette Flag Joint London Treat Alliance (LTA) and United Nations (UESPA) development UNESPA flagged Ships.

Dates of Service February 20th 2052- December 31st 2105 Number in Class 60 Displacement 385,000 Kilograms Overall Length 85 m Overall Draft 23 m Overall Beam 45 m Propulsion: 2 General Dynamics Improved Hydrogen Cold Fusion Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 52,000 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 135,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 202,500 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 202,500 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 1 year Embarked Craft: 2 Planetary Command Module Shuttles 23 @ “CSJP -II” Jet Packs Complement: 8 Command and 15 Crew

Passengers: none Navigation: Intertel Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Intertel 54 Bravo Limited AI Digital Memory system Energy Weapons: 2 Type I – Medium Ranged (1,000 KM) Xenon Laser Cannon Projectile Weapons: 2 Launchers with 8 Long Range Space Patriot Missiles with Fusion Bomb Warhead Defense: Plastisteel Armor – 25 cm Active force pressers navigational deflectors. Life Support: Standard UESPA Essential Life Support (ELS-I) (Atmosphere/Air/Food/ Temperature) support system.

YAMAMATO Class Long Range Interplanetary Battle Cruiser

YAMAMATO Interplanetary Battle Cruiser Flag Joint Chinese (PASA) Japanese Space Agency (NASDA) Project

Dates of Service 16 July 2055 – 4 January 2058 Number in Class 3 Displacement 530,000 Kilograms Overall Length 106.5 m Overall Draft 42.8 m Overall Beam 42.8 m Propulsion: 12 Honda Hydrogen Fusion Pulse Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 21,000 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 154,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 221,000 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 221,000 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 3 years Embarked Craft: 3 Planetary Command Module Lander, 3 Y-55 “Amaratsu” class Space interceptors, and 66 @ “CSJP-II” Jet Packs Complement: 9 Command and 36 Crew Passengers: Up to 12 embarked Passengers and 9 Flight Crew Navigation: Fujitsu Systems: Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Toshiba 7500 Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory Energy Weapons: Eight – Single Barreled Laser Type II Chemical Mitsubishi Corporation –Tactical High En- ergy Laser anti-ship/missile defense system. Projectile Weapons: Four CSS-22 Space Huang Missile Launchers with 36 Tactical Nuclear warhead Huang Mis- siles Defense: 23.5 cm Plastisteel Armor Life Support: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system. LIBERTY Class Long Range Interplanetary Cruiser

LIBERTY Interplanetary Cruiser Flag Joint London Treat Alliance (LTA) and United Nations (UESPA) development UNESPA flagged Ships.

Dates of Service July 4th 2055- December 31st 2105 Number in Class 40 Displacement 750,000 Kilograms Overall Length 85 m Overall Draft 23 m Overall Beam 85 m Propulsion: 4 General Dynamics Improved Hydrogen Cold Fusion Thrusters for interplanetary transfer 52,000 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 135,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 202,500 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 202,500 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 1 year Embarked Craft: 4 Planetary Command Module Shuttles 46 @ “CSJP -II” Jet Packs Complement: 12 Command and 34 Crew Passengers: none Navigation: Intertel Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Intertel 54 Bravo Limited AI Digital Memory system Energy Weapons: 4 Type I – Medium Ranged (1,000 KM) Xenon Laser Cannon Projectile Weapons: 4 Launchers with 12 Long Range Space Patriot Missiles with Fusion Bomb Warhead Defense: Plastisteel Armor – 25 cm Active force pressers navigational deflectors. Life Support: Standard UESPA Essential Life Support (ELS-I) (Atmosphere/Air/Food/ Temperature) support system. CELESTIAL DRAGON Class Orbital Weapons Platform

CELESTIAL DRAGON Orbital Weapons Platform Flag Joint Chinese (PASA) Japanese Space Agency (NASDA) Project

Dates of Service 30 April 2055 – 4 January 2058 Number in Class 1 Displacement 1,250,000 Kilograms Overall Length 215.0 m Overall Draft 61.4 m Overall Beam 35.6 m Propulsion: 2 Mitsubishi Hydrogen Fusion Mega Pulse Thrusters 136,000 kilograms thrust each Velocity: 110,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 110,000 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 110,000 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 8 years Embarked Craft: 6 Planetary Command Module Lander, 12 Y-55 “Amaratsu” class Space interceptors, and 153 @ “CSJP-II” Jet Packs Complement: 15 Command and 72 Crew Passengers: Up to 36 embarked Passengers and 30 Flight Crew Navigation: Fujitsu Systems: Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Toshiba 7500 Standard Program Dependent Digital Memory Energy Weapons: One – Type IV Argon Laser, Zhongnanhai Electronics, Twelve – Double Barreled Laser Type II Chemical Mitsubishi Corporation –Tactical High Energy Laser anti-ship/missile defense system. Projectile Weapons: Twelve CSS-22 Space Huang Missile Launchers with 36 Tactical Nuclear warhead Huang Missiles Defense: 23.5 cm Plastisteel Armor Life Support: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries: ECLSS consists of an air revitalization system, water coolant loop systems, atmosphere revitalization pressure control system, active thermal control system, supply water & waster water system, water collection system & airlock support system.

The War Ends….. Once more past the brink

The CAM-117 Class Battleship entered service with the London Treaty Alli- destroyers, destroying five of the ten. Linking up with the UES Liberty, they ance Space Navy in May of 2057. In design study before the start of the then moved on and destroyed all three Yamato class cruisers. The UES Third World War, plans were accelerated once global conflict was init i- Washington suffered a laser hit in her engine and was forced to return to ated. Luna. Texas and Liberty engaged and destroyed three of the Ryuujins protecting the weapons platform and then finished off the platform itself. By 2055, the Liberty class cruiser had entered service, a move that was quickly matched by the Eastern Coalition with their Yamato class. The LTA The CAM-117 was essentially built around her primary weapon – a mas- Intelligence Agency learned that these cruisers were being developed to sive particle accelerator cannon that comprised one-third of the mass of support an orbital weapons platform carrying a massive laser that could the ship. In addition, she carried a number of chemical lasers and nu- be used on both space and ground targets. To combat this, a crash clear rockets for either close-in combat or for when the PAC was being course construction program on two hulls was started at the Lunar Dock- recharged. yards on Farside. The CAM-117 was powered by a McKinley Ion Thrust engine rated at 3 The EC’s platform was launched on April 30th, 2057 and destroyed the LTA million pounds. Such a powerful engine resulted in a truly phenomenal Headquarters facility at Thule, Greenland. The attack necessitated that top speeds. However, fuel consumption was also astronomical and inex- the platform use almost all its consumables and it was unable to engage perienced crews often found themselves limping home on the end of a Earthbound targets until it was refueled. tow-cable when they maintained top speed for too long. As such, the vessels came to be known as “nuclear kites” by their fellow spacers. UES Texas, the first CAM-117, was launched on May 1, 2057. She was joined the following day by her sister, UES Washington. Both vessels en- After the war, the CAM-117 became the primary Ship of the Line for the gaged and destroyed an EC tanker carrying lasing consumables to the next ten years and a total of ten of these vessels were built. orbiting platform. The following day they engaged a screen of Ryuujin TEXAS Class Long Range Interplanetary Battleship

TEXAS Interplanetary Battleship Flag Joint London Treat Alliance (LTA) and United Nations (UESPA) development UNESPA flagged Ships.

Dates of Service May 1st 2057- December 31st 2086 Number in Class 10 Displacement 1,500,000 Kilograms Overall Length 100 m Overall Draft 85 m Overall Beam 85 m Propulsion: One McKinley Ion-Drive Nuclear Ion Engine (3 million pounds thrust) pulsed laser reaction control system Velocity: 175,000 km/h Standard Cruising Speed 252,500 km/h Maximum Cruising Speed 252,500 km/h Maximum Attainable Velocity Duration: 2 years Embarked Craft: 6 Planetary Command Module Shuttles 78 @ “CSJP -II” Jet Packs Complement: 16 Command and 52 Crew Passengers: none Navigation: Intertel Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Computers: Intertel 54 Bravo Limited AI Digital Memory system Energy Weapons: 6 Improved Type I – Long Ranged (10,000 KM) Di-Xenon Laser Cannons Projectile Weapons: 9 Launchers with 16 Extra Long Range Space Patriot Missiles (25,000 KM) with Fusion Bomb Warhead Defense: Plastisteel Armor – 25 cm Active force pressers navigational deflectors. Life Support: Standard UESPA Essential Life Support (ELS-I) (Atmosphere/Air/Food/ Temperature) support system.

First Contact

As a result of the devastation of World War Three, space flight was virtually halted in the late 2050’s. Technological advances were non-existent and except for policing flights by UESPA flagged LTA ships; there were no new exploration of the solar system. The Terran governments had to pre- serve what resources they had for rebuilding.

But some entrepreneurs and engineers still kept a vision alive of reaching for the stars. One such was Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s own Dr. Zephram Cochrane. Cochrane piloted Earth’s first faster-than-light space flight. Cochrane’s ship, the Phoenix, is a tiny vessel that, ironically, was built from an unused titan-iv left over from the third world war. Though recently used as a weapon of war, (the titans were used to launch the retaliatory strikes against the Eastern Coalition) it was the only launcher available with enough throw weight to get the Phoenix out of the Earth’s gravit y well. The Phoenix itself was protected by the shroud of the 2nd/3rd stage of the rocket, which protected the fragile warp nacelles as it left the Earth’s atmosphere. Once free of the atmosphere, the twin nacelles were deployed and the Warp Engines were brought on line, for that first successful test.

The warp signature of the Phoenix attracted the attention of a passing Vulcan ship, indicating that humankind now has the capacity for interstellar travel. Within a day of the Phoenix’s epic flight, Cochrane becomes the first human to officially make contact with extraterrest rial life, when the Vul- can ship lands at Cochrane’s Montana base on the North American continent. The event sparks a remarkable turning point in the difficult recovery from Earth’s terrible nuclear war and marks the beginning of humanity’s interstellar age. PHOENIX Class Warp Vessel Prototype

Flag Private venture prototype Dates of Service April 5 2063 - July 3, 2068

Number in Class 1 Displacement 455,477.3 Kilograms for Launcher 18,272 Kg for Warp Vessel Overall Length 88.5 meters 14.75 meters Overall Draft 10.5 meters 3.5 meters / 17.4 meters Nacelles extended Overall Beam 10.5 meters 3.5 meters Propulsion: Primary: Cochrane Experimental Warp Drive Secondary: One Brack Industries Ion-Drive Nuclear Ion Engine (30,000 kg thrust) Zephram Cochrane pilots Earth’s first faster-than- pulsed laser reaction control system light space flight. Cochrane’s ship, the Phoenix, is Launch: Multi Staged (LR-87-11, LR-91-11 and RL-10a-3a) (1,307,380 kg thrust) a tiny vessel that, ironically, was built from an un- Velocity: 87,500 km/h Standard Cruising Speed used nuclear missile left over from the third world Warp One Maximum Cruising Speed Warp One point two Maximum Attainable Velocity war. The warp signature of the Phoenix attracts Duration: 1 day the attention of a passing Vulcan ship, indicating Embarked Craft: none that humankind now has the capacity for interstel- Complement: 3 Command lar travel. Passengers: none Navigation: Intertel Optical Tracker-Controlled Inertial Guidance System Within a day of the Phoenix’s epic flight, Cochrane Computers: Intertel 54 Bravo Limited AI Digital Memory system becomes the first human to officially make contact Energy Weapons: none with extraterrestrial life, when the Vulcan ship lands Projectile Weapons: none at Cochrane’s Montana base on the North Ameri- Defense: Aluminum Armor – 2.0 cm Life Support: Standard UESPA Essential Life Support (ELS-I) (Atmosphere/Air/Food/ Temperature) sup- can continent. The event sparks a remarkable port system. turning point in the difficult recovery from Earth’s terrible nuclear war and marks the beginning of

humanity’s interstellar age.

Appendices Vostok Appendix In the spring of 1957 Korolev organised project section 9, with Tikhonravov at its chief, to design new space- solar orientation system and a manual/visual orientation system. Either system could operate two redundant craft. Simultaneous with this they were building the first earth satellites - the PS-1, PS-2 and Object D (which cold nitrogen gas thruster systems, each with 10 kg of gas. would be Sputniks 1, 2, and 3). By April they had completed a research plan to build a piloted spacecraft The automatic solar orientation system consisted of solar sensors, DUS-L2 angle of flight sensors, and an SRB and an unmanned lunar probe, using the R-7 as the basis for the launch vehicle. Studies indicated that the R- analogue computer unit. The TDU would only fire if the sun sensors - consisting of a slit arranged over three 7 with a third stage could lift 5 tonnes into low earth orbit. photocells - indicated correct orientation. The DUS-L2 angle of flight sensor utilised two-step double gyro- The manned spacecraft work led them into new fields of research in re-entry, thermal protection, and hyper- scopes with mechanically opposed directions. The SRB used these inputs and generated impulses to carry sonic aerodynamics. The initial study material was reviewed by mathematicians at the Academy of Science. out the burn. It was found that a maximum of 10 G's would result in a ballistic re-entry from earth obit. From September The cosmonaut could also take manual control of the spacecraft and manually re-enter. This was done by 1957 to January 1958 Tikhonravov's section examined heating conditions, surface temperatures, heat shield using the ingenious Vzor periscope device mounted on the floor of the cabin. This had a central view and materials, and obtainable maximum payloads for a wide range of aerodynamic forms with hypersonic lift to eight ports arranged in a circle around the center. When the spacecraft was perfectly centered in respect drag ratios ranging from zero to a few points. Parametric trajectory calculations were made using successive to the horizon, all eight of the ports would be lit up. Alignment along the orbit was judged by getting lines on approximations on the BESM-1 electromechanical computer. the main scope to be aligned with the landscape flowing by below. In this way, the spacecraft could be The necessity to refine and qualify the lifting design seemed a major impediment to meeting a quick pro- oriented correctly for the re-entry manoeuvre. This manual system would obviously only be used during day- gram schedule. Then in April 1958 aviation medicine research using human subjects in a centrifuge showed light portions of the orbit. At night the dark mass of the earth could not have been lined up with the optical that pilots could endure up to 10 G's without ill effects. This allowed a pure ballistic design, removing a major Vzor device. The automatic system would work day or night. stumbling block, and allowing the study to move quickly to the advanced project stage. Detailed design of 10 minutes after TDU cut-off after the retrofire burn the PO separated from the KA. the spacecraft layout, structures, equipment, and materials were all done in parallel. This required everything 1960 was a year of intense testing. In test rigs the hatch seal was tested 50 times, spacecraft separation from to be redesigned 2 to 3 times, but resulted in a quick final design. The advance project was completed by the last rocket stage 15 times, SA/PO separation 5 times, and separation of the retaining straps form the SA 16 the middle of August 1958. Konstantin Feoktistov was one of the leading enthusiasts in this effort. After selec- times. The SA capsule was dropped from an An-12 aircraft at 9 to 12 km to test the parachute and ejection tion of the ballistic concept, the shape of the re-entry vehicle had to be symmetrical. A sphere was the sim- seat systems. The life support system was tested at altitude in a Tu-104 aircraft and in thermal chambers. The plest such form, having the same aerodynamic characteristics at all angles of attack and all velocities. By ejection seat was tested from 4 km to the altitude of cut-off of the first stage of the Vostok rocket, simulating putting the centre of mass aft of the centre of the sphere, the re-entry vehicle would naturally assume the cosmonaut escape during launch vehicle aborts. Seven spacecraft were built for flight tests. Korolev person- correct orientation for re-entry. ally hand-picked the equipment to be used on these spacecraft. Due to a bitter fight with the military over the nature and priority of the manned spacecraft and photo- From the end of 1960 to the beginning of 1961 the 3K unpiloted v ersion of the spacecraft was built and reconnaissance space programs, the final decree for the Vostok was not issued until 22 May 1959. This tested. To guarantee their reliability Korolev prohibited introduction of changes not only in the technical authorised production of a single design that could be used either as a manned spacecraft or as a military documentation but also in the technician staff that prepared them for flight. The military developed the re- reconnaissance satellite. covery forces and techniques, including appropriate aircraft, helicopters, and handling equipment. At that On 10 December 1959 a decree setting forth the work on the first manned spacecraft was issued. In April time it was felt that there was a 60% chance on each launch of an abort requiring rescue operations for the 1960 the draft project w as completed. This defined the various versions of the spacecraft to be produced: cosmonaut. The official draft project for the 3KA manned spacecraft was not completed until the end of July 1961, long Both the 1K and 3K versions would have a 2.4 tonne SA re-entry capsule, and 2.3 tonne PO service module, after the first flight of the actual spacecraft. and a 1600 kgf TDU braking engine. The Vostok and Voskhod spacecraft, like the U.S. Mercury, could not perform orbital manoeuvres - they could only be translated around their axes. The main engine was used only at the end of the mission for the re-entry The Vostok crew accommodation was for one cosmonaut, in a spacesuit, equipped with an ejection seat for braking manoeuvre. However Korolev, before being authorised to proceed with development of the Soyuz, launch aborts and for landing on the earth. The spacecraft had two windows: one above the cosmonaut's did study the Vostok Zh. This would have been a manoeuvrable Vostok that would have made repetitive head in the entry hatch, one at his feet, equipped with the Vzor optical device for orientation of the space- dockings with propulsion modules - a method of achieving a circumlunar mission using only the Soyuz craft. Attitude control was by cold gas thrusters for on-orbit orientation; passive control for the capsule during booster. Later on manoeuvrable versions of the Vostok were developed as Zenit reconnaissance satellites. re-entry. A single parachute allowed recovery of the capsule. There was no soft-landing system; the pilot The Vostok could not be used for circumlunar missions or earth missions with non-astronaut qaulified crew ejected for a separate landing under his own parachute. Instrumentation on the Vostoks was rudimentary in due to the 'Sharik' reentry vehicle design. The spherical design itself was ingenious - it has no manoeuvring the extreme. There were no gyros and no eight-ball for manoeuvring as on Mercury or Gemini. To decide engines to orient it, since it is like a ball with the heavy weight concentrated at one end - if you throw it in the when to re-enter, the cosmonaut had a little clockwork globe that showed current position over the earth. By air (or re-enter the atmosphere with it ) it will automatically swing around with the heavy end downward. The pushing a button to the right of the globe, it would be advanced to the landing position assuming a stan- only problem is that it is only capable of a purely ballistic re-entry, which mea ns 8 G's for the occupant from dard re-entry at that moment. earth orbit and 20 G's from the moon. Mercury was ballistic, but Gemini, Apollo, and Soyuz all had the center of gravity offset, so they could produce lift, lower the G forces, and manoeuvre somewhat to vary the land- The most crucial on-board system was the guidance system. A May 1959 report covering ballistic computa- ing point. This reduced G's to 3 G for earth orbit returns and 8 G's for lunar returns. First manned spacecraft. tions of variances in landing from orbit showed that the biggest danger was incorrect orientation for retrofire. Derivatives were still in use over thirty years later, for military photo-reconnaissance, earth resources, map- B E Chertok was in charge of the orientation system. It consisted of two redundant systems: an automatic/ ping, and biological missions. In the spring of 1957 Tikhonravov began study of a manned orbital spacecraft. The April 1958 preliminary d e- sign indicated a mass of 5.0 to 5.5 tonnes, 8 to 9 G re-entry, spherical capsule, 2500 to 3500 deg C re-entry temperatures. The heat shield would weigh 1300 to 1500 kg, and the landing accuracy would be 100 to 170 km. Operating altitude was 250 km. The ast ronaut would eject from the spacecraft at an altitude of 8 to 10 Major Events: . km. 01 June 1956 First studies by Korolev OKB of manned spacecraft Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. Launch Vehicle: Construction drawings were issued beginning in the fall of 1958. The official decree to begin development Vostok 8K72 . More details Summary: First studies by Korolev and Feoktistov of manned spacecraft. The first was issued only on 22 May 1959. From the end of 1960 six unmanned Vostok variants were launched. The mili- stage would be suborbital ballistic flights (like the US Mercury-Redstone flights) from Kapustin Yar using IRBM's. tary developed the recovery forces and techniques, including appropriate aircraft, helicopters, and handling First flights not planned until 1964 - 1967. equipment. At that time it was felt that there was a 60% chance on each launch of an abort requiring rescue 01 January 1958 Work begun on Vostok spacecraft and third stage Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. Launch Vehicle: operations for the cosmonaut. Vostok 8K72 . More details The Vostok crew accommodation was for one cosmonaut, in a spacesuit, equipped with an ejection seat for 01 May 1958 Korolev OKB cancels suborbital manned flights Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. More details launch aborts and for landing on the earth. The spacecraft had two windows: one above the cosmonaut's Decision to move directly to early manned flights in orbit. Korolev, after a review with engineers, determines head in the entry hatch, one at his feet, equipped with the Vzor optical device for orientation of the space- that planned three stage versions of the R-7 ICBM could launch a manned orbital spacecraft. Korolev advo- craft. Attitude control was by cold gas thrusters for on-orbit orientation; passive control for the capsule during cates pursuit of manned spaceflight at the expense of the military's Zenit reconnsat program, putting him in re-entry. A single parachute allowed recovery of the capsule. There was no soft-landing system; the pilot opposition to Ustinov. ejected for a separate landing under his own parachute. 01 July 1958 Korolev letter to Politburo Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. More details Summary: First explanation to The Vostok and Voskhod spacecraft, like the US Mercury, could not perform orbital manoeuvres - they could leadership of advantages of manned spaceflight. only be translated around their axes. The main engine was not restartable and was used only at the end of 01 November 1958 Vostok program approved Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. More details the mission for the re-entry braking manoeuvre. However Korolev, before being authorised to proceed with Council of Chief designers approves Vostok program, in combination with Zenit reconnsat program. After bit- development of the Soyuz, did study the Vostok Zh. This would have been a manoeuvrable Vostok that would ter disputes, a compromise solution is reached. Korolev may proceed with development of Vostok for have made repetitive dockings with propulsion modules - a method of achieving a circumlunar mission using manned flights at the earliest possible date. However the design will be such that the same spacecraft can only the Soyuz booster. Later on manoeuvrable versions of the Vostok were developed as Zenit reconnais- be used to fullfill the military's Zenit unmanned photo-reconnaisance sattelite requirement. sance satellites. Instrumentation on the Vostoks was rudimentary in the extreme. There was no gyro platform and no eight-ball 01 March 1960 20 Cosmonaut candidates report for Vostok training Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. More details for manoeuvring as on Gemini. The re-entry manoeuvre was normally handled automatically by radio com- 15 May 1960 Korabl -Sputnik 1 Spacecraft: Vostok 1K. Mass: 2,500 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: mand. The spacecraft was oriented horizontally using infrared sensors. Alignment along the orbital axis was Vostok 8K72 . More details made using sun and star sensors. The Soviet Union launched a Vostok 1KP prototype manned spacecraft (without heat shield; not recoverable) In the event of failure of the automatic systems, the cosmonaut could take manual control of the spacecraft. into near-earth orbit. Called Sputnik IV by the Western press. On May 19, at 15:52 Moscow time, the space- This was done by using the ingenious Vzor periscope device mounted on the floor of the cabin. This had a craft was commanded to retrofire. However the guidance system had oriented the spacecraft incorrectly central view and eight ports arranged in a circle around the centre. When the spacecraft was perfectly cen- and the TDU engine instead put the spacecraft into a higher orbit. Soviet scientists said that conditions in the tred in respect to the horizon, all eight of the ports would be lit up. Alignment along the orbit was judged by cabin, which had separated from the remainder of the spacecraft, were normal. getting lines on the main scope to be aligned with the landscape flowing by below. In this way, the space- Officially: Development and checking of the main systems of the space ship satellite, which ensure its safe craft could be oriented correctly for the re-entry manoeuvre. flight and control in flight, return to Earth and conditions needed for a man in flight. To decide when to re-enter, the cosmonaut had a little clockwork globe that showed current position over 15 May 1960 Sputnik 4 Cabin Spacecraft: Vostok 1K. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Vostok 8K72 . the earth. By pushing a button to the right of the globe, it would be advanced to the landing position assum- More details ing a standard re-entry at that moment. 28 July 1960 Korabl-Sputnik Spacecraft: Vostok 1K. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Vostok 8K72 . More This manual system would obviously only be used during daylight portions of the orbit. At night the dark mass details Summary: First attempted flight of the Vostok 1K manned spacecraft prototype. Dogs Chaika and Lisi- of the earth could not have been lined up with the optical Vzor device. The automatic system would work chka perished in the explosion of the rocket. day or night. The Vostok could not be used for circumlunar missions or earth missions with non-astronaut qualified crew due 19 August 1960 Korabl-Sputnik 2 Spacecraft: Vostok 1K. Mass: 1,440 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehi- to the 'Sharik' re-entry vehicle design. The spherical design itself is ingenious - it has no manoeuvring engines to cle: Vostok 8K72 . More details orient it, since it is like a ball with the heavy weight concentrated at one end - if you throw it in the air (or re- The Soviet Union launched its second unmanned test of the Vostok spacecraft, the Korabl Sputnik II, or Sputnik enter the atmosphere with it ) it will automatically swing around with the heavy end downward. The only V. The spacecraft carried two dogs, Strelka and Belka, in addition to a gray rabbit, rats, mice, flies, plants, problem is that it is only capable of a purely ballistic re-entry, which means 8 G's for the occupant from earth fungi, microscopic water plants, and seeds. Electrodes attached to the dogs and linked with the spacecraft orbit and 20 G's from the moon. Mercury was ballistic, but Gemini, Apollo, and Soyuz all had the centre of communications system, which included a television camera, enabled Soviet scientists to check the animals' gravity offset, so they could produce lift, lower the G forces, and manoeuvre somewhat to vary the landing hearts, blood pressure, breathing, and actions during the trip. After the spacecraft reentered and landed point. This reduced G's to 3 G for earth orbit returns and 8 G's for lunar returns. safely the next day, the animals and biological specimens were reported to be in good condition. Officially: Development of systems ensuring man's life functions and safety in flight and his return to Earth. 01 December 1960 Korabl-Sputnik 3 Spacecraft: Vostok 1K. Mass: 4,563 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Ve- hicle: Vostok 8K72 . More details The Soviet Union launched its third spaceship satellite, Korabl Sputnik III, or Sputnik VI. The spacecraft, similar to those launched on May 15 and August 19, carried the dogs Pcheka and Mushka in addition to other animals, insects, and plants. Deorbited December 2, 1960 7:15 GMT. Burned up on reentry due to steep entry angle (retrofire engine did not shut off on schedule and burned to fuel depletion). Officially: Medical and biological research under space flight conditions. Officially: Medical and biological research under space flight conditions. 22 December 1960 Korabl-Sputnik Spacecraft: Vostok 1K. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Vostok 8K72K . More details Unable to reach orbital velocity, the Vostok prototype separated while the third stage was still firing. While the ejection seat failed to operate, the capsule did make a hard landing in severe winter conditons in Siberia. It was recovered after some time, and the dogs Kometa and Shutka were alive. As a result of this flight the ejection seat was developed with a heat shield designed to protect the pilot in the event of a launch vehicle failure up to shut down of the first stage. 09 March 1961 Korabl-Sputnik 4 Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. Mass: 4,700 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehi- cle: Vostok 8K72K . More details Carried dog Chernushka, mannequin Ivan Ivanovich, and other biological specimens. Ivanovich was ejected from the capsule and recovered by parachute, and Chernsuhka was successfully recovered with the capsule on March 9, 1961 8:10 GMT. Officially: Development of the design of the space ship satellite and of the systems on board, which ensure necessary conditions for man's flight. 25 March 1961 Korabl-Sputnik 5 Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. Mass: 4,695 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehi- cle: Vostok 8K72K . More details Carried dog Zvezdochka and mannequin Ivan Ivanovich. Ivanovich was again ejected from the capsule and recovered by parachute, and Zvezdochka was successfully recovered with the capsule on March 25, 1961 7:40 GMT. Officially: Development of the design of the space ship satellite and of the systems on board, designed to ensure man's life functions during flight in outer space and return to Earth. 12 April 1961 Vostok 1 Spacecraft: Vostok 3KA. Mass: 4,725 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Vostok 8K72K . More details First manned spaceflight, one orbit of the earth. 11 April 1961 was a 'reserve' day in the launch plan, but it was not needed. All the Chief Designers and Military Space chiefs were at the cosmodrome. Gagarin spent that day in meetings with the prominent personalities. Three press releases were prepared, one for success, two for failures. It was only known ten minutes after burn- out, 25 minutes after launch, if a stable orbit had been achieved. The payload included life-support equipment and radio and television to relay information on the condition of the pilot. The flight was automated; Gagarin's controls were locked to prevent him from taking control of the ship. A key was available in a sealed envelope in case it became necessary to take control in an emergency. After retrofire, the service module remained attached to the Sharik reentry sphere by a wire bundle. The joined craft went through wild gyrations at the beginning of reentry, before the wires burned through. The Sharik, as it was designed to do, then naturally reached aerodynamic equilibrium with the reentry shield positioned correctly.

Mercury Appendix Mercury was America's first man-in-space project. Setting the precedent for the later Gemini, manned satellite program would be called "Project Mercury.". Apollo, and Shuttle programs, any capsule configuration proposed by the contractors was ac- 08 January 1959 Redstones ordered for Mercury suborbital launches. Launch Vehicle: Redstone . ceptable as long as it was the one NASA's Langley facility, and in particular, Max Faget, had de- More details Summary: NASA requested eight Redstone-type launch vehicles from the Army to veloped. McDonnell, at that time a renegade contractor of innovative Navy fighters that had a be used in Project Mercury development flights. history of problems in service, received the contract. The capsule had to be as small as possible 12 January 1959 McDonnell awarded contract for Mercury project Spacecraft: Mercury. More to match the payload capability of America's first ICBM, the Atlas, which would be used for or- details Summary: 12 capsules to be built. Other leading contender was Grumman. Original bital missions. The resulting design was less than a third of the weight of the Russian Vostok space- schedule was for manned flights from January - August 1960. craft, and more limited as a result. While the Vostok was capable of missions of up to a week, the 02 April 1959 Seven astronauts selected for Mercury project. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Mercury's final 24 hour mission was barely completed, with virtually all of the spacecraft's systems Seven astronauts were selected for Project Mercury after a series of the most rigorous physical having broken down by the end. NASA felt lucky to have astronaut Cooper back alive (although and mental tests ever given to U.S. test pilots. Chosen from a field of 110 candidates, the finalists the flight demonstrated a pinpoint re-entry was possible with no electrical power, no ECS, no were all qualified test pilots: Capts. Leroy G. Cooper, Jr., Virgil I. Grissom, and Donald K. Slayton, guidance or instruments!) and cancelled Alan Shepard's desired week-long Mercury 10 flight. (USAF); Lt. Malcolm S. Carpenter, Lt. Comdr. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., and Lt. Comdr. Watler M. Major Events: . Schirra, Jr. (USN); and Lt. Col. John H. Glenn (USMC). 18 June 1952 Blunt reentry vehicle concept advocated. 09 April 1959 First group of US astronauts announced Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Summary: H. Julian Allen of NACA Ames Laboratory conceived the "blunt nose principle" which submitted At a press conference in Washington, D.C., NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan announced the that a blunt shape would absorb only one-half of 1 percent of the heat generated by the reentry seven pilots had been selected for the Mercury program. of a body into the earth's atmosphere. This principle was later significant to ICBM nose cone and 27 April 1959 Mercury search and rescue procedures developed. Spacecraft: Mercury. More de- the Mercury capsule development. tails Summary: Meeting of DOD working group on Project Mercury search and recovery opera- 01 February 1956 USAF RFP - Manned Ballistic Rocket Research System tions was held at Patrick Air Force Base, with major emphasis placed on the first two ballistic Atlas USAF issues request for industry proposals for Project 7969 Manned Ballistic Rocket Research Sys- shots, and command relationships. tem. Two year study period. 12 May 1959 Mercury astronauts begin training. More details Summary: NASA announced train- 01 December 1957 Mercury ballistic shape proposed. ing program for seven Project Mercury astronauts to provide them with technical knowledge : Maxime Faget of NACA Langley proposed ballistic shape of Mercury capsule, while A. Eggers of and skills required to pilot the Nation's manned orbital capsule. Ames and E. S. Love and J. V. Becker of Langley proposed glider configurations of manned 01 July 1959 Mercury astronaut MASTIF training. More details Summary: Project Mercury astro- spacecraft later incorporated in Dyna-Soar and Apollo studies. nauts completed disorientation flights on three-axis space-flight simulator, the MASTIF (Multiple 15 January 1958 Eleven proposals for initial manned spacecraft Axis Space Test Inertia Facility), at NASA Lewis Research Center. 01 October 1958 NASA created 08 July 1959 Jupiter deleted as Mercury launch vehicle. Launch Vehicle: Juno II . More details 07 October 1958 Project Mercury organized. Summary: As developmental planning for Project Mercury evolved, NASA notified the Army that NASA formally organized Project Mercury to: (1) place manned space capsule in orbital flight to reduce the variety of launching vehicles to Jupiter missile would not be used for Project Mer- around the earth; (2) investigate man's reactions to and capabilities in this environment; and (3) cury tests. recover capsule and pilot safely. A NASA Space Task Group organized at Langley Research 20 July 1959 Mercury tracking station contractor selected. More details Summary: NASA selected Center drew up specifications for the Mercury capsule, based on studies by the National Adv i- Western Electric Co. to build worldwide network of tracking and ground instrument stations to be sory Committee for Aeronautics during the preceding 12 months, and on discussions with the Air used in Project Mercury. Force which had been conducting related studies. 02 September 1959 Mercury-LJ 1 Launch Vehicle: Little Joe . More details Summary: Launching of 07 November 1958 Bidders conference for Mercury Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Mercury capsule mockup from Wallops Station to test the escape and recovery systems; emer- 26 November 1958 Project Mercury named. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Summary: Project gency escape rocket accidentally fired 30 minutes before scheduled firing of the Little Joe Mercury, U.S. manned-satellite program, was officially named by NASA. booster. 11 December 1958 Eleven proposals for Mercury received Spacecraft: Mercury. More details 09 September 1959 Mercury-BJ 1 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch 17 December 1958 First US manned project announced name Mercury Spacecraft: Mercury. Vehicle: Atlas D . More details Summary: Suborbital. NASA boilerplate model of Mercury capsule 17 December 1958 Manned satellite program would be called "Project Mercury" Spacecraft: successfully launched on an Atlas (Big Joe) missile from AMR and recovered in South Atlantic af- Mercury. More details Summary: NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan announced that the ter surviving reentry heat of more than 10,000°F. 04 October 1959 Mercury-LJ 2 Launch Site: Wallops Island . More details Summary: NASA Little Joe liftoff, MR-1 launched its escape tower but not the capsule. The undamaged spacecraft was re- launch vehicle carrying a boilerplate Mercury capsule with a dummy escape system successfully covered for reuse. launched from Wallops Station, Va. 19 December 1960 Mercury-MR 1A Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch 01 November 1959 Mercury spacesuit delivered. More details Summary: Prototype Goodrich full- Vehicle: Redstone Mercury . More details pressure Mercury astronaut suits (modified Navy Mark IV) were delivered to NASA. Navy Air Crew Suborbital. Unmanned Project Mercury spacecraft launched by modified Redstone booster (MR- Equipment Laboratory (NACEL) of Philadelphia fitted suits and indoctrinated the astronauts on 1) in a suborbital trajectory, impacting 235 miles downrange after reaching an altitude of 135 their use. miles and a speed of near 4,200 mph. Capsule was recovered about 50 minutes after firing.The 04 December 1959 Mercury-LJ 3 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Wallops Island . More details objective was to qualify the spacecraft for a primate flight scheduled shortly thereafter. Apart Summary: Third Little Joe, successfully launched at NASA Wallops Station as part of Project Mer- from the launch vehicle cutoff velocity being slightly higher than normal, all flight sequences were cury development program, carried a monkey named "Sam" 55 miles into space which was re- satisfactory. covered safely. 03 January 1961 NASA Space Task Group made official. More details Summary: NASA's Space 31 December 1959 Mercury astronauts complete classroom training. More details Summary: Mer- Task Group, charged with carrying out Project Mercury and other manned space flight programs, cury astronauts completed basic and theoretical studies in their training program and started officially became a separate NASA field element. practical engineering studies. 31 January 1961 Mercury-MR 2 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehi- 19 March 1960 Mercury tracking agreements with foreign countries More details Summary: United cle: Redstone Mercury . More details States-Spanish agreement on Project Mercury tracking station in Canary Islands was announced Mercury-Redstone 2 was launched successfully from the Atlantic Missile Range, with Ham, a chim- (1 of 16 similar agreements with other nations). panzee, aboard. Despite the over-acceleration of the launch vehicle, which caused the space- 01 April 1960 Mercury astronauts complete centrifuge training. More details Summary: Seven Mer- craft to reach a higher altitude than planned, the capsule was recovered safely with Ham in cury astronauts completed training session at the Navy Aviation Medical Acceleration Labora- good condition. tory, Johnsville, Pa. 21 February 1961 Mercury-MA 2 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Ve- 12 April 1960 First production Mercury capsule delivered. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Sum- hicle: Atlas D . More details Summary: Mercury-Atlas 2 (unmanned) was launched successfully mary: First production model of McDonnell-built Mercury capsule was delivered to NASA. from the Atlantic Missile Range in a test of maximum heating and its effects during the worst reen- 29 April 1960 Mercury tracking agreements completed. More details Summary: Milestone try design conditions. All test objectives were met. achieved in completion of interim or formal agreements concluded for all oversea Mercury track- 21 February 1961 First Mercury crews selected. More details Summary: NASA Space Task Group ing stations. selected John H. Glenn, Jr., Virgil I. Grissom, and Alan B. Shepard, Jr., to begin special training for 09 May 1960 Beach Abort 1 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Wallops Island . More details first manned Mercury space flight. First production model of Project Mercury spacecraft was successfully launched from NASA Wal- 15 March 1961 Mercury Bermuda tracking station agreement. More details Summary: United lops Station to test escape, landing, and recovery systems. Known as the "beach abort" shot, the States and United Kingdom signed agreement covering Mercury tracking stations on Bermuda. Mercury capsule reached 775 m before parachute landing and pickup by Marine helicopter re- 18 March 1961 Mercury LJ-6 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Wallops Island . More details Sum- turned it to Wallops' hangar 17 minutes after launch. mary: Little Joe 6 fired Mercury spacecraft from Wallops, resulted in limited test of escape system 29 July 1960 Mercury-MA 1 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: because of unprogrammed sequence. Atlas D . 24 March 1961 Mercury MR-3A Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Mercury-Atlas 1 (MA-1) was launched from the Atlantic Missile Range in a test of spacecraft struc- After booster problems on the Mercury MR-2 chimp test flight, Von Braun insisted on a further un- tural integrity under maximum heating conditions. After 58.5 seconds of flight, MA-1 exploded and manned booster test flight, against the wishes of Shepard and others at NASA. A Mercury boiler- the spacecraft was destroyed upon impact off-shore. None of the primary capsule test objectives plate capsule was launched on a flawless test on 24 March. If NASA had overruled Von Braun, the were met. manned Freedom 7 capsule would have flown instead. Shepard would have been the first man 17 October 1960 Mercury weather support group formed. More details Summary: Project Mercury in space (though not in orbit), beating Gagarin's flight by three weeks. weather support group established at NASA's request in the Office of Meteorological Research of 24 March 1961 Mercury-MR Boilerplate Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . the Weather Bureau. Launch Vehicle: Redstone Mercury . More details Summary: Suborbital test of Redstone modifica- 21 November 1960 Mercury-MR 1 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch tions, done at NASA's insistence against von Braun's wishes, thereby putting first manned flight af- Vehicle: Redstone . More details Summary: Suborbital launch attempt. After a four- or five-inch ter Gagarin's. Officially: Suborbital. 09 May 1961 Kennedy decision to allow MR-3 flight defended. Launch Vehicle: Redstone . More 04 April 1961 Mercury crew refresher centrifuge training. More details Summary: Three astronauts details selected for Mercury-Redstone flight (MR-3) were ordered to take refresher course in Navy centri- Senator Robert S. Kerr, chairman of the Senate Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee, fuge at Johnsville, Pa. . told a group at the National Radio and Television Convention that President Kennedy accepted 25 April 1961 Mercury-MA 3 Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: the views of NASA and congressional leaders in approving the manned Mercury-Redstone flight Atlas D . More details of May 5. Single orbit test attempt. Mercury-Atlas 3 (MA-3) was launched from the Atlantic Missile Range, 26 May 1961 Freedom 7 displayed at Paris Air Show. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Summary: carrying a "mechanical astronaut" in an intended unmanned orbital flight. Forty seconds after lift- Freedom 7, Mercury spacecraft in which Alan B. Shepard, Jr., made his space flight on May 5, off, MA-3 was destroyed by the range safety officer because the inertial guidance system had was a major drawing card at the Paris International Air Show. Details of the spacecraft and of failed to pitch the vehicle over toward the horizon. The spacecraft successfully aborted and was Shepard's flight were related to about 650,000 visitors. . recovered a short distance off shore. 13 June 1961 Freedom 7 exhibited in Rome. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Summary: Free- 28 April 1961 Mercury LJ-5B Launch Site: Wallops Island . More details dom 7 Mercury capsule displayed to approximately 750,000 visitors at the Rassegna International Little Joe 5B was launched from Wallops Island, carrying a production Mercury spacecraft. In spite Electronic and Nuclear Fair at Rome, Italy. . of an erroneous trajectory which subjected the capsule to much greater dynamic pressures than 13 July 1961 Mercury MR-6 static engine test Launch Vehicle: Redstone . More details Summary: planned, the spacecraft and escape system performed successfully. This inadvertently provided Mercury-Redstone 6 was static tested for 30 seconds at Marshall Space Flight Center to ensure an abort test under severe atmospheric flight conditions. satisfactory operation of the turbopump assembly. 01 May 1961 Webb warns of Mercury failures. Launch Vehicle: Redstone . More details 19 July 1961 Mercury MR-4 launch scrubbed. Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Vehicle: Redstone . NASA Administrator Webb issued a statement concerning the 2-year Mercury manned space More details Summary: Mercury-Redstone (MR-4) with manned Liberty Bell 7 capsule canceled flight program, which said, in part: "NASA has not attempted to encourage press coverage of the within minutes of launch because of adverse weather. first Mercury-Redstone manned flight. It has responded to press and television requests, with the 21 July 1961 Mercury MR-4 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,286 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . result that over 100 representatives of the press, radio, and TV are now at Cape Canaveral. . . . Launch Vehicle: Redstone Mercury . More details We must keep the perspective that each flight is but one of the many milestones we must pass. The Mercury capsule, Liberty Bell 7, manned by Astronaut Virgil I. Grissom, boosted by a Redstone Some will completely succeed in every respect, some partially, and some will fail. From all of them rocket, reached a peak altitude of 190.3 km and a speed of 8,335 km per hour. After a flight of 15 will come mastery of the vast new space environment on which so much of our future depends." minutes and 37 seconds, the landing was made 487 km downrange from the launch site. The 02 May 1961 Mercury MR-3 postponed. Launch Vehicle: Redstone . More details Summary: hatch blew while still in water, and the capsule sank; Grissom saved, though his suit was filling up Manned Mercury-Redstone (MR-3) launch delayed because of rain squalls in the recovery area. . with water through open oxygen inlet lines. 05 May 1961 Mercury MR-3 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,290 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav eral . This was the second and final manned suborbital Mercury Redstone flight, and the first flight with Launch Vehicle: Redstone Mercury . More details trapezoidal window. Further suborbital flights (each astronaut was to make one as a training exer- Alan Shepard first American in space, less than a month after Gagarin and only on a 15 minute cise) were cancelled. An attempt to recover the capsule in very deep water in 1994 not success- suborbital flight. Only manned flight with original capsule (tiny round porthole and periscope a la ful. It was finally raised in the summer of 1999. Vostok). If NASA had not listened to Von Braun, Shepard would have flown on the MR-BD flight of 22 July 1961 Grissom receives NASA Distinguished Service Medal. More details Summary: Astro- 24 March, beating Gagarin by three weeks and becoming the first man in space (though not in naut Virgil Grissom was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal by Administrator Webb at orbit). Shepard's capsule reached an altitude of 115.696 miles, range of 302 miles,and speed of conclusion of MR-4 press conference at Cape Canaveral. 5,100 miles per hour. He demonstrated control of a vehicle during weightlessness and high G 18 August 1961 Further Mercury suborbital flights cancelled. Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Vehicle: stresses. Recovery operations were perfect; there was no damage to the spacecraft; and Astro- Redstone . More details Summary: NASA announced that analysis of Project Mercury suborbital naut Shepard was in excellent condition. data indicated that all objectives of that phase of the program had been achieved, and that no 08 May 1961 Shepard feted. More details further Mercury-Redstone flights were planned. Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Mercury astronaut, was awarded NASA's Distinguished Service Medal by 01 September 1961 Mercury MR-5 Spacecraft: Mercury. More details President Kennedy in a special White House ceremony. It was followed by an informal parade to The original Mercury project plan envisioned all of the astronauts making an initial suborbital hop the Capitol by the seven astronauts for lunch, and a press conference at the State Department aboard a Redstone booster before making an orbital flight aboard an Atlas. However delays in auditorium. the program resulted in the Redstone flights coming much closer to the Atlas flights than planned. By the time of the first suborbital Mercury flight, the Russians had already orbited Yuri Gagarin. Af- 29 November 1961 Mercury 5 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,300 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- ter Grissom's capsule sunk, it was still planned to fly Glenn on a suborbital flight to prove the cap- eral . Launch Vehicle: Atlas D . More details sule. But Gherman Titov was launched on a full-day orbital flight in August 1961, making NASA's The Mercury-Atlas 5 launch from the Atlantic Missile Range placed a Mercury spacecraft carrying suborbital hops look pathetic. Glenn was moved to the first orbital Atlas flight, and further suborbi- chimpanzee Enos into orbit. After a two-orbit flight of 3 hours and 21 minutes, the capsule reen- tal Mercury flights were cancelled. tered and was recovered 1 hour and 25 minutes later. Enos was reported in excellent condition. 13 September 1961 Mercury 4 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,200 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- No additional unmanned or primate flights were considered necessary before attempting the eral . Launch Vehicle: Atlas D . More details manned orbital mission scheduled for early 1962. Analysis of the data from the flight indicated Mercury-Atlas 4, carrying an astronaut simulator was the first earth orbital test of the Mercury that the Mercury-Atlas system and the tracking network were ready for manned orbital flight. spacecraft. After one orbit, the spacecraft reentered. With minor deviations, the flight was highly 07 December 1961 Mercury manned orbital flight postponed. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details successful.and recovered 1 hour and 22 minutes after landing in Atlantic by destroyer U.S.S. De- NASA postponed its projected manned orbital flight from December 1961 until early in 1962 be- catur. This MA-4 (capsule 8) flight demonstrated, said NASA Space Task Group Director Robert Gil- cause of minor problems with the cooling system and positioning devices in the Mercury capsule, ruth, that "Atlas has the capability to fly a man in orbit; it brought in for the first time the Mercury Dr. Hugh Dryden, Deputy Administrator of NASA, said in a Baltimore interview. "You like to have a worldwide tracking network; and demonstrated the ability of the capsule and its systems to oper- man go with everything just as near perfect as possible. This business is risky. You can't avoid this, ate completely unattended". but you can take all the precautions you know about." 22 September 1961 Mercury ship recovery provisions. More details Summary: Announced at 13 December 1961 Webb indicates Mercury flight plans. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Space Task Group that a 30-cubic-foot balloon would be installed in Mercury spacecraft to allow NASA Administrator James E. Webb said in a speech in Cleveland that the United States would for ship recovery should helicopter be forced to drop it as happened during the MR-4 recovery. follow its first manned orbital flight in January 1962 with similar manned orbital flights every 60 01 October 1961 Mercury ship recovery demonstration. More details Summary: Bland demon- days. These would gather data on effects of weightlessness, needed to determine the pacing of strated capability of a destroyer to recover MR-2 Mercury capsule, with Virgil Grissom aboard, the two-man flight program later on. Mr. Webb also forecast the launching of 200 sounding rock- from water in series of pickups in lower Chesapeake Bay. ets, 20 scientific satellites, and 2 deep-space probes in 1962. 23 October 1961 Freedom 7 deposited in Smithsonian. Spacecraft: Mercury. More details 20 February 1962 Mercury 6 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,355 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . The Freedom 7 Mercury capsule in which Alan B. Shepard, Jr., made the first suborbital space Launch Vehicle: Atlas D . More details flight, was presented to the National Air Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. In his presentation, First US manned orbital mission. John Glenn finally puts America in orbit. False landing bag deploy NASA Administrator Webb said: "To Americans seeking answers, proof that man can survive in the light led to reentry being started with retropack left in place on heat shield. It turned out that indi- hostile realm of space is not enough. A solid and meaningful foundation for public support and cator light was false and a spectacular reentry ensued, with glowing chunks of the retropack the basis for our Apollo man-in-space effort is that U.S. astronauts are going into space to do use- whizzing by the window. After four hours and 43 minutes the spacecraft reentered the atmos- ful work in the cause of all their fellow men." phere and landed at 2:43 pm EST in the planned recovery area NE of the Island of Puerto Rico. All 29 October 1961 Mercury-Scout launch announced. Spacecraft: Radio Test Spacecraft. More de- flight objectives were achieved. Glenn was reported to be in excellent condition. Beause of fail- tails Summary: NASA announced that first Mercury-Scout launch to verify the readiness of the ure of one of the automatic systems, the astronaut took over manual control of the spacecraft worldwide Mercury tracking network would take place at Atlantic Missile Range. during part of the flight. With this flight, the basic objectives of Project Mercury had been achieved. 01 November 1961 Mercury Scout-1 Spacecraft: Radio Test Spacecraft. Launch Site: Cape Ca- 24 May 1962 MA-7 Balloon Subsatellite Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . More details naveral . Launch Vehicle: Blue Scout 2 . More details Summary: Small satellite was to have verified 24 May 1962 Mercury 7 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,349 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . the readiness of the worldwide Mercury tracking network. Launch Vehicle: Atlas D . More details 01 November 1961 Mercury MR-6 Spacecraft: Mercury. More details Scott Carpenter in Aurora 7 is enthralled by his environment but uses too much orientation fuel. Slayton would probably have flown the fourth manned suborbital Mercury. But after the Russians Yaw error and late retrofire caused the landing impact point to be over 300 km beyond the in- began orbiting cosmonauts, NASA cancelled further suborbital flights. The MR-6 mission was can- tended area and beyond radio range of the recovery forces. Landing occurred 4 hours and 56 celled by NASA administrator James Webb at the beginning of July, 1961. minutes after liftoff. Astronaut Carpenter was later picked up safely by a helicopter after a long 12 November 1961 Mercury 5 launch postponed Spacecraft: Mercury. Launch Vehicle: Atlas D . wait in the ocean and fears for his safety. NASA was not impressed and Carpenter left the More details Summary: Mercury-Atlas 5, scheduled for launch no earlier than November 14, ran agency soon thereafter to become an aquanaut. into technical difficulties, postponing launch for several days. 24 May 1962 Mercury 7 Delta 7 Spacecraft: Mercury. Astronaut Deke Slayton was to have been the second American in orbit. When Slayton was selected as an astronaut in 1959, it was known he had a minor heart fibrillation. This however did not prevent him from being an Air Force test pilot or being selected as an astronaut. But on January 23, 1962 John Glenn's wife refused to do a television appearance with Vice President Lyndon Johnson after a launch scrub of Glenn's mission. Soon thereafter rumours began in McNamara's Pentagon that Glenn had a secret heart condition. It was not Glenn, and his flight went as planned, but in the process Slayton's heart fibrillation came up. After a series of quick developments, Slayton was told he couldn't fly, and was forced to appear at a press conference making that announcement on March 16. The action was seen by many as a warning to the astronauts who was really in charge, although Slayton didn't think there was a direct cause and effect. Slay- ton's three orbit flight would have been called Delta 7. Instead Carpenter was selected for the mission, and Schirra, Slayton's backup, was moved to the Mercury 8 flight. 03 October 1962 Mercury 8 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,374 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: Atlas D . The Sigma 7 spacecraft with Astronaut Walter M. Schirra, Jr., as pilot was launched into orbit by a Mercury-Atlas vehicle from Atlantic Missile Range. In the most successful American manned space flight to date, Schirra traveled nearly six orbits, returning to earth at a predetermined point in the Pacific Ocean 9 hours, 13 minutes after liftoff. Within 40 minutes after landing, he and his spacecraft were safely aboard the aircraft carrier U.S.S. Kearsarge. Schirra attempted and achieved a nearly perfect mission by sticking rigorously to mission plan. 15 May 1963 Mercury 9 Spacecraft: Mercury. Mass: 1,376 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: Atlas D . More details Final Mercury mission, Faith 7, was piloted by Astronaut L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. After 22 orbits, virt u- ally all spacecraft systems had failed, and Cooper manually fired the retrorockets and the spacecraft reentered the atmosphere, landing safely in the Pacific Ocean 34 hours, 19 minutes, and 49 seconds after liftoff. Cooper was reported in good condition, and this turned out to be the final Mercury flight. 15 May 1963 MA-9 Flashing Light Subsatellite Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . More details 15 May 1963 MA-9 Balloon Subsatellite Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . More details 01 October 1964 Mercury 10 Spacecraft: Mercury. More details NASA and the Mercury managers had to decide whether to undertake another Mercury after Cooper's planned 22 orbit Mercury 9 flight. Walter Williams, Alan Shepard, and others at MSC pushed for a three-day Mercury 10 endurance mission. A capsule was allocated and Shepard had the name 'Freedom 7 II' painted on the side. But the risk and work pending on Gemini per- suaded NASA managers not to undertake another mission unless Mercury 9 failed. By May 11, 1963 Julian Scheer, the new NASA Deputy Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, announced "It is absolutely beyond question that if this shot [MA-9] is successful there will be no MA-10." The massive breakdown of nearly all systems aboard Mercury 9 convinced NASA that this was the right decision. Aerospace writer Martin Caidin used the Mercury 10 scenario as the basis for his novel, Marooned. In the book, the capsule's retrorockets fail, stranding astronaut Pruett in orbit. He is saved by the combined efforts of NASA Gemini and Russian maneuverable Voskhod spacecraft. Gemini Appendix nar missions at a fraction of the cost and much earlier than Apollo. Truth be told, a It was obvious to NASA that there was a big gap of three to four years between the last Gemini launched atop a Titan 3E or Saturn IVB Centaur could have accomplished a Mercury flight and the first scheduled Apollo flight. There would therefore be no experi- circumlunar flight as early as 1966 and, using earth orbit rendezvous techniques, a ence in the US in understanding the problems of orbital maneuvering, rendezvous, landing at least a year before Apollo. But the capsule, while perhaps suited as a ferry docking, lifting re-entry, and space walking before the Apollo flights, which required all vehicle to space stations, would have been quite marginal for the lunar mission due to of these to be successfully accomplished to complete the lunar landing mission. the cramped accommodation. But mainly NASA was fully committed to the Apollo Gemini began as Mercury Mark II to fill this gap. The concept was to enlarge the Mer- program, which was grounded on a minimum three-man crew and minimum 10,000 cury capsule's basic design to accommodate two crew, provide it with orbital maneu- pound command module weight. vering capability, use existing boosters to launch it and an existing upper rocket stage At a cost of 5% of the Apollo project, NASA staged twelve flights, ten of them manned, as a docking target. The latest aircraft engineering was exploited , resulting in a modu- in the course of which the problems of rendezvous, docking, and learning how to do larised design that provided easy access to and change out of equipment mounted work in a spacesuit in zero-G were tackled and solved. It is said that not much of this external to the crew's pressure vessel. In many ways the Gemini design was ahead of was fed back to Apollo, since the two projects had completely different sets of con- that of the Apollo, since the project began two years later . The crew station layout tractors and there was little cross-fertilization in the rendezvous and docking areas. But was similar to that of the latest military fighters; the capsule was equipped with ejection it is undeniable that important issues in regard to working in zero-G were discovered seats, inertial navigation, the pilot's traditional 8-ball attitude display, and radar. The es- and solved and both flight and ground crews gained experience that would make the cape tower used for Mercury was deleted; the propellants used in the Titan II launch Apollo flights successful. vehicle, while toxic, corrosive, poisonous, and self-igniting, did not explode in the man- Gemini was to have continued to fly into the 1970's as the return capsule of the USAF ner of the Atlas or Saturn LOX/Kerosene combination. The ejection seats served as the Manned Orbiting Laboratory program. However with the MOL's cancellation in 1969 crew escape method in the lower atmosphere, just as in a high-performance aircraft. work at McDonnell came to an end and the last models of the finest spacecraft ever The seats were also needed for the original landing mode, which involved deployment built were scrapped. of a huge inflated Rogallo wing (ancestor of today's hang gliders) with a piloted land- Major Events: . ing on skids at Edwards Dry Lake. In the event, the wing could not be made to deploy reliably before flights began, so the capsule made a parachute-borne water landing, 13 February 1961 Beginning of Gemini Spacecraft: Gemini. Launch Vehicle: Titan 2 . much to the astronauts' chagrin. More details Summary: First formal NASA/McDonnell discussions on Mercury Mark II All around the Gemini was considered the ultimate 'pilot's spacecraft', and it was also (Gemini). popular with engineers because of its extremely light weight. The capsule allowed recover of a crew of two for only 50% more than the Mercury capsule weight, and half of 01 August 1961 McDonnell proposal for Gemini Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Sum- the weight per crew member of the Apollo design. The penalty was obvious - it was mary: Baseline 10 earth orbit flights; also proposed for docking with Centaur and cir- christened the 'Gusmobile' since diminutive Gus Grissom was the only astronaut who cumlunar flights by March 1965. NASA not interested - threat to Apollo. was said to be able to fit into it. The crew member was crammed in, shoulder to shoulder with his partner, his helmet literally scrunched against the hatch, which could be 31 August 1961 Presentation to STG on rendezvous and the lunar orbit rendezvous plan opened for space walks. With the crew unable to fully stretch out unless an EVA was Spacecraft: Gemini LOR. More details scheduled, living in the capsule was literally painful on the long missions (Gemini 5 and John C. Houbolt of Langley Research Center made a presentation to STG on rendez- 7). Getting back into the seat and getting the hatch closed in an inflated suit in zero vous and the lunar orbit rendezvous plan. At this time James A. Chamberlin of STG re- gravity was problematic and would have been impossible if the spacewalking astro- quested copies of all of Houbolt's material because of the pertinence of this work to naut was incapacitated in even a minor way. the Mercury Mark II program and other programs then under consideration. Early on it was proposed that the Gemini could be used for manned circumlunar or lu- 06 December 1961 Preliminary project plan for the Mercury Mark II program Spacecraft: 17 September 1962 Nine new astronauts named Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Gemini LOR. D. Brainerd Holmes, NASA Director of Manned Space Flight, outlined the NASA's nine new astronauts were named in Houston, Tex., by Robert R. Gilruth, MSC Di- preliminary project development plan for the Mercury Mark II program in a memoran- rector. Chosen from 253 applicants, the former test pilots who would join the original dum to NASA Associate Administrator Robert C. Seamans, Jr. The primary objective of seven Mercury astronauts in training for Projects Gemini and Apollo were: Neil A. Arm- the program was to develop rendezvous techniques; important secondary objectives strong, NASA civilian test pilot; Maj. Frank Borman, Air Force; Lt. Charles Conrad, Jr., were long-duration flights, controlled land recovery, and astronaut training. The devel- Navy; Lt.Cdr. James A, Lovell, Jr., Navy; Capt. James A. McDivitt, Air Force; Elliot M. See, opment of rendezvous capability, Holmes stated, was essential. It offered the possibility Jr., civilian test pilot for the General Electric Company; Capt. Thomas P. Stafford, Air of accomplishing a manned lunar landing earlier than by direct ascent. The lunar land- Force; Capt. Edward H. White II, Air Force; and Lt. Cdr. John W. Young, Navy. ing maneuver would require the development of rendezvous techniques regardless of the operational mode selected for the lunar mission. 16 February 1963 First West Coast launch of a Titan 2 ICBM Launch Site: Vandenberg . Rendezvous and docking would be necessary to the Apollo orbiting laboratory missions Launch Vehicle: Titan 2 . More details Summary: First West Coast launch of a Titan 2 planned for the 1965-1970 period. The plan was approved by Seamans on December 7. ICBM from an underground silo. The Mercury Mark II program was renamed "Gemini" on January 3, 1962.] 08 April 1964 Gemini 1 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,187 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- 07 December 1961 DOD/NASA coordination for Mercury Mark II Spacecraft: Gemini. eral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. The first Gemini mission, Gemini-Titan I, was launched from Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. NASA Associate Administrator Robert C. Seamans, Jr., and DOD Complex 19 at Cape Kennedy at 11:00 a.m., e.s.t. This was an unmanned flight, using Deputy Director of Defense Research and Engineering John H. Rubel recommended to the first production Gemini spacecraft and a modified Titan II Gemini launch vehicle Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara and NASA Administrator James E. Webb that (GLV). The mission's primary purpose was to verify the structural integrity of the GLV and detailed arrangements for support of the Mercury Mark II spacecraft and the Atlas- spacecraft, as well as to demonstrate the GLV's ability to place the spacecraft into a Agena vehicle used in rendezvous experiments be planned directly between NASA's prescribed earth orbit. Mission plans did not include separation of the spacecraft from Office of Manned Space Flight and the Air Force and other DOD organizations. NASA's the second stage of the vehicle, and both were inserted into orbit as a unit six minutes primary responsibilities would be the overall management and direction for the Mercury after launch. The planned mission encompassed only the first three orbits and ended Mark II/ Agena rendezvous development and experiments. The Air Force responsibilities about four hours and 50 minutes after liftoff. No recovery was planned. The flight quali- would include acting as NASA contractor for the Titan II launch vehicle and for the At- fied the GLV and the structure of the spacecraft. las-Agena vehicle to be used in rendezvous experiments. DOD's responsibilities would include assistance in the provision and selection of astronauts and the provision of 19 January 1965 Gemini 2 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,122 kg. Launch Site: Cape Ca- launch, range, and recovery support, as required by NASA. naveral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2.

15 December 1961 McDonnell given letter contract for Gemini Spacecraft: Gemini. 23 March 1965 Gemini 3 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,225 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- More details Summary: McDonnell given letter contract for development of Gemini. eral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. First manned test flight of Gemini. Virgil I. Grissom and John W. Young entered an elliptical orbit about the earth. After three orbits, the pair 28 December 1961 Titan 2 first ground test. Spacecraft: Gemini. Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. manually landed their spacecraft in the Atlantic Ocean, thus performing the first con- Titan II, an advanced ICBM and the booster designated for NASA's two-man orbital trolled reentry. Unfortunately, they landed much farther from the landing zone than an- flights, was successfully captive-fired for the first time at the Martin Co.'s Denver facilities. ticipated, about 97 km (60 miles) from the aircraft carrier U.S.S. Intrepid. But otherwise The test not only tested the flight vehicle but the checkout and launch equipment in- the mission was highly successful. Gemini III, America's first two-manned space mission, tended for operational use. also was the first manned vehicle that was maneuverable. Grissom used the vehicle's maneuvering rockets to effect orbital and plane changes. Grissom wanted to name the spacecraft 'Molly Brown' (as in the Unsinkable, a Debbie Reynolds/Howard Keel screen essential for the success of long-distance (i.e., lunar) manned space flight. With this musical). NASA was not amused and stopped allowing the astronauts to name their flight, the US finally took the manned spaceflight endurance record from Russia, while spacecraft (until forced to when having two spacecraft aloft at once during the Apollo demonstrating that the crew could survive in zero gravity for the length of time required missions). The flight by Young was the first of an astronaut outside of the original seven. for a lunar mission. However the mission was incredibly boring, the spacecraft just drift- Young, who created a media flap by taking a corned beef sandwich aboard as a ing to conserve fuel most of the time, and was 'just about the hardest thing I've ever prank, would go on to fly to the moon on Apollo and the Space Shuttle on its first flight done' according to a hyperactive Pete Conrad. An accident with freeze dried shrimp sixteen years later. resulted in the cabin being filled with little pink sub-satellites. 25 October 1965 GATV 6 Spacecraft: Gemini Agena Target Vehicle. Mass: 3,261 kg. 03 June 1965 EVA Gemini 4-1 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: First American Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: SLV-3 Atlas / Agena D. walk in space; tested spacesuit and ability to maneuver. 04 December 1965 Gemini 7 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,663 kg. Launch Site: Cape Ca- 03 June 1965 Gemini 4 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,574 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- naveral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. Gemini 7, the fourth manned mission of that program, eral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2 . More details was launched from Cape Kennedy December 4 with command pilot Frank Borman NASA launched Gemini 4, America's second multi-manned space mission, piloted by and pilot James A. Lovell, Jr., as the crew. Their primary objective was to evaluate the astronauts James A. McDivitt and Edward H. White II, from Cape Kennedy. Gemini 4's physiological effects of long-duration (14 days) flight on man. Secondary objectives in- primary objective was to evaluate the performance of man and machine during pro- cluded: providing a rendezvous target for the Gemini 6-A spacecraft, conducting 20 longed space flight. Also during this flight, White opened the hatch on his spacecraft experiments, and evaluating the spacecraft's reentry guidance capability. The rendez- and performed America's first "space walk." On June 7, after four days in space, McDi- vous was successfully accomplished during the 11th day of the mission. The crew estab- vitt and White landed their vehicle in the Atlantic Ocean some 724 km (450 mi) east of lished another first for American spacemen as first one, then the other, and finally both the Cape. The space walk was hurriedly included after the Russian first in Voskhod 2. flew with their flight suits removed. The landing, on December 18, was little more than White seemed to have a lot more fun than Leonov and McDivitt took the pictures that ten km from the planned landing point. came to symbolize man in space. With this flight the US finally started to match Russian Far surpassing the Gemini 5 flight, Gemini 7 set a manned spaceflight endurance record flight durations. that would endure for years. The incredibly boring mission, was made more uncomfortable by the extensive biosensors. This was somewhat offset by the soft spacesuits (used 21 August 1965 Gemini 5 REP Spacecraft: Radar Evaluation Pod. Mass: 34 kg. Launch only once) and permission to spend most of the time in long johns. The monotony was Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2 . More details Summary: Radar Evalua- broken just near the end by the rendezvous with Gemini 6. tion Pod. 21 August 1965 Gemini 5 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,605 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- 15 December 1965 Gemini 6 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,546 kg. Launch Site: Cape Ca- eral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. Gemini 5, piloted by L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., and Charles naveral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. Gemini 6 or VI-A, the fifth manned flight and first ren- Conrad, Jr., roared into space from Cape Kennedy. During their eight-day flight the as- dezvous mission in the Gemini Program, was launched from Cape Kennedy on Decem- tronauts performed a number of orbital and simulated rendezvous maneuvers to evalu- ber 15, with Astronaut Walter M. Schirra, Jr., serving as command pilot and Astronaut ate the spacecraft's rendezvous guidance and navigation equipment. A second princi- Thomas P. Stafford, pilot. Their primary objective was to rendezvous with the Gemini 7 pal objective of the mission was to evaluate the effects on the crew of prolonged expo- spacecraft, and secondary objectives included station-keeping with the other space- sure in space. Gemini 5 was significant as well for another reason: although the hard- craft, evaluating spacecraft reentry guidance capability, and performing three experi- ware experienced some troubles during the early part of the flight (which threatened to ments. terminate the mission prematurely), Gemini 5 was the first spacecraft to use fuel cells as A co-elliptic maneuver was performed 3 hours and 47 minutes after launch; the terminal its primary source of electrical power. The operational feasibility of fuel cells would be initiation was performed an hour-and-a-half later; braking maneuvers were started at 5 hours and 50 minutes into the flight and rendezvous was technically accomplished six put the docked assembly into a wild high speed gyration. Near structural limits and minutes later. The two spacecraft began station-keeping maneuvers which continued blackout, Armstrong undocked, figuring the problem was in the Agena, which only for three and a half orbits while they were separated by as much as 100 m and as little made it worse. The problem arose again and when the yaw and roll rates became too as 0.3 m. high the crew shut the main Gemini reaction control system down and activated and used both rings of the reentry control system to reduce the spacecraft rates to zero. This Gemini 6 was to have been the first flight involving docking with an Agena target/ used 75% of that system's fuel. Although the crew wanted to press on with the mission propulsion stage. However the Agena blew up on the way to orbit, and the spacecraft and Scott's planned space walk, ground control ordered an emergency splashdown in was replaced by Gemini 7 in the launch order. the western Pacific during the seventh revolution. The spacecraft landed at 10:23 p.m. For lack of a target, NASA decided to have Gemini 6 rendezvous with Gemini 7. This EST March 16 and Armstrong and Scott were picked up by the destroyer U.S.S. Mason at would require a quick one week turnaround of the pad after launch, no problem with 1:37 a.m. EST March 17. Although the flight was cut short by the incident, one of the pri- Russian equipment but a big accomplishment for the Americans. The first launch at- mary objectives - rendezvous and docking (the first rendezvous of two spacecraft in or- tempt was aborted; the Titan II ignited for a moment, then shut down and settled back bital flight) - was accomplished. down on its launch attachments. Schirra waited it out, did not pull the abort handles that would send the man catapulting out of the capsule on their notoriously unreliable ejection seats. The booster was safed; Schirra had saved the mission and the launch 17 May 1966 GATV 9 Spacecraft: Gemini Agena Target Vehicle. Mass: 3,248 kg. Launch three days later went perfectly. The flight went on to achieve the first manned space Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: SLV-3 Atlas / Agena D . More details rendezvous controlled entirely by the self-contained, on-board guidance, control, and 01 June 1966 Gemini 9A Spacecraft: Gemini. navigation system. This system provided the crew of Gemini 6 with attitude, thrusting, Elliot See and Charlie Bassett were the prime crew for Gemini 9. On February 28, 1966, and time information needed for them to control the spacecraft during the rendezvous. they were flying in a NASA T-38 trainer to visit the McDonnell plant in St Louis, where their Under Schirra's typically precise command, the operation was so successful that the spacecraft was in assembly. See misjudged his landing approach, and in pulling up rendezvous was complete with fuel consumption only 5% above the planned value to from the runway hit Building 101 where the spacecraft was being assembled. Both as- reach 16 m separation from Gemini 7. tronauts were killed, and 14 persons on the ground were injured. As a result, the Gemini 9 backup crew became the prime crew, and all subsequent crew assignments were re- 16 March 1966 Gemini 8 Agena Target Spacecraft: Gemini Agena Target Vehicle. Mass: shuffled. This ended up determining who would be the first man on the moon.... 3,175 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: SLV-3 Atlas / Agena D . More details Summary: Target vehicle for Gemini 8. Successfully launched from KSC Launch 01 June 1966 Gemini 9 ATDA Spacecraft: Atlas Target Docking Adapter. Mass: 794 kg. Complex 14 at 10 a.m. EST March 16. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: SLV-3 Atlas . More details Summary: Fairing separation failed. 16 March 1966 Gemini 8 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,788 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- eral . Launch Vehicle: Titan. The Atlas-Agena target vehicle for the Gemini VIII mission 03 June 1966 Gemini 9 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,668 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- was successfully launched from KSC Launch Complex 14 at 10 a.m. EST March 16. The eral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. At the first launch attempt, while the crew waited but- Gemini VIII spacecraft followed from Launch Complex 19 at 11:41 a.m., with command toned up in the spacecraft on the pad, their Agena docking target field blew up on the pilot Neil A. Armstrong and pilot David R. Scott aboard. The spacecraft and its target way to orbit. NASA decided to use an Atlas to launch an Agena docking collar only. vehicle rendezvoused and docked, with docking confirmed 6 hours 33 minutes after the This was called the Augmented Target Docking Adapter. This was successfully launched spacecraft was launched. This first successful docking with an Agena target vehicle was and the Gemini succeeded in rendezvousing with it. However, the ATDA shroud had not followed by a major space emergency. About 27 minutes later the spacecraft-Agena completely separated, thus making docking impossible. However three different types combination encountered unexpected roll and yaw motion. A stuck thruster on Gemini of rendezvous were tested with the ATDA. Cernan began his EVA, which was to include flight with a USAF MMU rocket pack but the Gemini suit could not handle heat load of 13 September 1966 EVA Gemini 11-2 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: Threw the astronaut's exertions. Cernan's faceplate fogs up, forcing him to blindly grope back excess equipment out of spacecraft. into the Gemini hatch after only two hours. 13 September 1966 EVA Gemini 11-1 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: Re- 05 June 1966 EVA Gemini 9-1 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: Attempted to trieved micrometeoroid collector from Agena. test USAF Astronaut Maneuvering Unit. Cancelled when Cernan's faceplate fogged over. 14 September 1966 EVA Gemini 11-3 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: Photo- 18 July 1966 Gemini 10 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,763 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canav- graphed earth and stars. eral . Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. Exciting mission with successful docking with Agena, flight up to parking orbit where Gemini 8 Agena is stored. Collins space walks from Gemini to 11 November 1966 Gemini 12 Agena Target Spacecraft: Gemini Agena Target Vehicle. Agena to retrieve micrometeorite package left in space all those months. Loses grip first Mass: 3,175 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: SLV-3 Atlas / Agena D . time, and tumbles head over heels at end of umbilical around Gemini. Package re- More details Summary: Space craft engaged in investigation of spaceflight techniques trieved on second try. and technology (US Cat A). .

18 July 1966 Gemini 10 Agena Target Spacecraft: Gemini Agena Target Vehicle. Mass: 11 November 1966 Gemini 12 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,763 kg. Launch Site: Cape 3,175 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: SLV-3 Atlas / Agena D . More Canaveral. Launch Vehicle: Titan 2. Two very serious astronauts get it all right to end the details Summary: Space craft engaged in investigation of spaceflight techniques and program. Docked and redocked with Agena, demonstrating various Apollo scenarios technology (US Cat A). . including manual rendezvous and docking without assistance from ground control. Aldrin finally demonstrates ability to accomplish EVA without overloading suit by use of 19 July 1966 EVA Gemini 10-1 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: Photo- suitable restraints and careful movement. graphed earth and stars.

20 July 1966 EVA Gemini 10-3 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: Threw excess equipment out of spacecraft.

20 July 1966 EVA Gemini 10-2 Spacecraft: Gemini. More details Summary: Retrieved micrometeoroid collector from Agena. 12 September 1966 Gemini 11 Spacecraft: Gemini. Mass: 3,798 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle. More highjinks with Conrad. First orbit docking with Agena, followed by boost up to record 800 km orbit, providing first manned views of earth as sphere. Tether attached by Gordon to Agena in spacewalk and after a lot of effort tethered spacecraft put into slow rotation, creating first artificial microgravity.

12 September 1966 Gemini 11 Agena Target Spacecraft: Gemini Agena Target Vehicle. Mass: 3,175 kg. Launch Site: Cape Canaveral . Launch Vehicle: SLV-3 Atlas / Agena D . More details Summary: Space craft engaged in investigation of spaceflight techniques and technology (US Cat A). Salyut Appendix Program: Salyut. Objective: Manned. Type: Spacecraft. Officially: Testing of design elements and on-board systems; conduct of research and Sergei Korolev had proposed, designed, and built mock-ups of large manned space experiments in space flight. Testing of design elements and on-board systems; conduct stations to be launched by his giant N1 rocket throughout the 1960’s. None of these of research and experiments in space flight. proposals was ever approved by the military beyond the mock-up stage. Meanwhile the competing Chelomei OKB-52 bureau was given the task in 1965 to develop Almaz, 23 April 1971 Soyuz 10 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7KT-OK. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . a counterpart to the US military Manned Orbiting Laboratory space station. First flight Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511. Intended first space station mission; soft docked with with one year operational period was originally planned for 1968. Chelomei's influence Salyut 1. Soyuz 10 approached to 180 m from Salyut 1 automatically. It was hand waned, and the project was badly behind schedule by the time the competing Ameri- docked after faillure of the automatic system, but hard docking could not be can MOL was cancelled in July 1969. achieved because of the angle of approach. Post-flight analysis indicated that the Having lost the moon race, but seeing a chance to beat the Americans in the space cosmonauts had no instrument to proivde the angle and range rate data necessary for station race, Brezhnev ordered Mishin's OKB-1 to undertake a crash program to de- a successful manual docking. Soyuz 10 was connected to the station for 5 hours and 30 velop a 'civilian' space station using components from Chelomei's Almaz program. minutes. Despite the lack of hard dock, it is said that the crew were unable to enter the Mishin was given control over the Almaz production line at Chelomei's Khrunichev facil- station due to a faulty hatch on their own spacecraft. When Shatalov tried to undock ity in order to build the DOS-7K civilian station using the Almaz spaceframe but proven from the Salyut, the jammed hatch impeded the docking mechanism, preventing un- Soyuz components. With the beginning of work on the DOS station the large, long term docking. After several attempts he was unable to undock and land. During the land- N1-launched station was cancelled. ing, the Soyuz air supply became toxic, and Rukavishnikov (much like the case of The spacecraft that emerged was a hybrid of the Almaz and the Soyuz spacecraft. The Vance Brand during the Apollo ASTP return) was overcome and became unconscious. Soyuz control panel was used almost unchanged, as was the forward docking mecha- Recovered April 25, 1971 23:40 GMT. Landed 120 km NW Karaganda. Film and photos nism and the aft propulsion module. The spacecraft was to be called Zarya, or ‘Dawn’, indicated that the docking system on the Salyut was not damaged, setting the stage but the name was changed just before launch to prevent confusion with the identical for the Soyuz 11 mission. ground control call sign. Instead DOS-1 became known as Salyut 1. This was the first manned orbital space station, but the triumph was destroyed when the crew perished 06 June 1971 Soyuz 11 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7KT-OK. Mass: 6,790 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . during the return to earth. The next DOS, Cosmos 557, reached orbit but control was Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511. First space station flight, two years before the American lost soon thereafter. Salyut 4, Salyut 6, and Salyut 7 were all successful, each space sta- Skylab. Soyuz 11 was guided automatically to 100 m, then hand-docked to the Salyut 1 tion being an evolutionary improvement over the previous model. The Salyuts allowed scientific station. Equipment aboard Salyut 1 included a telescope, spectrometer, elec- the Soviet Union to obtain an unmatched lead in manned orbital spaceflight experi- trophotometer, and television. The crew checked improved on-board spacecraft sys- ence and flight durations. The design line culminated in the Mir base block module. tems in different conditions of flight and conducted medico-biological research. The Major Events: . main instrument, a large solar telescope, was inoperative because its cover failed to jettison. A small fire and difficult working conditions led to decision to return crew be- 01 February 1970 Mishin takes space station program from Chelomei Spacecraft: Zarya. fore planned full duration of 30 days. Capsule recovered June 29, 1971 23:17 GMT, but More details Summary: Brezhnev gives Mishin authority to preempt Chelomei in space when the hatch was opened it was found that the crew had perished due to a loss of station program. Mishin takes over Khrunichev facility and to build DOC-7K: civilian sta- cabin atmosphere. A pressure equalization valve was jerked loose at the jettison of the tion using Almaz frame but Soyuz components. Almaz to be redesigned to use Soyuz as Soyuz Orbital Module. The valve was not supposed to open until an altitude of 4 km ferry instead of TKS. was reached. The three-man crew did not have space suits. The Soyuz was thereafter 19 April 1971 Salyut 1 Spacecraft: Salyut 1. Mass: 18,500 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . redesigned to accomodate only two crew, but in spacesuits. The actual Soyuz 11 Prime Launch Vehicle: Proton 8K82K . First of manned space station; deorbited after 175 days Crew was Leonov, Kubasov, and Kolodin. Dobrovolskiy, Volkov, Patsayev were their in space, on October 16, 1971. backups (and support crew to Soyuz 10). Kubasov was grounded by physicians few days before launch, and the back -up crew ended up going instead. ter it failed in orbit.

01 August 1971 Soyuz 12 / DOS 1 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7KT-OK. If the Soyuz 11 crew had not 27 September 1973 Soyuz 12 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K -T. Mass: 6,720 kg. Launch Site: perished during return to the earth, a second crew would have been sent to the Salyut Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511. Experimental flight for the purpose of further 1 space station. Further missions to Salyut 1 were cancelled after the disaster. development of manned space craft Soyuz 7K-T modifications. After the Soyuz 11 disaster, the Soyuz underwent redesign for increased reliability. Two solo test flights of the 26 June 1972 Cosmos 496 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,675 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . new design were planned. Crews for the first flight were those already planned for the Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511 . More details Summary: Recovered July 6, 1972 13:54 deferred follow-on missions to the failed DOS 2 and DOS 3 space stations. Recovered GMT. Soyuz 7K-T redesign test. September 29, 1973 13:14 GMT. Landed 400 km SW Karaganda.

29 July 1972 Zarya s/n 122 Spacecraft: Salyut 1. Mass: 18,000 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 30 November 1973 Cosmos 613 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,675 kg. Launch Site: Launch Vehicle: Proton 8K82K. Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511 . More details Summary: Unmanned Soyuz test flight. Recovered January 29, 1974 5:29 GMT. Soyuz 7K-T duration test. 01 August 1972 Soyuz 12 / DOS 2 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. More details Summary: Planned first mission to the Salyut DOS 2 space station. Cancelled after it was destroyed during 18 December 1973 Soyuz 13 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,560 kg. Launch Site: launch. Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511. A unique flight of the 7K-T/AF modification of the Soyuz spacecraft. The orbital module was dominated by the large Orion 2 astro- 01 October 1972 Soyuz 13 / DOS 2 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. More details Summary: physical camera. The crew conducted astrophysical observations of stars in the ultravio- Planned second mission to the Salyut DOS 2 space station. Cancelled after it was de- let range. Additional experiments included spectrozonal photography of specific areas stroyed during launch. of the earth's surface, and continued testing of space craft's on-board systems. Recov- ered December 26, 1973 8:50 GMT. Landed in snowstorm 200 km SW Karaganda. 11 May 1973 Cosmos 557 Spacecraft: Salyut 4. Mass: 19,400 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Proton 8K82K . More details Summary: Salyut failure. Unsuccessful mis- 27 May 1974 Cosmos 656 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T/A9. Mass: 6,675 kg. Launch Site: sion. Salyut out of control. Decayed May 22, 1973. Was to have been manned by initial Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511 . More details Summary: Unmanned test flight crew of Leonov and Kubasov. Last chance to upstage Skylab, launched three days of the Soyuz 7K-T(A9) Soyuz variant designed for docking with the military Almaz space later. station. Recovered May 29, 1974 7:50 GMT.

01 June 1973 Soyuz 12 / DOS 3 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. More details Summary: Planned 06 August 1974 Cosmos 670 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-S. Mass: 6,700 kg. Launch Site: first mission to the Salyut DOS 3 space station (Cosmos 557). Cancelled after it failed in Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Unmanned Soyuz 7K- orbit. S test flight. Recovered August 8, 1974 23:59 GMT.

15 June 1973 Cosmos 573 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,675 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 October 1974 Soyuz 16A Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. More details Summary: Planned but Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511 . More details Summary: Soyuz test flight. Recovered cancelled third mission to the Salyut 3 space station. June 17, 1973 6:01 GMT. Soyuz 7K-T redesign test. 26 December 1974 Salyut 4 Spacecraft: Salyut 4. Mass: 18,500 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 September 1973 Soyuz 13 / DOS 3 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. More details Summary: Launch Vehicle: Proton 8K82K. Deorbited February 2, 1977. Officially: Further testing of Planned second mission to the Salyut DOS 3 space station (Cosmos 557). Cancelled af- station design, on-board systems and equipment; conduct of scientific and technical research and experiments in outer space. Further testing of station design, on-board sys- flight conditions. Carried a biological payload. Living organisms were exposed to three tems and equipment; conduct of scientific and technical researc h and experiments in months in space. outer space. 11 January 1975 Soyuz 17 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 29 November 1976 Cosmos 869 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-S. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511 . More details Summary: Manned two crew . Docked with Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned military Soyuz 7K-S test flight. Re- Salyut 4. Joint experiments with the Salyut scientific orbital station. Recovered February covered December 17, 1976 10:31 GMT. Transmitted only on 20.008 MHz and 166 MHz 9, 1975 11:03 GMT. Landed 110 km NE Tselinograd. frequencies, at none of the other usual Soyuz wavelengths.

05 April 1975 Soyuz 18-1 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,830 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 01 July 1977 Soyuz 25A Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. A Soyuz 25 mission to the Salyut 5 space Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511. Carried Oleg Makarov, Vasili Lazarev for rendezvous station with the crew of Berzovoi and Lisun was to have followed Soyuz 24. However dur- with Salyut 4; but during second-third stage seperation third stage failed to separate ing the four months it took to prepare the Soyuz, Salyut 5 consumed higher than ex- from second stage but still ignited. The crew demanded that the abort procedures be pected fuel in maintaining the station's orientation. As a result, the fuel reserves were 70 implemented but ground control could not see the launch vehicle gyrations in their te- kg below those required for the planned 14 day mission and it was cancelled. lemetry. Soyuz finally was separated from by ground control command at 192 km, and following a 20.6+ G reentry, the capsule landed in the Altai mountains, tumbled down a 01 September 1977 Soyuz 26A Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Planned mission to Salyut 6 that mountainside, and snagged in some bushes just short of a precipice. The crew was wor- would make first docking with rear docking port and be the first crew to swap space- ried that they may have landed in China and would face internment, but after an hour craft and return in the spacecraft that ferried the Soyuz 25 crew. But Soyuz 25 failed to sitting in the cold next to the capsule, they were discovered by locals speaking Russian. dock with Salyut 6. One result of the investigation of the failure of the mission was that all Total flight duration was 1574 km and flight time 21 minutes 27 seconds. Lazarev suffered future crews would have to have at least one cosmonaut with previous space flight ex- internal injuries from the high-G reentry and tumble down the mountain side and never perience. Kolodin was replaced by Makarov, and Soyuz 26 as flown had quite a differ- flew again. Both cosmonauts were denied their 3000 ruble spaceflight bonus pay and ent profile. Kolodin never flew in space. had to apeal all the way to Brezhnev before being paid. 29 September 1977 Salyut 6 Spacecraft: Salyut 6. Mass: 19,824 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Proton 8K82K. Conduct of scientific and technical research and ex- 24 May 1975 Soyuz 18 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,825 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . periments; further testing of station design, on-board system and equipment. Soyuz 25 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511 . More details Summary: Manned two crew. Docked with docking unsuccessful. EVA 20 Dec 1977 to examine forward docking port (no damage). Salyut 4. Joint experiments with the Salyut scientific orbital station. Recovered July 26, EVA 29 July 1978 to retrieve externally mounted experiments (micrometeorites, biopoly- 1975 14:18 GMT. Landed 56 km E Arkalyk. mers, radiation plates, materials tests). Soyuz 33 failure to dock due to propulsion failure April 1979. Soyuz 34 launched unmanned to provide replacement vehicle June 1979. 29 September 1975 Cosmos 772 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-S. Mass: 6,750 kg. Launch Site: EVA August 15 to dislodge 10 m diameter KRT-10 radio telescope from aft docking col- Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned military Soyuz 7K-S test flight. Re- lar. Repair mission Soyuz T-3 December 1980 (temperature control hydraulics). Repair covered October 3, 1975 4:10 GMT. Unsuccessful mission. Transmitted only on 166 MHz mission Soyuz T-4 March 1981 (stuck solar array). Salyut ejected a module on May 31 frequency, at none of the other usual Soyuz wavelengths. (perhaps retained Soyuz Orbital Module). Kosmos 1267 docks 19 June 1981. Com- manded to reentry using Kosmos 1267 propulsion system over Pacific July 29 1982. 17 November 1975 Soyuz 20 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T/A9. Mass: 6,700 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned long duration test of the Soyuz 09 October 1977 Soyuz 25 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,860 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . transport vehicle; docked with Salyut 4. Recovered February 16, 1976 2:24 GMT. Com- Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Manned two crew. Unsuccess- prehensive checking of improved on-board systems of the space craft under various ful mission. Failed to dock with Salyut 6. Recovered October 11, 1977 3:25 GMT. periments. Recovered September 3, 1978 11:40 GMT. 10 December 1977 Soyuz 26 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Manned two crew. 27 June 1978 Soyuz 30 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T/A9. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Docked with Salyut 6. Carried Yuri Romanenko, Georgi Grechko to Salyut 6; returned Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Placed on crew of Soyuz 27 to Earth. Conduct of joint experiments with the Salyut-6 scientific sta- board the Salyut-6 station, under the Intercosmos programme, a second, international, tion. Recovered January 16, 1978 11:25 GMT. crew consisting of P.I. Klimuk (USSR) and M. Hermaszewski (Poland) to conduct scientific investigations and experiments. Recovered July 4, 1978 13:30 GMT 19 December 1977 EVA Soyuz 26-1 Spacecraft: Salyut 6. Inspected Salyut 6 docking port. 07 July 1978 Progress 2 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of fuel, 10 January 1978 Soyuz 27 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . consumable materials and equipment to the Salyut 6 station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 9 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Manned two crew. Carried Jul 1978 12:58:59 GMT. Undocked on 2 Aug 1978 04:57:44 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 4 Oleg Makarov, Vladimir Dzhanibekov to Salyut 6; returned crew of Soyuz 26 to Earth. Aug 1978 01:31:07 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.92 days. Total docked time 23.67 days. Docked with Salyut 6. Recovered March 16, 1978 11:19 GMT. 29 July 1978 EVA Soyuz 29-1 Spacecraft: Salyut 6. More details Summary: Retrieved ma- 20 January 1978 Progress 1 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . terial samples and equipment. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of fuel, consumable materials and equipment to the Salyut 6 station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 08 August 1978 Progress 3 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 22 Jan 1978 10:12:14 GMT. Undocked on 6 Feb 1978 05:54:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of fuel, on 8 Feb 1978 02:00:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.91 days. Total docked time 14.82 consumable materials and equipment to the Salyut 6 station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 9 days. Aug 1978 23:59:30 GMT. Undocked on 21 Aug 1978 15:42:50 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 23 Aug 1978 16:45:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 4.10 days. Total docked time 11.66 02 March 1978 Soyuz 28 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . days. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Delivery to the Salyut-6 station of the first international 'Intercosmos' team consisting of A.A. 26 August 1978 Soyuz 31 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Gubarev (USSR) and V. Remek (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic) to carry out scientific Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Delivered to research and experiments jointly developed by Soviet a nd Czechoslovak specialists. the Salyut-6 station the third international 'Intercosmos' crew consisting of V F Bykovsky Recovered March 10, 1978 13:45 GMT. (USSR) and S Jaehn (German Democratic Republic) to carry out scientific research and experiments.Recovered November 2, 1978 11:05 GMT. 04 April 1978 Cosmos 1001 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned precursor. Recovered April 15, 1978 12:02 04 October 1978 Progress 4 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . GMT. Unsuccessful mission. Soyuz T test -failure. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of fuel, consumable materials and equipment to the Salyut 6 station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 6 15 June 1978 Soyuz 29 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Oct 1978 01:00:15 GMT. Undocked on 24 Oct 1978 13:01:52 GMT. Destroyed in reentry Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Manned two crew. Docked on 26 Oct 1978 16:28:13 GMT. Total free-flight time 4.22 days. Total docked time 18.50 with Salyut 6. Placed on board the Salyut-6 station a crew consisting of V.V. Kovalenko days. and A.S. Ivanchenkov to conduct scientific and technological investigations and ex- 31 January 1979 Cosmos 1074 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: deployed after separation of Progress from Mir. Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. 28 June 1979 Progress 7 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 25 February 1979 Soyuz 32 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of fuel, Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Manned two crew. Docked consumable materials and equipment to the Salyut 6 station. Docked with Salyut 6 on with Salyut 6. Transported a team consisting of V A Lyakhov and V V Ryumin to the Sa- 30 Jun 1979 11:18:22 GMT. Undocked on 18 Jul 1979 03:49:55 GMT. Destroyed in reentry lyut-6 space station to conduct scientific investigations and experiments and repair on 20 Jul 1979 01:57:30 GMT. Total free-flight time 4.0 days. Total docked time 17.69 work. Recovered June 15, 1979 16:18 GMT. Returned unmanned. days.

12 March 1979 Progress 5 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 15 August 1979 EVA Soyuz 32-1 Spacecraft: Salyut 6. More details Summary: Jettisoned Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of fuel, KRT-10 antenna from rear docking port. consumable materials and equipment to the Salyut 6 station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 14 Mar 1979 07:19:21 GMT. Undocked on 3 Apr 1979 16:10:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry 16 December 1979 Soyuz T-1 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . on 5 Apr 1979 00:10:22 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.40 days. Total docked time 20.37 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. New generation Soyuz capsule; unmanned flight to days. Salyut 6. Docked with Salyut 6. Recovered March 25, 1980 21:47 GMT. Unmanned test of Soyuz T design. 10 April 1979 Soyuz 33 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,860 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Officially: Complex experimental testing of new on-board systems and assemblies under Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Flight under the Intercosmos pro- various flight conditions and operation in conjunction with the Salyut-6 orbital station. gramme of an international team consisting of N N Rukavishnikov (USSR) and G I Ivanov (Bulgaria). Unsuccessful mission. Failed to rendezvous with Salyut 6. Recovered April 12, 27 March 1980 Progress 8 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 1979 16:35 GMT. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel for Salyut 6. Delivery of vari- 13 May 1979 Progress 6 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . ous cargoes to the Salyut-6 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 29 Mar 1980 20:01:00 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of fuel, GMT. Undocked on 25 Apr 1980 08:04:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 26 Apr 1980 consumable materials and equipment to the Salyut 6 station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 06:54:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.0 days. Total docked time 26.50 days. 15 May 1979 06:19:22 GMT. Undocked on 8 Jun 1979 07:59:41 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 9 Jun 1979 18:52:46 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.54 days. Total docked time 24.07 09 April 1980 Soyuz 35 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . days. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Carried crew comprising L I Popov and V V Ryumin to the Salyut-6 station to carry out scientific and 06 June 1979 Soyuz 34 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . technical research and experiments. Returned crew of Soyuz 36 to Earth. Recovered Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Docked with Salyut 6. Launched unmanned to pro- June 3, 1980 15:07 GMT. Landed 140 km SE Dzehezkazgan. vide return vehicle for Soyuz 32 crew of Lyakhov/Ryumin after Soyuz 33 primary propulsion system failure. Checked the operation of the spacecraft propulsion unit; transpor- 27 April 1980 Progress 9 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . tated the crew of the Salyut-6 station back to earth. Recovered August 19, 1979 12:30 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel for Salyut 6. Delivery of vari- GMT. ous cargoes to the Salyut-6 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 29 Apr 1980 08:09:19 GMT. Undocked on 20 May 1980 18:51:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 22 May 1980 28 June 1979 KRT-10 Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More de- 00:44:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.32 days. Total docked time 21.45 days. tails Summary: 10 m diameter radio telescope. Attached to Salyut 6 docking hatch and 26 May 1980 Soyuz 36 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 15 November 1980 Soyuz T-3A Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Planned but cancelled manned Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Transported the fifth international crew under the IN- flight. Crew dissolved when Lazarev failed physical in early 1981. TERCOSMOS programme, comprising V N Kubasov (USSR) and B Farkas (Hungary) to the Salyut-6 station to carry out scientific research and experiments. Returned crew of Soyuz 27 November 1980 Soyuz T-3 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 37 to Earth. Recovered July 31, 1980 15:15 GMT. Launch Vehicle: So yuz 11A511U. Manned three crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Tested the improved transport ship of the "SOYUZ T" series; transported to the Salyut-6 orbital station 05 June 1980 Soyuz T-2 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . a crew consisting of L D Kizim, O G Makarov and G M Strekalov to carry out repair and Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Test flight of new Soyuz T; preventive work and scientific and technical investigation and experiments. Recovered docked with Salyut 6. Conducted testing and development of on-board systems in the December 10, 1980 09:26 GMT. improved Soyuz T series transport vehicle under piloted conditions. Recovered June 9, 1980 12:40 GMT. 24 January 1981 Progress 12 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 6. Delivery of various 29 June 1980 Progress 10 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . cargoes to the Salyut-6 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 26 Jan 1981 15:56:00 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel for Salyut 6. Delivery of vari- GMT. Undocked on 19 Mar 1981 18:14:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 20 Mar 1981 ous cargoes to the Salyut-6 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 1 Jul 1980 05:53:00 16:59:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.02 days. Total docked time 52.10 days. GMT. Undocked on 17 Jul 1980 22:21:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 19 Jul 1980 01:47:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.19 days. Total docked time 16.69 days. 12 March 1981 Soyuz T-4 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 23 July 1980 Soyuz 37 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Transported Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Transported to the Salyut-6 station to the Salyut-6 orbital station cosmonauts V V Kovalenko and V P Savinykh to carry out the sixth international crew under the Intercosmos programme, comprising V V Gor- repairs and preventive maintenance and scientific and technical investigations and ex- batko (USSR) and Pham Tuan (Viet Nam), to conduct scientific research and experi- periments. Recovered June 10, 1981 12:38 GMT. ments. Returned crew of Soyuz 35 to Earth. Recovered October 11, 1980 9:50 GMT. 22 March 1981 Soyuz 39 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 18 September 1980 Soyuz 38 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Transported to the Salyut-6 orbital station the Transported to the Salyut-6 station the seventh international crew under the INTERCOS- eighth international crew under the INTERCOSMOS programme, comprising V A Dzhani- MOS programme, comprising Y V Romanenko (USSR) and A. Tomaio Mendez (Cuba), to bekov (USSR) and Z. Gurragchi (Mongolian People's Republic) to conduct scientific in- conduct scientific research and experiments. Recovered September 26, 1980 15:54 vestigations and experiments. Recovered March 30, 1981 11:42 GMT. GMT. 14 May 1981 Soyuz 40 Spacecraft: Soyuz 7K-T. Mass: 6,800 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 6. Transported 28 September 1980 Progress 11 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,014 kg. Launch Site: to the Salyut-6 orbital station the ninth international crew under the INTERCOSMOS pro- Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel for Salyut 6. Deliv- gramme, comprising L I Popov (USSR), and D. Prunariu (Romania), to conduct scientific ery of various cargoes to the Salyut-6 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 6 on 30 Sep research and experiments. Recovered May 22, 1981 13:58 GMT. 1980 17:03:00 GMT. Undocked on 9 Dec 1980 10:23:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 11 Dec 1980 14:00:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 4.23 days. Total docked time 69.72 days. 19 April 1982 Iskra 2 Spacecraft: Iskra. Mass: 28 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehi- cle: Proton 8K82K . More details Summary: Deployed from Salyut 7 5/17/82. Launched from Salyut 7. Experiments in amateur radio communications. Launched into orbit from cent meteors travelling from Southwest to Northeast. At dawn the inhabitants discov- aboard the Salyut-7 orbital scientific station. . ered numerous metal fragments, which seemed to have fallen in distinct groups at various locations in the city. Luckily no one was hurt in the metallic shower. 19 April 1982 Salyut 7 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. Mass: 18,900 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Proton 8K82K. Second Soviet replenishable long-duration ‘civilian’ 13 May 1982 Soyuz T-5 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . space station. Objectives: Continuation of scientific research on board manned space Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Manned two crew. Carried complexes in the interests of science and the Soviet national economy; testing of ad- Anatoli Berezovoi, Valentin Lebedev to Salyut 7 to conduct scientific research and ex- vanced systems and apparatus for orbital stations. Continuation of the scientific re- periments; returned crew of Soyuz T-7 to Earth. Docked with Salyut 7. Recovered Sep- search in progress on board manned space complexes in the interests of science and tember 1, 1982 15:04 GMT. the national economy; testing of advanced systems and apparatus for orbital stations. 23 May 1982 Progress 13 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Although of the same design as Salyut 6, technical breakdowns throughout its life made Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Unmanned supply vessel to Salyut 7. Transport of vari- Salyut 7 a much less productive station. Replaced finally by Mir. Two different TKS resup- ous cargoes to the Salyut-7 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 7 on 25 May 1982 07:56:36 ply craft, originally designed for the Almaz military station, docked with Salyut 7 to pro- GMT. Undocked on 4 Jun 1982 06:31:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 6 Jun 1982 00:05:00 vide a larger complex. With the cancellation of Almaz, a large proportion of the experi- GMT. Total free-flight time 3.81 days. Total docked time 9.94 days. ments carried out on board had military objectives. Equipment: - Kristal materials processing furnace - EFO-7 star electrophotometer Improved Oasis plant growth unit - Aelita 24 June 1982 Soyuz T-6 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . cardiovascular diagnostic unit - 24 hr hot water - food refrigerator - French echography Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned three crew. Docked with Salyut 7. Trans- ultrasonic medical system - Korund semiconductor materials furnace Military experi- ported to the Salyut-7 orbital station the Soviet-French international crew, comprising V ments: observations of ground aerosols; ABM intercept; naval exercises; laser pointing/ A Dzhanibekov (USSR), A S Ivanchenkov (USSR) and Jean-Loup Chretien (France) to tracking hardware tests. Major Events: EVA July 30 to demonstrate building materials. conduct scientific research and experiments. Recovered July 2, 1982 14:21 GMT. Docking of TKS Kosmos 1443 4 March 1983. Failure of Soyuz T-8 to dock 21 April 1983. Mi- crometeorite impact on window 27 July. Failure of primary arrays, causing internal con- 10 July 1982 Progress 14 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . ditions of 65 F and 100% humidity. Propellant leak 9 September drained 2 of 3 oxidiser Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Unmanned supply vessel to Sa- tanks and shut down 16 of 32 attitude control thrusters. Soyuz T-10A with crew trained in lyut 7. Docked with Salyut 7 on 12 Jul 1982 11:41:00 GMT. Undocked on 10 Aug 1982 erection of new arrays exploded on pad 27 September. EVA's 1 Nov and 3 November 22:11:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 13 Aug 1982 01:29:00 GMT. Total free-flight time to erect auxiliary solar arrays (brought on Kosmos 1443). 4 EVA's in April 1984 to repair 4.21 days. Total docked time 29.44 days. propulsion system. EVA May 18 1984 to erect additional arrays. EVA July 25 1984 (Savitskaya). EVA August 8 to continue propulsion repairs with new tool. Docking of TKS 30 July 1982 EVA Soyuz T-8-1 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. More details Summary: Retrieved and Kosmos 1686 2 October 1985. Following departure of last crew, space station went out installed material samples. Tested equipment. of control, batteries drained, and dead in space. Visited by Soyuz T-15 7 May 1986 and revived. EVA's May 28 and 31 1986 to erect 15 m long truss. As of January 1990 out of 19 August 1982 Soyuz T-7 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . fuel, unable to manoeuvre, uncontrolled re-entry expected in three to four years. Re- Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Docked with Salyut 7. Carried Svetlana Savitskaya, entered in 1991 with 70 kg fuel remaining over Argentina. Controllers attempted to con- Leonid Popov, Alexander Serebrov to Salyut 7 to conduct scientific and technical re- trol impact point (set for Atlantic Ocean) by setting Salyut 7/Kosmos 1686 assembly into search and experiments; returned crew of Soyuz T-5 to Earth. Recovered December 10, a tumble. This however failed and Salyut 7 re-entered February 7, 1991 04:00 GMT. Many 1982 19:03 GMT. Landed 118 km E Dzhezkazgan. fragments fell on the town of Capitan Bermudez, 25 km from Rosario and 400 km from Buenos Aires, Argentina. At 1 am local time the sky was lit up with hundreds of incandes- 18 September 1982 Astrozond Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. 20 October 1983 Progress 18 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: 18 September 1982 Progress 15 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Transport of various cargoes to the Salyut-7 Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Unmanned supply orbital station. Docked with Salyut 7 on 22 Oct 1983 11:34:00 GMT. Boosted Salyut to 326 vessel to Salyut 7. Docked with Salyut 7 on 20 Sep 1982 06:12:00 GMT. Undocked on 14 X 356 orbit on 4 Nov 1983. Undocked on 13 Nov 1983 03:08:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry Oct 1982 13:46:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 16 Oct 1982 17:08:00 GMT. Total free- on 16 Nov 1983 04:18:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 5.11 days. Total docked time 21.65 flight time 4.19 days. Total docked time 24.32 days. days.

31 October 1982 Progress 16 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: 01 November 1983 EVA Soyuz T-9-1 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. More details Summary: Began Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Unmanned supply installation of auxiliary solar array. vessel to Salyut 7. Docked with Salyut 7 on 2 Nov 1982 13:22:00 GMT. Undocked on 13 Dec 1982 15:32:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 14 Dec 1982 17:17:00 GMT. Total free- 03 November 1983 EVA Soyuz T-9-2 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. More details Summary: Com- flight time 3.16 days. Total docked time 41.09 days. pleted installation of auxiliary solar array. 18 November 1982 Iskra 3 Spacecraft: Iskra. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Launched from Salyut 7 airlock. Conduct of ex- 08 February 1984 Soyuz T-10 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . periments in the field of amateur radiocommunications. . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned three crew. Docked with Salyut 7. Trans- ported a crew consisting of ship's commander L D Kizim, flight engineer V A Solovyov 20 April 1983 Soyuz T-8 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . and cosmonaut-research O Y Atkov to the SAL YUT-7 orbital station to conduct scientific Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Manned three crew. Unsuc- and technical studies and experiments. Returned crew of Soyuz T-11 to Earth. Recov- cessful mission. Failed to rendezvous with Salyut 7. Recovered April 22, 1983 13:29 GMT. ered April 11, 1984 10:50 GMT. Landed 160 km E Dzehezkazgan. Landed 113 km SE Arkalyk. 21 February 1984 Progress 19 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: 27 June 1983 So yuz T-9 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Transport of various cargoes to the Salyut-7 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned two crew. Docked with Salyut 7. Transported orbital station. Docked with Salyut 7 on 23 Feb 1984 08:21:00 GMT. Undocked on 31 Mar to the Salyut-7 orbital station a crew consisting of V A Lyakhov, commander of the 1984 09:40:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 1 Apr 1984 18:18:00 GMT. Total free-flight spacecraft, and A P Aleksandrov, flight engineer, to conduct scientific and technical time 3.43 days. Total docked time 37.05 days. research and experiments. Recovered November 23, 1983 19:58 GMT.

17 August 1983 Progress 17 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Unmanned supply vessel to Sa- lyut 7. Docked with Salyut 7 on 19 Aug 1983 13:47:00 GMT. Undocked on 17 Sep 1983 11:44:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 17 Sep 1983 23:43:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 2.57 days. Total docked time 28.91 days.

26 September 1983 Soyuz T-10-1 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U . More details Summary: Aborted September 27, 1983 19:38 GMT. Unsuccessful mission. Launch vehicle blew up on pad at Tyuratam; crew saved by abort system. 03 April 1984 Soyuz T-11 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Manned three crew. Docked with Salyut 7.Transported 17 July 1984 Soyuz T-12 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . a Soviet-Indian international crew comprising ship's commander Y V Malyshev, flight en- Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Docked with Salyut 7. Transported a crew comprising gineer G M Strekalov (USSR) and cosmonaut-researcher R Sharma (India) to the SALYUT- ship's commander V A Dzhanibekov, flight engineer S E Savitskaya and cosmonaut- 7 orbital station to conduct scientific and technical studies and experiments. Returned research I P Volk to the Salyut-7 orbital station to conduct scientific and technical stud- crew of Soyuz T-10 to Earth. Recovered October 2, 1984 10:57 GMT. ies and experiments. Recovered July 29, 1984 12:55 GMT.

15 April 1984 Progress 20 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,200 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 25 July 1984 EVA Soyuz T-12-1 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. Conducted welding experiments. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U2. Transport of various cargoes to the Salyut-7 orbital station. First launch of Progress by Soyuz-U2 launch vehicle. Docked with Salyut 7 on 17 08 August 1984 EVA Soyuz T-10-6 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. Fixed Salyut 7 propulsion system Apr 1984 09:22:00 GMT. Undocked on 6 May 1984 17:46:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on fuel lines. 7 May 1984 00:32:51 GMT. Total free-flight time 2.33 days. Total docked time 19.35 days. 14 August 1984 Progress 23 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 23 April 1984 EVA Soyuz T-10-1 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. Installed external equipment. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Transport of various cargoes to the Salyut-7 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 7 on 16 Aug 1984 08:11:00 GMT. Undocked on 26 Aug 1984 26 April 1984 EVA Soyuz T-10-2 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. Began repair of Salyut 7 propulsion 16:13:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 28 Aug 1984 01:28:00 GMT. Total free-flight time system fuel lines. 3.46 days. Total docked time 10.33 days. 05 March 1985 Soyuz T-13A Spacecraft: Soyuz T. More details Summary: Planned but 29 April 1984 EVA Soyuz T-10-3 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. Continued repair of Salyut 7 propul- cancelled manned flight to Salyut 7. Breakdown of Salyut 7 led to cancellation of this sion system fuel lines. flight and its replacement by the Soyuz T-13 repair mission. Savinykh served on the repair mission while Vasyutin and Volkov flew on Soyuz T-14. 03 May 1984 EVA Soyuz T-10-4 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. Completed repair of Salyut 7 propulsion system fuel lines. 06 June 1985 Soyuz T-13 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U2. Docked with Salyut 7. Delivered to the Salyut-7 orbital 08 May 1984 Progress 21 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . station a crew consisting of flight commander V A Dzhanibekov and flight engineer V P Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Transport of various cargoes to the Salyut-7 orbital st a- Savinykh to carry out emergency repairs to inert Salyut 7 station and to conduct scien- tion. Docked with Salyut 7 on 10 May 1984 00:10:00 GMT. Undocked on 26 May 1984 tific and technical research and experiments. Returned crew of Soyuz T-14 to Earth. Re- 09:41:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 26 May 1984 15:00:30 GMT. Total free-flight time covered September 26, 1985 9:52 GMT. 2.28 days. Total docked time 16.40 days. 21 June 1985 Progress 24 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . 18 May 1984 EVA Soyuz T-10-5 Spacecraft: Salyut 7. More details Summary: Installed solar Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Delivery to the Salyut-7 orbital station of a mixed cargo array. with a total mass of 2,000 kg. Docked with Salyut 7 on 23 Jun 1985 02:54:00 GMT. Un- 28 May 1984 Progress 22 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . docked on 15 Jul 1985 12:28:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 15 Jul 1985 22:33:31 GMT. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Transport of various cargoes to the Salyut-7 orbital st a- Total free-flight time 2.51 days. Total docked time 22.40 days. tion. Docked with Salyut 7 on 30 May 1984 15:47:00 GMT. Undocked on 15 Jul 1984 13:36:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 15 Jul 1984 18:52:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 2.28 19 July 1985 Cosmos 1669 Spacecraft: Progress. Mass: 7,020 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . days. Total docked time 45.91 days. Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U. Progress vehicle, given Cosmos designation instead of Progress because control lost early in mission but regained later. Resupplied Salyut 7. On departure briefly undocked and redocked to verify reliability of docking system. Trans- ported of various cargoes to the Salyut-7 orbital station. Docked with Salyut 7 on 21 Jul 1985 15:05:00 GMT. Undocked on 28 Aug 1985 21:50:00 GMT. Destroyed in reentry on 30 Aug 1985 01:20:00 GMT. Total free-flight time 3.23 days. Total docked time 38.28 days.

17 September 1985 Soyuz T-14 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U2. Docked with Salyut 7. Transported a crew comprising ship's commander V V Vasyutin, flight engineer G M Grechko and cosmonaut-researcher A A Volkov to the Salyut-7 orbital station to conduct scientific and technical studies and experiments. Grechko returned in Soyuz T-13 on 25 September 1985 - emergency return.

17 March 1986 Soyuz T-15 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U2. Docked first with American Skylab/SLEOS facility then with Salyut 7. Transported a crew comprising ship's commander V V Vasyutin, flight engineer G M Grechko and cosmonaut-researcher A A Volkov to the Salyut-7 orbital station to conduct scientific and technical studies and experiments. Grechko returned in Soyuz T-13 on 25 September 1985 - emergency return. Mission to SLEOS carried batteries to replace those that would have been delivered by the Shuttle Challenger.

4 June 1986 Soyuz T-16 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U2, carries equipment and materials to begin conversion of Saylut 7 into the Saylut II Space Station in preperation for launch of and joining with the MIR Facility the next year.

13 October 1986 Soyuz T-17 Spacecraft: Soyuz T. Mass: 6,850 kg. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Soyuz 11A511U2. Docked with Salyut II. Transported a crew comprising ship's commander R F Pyutin, flight engineer A S Kolenko and cosmonaut-researcher V I Sergeiv to the Salyut-7 orbital station to conduct scientific and technical studies and experiments.

20 February 1987: Mir Component launched from Baikonur and joins with Saylut II on 27 February. Mir 1 becomes operational the next day. Commander S A Alexayev, Flight Engineer P S Tuborov, and Cosmonaut I P Volk, join Sergeiv onboard, while Pyutin and Kolenko return to Earth. Apollo-Soyuz Joint Mission Appendix From: The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, by Edward Clinton Ezell oxygen, and communications umbilicals. Slayton was next, and Crippen went through and Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series SP-4209, 1978. the same procedures after he was seated in the right-hand couch. Brand was last. When Crippen completed his check of Brand's fittings, he removed the protective cov- 15 July 1975 - Launch ering from the crewman's helmet, as he had for the other two. At 12:02, Stafford called The day began with the flawless launch of Soyuz 19. The initial orbital parameters were to the test conductor Clarence Chauvin, "Looks like it's a good day to fly." 220.8 by 185.07 kilometres, at the desired inclination of 51.80°, while the period of the Crippen slid down under the centre couch and crawled out the hatch above Brand's first orbit was 88.6 minutes. There were smiles in Moscow and in Houston. Max Faget, head. Aft er some additional checks, the CSM hatch was closed at approximately 12:22. who was seated in the viewing room overlooking the MOCR, expressed the feeling of As the first live launch pad colour television pictures of the interior of the CSM were most of the American flight team. "It's our turn to hit the ball. Now we've got to get into broadcast to the world, the crew began to run through the final checklist. Stafford orbit." Early evening at Baykonur was mid-afternoon in Moscow and early morning in asked Karol "Bo" Bobko, the Spacecraft Communicator (CapCom) at 1.10, "Are you giv- Florida and Texas. While the American crew slept, Chet Lee, Launch Director Walt ing us the countdown in English or Russian today?" Bobko responded, "Oh, I figured I'd Kapryan, and Kennedy Space Centre (KSC) Director Lee Scherer monitored the con- give it in English." In Moscow, the Soviet flight director was reminding Leonov and Kuba- tinuing preparation of SA-210. At the time of the Soyuz lift-off, liquid oxygen was flowing sov that the Apollo lift-off was set for 10:50 Moscow time (2:50 CDT). At T minus 7 min- into the tanks of the Apollo launch vehicle at a fast fill rate of 4,543 litres per minute. Af- utes, 52 seconds, the Apollo crew members finished their checkout of some 556 ter the USSR launch, Lee, Kapryan, and Scherer got a briefing on the predicted weather switches, 40 event indicators, and 71 lights on the console. Stafford told Bobko to tell conditions for the afternoon - there were thunderstorms in the vicinity of the Cape, but Soyuz to get ready for them. "We'll be up there shortly." they were not expected to affect the American lift-off. In Houston, Lunney called Profes- After the final minutes of waiting, at 2:49:50, the now famous count backwards from 10 sor Bushuyev to congratulate him on the success of the Soyuz launch and to advise him began. "10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, engine sequence start, 1, 0, launch. . . . We have lift-off. that the countdown was proceeding on schedule with the best weather forecast in Moving out, clear the tower." Above the roar of the first-stage engines, Stafford re- months. Bushuyev reported in turn that the orbit of Soyuz was within 2 or 3 kilometres of ported that the ride had been a little shaky at lift-off, but now it was "smooth as silk." Fifty the desired figures. seconds into the flight, the acceleration force equalled 2 Gs, twice the gravitational Stafford, Slayton, and Brand were awakened at 9:10. While they were having their final force normally experienced on earth. At 124 seconds, the crewmen were experiencing medical examination, the team that assists the crew at the launch site set out for the 4 Gs as they dropped off the first stage and continued their journey under the power of spacecraft. Following their visit with the doctors, the astronauts sat down to the tradi- the S-IVB stage. Fifty-two seconds later, they jettisoned the launch escape tower, and tional pre-flight breakfast of steak and scrambled eggs. As they ate, they watched a Stafford remarked, "Tower jett. There she goes! . . . Adios. . . . At 4:40, back to one g ac- video replay of the Soyuz launch. Robert Crippen, the Backup Command Module Pilot, celeration and looking good." meanwhile began the final preparation of the command and service module (CSM) Dick Truly, CapCom: Apollo, Houston. At 5 minutes you're GO. cockpit in anticipation of the crew's arrival. Once they completed their breakfast, the Stafford: Roger. 5 minutes. Looks good onboard, Dick. And we've got a beautiful sight. three men went to the suit room in the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building and Truly: Roger. Wish I could see it. donned their space suits. At 11:37, accompanied by John Young, Chief of the Astronaut Stafford: Roger. Office, they rode down the elevator and boarded their van for the 25-minute ride to the Slayton: Man, I tell you, this is worth waiting 16 years for. launch pad. Brand: Got a beautiful ocean out . . . here, Dick. With the assistance of their suit technicians, the crew arrived at Pad 39B, where they Truly: Roger, I believe all that. made their way by elevator to the 100-meter level of the mobile launch tower. Once Stafford: Okay, at 5:30, onboard trajectory looks beautiful. there, they crossed over swing arm number 9 and entered the White Room surrounding Truly: Roger. Concur, Tom. You're right on the money. the spacecraft. Stafford was the first into the cockpit, where he moved into the left On the ground, Ed Smith and R. H. Dietz with grins on their faces echoed the same couch, assisted from the inside by Crippen, who also connected Stafford's electrical, thoughts when they said, "We've got a ball game!" The rendezvous chase was on. Apollo had achieved orbital insertion at 2:59:55.5 central daylight time. Brand ex- Apollo phasing manoeuvre was executed at 8:28 to provide the proper catch-up rate, claimed, "Miy nakhoditsya na orbite!" so that docking with Soyuz could occur on the 36th Soviet revolution. This 20.5-meter - Stafford notified Houston at 3:55 p.m. that the crew was preparing to execute the trans- per-second change placed Apollo in a 233- by 169-kilometre path. The next phase and position, docking, and extraction manoeuvre in 2 minutes. As a preliminary to removing plane correction manoeuvre of 2.7 meters per second was scheduled for the 16th revo- the docking module (DM) from the spacecraft lunar module adapter (SLA) truss assem- lution. bly, the CSM was separated from the S-IVB stage, and as the CSM moved away from In the midst of this precision flying, there were some lighter moments. At 6:10, Brand the adapter section, the panels of the SLA were explosively jettisoned. In bringing the asked Truly to tell the launch crew at the Cape that they permitted a stowaway to spacecraft about to face the docking module, the crew encountered its first minor board the spacecraft. "We found a super Florida mosquito flying around here a few problem of the flight. When Stafford looked through his alignment sight (COAS) at the minutes ago." Slayton said that he planned to feed it to the fish that they were carrying Saturn IVB and docking module, the attitude was such that all he could see was the onboard if he could catch it, and Brand wanted to bring it back and give it astronaut glare from the sunlit earth. At first he thought that the light illuminating the cross hairs in wings. These transmissions were conducted through the ATS 6 satellite. While that par- his sight had burned out. But when he put his hand in front of the COAS, Stafford re- ticular communications satellite had been an unknown quantity throughout much of ported that he could see the green reticule. Swearing under his breath, he knew that the mission planning, it was working very satisfactorily. he would just have to wait until the two craft were positioned differently. Stafford Placed in a geosynchronous orbit at 42,596 kilometres on 30 May 1974, ATS 6 had removed the CSM toward the S-IVB and docking module until about only 10 meters sepa- mained at a fixed point over the Galapagos Islands, permitting educational television rated them. Watching the stand-off cross on the docking module truss in the S-IVB transmissions to remote areas at relatively low costs. Following transmission experiments stage, the Apollo crew assumed a station-keeping status. Slowly the target vehicle ap- to Appalachia, the Rocky Mountains, and Alaska, the satellite on command from the peared to move toward the earth's horizon. Stafford squinted and leaned his head to ground moved to a new position over Africa, where it was to be used for a year-long one side so he could see the reticule. "Finally when I got it in line," he later recounted, "I educational experiment in India. It reached its present location, 35° east longitude on could just tell my general attitude and moved in." Despite the problems, Stafford's dock- the equator, on 2 July, in time for the ASTP team to borrow its communications channels ing was perfect. He had aligned the two spacecraft to within a hundredth of a degree, for the joint flight. Broadcasting through the spacecraft tracking and data network sta- the best alignment ever achieved with the Apollo docking system. By the time he had tion at Buitrago, Spain, the Apollo crew and the team in Houston were able to talk and lined up his target, Apollo had passed out of radio contact with the ground. transmit data for 55 minutes of each 87-minute revolution. This three-fold increase in When Apollo re-established communications over Rosman, North Carolina, Stafford told communications, impossible without ATS 6, made all the hard work and worry about its Truly that they had achieved a real hard docking with the DM; all hatches were locked. success worthwhile. The commander was happy to have this first docking completed. He later recalled that Later in the evening, after a cabin overheating problem had been solved, Brand asked given the past problems with the Apollo probe and drogue, he had really been Karol Bobko, who had relieved Truly as CapCom, about the status of Soyuz. Bobko re- "sweating out" this exercise. Once it was over, he looked forward to meeting Soyuz. The ported that Leonov and Kubasov were asleep and that to this point in the flight their new docking mechanism was a pilot's dream, and he knew that he could fly it in for a only problem was a television camera that refused to work. He told Vance that they smooth docking. had tried without success to repair it but they planned to work on it some more after During a subsequent 5-minute pass over the tracking ship USNS Vanguard, the crew their sleep period. Apollo meal time arrived at 10:06, and Slayton coined a new space members advised Houston that they had completed the extraction of the docking phrase for eating when he indicated to Houston that he and his crew mates were in the module. The spacecraft, configured as it would be for the meeting with the Soviet craft, "food intake mode." was now in an orbit 173.3 by 154.7 kilometres with an orbital period of 87 minutes, 39 A problem later that night, however, caused some concern both on the ground and in seconds, and an orbital velocity of 7,820 meters per second. Additional manoeuvres the spacecraft. Bobko had wished the crew good night in Russian, and they were sup- would bring Apollo and Soyuz into the proper orbital relationship for rendezvous. posed to be bedding down for a rest period, when at 22 minutes past midnight Stafford Apollo's orbit was circularised at 167.4 by 164.7 kilometres at 6:35. From this orbit, the first called to the ground. Brand had attempted to remove the probe assembly from the tunnel between the CSM and the DM so that he could open the hatch and store over- While the Apollo crew slept, Leonov and Kubasov were awakened in the early morning night a freezer in the passageway, but he found that he could not insert the tool that hours of the 16th and were advised by Moscow control of the Apollo probe difficulty. unlocked and collapsed the probe. Brand went on to explain the difficulty: The ASTP cosmonauts continued to attempt repairs on their troublesome black and Brand: "Okay, Bo. Everything in the probe removal checklist on the cue card . . . has white television system. The black and white system never did work. This failure upset been going great up through step 11. Step 12 is "Capture latch release, tool 7." You in- some Americans, notably Bob Shafer, because this system's absence meant that there sert it in the pyro cover. You turn it 180 degrees clockwise to release the capture would be no pictures of Apollo during the flight. While some of the NASA team groused latches. Well, here's where the problem is, and let me explain it to you. . . . do you have about this turn of events, the Soyuz crew members prepared for the circularisation ma- somebody there that knows the probe that can listen?" noeuvre that would bring their spacecraft into a 225- by 225-kilometre orbit. As they Bobko: "Roger. Go ahead." were executing that manoeuvre, the Apollo crew was awakened to the rock sounds of Brand: "Okay, as I look in the back of the . . . pyro cover, I'm looking with my flashlight Chicago's "Good Morning Sunshine." through the hole where I insert this tool, and there's something behind the pyro cover Medical reports and breakfast filled the first minutes of the Apollo crew's morning activi- that's preventing me from putting this tool all the way in. . . . it's actually one of the pyro ties. With the exception of some minor frustrations like the slow functioning urine dump connectors. . . . this tool has to go down through the pyro cover in between . . . some system and some spilled strawberry juice, everything was proceeding satisfactorily. pyro connectors. But one of these pyro connectors has rotated such that it's in the CapCom Crippen advised the crew that Soyuz had completed its circularisation ma- way. . . ." noeuvre and was "in orbit waiting for you." Truly replaced Crippen and gave Brand the Neil B. Hutchinson, flight director at the time the probe problem was discovered, later latest information on how to remove the probe. As they were disassembling the back told press representatives that the ground team and the crew had discussed the diffi- end of the probe, Stafford commented, "Dick, it wouldn't be a normal flight if we didn't culty for about 18 minutes. Their first decision had been to forget transferring the freezer have our little probe problems." into the tunnel and just have the crew close the hatch and go to sleep. But when Brand Stafford came back on the air-to-ground communications loop at 9:55 a.m. to tell Hous- tried to close the hatch, he discovered that the partially removed probe assembly pre- ton that the probe was out. With that "glitch" solved, the crew members could return vented him from doing so. Since the three men were already past their sleep time and their attention to the flight plan. Preparation for televising pictures from the cabin and the open hatch did not pose a hazard, the two teams ground and space agreed to checking out the docking module were the next activities on the list. As they worked postpone any further work on the probe until morning. As a precaution, the crew raised through their schedule, the Soviet crew members were transmitting their first television by a very slight amount the cabin pressure, which provided additional oxygen to com- pictures with their colour camera. Talking to the Soviet flight director, V. A. Dzhanibekov, pensate for the nitrogen that was boiling off the freezer. The crew went to sleep, and Leonov gave the folks at home a commentary on their first 28 hours in space and then Hutchinson went to a 3:15 a.m. news briefing. conversed with Klimuk and Sevastyanov, who had been aboard the space station Sa- In his explanation, the flight director indicated that the problem was not serious, just an lyut since 24 May. Sevastyanov commented that the ASTP crews had a very responsible annoyance. In the morning, the crew would have to run back through the 11 steps to task and that a large portion of the world's population was watching and listening to re-engage the probe in its fully locked position. Then one of the men would have to re- their progress. Referring to the seven men now in space, two aboard Salyut and the five move the pyro cover, straighten out the misaligned pyro cap, go through the 11 disas- involved in ASTP, Klimuk said, "these are the magnificent seven." With pleasantries con- sembly steps, and on the 12th insert the key and unlock the capture latches. Afterwards cluded, the Soviet crews returned to their respective duties. Leonov and Kubasov be- the removal of the probe would follow according to the original plan. When asked if this gan lowering the pressure of their ship to 500 mm of Hg in preparation for the docking. was the same type of problem encountered in Apollo 14, Hutchinson answered that al- Aboard Apollo, Stafford, Slayton, and Brand were settling into the routine of flight. Their though this was the same probe assembly as that used in Apollo 14, the difficulty was an day was filled with independent experiments (electrophoresis, helium glow, and earth entirely different one. Everyone had to wait until morning to determine if the solution observation) and collecting biomedical data. During the earth observation pass, Staf- would be as simple as anticipated. ford told Bobko to inform Farouk El-Baz, the principal investigator for that experiment, 16 July - Chase that at ASTP altitude one could see far more detail than in Project Gemini, where Staf- ford and Cernan had flown at a higher altitude (+60 kilometres). The ground reported to had moved back into the descent vehicle and closed the hatch between them and the crew that the medical information received from the exercise period was very the orbital module. Inside Apollo, the men had closed the CSM and DM hatches pre- good. To round out its other activities, the crew made another course change at 3:18 p. paratory to docking. At a command from Stafford, Leonov performed a 60° roll ma- m. In anticipation of their big day on the 17th, the Apollo team bedded down a few noeuvre to give Soyuz the proper orientation relative to Apollo for the final approach. minutes after eight, and the Soviet crew had been resting since about 2:50 that after- On the television monitors in Houston and Moscow, Soyuz was seen as a brilliant green noon. Throughout their "night," the spacecraft were coming closer together as Apollo against the deep black of space as the onboard camera recorded the final approach. closed the gap between them by about 255 kilometres per revolution. Visitors had begun to gather in the MOCR viewing room about 2 hours before the dock- 17 July - Rendezvous ing. Among the early arrivals were General Samuel C. Phillips, former Apollo Program Di- Roused at 3:07 a.m. by an alarm and warning signal from the guidance system, the rector; Astronauts Scott, Allen, Garriott, McCandless, Musgrave, and Schweickart; and crew members decided to stay awake after determining that the warning was a false Captain Jacques Cousteau. Just before 10:00, Dr. and Mrs. Fletcher, accompanied by alarm. That morning Slayton observed a grass fire in Africa, and Stafford saw a forest fire John Young, escorted Ambassador Anatoliy Fedorovich Dobrynin and his wife into the atop a mountain in the USSR Slayton commented that things looked just the same as in viewing room. Other guests included Elmer S. Groo, Associate Administrator for Centre an airplane at 12,000 meters. At 7:56, 5 minutes after completing another manoeuvre to Operations, and his wife; the Gilruths; D. C. Cheatham; D. C. Wade; and C. C. Johnson. bring the craft into better attitude for rendezvous, the Apollo crew attempted radio As Apollo silently closed the remaining gap, the MOCR and viewing area grew quiet. contact with Soyuz. Brand reported at 8:00 that he had sighted Soyuz in his sextant. "He's Only the air-to-air and air-to-ground transmissions broke the spell. just a speck right now." Leonov called out as the two ships came together. "Tom, please don't forget about Voice contact between the two ships was established 5 minutes later. Speaking in Rus- your engine." This reference to the -X thrusters made Stafford and many of those on the sian, Slayton called, "Soyuz, Apollo. How do you read me?" Kubasov answered in Eng- ground who knew the story chuckle. Stafford called out the range, "less than five meters lish, "Very well. Hello everybody." distance. Three meters. One meter. Contact." The hydraulic attenuators absorbed the Slayton: Hello, Valeriy. How are you. Good day, Valeriy. force of the impact, and Leonov called out, "We have capture, . . . okay, Soyuz and Kubasov: How are you? Good day. Apollo are shaking hands now." It was 11:10 in Houston. Stafford retracted the guide Slayton: Excellent. . . . I'm very happy. Good morning. ring, actuated the structural latches, and compressed the seals. In Russian he said, "Tell Leonov: Apollo, Soyuz. How do you read me? Professor Bushuyev it was a soft docking." "Well done, Tom," congratulated Leonov, "It Slayton: Alexey, I hear you excellently. How do you read me? was a good show. We're looking forward now to shaking hands with you on . . . board Leonov: I read you loud and clear. Soyuz." Slayton: Good. The chase of Soyuz by Apollo had ended in a flawless docking. Stafford later recalled, Thirty-two minutes later at Slayton's signal, Kubasov turned on the range tone transfer "Later that night, we checked the alignment and noticed that the centre of the COAS assembly to establish ranging between the ships. The gap had been reduced to 222 was sitting right on the centre of a bolt that held the centre of the target in for Soyuz." kilometres. At 9:12, Apollo had changed its path again when the crew executed a co- That is dead centre. A feeling of relief and exultation swept the control centre in Hous- elliptic manoeuvre that sent the craft into a 210- by 209-kilometre orbit. Apollo was spi- ton. Lunney with a cigar in hand called Professor Bushuyev. Watching each other on ralling outward relative to the earth to overtake the Soviet ship. their television monitors, the Technical Directors smiled as they exchanged congratula- A 0.9-second terminal phase engine burn at 10:17 brought Apollo within 35 kilometres, tions, while both crews went through pressure integrity checks on their craft. When Slay- and the crew began to slow the spacecraft as it continued on the circular orbit that ton opened the hatch into the docking module, he caught the strong scent of burned would intersect that of the Soyuz. CapCom Truly advised Stafford at 10:46, "I've got two glue. This news dampened spirits on the ground for a short time. As a precaution, Vance messages for you: Moscow is go for docking; Houston is go for docking, it's up to you Brand donned his oxygen mask, and Stafford advised Leonov: "Soyuz, this is Apollo. Now guys. Have fun." Immediately, Stafford called out to Leonov, "Half a mile, Alexey." we have . . . a little problem. I think we have somewhat of a bad atmosphere here. I Leonov replied. "Roger, 800 meters." In accordance with the flight plan, the Soyuz crew think soon that we will no longer have any problems." While his Russian might not have won any prizes, the Soviet commander got Stafford's message. Once the odour dissi- When they talked later with President Ford, however, the crews appeared somewhat pated and the ground crews decided that they could not discover any danger in this less at ease. Ford had watched the Soyuz launch two days earlier in the State Depart- unexpected development, the crews continued the procedures leading to the opening ment auditorium with Ambassador Dobrynin and Administrator Fletcher, while Mrs. Do- of the hatches between the spacecraft. brynin interpreted for them. Keenly interested in the ASTP flight, Ford had wanted an op- Prior to that first handshake in space, Viktor Balashov, a noted Soviet television an- portunity to speak with the crews. Dennis Williams, the information officer attached to nouncer, read a message from Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev over the air-to-ground link: the International Affairs Office at NASA, had drafted a series of possible questions for the To the cosmonauts Alexey Leonov, Valeriy Kubasov, Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, White House that could be asked of each crewman. Neither Williams nor the mission Donald Slayton. Speaking on behalf of the Soviet people, and for myself, I congratulate control team in Houston expected Ford to use all the questions, but that is exactly what you on this memorable event. . . . The whole world is watching with rapt attention and he did. The crew, who had been advised the night before of the conversation, were admiration your joint activities in fulfilment of the complicated program of scientific ex- taken by surprise when the President, watching the men on a television monitor in the periments. The successful docking had confirmed the correctness of the technical deci- Oval Office, talked for 9 minutes instead of the scheduled 5. He asked a barrage of sions developed and realised by means of co-operative friendship between the Soviet questions that sent the crews scrambling to trade off their three flight helmets to they and American scientists, designers and cosmonauts. One can say that the Soyuz Apollo could respond to him. But despite the confusion, Ford and the five space men seemed is a forerunner of future international orbital stations. to enjoy the chat. Ford began: Brezhnev's remarks continued, noting that "the détente and positive changes in the So- Gentlemen, let me call you to express my very great admiration for your hard work, your viet-American relations have made possible the first international spaceflight." He saw total dedication in preparing for this first joint flight. All of us here in . . . the United States new possibilities for co-operation in the future and gave his best wishes to the crews. send to you our very warmest congratulations for your successful rendezvous and for Stafford and Slayton meanwhile had entered the docking module and closed behind your docking and we wish you the very best for a successful completion of the remain- them the hatch (no. 2) leading to the CSM. They raised the pressure from 255 to 490 mil- der of your mission. limetres by adding nitrogen to the previously 78 percent oxygen atmosphere. In Soyuz, Stressing the same themes of co-operation as had Brezhnev, Ford pointed out that it the crew had reduced the cabin pressure to 500 millimetres before the docking. The had "taken us many years to open this door to useful co-operation in space between pressure in the tunnel between the docking module hatch (no. 3) and the Soyuz hatch our two countries." When he asked Stafford whether he thought the new docking sys- (no. 4) had been raised from zero to equal that of the docking module. Leonov and tem would be suitable for use in future international manned space flights, the Apollo Kubasov were the first to open the hatch leading to the international greeting. During commander responded, "Yes, sir, Mr. President, I sure do. Out of the three docking sys- the transfer that was to follow, the pressure in the DM and Soyuz would be the same - tems I've used, this was the smoothest one so far. It worked beautifully." Ford spoke in 510 millimetres. turn to Leonov, Slayton, Brand, and Kubasov. The President asked Slayton, "as the Then at 2:17:26 p.m. on the 17th of July, Stafford opened hatch number no. 3, which led world's oldest space rookie, do you have any advice for young people who hope to fly into the Soyuz orbital module. With applause from the control centres in the back- on future space missions?" Slayton responded that the best advice he could give was ground, Stafford looked into the Soviet craft and, seeing all their umbilicals and commu- "decide what you want to do and then . . . never give up until you've done it." To Ford's nications cables floating about, said, "Looks like they['ve] got a few snakes in there, too." question about space food, Kubasov noted that the meals were different than the one Then he called out, "Alexey. Our viewers are here. Come over here, please." High above the crews had shared with the President, especially since there was neither seafood nor the French city of Metz, the two commanders shook hands. Their dialogue was broken - beer available during the flight. In signing off, the President wished the men a "soft land- part personal, part technical. They appeared to accept their amazing technical ac- ing." complishment with the same nonchalance that had characterised their practice ses- Next Stafford, Slayton, Leonov, and Kubasov made a symbolic exchange of gifts, while sions in the ground simulators. There were no grand speeches, just a friendly greeting Brand remained in the command module monitoring the American craft and waiting from men who seemed to have done this every day of their lives. In the background for his turn to visit Soyuz. Stafford speaking first, Said: was a hand-lettered sign in English - "Welcome aboard Soyuz." Alexey, Valeriy. Permit me, in the name of my government and the American people, to present you with 5 flags for your government and the people of the Soviet Union. also. During the ensuing pressure integrity check, a possible leak through hatch nos. 3 or May our joint work in space serve for the benefit of all countries and peoples on the 4 was detected by the Soyuz monitoring equipment. This apparent flow of gas between Earth. the two hatches, while not serious, caused the crews to get to sleep a little later than Leonov thanked Stafford for "these very valuable presents" and in return gave Soviet planned. Finally, by 7:36, the Apollo crewmen had bid the ground good night and were flags to the Americans. During succeeding transfers, other symbolic items would be ex- beginning to settle down. changed. Apollo would return a United Nations flag launched in Soyuz, and the two 18 July - Transfers crews would sign the Fédération Aeronautique Internationale certificates for the official Awakened by "Midnight in Moscow," the Americans began their fourth work day in orbit record books. at 2:00 a.m. Houston time. While the crews had slept, the two ground teams in Houston The four men settled down to their first joint space banquet. On the ground, too, some led by Walt Guy and V. K. Novikov had been watching the pressure levels of both ships people went in search of a snack. John Young escorted the Fletchers, the Dobrynins, and had conferred about the leak between the hatches. They had concluded that af- and the Groos to a third floor snack bar in the Houston control centre. Over ice cream ter the two hatches were closed and the pressure had been reduced to 260 millimetres bars and coffee, they discussed the events of the day. The Ambassador asked Fletcher the gases trapped between them heated up. The pressure sensing devices could not why the ships had docked a little early, and the NASA Administrator indicated that they distinguish between the expanding gases and a leak. Neil Hutchinson commented on were so well lined up that there was no reason not to complete the docking. Fletcher working w ith Soviet Flight Director Vadim Kravets, whom he had never met: told Dobrynin that the crews had not known until late the preceding night that they the hatch integrity check . . . involved me getting on the loop and talking to my coun- would be speaking directly with Mr. Ford. After a few good-hearted comments about terpart who happened to be Kravets . . . the answers were all forthcoming in a timely the President's tendency toward long-windedness, the Americans bid farewell to the fashion and very professionally done. . . . I think the one thing, as I sit back and look at it Dobrynins, who left for Washington. now that makes me wonder; I wish there was another one of these flights. We've gone Glynn Lunney and Chet Lee met with representatives from the press late on the after- to all this trouble to learn how to work with those people. It's like going to the moon noon of the 17th to comment on the status of the meeting in space. Lunney said that once and never going back. 90 per cent of the battle is over with . . . getting all the firsts those who had seen him in similar "change of shift briefings" in the past had seen a busy done. . . . I could run another Apollo Soyuz or another joint anyt hing with a heck of a lot flight director with a dozen or so pages of notes. On this particular day, he had not less fuss than it took to get this one going. taken many notes; he had mainly sat in the control centre "watching the Flight Directors Though some of the worry in both Houston and Moscow had been in vain, the two and the rest of the team work." He continued: teams had confirmed that they could work together in analysing an unforeseen prob- I would like to say that I've enjoyed today one hell of a lot. I have talked a number of lem. times to the man on the other side of the ocean, Professor Konstantin Bushuyev, who's With breakfast behind them and their early morning activities completed, Kubasov and my counterpart and Director of the ASTP program for the Soviet Union and I could tell Brand conducted a broadcast session from "your Soviet American TV centre in space," from the sound of his voice that he's enjoying the day as much as I am. . . . as Kubasov called it. In giving his tour of Soyuz, the Soviet flight engineer pointed out With his characteristic good humour, Lunney fielded a number of questions from the what various instruments were for and televised a picture of Brand in "the kitchen" (the media representatives - the glue smell had not posed a problem; the crews had not food preparation station) warming up lunch. Stafford reciprocated by giving Leonov talked much during their meal because "their mothers told them not to"; and there had and the Soviet viewers a Russian language tour of the command module. Despite some been a scramble for headsets because no one had anticipated the President's desire problems with communications to the ground, the space television production was just to ask questions of all five men. Technically, diplomatically, and socially, the 17th had one more unique aspect of the joint mission. Appearing casually simple from the per- been a good day. spective of the home viewer, these broadcasts had required hours of negotiation and Stafford and Slayton said good-bye to Leonov and Kubasov at 5:47 and floated back planning, just as all other aspects of the flight had. Soviet viewers were particularly en- through the tunnel into the docking module. Stafford returned to the command mod- thralled by the live coverage of the mission, but many Americans seemed to accept ule, while Slayton closed the DM hatch. In Soyuz, the Soviets were securing their hatch, shows from 225 kilometres up as commonplace. Kubasov later gave an English language travelogue as the two craft passed over the tions to the crews from Houston. The queries and the responses were friendly, in the spirit USSR "Dear American TV people," he began. "It would be wrong to ask which country's of the mission. Stafford began by saying that it had been a very rewarding two days in more beautiful. It would be right to say there is nothing more beautiful than our blue space. He felt that the success of the mission was the result of "the determination, the planet." After explaining that he would be giving a description of "what flows below the co-operation, and the efforts by the governments of the two countries, by the manag- spacecraft," Kubasov continued: ers, engineers, and all the workers involved." When he first opened the hatch to greet Our spacecraft, Soyuz, is approaching the USSR territory. Our country occupies one-sixth Leonov and Kubasov, he had a couple of thoughts that he was unable to express at of the Earth's surface. Its population is over 250 million people. It consists of 15 Union Re- the time. He believed that when they opened those hatches in space, they were open- publics. The biggest is the Russian Federal Republic with the population of 135 million ing the possibility of a new era on earth. "I would have said," in Russian, "we were open- people. . . . At the moment we are flying over the place where Volgograd city is. It was ing back on Earth a new era in the history of man." He noted that just how far that new called Stalingrad before. In winter 1942-43, German fascist troops were defeated by the era would go would depend upon "the determination, the commitments, and the faith Soviet Army here. . . . of both countries and of the world." The "climate of détente and a developing co- With the television camera still trained out the port of the orbital module, Leonov contin- operation between our countries" has made this mission possible, Leonov added. ued to describe the panorama. In the command module with Stafford and Slayton, the Because of his participation in the first space welding in 1969, Kubasov was asked about Soviet commander spoke of the Ural Mountains, and he pointed out the area below in materials processing in space. Kubasov believed that one of the future benefits of Kazakhstan from which they had been launched three days before. Toward the end of space programs would be the development of better and different alloys resulting from the 10-minute commentary, Brand added some remarks about the countryside he space processing. "It seems to me that the time will come when space will have whole could see from his vantage point and concluded, "as you can tell, Soviets very much plants, factories, for the production of new materials and new substances with new remember the war 30 years ago. Fortunately, we've come a long way since then. . . qualities, which could be . . . made only in space." Linked to that question was one from Fifteen minutes later at about 8:20, Brand and Kubasov began filming some science Moscow addressed to Stafford about the justification of spending money on space pro- demonstrations that could later be used in science classrooms back on earth to dem- grams when there were so many problems in the world that needed solving. onstrate the effects of zero gravity on various items. Originally proposed by Marshall Stafford noted that this was not a new question. He certainly believed that the costs Space Flight Centre, Kubasov became very enthusiastic about the idea of such demon- would be repaid by the long term benefits. Science and applications were the likely ar- strations, which were similar in concept to those filmed during Skylab. As a result, he sug- eas of payoff, but the uplift to the human spirit was also implicit in his words and those of gested simple illustrations of basic principles of physics, such as the gyroscope, to be re- his colleagues. All the men agreed that they preferred news of peace and tranquillity, corded during the flight. Brand narrated the film in English, and Kubasov gave the Rus- and Kubasov especially hoped that all children would have a future filled w ith peace, sian commentary. Literally nowhere on earth could a classroom instructor duplicate the so that they would never have to know what it was like to lose parents or loved ones in experiments, not to mention having such celebrities give the explanations. a war. On a lighter note, when a Soviet reporter asked Leonov to transmit a sketch "that During this second transfer, Brand had lunched in Soyuz and Leonov in Apollo. At 10:43, would depict the meaning, the essence of the joint mission," Leonov and Stafford held Brand returned to Apollo, and Stafford and Leonov moved into Soyuz. Kubasov then up two flags, one from the United States and one from the Soviet Union - although transferred into the command module in this exacting cosmic ballet. With each move- backwards, the message was clear enough. Leonov then went on to show the televi- ment of the crew members, the atmospheric composition of Soyuz had to be checked sion audience a number of sketches that he had drawn - "Here's a whole cosmic por- to make certain that not too much nitrogen had been removed. Once everyone was in trait gallery." place, the hatches between the orbital and docking modules were closed as a further The best lines of the press conference came later. When asked how he liked the Ameri- step toward maintaining the proper cabin atmospheres. The highlight of the third trans- can food, Leonov diplomatically answered, "I liked the way it was prepared, its fresh- fer - the space-to-ground press conference - was about to begin. ness." Having collected questions in advance from news people in Moscow and Houston, Va- But as an old philosopher says, the best part of a good dinner is not what you eat, but leriy Vasil'yevich Illarionov of the visiting specialists team and Karol Bobko read the ques- with whom you eat. Today I have dinner together with my very good friends Tom Staf- ford and Deke Slayton because it was the best part of my dinner. 3:49 in the afternoon. He then moved back into the docking module, and the space Slayton was asked how the experience of space flight compared to all the stories he men closed the hatches for the last time at 4:00. Once the checklist for securing the had been told over the years. He said that he did not think he had discovered anything hatches and executing the pressure integrity check of the seals was completed, the new. crews set about routine housekeeping chores - stowing equipment and making certain We've had the same kind of problems up here that people have complained about that all was in readiness for their next meal. For the statistically minded, the records indi- since MR -3. . . . Not enough space, and a little congestion to the time line, difficulty in cate that Stafford spent 7 hours, 10 minutes aboard Soyuz, Brand 6:30, and Slayton 1:35. keeping up with things. It's a lot slower getting things done up here than you realise Leonov was on the American side for 5 hours, 43 minutes, while Kubasov spent 4:57 in when you're down there in one-g. . . . In some respects, it's easier because weighty the command and docking modules. To those at work in space and on the ground, it things are easier to move around, but, on the other hand, everything just tends to take seemed longer. off if you let go of it. . . . it's been a great experience. I don't think there's any way any- Before finishing all the items on their pre-sleep checklist, the Americans paused to listen body can express how beautiful it is up here. to the news and sports as read by CapCom Truly. Included in his report was mention of Looking to the future, Leonov was convinced that mankind was just at "the beginning of an American home exhibit that had just opened to enthusiastic crowds in Moscow. a great journey into outer space." As with the other ASTP crewmen, he hoped to have a Called "Technology in the American Home," the display was designed to give Soviet citi- chance to fly again. Stafford agreed and said that he would like to fly on one of the zens an idea of the gadgetry available to the American homemaker. While no one early Shuttle missions. "And I would hope that if Alexey would have a vehicle developed commented on the fact, it was just such an exhibit that had sparked the Nixon- by [his] country that we could fly . . . in a joint mission." Not to be outdone, Leonov Khrushchev debate in 1959. In 16 years' time, the international scene seemed to have added, "I would always like to fly with friends . . . whom one trusts and with whom it is not changed dramatically. dull to work. . . ." Although the crew signed off for the evening on schedule at 7:20, they spent an uneasy The crews returned to other items on their flight plan. Slayton, as part of the earth obser- first few hours. In addition to being very tired from the activities of their fourth day in vation experiment (MA-136), took photos of ocean currents off the Yucatan Peninsula space, they were jangled awake an hour later by a master alarm that reported a re- and in the Florida straits. He also tried to observe the red tide phenomena - marine mi- duction in docking module oxygen pressure. This problem was no real hazard, and it cro-organisms that cause the water to appear red - off the coast of Tampa and in the was quickly solved by an increased flow of oxygen into the DM, but it kept the crew vicinity of Cape Cod. But this visual exercise was not completed because of cloud from getting all the sleep for which they had been scheduled. When wake-up time cover. Brand's travelogue of the East Coast of the US was likewise hindered by the came at 3:13 on the morning of the 19th, the crew failed to hear the musical strains of clouds, but he gave the narration anyway, describing the climate and flora of Florida, "Tenderness" as sung by the Soviet female artist Maya Kristalinskaya, with which the North Carolina, Virginia, Washington, the Middle Atlantic states, and New England. As ground team had hoped to gently waken them. But 15 minutes later, they were awake the ships passed over Massachusetts, Brand noted that Robert H. Goddard had and ready to begin their fifth day. Next door, beyond hatches three and four, Leonov launched the world's first liquid fuelled rocket from that state on 16 March 1926. and Kubasov were getting prepared, too. Leonov narrated the events of the fourth transfer as he saw them. He stressed the large 19 July - Exercises amount of work they had to accomplish during the joint phase of the mission, including During day five of the flight, the crews concentrated on docking exercises and experi- five bilateral experiments. Although this "saturated program" seemed at times to be ments that involved the two ships in the undocked mode. During the interval between more than the five men could handle, they managed to complete all their tasks. Slay- the first undocking and the second docking, the Apollo crew placed its craft between ton, Brand, and Kubasov assembled the two halves of a medallion commemorating the Soyuz and the sun so that the diameter of the service module formed a disk which flight, and then they exchanged tree seeds. As Slayton juggled television equipment, blocked out the sun. This artificial solar eclipse, as viewed from Soyuz, permitted Leonov Stafford and Leonov bid their final farewell. All these exercises climaxed one of the most and Kubasov to photograph the solar corona. Ground-based observations were con- complex television scenarios ever conceived and executed. ducted simultaneously, so that the Soviet astronomer G. M. Nikolsky could compare Tom Stafford shook hands with Leonov and Kubasov, bidding them farewell at about views of the solar phenomena with and without the interference of the earth's atmosphere. Skylab had provided a long term look at the corona, and the ASTP data would Despite this oscillation, the Soyuz system aligned the two craft and a proper retraction give scientists an opportunity to compare findings made a year and a half later. This was completed. Subsequently, there was some discussion of this docking, and the So- "artificial solar eclipse" (MA-148) experiment would be the last American chance for viet docking specialist Syromyatnikov was at first worried that an unnecessary strain such information gathering until the Shuttle era. might have been placed on the Soyuz gear. Bob White said that analysis of the teleme- Another major experiment, "ultraviolet absorption" (MA-059), was an effort to more pre- try data indicated that Slayton had inadvertently fired the roll thrusters for approxi- cisely determine the quantities of atomic oxygen and atomic nitrogen existing at such mately 3 seconds after contact, and that this sideways force caused the craft to oscil- altitudes as the one in which Apollo and Soyuz were orbiting. Again this information late after the docking systems were locked and rigid. could not readily be obtained from ground-based observations because of the inter- But even with the extra thrusting, the second docking was within the limits of safety es- vening layers of atmosphere. Apollo, flying out of plane around Soyuz, first at 150 me- tablished for the docking system. Slayton's docking took place at a forward velocity of ters, then at 500 meters, and finally in plane at 1,000 meters, projected monochromatic 0.18 meter per second versus 0.25 meter per second for Stafford's docking, but the dif- laser-like beams of light to retro-reflectors mounted on Soyuz. When the beams were reference lay in the inadvertent thrusting. Momentarily an issue, the extra motion of Slay- flected back to Apollo, they were received by a spectrometer, which recorded the ton's try was not a serious concern after all the data had been evaluated. Even Sy- wavelength of the light. Subsequent analysis of these data would yield information on romyatnikov had to concede that "the mechanism functioned well under unfavourable the quantities of oxygen and nitrogen. Some very precise flying was called for in these conditions." It was a case of things looking w orse than they really were. In the end, the experiments. incident only demonstrated the reliability and hardiness of the new docking system. After being docked for nearly 44 hours, Apollo and Soyuz had parted for the first time at It was 10:27 when Apollo and Soyuz undocked for the second and final time. This 4- 7:12 a.m. while out of contact with the ground. Slayton advised Bobko after radio con- minute exercise was conducted by Leonov, since it was a Soyuz active undocking. Slay- tact was re-established that they had undocked without incident and were station- ton then moved his ship to a station-keeping distance, about 40 meters away. As he keeping at a range of 50 meters. Meanwhile, Soyuz had extended the guide ring on its did, Leonov opened the retro-reflector covers so that the ultraviolet absorption (UVA) docking system in order to test the Soviet mechanism in the active configuration. Once experiment could be performed. A difficult series of manoeuvres were called for in this they completed the solar eclipse experiment, with Slayton at the controls, Apollo test. As Soyuz continued its circular orbit, Slayton took Apollo out of plane with Soyuz moved towards Soyuz for the second docking. As he did, Stafford called out to the and oriented his craft so that its nose was pointed at the reflector on the side of the ground, "Okay, Houston, Deke's having the same problem with the COAS washout that I other ship. Orbiting sideways in this configuration, Slayton flew Apollo in a small arc from had." As Slayton explained it, he could see Soyuz and the target initially when they were the front of Soyuz to the rear of that ship while the spectrometer gathered the reflected against the dark sky, but at "about 100 meters or so, it went against the earth back- beams. On the 150-meter phase of the experiment, light from a Soyuz port led to a mis- ground and zap. Man, I didn't have anything." Although worried that he might run over alignment of the spectrometer, but on the 500-meter pass excellent data were re- Soyuz, he pressed on with the docking "by the seat of the pants and I guess I got a little ceived; on the 1,000-meter pass satisfactory results were also obtained. closer than they or the ground anticipated." There was too much light flowing into the After nearly 3 hours of tough flying, Bobko congratulated the crew. "You people flew it optical alignment sight for Slayton to get a good view of the docking target. Contact fine." Slayton responded: with Soyuz came at 7:33:39, and Leonov advised the Americans that he was beginning Okay. Great, Bo. And you can thank ol' Roger Burke, Steve Grega, and Bob Anderson, to retract his side of the docking assembly. down there, that everything came off right. 'Cause they sure did all the work to make it As viewed via Apollo television, this docking looked as if it had been harder than the go. first, and the two ships continued to sway after capture had been completed. Slayton, The three men Slayton mentioned had spent hours in the simulators working out the pro- speaking in a debriefing, later said: cedures to fly this complicated manoeuvre. Burke, who had worked with developing The docking was normal, you guys gave me contact as usual and then I gave it thrust- flight procedures for years, felt that this was one of the hardest experiments a crew had ing. The only thing that happened then was they seemed to torque off. I was surprised ever been called on to do, especially since the flight plan for it had continued to evolve at the angle they banged off there after we had contact. until a couple of days before launch. Slayton later noted that it had taken all three Apollo crewmen to complete the ultraviolet absorption experiment. "I was doing the fly- getting a day off today. ing, Vance was running the computer and we had Tom down in the equipment bay Brand: We're not complaining. opening and closing doors, turning on sensors and so forth. So, it was a busy time for all While there was still much to do, the pressure of the first days of the mission was gone, of us." He indicated that the manoeuvres were difficult because orbital mechanics and the crew was settling down to the routine. The sixth day of the ASTP flight was no- came into play as they tried to fly around Soyuz. When the Apollo crew changed the ticeably void of the drama that had been associated with the joint activity. velocity of their craft, they also affected its orbit. They would have no difficulties if they 21 July - Farewell had had unlimited fuel resources, but being out of plane and playing orbital mechanics Leonov and Kubasov had signed off the air shortly after 1:37 (9:37 in Moscow) on the af- with "a very limited fuel budget . . . made it a great challenge." Stafford added that the ternoon of the 20th, after stowing all of the returnable items in the descent module. Fol- thruster firings had to be timed because the onboard accelerometers could not meas- lowing a rest period of nearly 10 hours, the Soyuz crewmen advised the ground that ure the changes in velocity. they were awake and that all systems were normal. The deorbit burn came exactly on Apollo performed a separation manoeuvre at 1:42 to prevent re-contact with Soyuz, time (5:09 in Houston), and the Soyuz crew notified Moscow that the retro-engine had placing the American craft in a 217- by 219-kilometre orbit. With all the joint flight activi- fired for the calculated period and had been turned off at 5:13:38. Separation of the ties completed, the ships were going their separate ways. Soyuz was below and moving orbital and descent modules came 9 minutes later. Leonov advised the ground that the ahead of Apollo at a rate of 6 to 8 kilometres per orbit. Leonov and Kubasov prepared gravitational forces had built up, passed, and were less than he had anticipated. A task to go to sleep, but the American crew had several hours of work scheduled in their force of Soviet helicopters and ground-based personnel moved into the landing area. crowded flight plan after their mid-afternoon meal before they could settle down for a Within a few feet of the ground, the automatically fired landing rockets slowed the rest period. The fifth day of ASTP - the second of joint activities - had been a success, "thumpdown" of the descent vehicle. A cloud of dust caused by the braking rockets of and everyone in the Moscow and Houston control centres was pleased that all had Soyuz engulfed the craft and caused momentary anxiety for those viewers who did not gone so well. understand its meaning. Three minutes after landing, at 5:51, a slightly shaky Kubasov 20 July - Independent Activities was the first to exit. Leonov and his flight engineer smiled broadly and waved to pho- Kubasov and Leonov began their sixth day in space at 1:10 a.m. while their American tographers on the scene. Houston Mission Control reported: "We're just looking at the TV friends slept. Houston control tried for a second morning to wake the crew with here and see that Soyuz has landed safely, and Alexey and Valeriy were outside of the "Tenderness" in Russian. This time they succeeded, and the men began their sixth day at spacecraft and seem to be in good health." Stafford asked Houston to give the Soviets 1:54 a.m. In addition to a day-long earth observation, which they started before break- their best and to say that he was glad to hear that everything went well. For the remain- fast, they concentrated on experiments during their first independent day in orbit. In- ing three and a half days, Stafford, Slayton, and Brand would concentrate on their ex- cluded in the flight plan were experiments in the multipurpose furnace (MA-010), experiments, but in many respects the saga of Apollo and Soyuz had come to an end. treme ultraviolet surveying (MA-083), crystal growth (MA-085), and helium glow (MA- 22-23 July - Experiments 088). In the midst of their work during an ATS 6 communication session, CapCom Crip- Some minor experiment hardware problems developed during the final days of the mis- pen gave them a news report. sion, but for the most part the crew members worked through their flight plan - which Crippen included a special item in his report. "Six years ago today at 3:17:40 central included 23 independent experiments - with few difficulties. CSM 111 was truly the best - daylight time we landed on the Moon. At 9:56, that's when Neil said his famous words as well as being the last - Apollo to fly. After a relatively quiet day of work on the 22nd, about 'small step for man, giant leap for mankind.' " Stafford responded, "Roger. Re- the major part of the next day was devoted to preparing for and conducting the dop- member it well." pler tracking experiment (MA-089). Paired with the geodynamics experiment (MA-128), Slayton: Say, what day of the week is this, incidentally? these investigations were designed to verify which of two techniques would be best Crippen: This happens to be Sunday. suited for studying plate tectonics (movements of the earth's substrata) from earth orbit. Brand: [garbled] . . . our day off. Where the geodynamics experiment utilised Apollo and ATS 6 in an attempt to measure Crippen: Oh, yeah. We'll get them off after you guys get back. Y'all . . are certainly not these movements (the so-called low-high approach), the doppler tracking experiment involved the use of two satellites in low earth orbit (the low -low approach) to measure CSM deorbit came at 3:37:47, or about 13 seconds ahead of schedule. Six and a half the existence of "mass anomalies" greater than 200 kilometres in size. When the jetti- minutes later, the command module was separated from the service module. As the re- soned docking module and the CSM were separated by 300 kilometres, they would entry vehicle descended, Slayton and Brand commented on the build-up of gravity theoretically have their orbits affected by the greater gravitational forces exerted by forces and the fireball that flared up as the heat shield pressed against the earth's at- these mass anomalies. As their orbits were perturbed, the radio signals transmitted from mosphere. At 4:18:24, Apollo splashed down about 7,300 meters from the recovery ship one to another would correspondingly be affected. New Orleans. Houston control was filled with smiling faces and cigar smoke. Unknown at Prior to releasing the docking module on its separate journey, the crew had partici- that time to the celebrants was the fact that the crew had inhaled nitrogen tetroxide pated in a second press conference from space. During that 32-minute session, the fumes during the descent. crewmen were asked to philosophise about the future of manned space flight in gen- The descent phase had gone without incident until about 15,000 meters. In the days eral and upon such diverse topics as trips to Mars and their own participation in the that followed the recovery, the story of the failure to actuate the Earth landing system Shuttle program. Their answers were filled with optimism and good humour. Deke Slay- (ELS) was told and retold several times by Glynn Lunney, John Young, and others. ton's statement that he had done nothing in space that his 91-year old aunt could not Vance Brand presented his version during the crew technical debriefing. When the CM have done sent reporters scrambling to find out her name (Mrs. Sadie Link) so they reached an altitude of 9,144 meters, two earth landing switches that permitted the could meet their deadlines. Following the press period, CapCom Crippen told the crew, apex cover to be jettisoned at 7,310 meters were normally armed. The drogue para- "you guys did a great job there. Professional as always." He also gave them the news chutes would then be released, followed by the main chutes. Commenting on the de- that Leonov had been promoted from colonel to major general. scent, Brand said that as Stafford read steps from the Entry Checklist he threw the With congratulations over, Stafford told the ground, "Now, back to work." After donning proper switches. There was quite a bit of noise in the cabin from the command mod- their space suits, the crew vented the command module tunnel and at 2:41 jettisoned ule's thrusters and the passage of the craft through the atmosphere. the docking module. Filled with all their trash and used equipment that need not be re- At 30K [9,144 meters], normally we arm the ELS AUTO, ELS LOGIC, that didn't get done. turned, the DM tumbled into space at exactly the proper rate. Stafford and his team Probably due to a combination of circumstances. I didn't hear it called out, maybe it then executed their separation manoeuvre so that they could take the necessary dop- wasn't called out. Any case 30K to 24K [9,144-7,315 meters] we passed through that re- pler measurements. The docking module would continue on its way until it re-entered gime very quickly. I looked at the altimeter at 24K, and didn't see the expected apex the earth's atmosphere and burned up in August 1975. cover come off. Didn't see the drogues come out. So, I think at about 23K, I hit the two 24 July - Last Splash manual switches. One for the apex cover and also, the one for drogues. They came Approximately 24 hours after they parted from the docking module, Stafford, Slayton, out. That same instant the cabin seemed to flood with a noxious gas, very high concen- and Brand began their journey homeward. On the ground, the flight control team tration it seemed to us. Tom said he could see it. I don't remember for sure now, if I was played Jerry Jeff Walker's "Redneck Mother" to wake the crew. With a cheery "Good seeing it, but I certainly knew it was there. I was feeling it and smelling it. It irritated the morning, gents. Party's over. Time to come home," CapCom Crippen told them to rise skin a little bit, and the eyes a little bit, and, of course, you could smell it. We started and shine. At half past seven, the crew started preparing for its mid-afternoon deorbit. coughing. About that time, we armed the automatic system, the ELS. . . . As the men rubbed the sleep from their eyes, ate breakfast, and gathered data for the The manual deployment of the drogue chutes caused the CM to sway, and the reac- medical doctors on the ground, Crippen read them the news for the last time, news tion control system thrusters worked vigorously to counteract that motion. When the most of which the Apollo crew was making. The newspapers said that Slayton would fly crew finally armed the automatic ELS 30 seconds later, the thruster action terminated. again and that Stafford was still undecided about the future. Would it be NASA, the Air During that 30 seconds, the cabin was flooded with a mixture of unignited propellant Force, industry, or politics? "That last option is sure out. I'll clue you, ol' buddy," was the and oxidisers from the thrusters. Prior to drogue deployment, the cabin pressure relief General's response. Crippen gave a favourable weather forecast for the prime recov- valve had opened automatically, and in addition to drawing in fresh air it also brought ery area - visibility 16 kilometres, winds at 17 knots, scattered cloud cover at 600 meters, in unwanted gases being expelled from the roll thrusters located about 0.6 meter from and wave height 1.1 meters. the relief valve. Brand manually deployed the main parachutes at about 2,700 meters, and despite the gas fumes in the cabin, the crew members continued to work through their checklist as best they could. Due to severe coughing and intercom noise, they had difficulty talking to one another and to the ground. Following a normal but hard splashdown, the command module flipped over, leaving the three men hanging upside down in their couches from harnesses. Brand, who was coughing the most because he was closest to the steam duct opening, saw that Slay- ton was feeling nauseous and reminded Stafford to get their oxygen masks. The commander recalled: For some reason, I was more tolerant to [the bad atmosphere], and I just thought get those damn masks. I said don't fall down into the tunnel. I came loose and . . . had to crawl . . . and bend over to get the masks. . . . l knew that I had a toxic hypoxia . . . and I started to grunt-breathe to make sure I got pressure in my lungs to keep my head clear. I looked over at Vance and he was just hanging in his straps. He was unconscious. After Stafford secured the oxygen mask over Brand's face and held it there, he began to come around. Once the entire crew was breathing pure oxygen, Brand actuated the uprighting system. When the command module was upright in the water, Stafford opened the vent valve, and with the in-rush of air the remaining fumes disappeared. Failure to throw the ELS switches led to an unanticipated two-week hospital stay for the crew in Honolulu. For Slayton, it also meant the discovery of a small lesion on his left lung and an exploratory operation that indicated it was a non-malignant tumour. After a short convalescence, Slayton joined the other four ASTP flyers for two tours, one of the Soviet Union and one of the United States. Despite a gruelling month on the road, neither Slayton nor his team mates seemed any the worse for wear, and the warm public reception wherever they went seemed to indicate that the unfortunate accident at the end of the flight had not detracted from the basic success of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Pro- ject. Rivalry had produced the first manned space flights in the early 1960s. But that sense of conflict had been overcome with the creation of an international test project. Ironically, this first joint flight also marked the end of an era. NASA's manned space program had seen its last splashdown. Apollo would fly no more.

Index A2 10 European Union 11 A3 10 Explorer 34, 35 Advance Defense Shuttle 74, 75 Falklands 17 Adventuer 23, 85, 86+G39 First Contact 29, 97 Afghanistan 16 Freedom Space Station 17, 18, 19, 21, 36, 68, 69, 79, 80 Aldrin,Edwin "Buzz" 49, 50, 51, 52 Gagarin, Yuri 12, 36 Apollo 13, 14, 49, 54 Galileo Class 25, 87 Apollo 11 49-52 Ganghi, Mahatma 10 Apollo-Soyuz 15, 58, 125-136 Gemini 13, 42, 43, 110-114 Arab-Israeli Conflict 14, 15, 16 Glenn Class 27, 91 Arafat, Yasser 13 Goddard, Dr. Robert 9 Ares Missions 25 Gorbachev 17, 18, 19 Arianne 61 Greece 10 Armstrong, Neil 49-52 Hermes 17, 72, 73 Asterix 47 Himawari Class 78 Bell riots 24 Hitler, Adolph 9, 10 Buran 16, 17, 66, 67 India 14, 19 Celestial Dragon 28, 94 Iran 16, 17, 18 Challenger Disaster 62, 63, 64 Ireland 13 Chimera 11 Iron Curtain 10 China 20, 25, 44, 45 ISS/WSS 23, 69, 79 ,80 Christopher, John 14 Jets 10 Churchill, Winston 9, 11, 13 Kai-Shek, Chang 10 Cochrane, Zephram 29, 97, 98 Keeler, Edith 9 Cold War 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 Kennedys 12, 13 Colonel Green 27 King, Martin Luther 12, 13 Columbus Class 26, 27, 90 Kirin 22 Connestoga 18, 19 Kirk, James Augustus 9 Constantinople Airlift 10 Korean War 11 Cooper, Michael 49-52 Krazny Octyaber 16 Cyclops 22, 23, 25 Kublai 25, 88 DeGaulle Class 23, 84 Leonov 40 Desert Storm 19 Liberty Class 28, 93 Diamant 47 Long March Rockets 44, 45 Diana 22, 82 LTA 23, 26, 27 DY-100 18, 19, 20, 76, 77 Luna 13 Eastern Coaltion 26, 27, 28 Lunar Landing 49-52 Eisonhower Dwight D. 11 Lunik 12 ESA 17, 18, 61 Marshall Plan 10 Eugenics 10, 11, 17 McArthur, General Douglas 9 McBruce 20 Surveyor 13 Mercury 12, 38, 39, 105-109 Texas Class 28, 95, 96 Midway 9 Titanic 9 Mind Control Riots 26 Tobruk 9 Mir 18, 19, 70, 71 UES CHARYBDIS 26, 27 Mission to Mars 23, 84, 85 UESPA 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard 9 United Nations 10, 21, 22, 25, 26 MULE 17 V1 10 NASA 12 V2 10 Nicauragua 16, 17, 19 Venture Star 21, 22, 81 Nomad 21 Vietnam 12,1 3, 14, 15 Nuclear Weapons/Energy 10, 11, 12 Viking 15, 59 Pearl Harbor 9 Voskhod 40, 41 Peron 15, 20 Vostok 12, 36, 37, 102-104 Phoenix 28, 97, 98 Voyager 21, 60 Pioneer 14 Vulcans 29, 97 PLD 20, 21 Watergate 14 Powell, Colin 20 Weissnacht, Dr. Gottfried 9, 10, 11 Quaddaffi 16 World Peaceways 9 Quebec 16, 17, 19 World War II 9 Ranger - Lunar Lander 46 World War III 27 Rommel, General Erwin 9 Wright, Orville or Wilbur 9 Royal Family 18 Yamamato 28, 92 Ryuujin Class 26, 89 Yeager, Chuck 10 Saylut 17, 55, 56, 115-124 Yeltsin, Boris 19 Seven, Gary 20 Shepard, Alan 12, 38 Shogun 22, 83 Singh, Khan Noonian 11, 15, 19, 20, 76, 77 Skylab 19, 20, 56, 57 SLEOS 16, 17, 18, 19, 56, 57 Solomon Islands 10 Soviet Union aka Russia 10, 11, 12, 19, 54, 55, 66, 67 Soyuz 48 Space Shuttle 16,17,18, 22, 62, 63, 64, 65 Spacewalk 40 Sputnik 11, 12, 32, 33 SST 15, 17 Stalingrad 10 Suez Canal 9, 11 Credits About the Design Team

Chief Editor and Publisher: Lieutenant General Scott A. Akers Technical Editor: Admiral Chris Wallace Currently the Chief Historian of Starfleet, General Akers’ last posting was as Before taking the ASDB Chairmanship, Admiral Wallace served as the Chief of Commandant of the Starfleet Marine Corps during the Dominion War. Starfleet Operations. Before that, he was the Director of the STARFLEET De- partment of Technical Services. He also served as the Executive Director of the Galaxy and Galaxy (II) Class starship development projects and was the Commanding Officer of the U. S. S. Bright Star.

Layout Consultant: Colonel John C. Adcock Colonel Adcock is the Dean of Faculty at the Nexus Institute of Military Studies Production Editor: Vice Admiral Kurt Roithinger and Adjunct Professor of Special Operations Combat and Anti-Terrorist Opera- As the Retired Coordinator of STARFLEET Region Five, Vice Admiral Roith- tions. inger has worked on a number of Starfleet projects. Against the Prime Directive of Non-Interference?" and "Terran Diplomacy in the pre-Federation Era" at Starfleet Academy. Kitabatu al-'Qalb is a graduate of the

University of California, Berkeley (Terra), the Kasayang Seminary (Betazed) and the class of 2277 at Starfleet Academy. He served with distinction in Star- fleet (including tours of duty on the starships Aries, Tereshkova, Valley Forge and Avenger, and at Shadowstar Station), then later served as Beta Miranda V's representative on the Federation Supreme Assembly for 15 years. Graphics: Fleet Captain David Pipgras Fleet Captain Pipgras is the Director of the Region Five Office of Graphic De- sign.

Support Staff: Doctor Rick Sternbach Historical Consultant: Admiral Alex Rosenzweig Doctor Sternbach serves with the Advanced Propulsion Unit with the Star Fleet Admiral Rosenzweig is the current Director of the STARFLEET Department of ASDB and did extensive work on the Galaxy, Sovereign, Intrepid, and Defiant Technical Services, as well as the Director of the Office of Technical Informa- Class Starship tion. He has chaired numerous Starfleet committees and panels, one of the most controversial being the commission that oversaw the loss of the U. S. S. Enterprise at Veridian III.

Support Staff: Doctor Michael Okuda Doctor Okuda serves with the Advanced Propulsion Unit with the Star Fleet Historical Consultant: Doctor Andreas Kitabau al-Qalb ASDB and did extensive work on the Galaxy and Sovereign Class Starship Andreas Kitabatu al-'Qalb, Ph.D., is an Adjunct Professor of Trans-Temporal Development Projects. Physics at the University of Makropyrios. As well, he has taught special semi- nars on "Pre-Federation Colonization Efforts," "The Preservers: An Argument Credits

TEXT CREDITS SCOTT A. AKERS

COVER ILLUSTRATION CHRIS WALLACE

LOGOS CHRIS WALLACE, KURT ROITHINGER, AND DAVID PIPGRAS

PERSONNEL PLAQUES CHRIS WALLACE AND KURT ROITHINGER

GRAPHICS CREDITS SCOTT A. AKERS JAXON INFORMATION INSTITUTE