Rex D. Hall and David J. Shayler

Soyuz

A Universal

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Foreword xvii Authors' preface xix Acknowledgements xxi List of illustrations and tables xxiii Prologue xxix

ORIGINS 1 Soviet manned after 1 Design requirements 1 Sever and the 1L: the genesis of 3 The Vostok 7/1L Soyuz Complex 4 The mission sequence of the early Soyuz Complex 6 The Soyuz 7K complex 7 Soyuz 7K (Soyuz A) design features 8 The American General Electric concept 10 Soyuz 9K and IK 11 The Soyuz Complex mission profile 12 Contracts, funding and schedules 13 Soyuz to the 14 A redirection for The /L3 lunar mission profile 15 Exploring the potential of Soyuz 7K-P: a piloted anti- interceptor 16 Soyuz 7K-R: a piloted reconnaissance 17 Soyuz VI: the military research spacecraft 18 Adapting Soyuz for lunar missions 20 Spacecraft design changes 21 Crewing for circumlunar missions 22 The Zond missions 23 The end of the Soviet lunar programme 33 The lunar module (7K-LOK) 33 viii Table of contents

A change of direction 35 References 35

MISSION HARDWARE AND SUPPORT 39 Hardware and systems 39 Crew positions 40 The spacecraft 41 The Propulsion Module (PM) 41 The Descent Module (DM) 41 The (OM) 44 Pyrotechnic devices 45 Spacecraft sub-systems 46 Rendezvous, docking and transfer 47 Electrical power 53 Thermal control 54 Life support 54 Habitability 57 Propulsion and 59 Primary (KTDU) and back-up engines 59 Attitude control 60 Vernier translation 60 Re-entry attitude control 61 Vehicle control 62 Communications 63 Display and controls 65 Recovery 67 Support infrastructure 74 planning 74 Soyuz cosmonaut training 75 Winter training 76 Desert training 77 Mountain training 77 Sea recovery 77 Swamp training 78 Parachute jumping 78 Zero-gravity training 78 -observation 79 The simulator 79 Simulator ballistics 80 Simulators for space station operations 80 The neutral buoyancy laboratory 80 The centrifuge 82 Vacuum and pressure chambers 82 Foreign language training 84 Examinations 84 Table of contents ix

Departing for 85 The Soyuz 85 7 ICBM 8K71 85 Power for the R-7 86 Basic design features of the 8K71 87 Adapting the R-7 for Soyuz 87 11A55 and 11A56 early Soyuz launch vehicles 89 11A511 standard launch vehicle 89 11A511U launch vehicle 89 11A511U2 launch vehicle 90 Soyuz FG 90 Soyuz-2 91 Soyuz facilities at Baikonur 92 Site 1: launch complex (PU) 5 93 Site 2: the launcher processing area and the MIK facility 94 Site 2B: the launcher processing area and the MIK 2A facility 94 Site 31: launch complex (PU) 6, or 17P32-6 95 Site 32: R-7 residential housing 95 Site 112: launch vehicle assembly building 95 Site 254: spacecraft assembly building 96 Soyuz manufacturing 96 Ground testing 97 Flight testing 100 The range of Soyuz system mock-ups 103 Soyuz at Baikonur 105 Launch preparations 105 Launch site test and verification sequence 109 Launch phase Ill Riding the 'package' Ill The flight control centre Ill Yevpatoria: the original Soyuz mission control 112 Kaliningrad: mission control 112 Recovery forces 115 References 116

DOCKING MISSIONS, 1966-70 119 The 'original Soyuz' 119 Preparing for the first 120 Early Soyuz assignments for cosmonauts 121 Cosmos 133: the first Soyuz in orbit 123 A fire at Pad 31 125 The mission of Cosmos 140 127 The tragedy of Soyuz 1 130 Concerns for flight 131 Launch preparations 132 x Table of contents

The mission of Soyuz 1 133 The accident investigation 137 The Soyuz/Cosmos unmanned docking 138 The Cosmos 186/188 mission 139 The Cosmos 212/213 mission 142 and : success and frustration 143 The Cosmos 238 unmanned shake-down mission 143 Manned flights resume 144 A docking and a transfer 147 Amending the flight plans 147 The first docking of two manned spacecraft 148 Stepping out of Soyuz 151 A dangerous re-entry 154 The troika mission 156 Kontakt crewing and missions 157 Preparing the spacecraft 158 Launch after launch 158 Frustration with docking 159 Three on three days 160 Why Igla failed 161 Science on Soyuz 162 Supplementary objectives 163 Science on 164 Vulkan welding experiments in space 164 : a space marathon 165 Falcons in flight 166 Orbital evaluation 168 Summary 169 References 169

THE SOYUZ FERRY, 1971-81 171 A ferry for Salyut 171 Salyut ferry operations, 1971 172 crewing 173 Soyuz 10: the first ferry mission 173 : triumph and tragedy 175 Soyuz, Salyuts and space suits, 1971-73 179 The new Salyut training group 180 Lost Salyuts 180 Crews for the (military) orbital station 181 Orbital operations, 1973 181 A two- test flight 182 The Sokol (Falcon) pressure suit 184 Salyut 3 ferry missions, 1974 185 Salyut 3 crewing 185 Table of contents xi

The docking failure 186 ferry missions, 1975 187 Salyut 4 crewing 188 New steps toward permanent occupation 188 The 'April 5 anomaly' 188 A replacement mission 192 ferry missions, 1976-77 193 Salyut 5 crewing 194 An acrid odour 194 Fluctuations in the flight plan 195 A Soyuz splash-down 196 The recovery of a Soyuz refrigerator 199 The last military Soyuz crew 201 The solo Soyuz missions, 1973-76 202 The early scientific missions 202 crewing 203 The Soyuz 13 mission 204 The Soyuz- Experimental Flight (EPAS), 1969-75 205 Early proposals 207 The flight 209 EPAS crewing 210 Cosmos 638 and Cosmos 672 210 Soyuz 16: dress rehearsal for the EPAS 211 Soyuz 19, and a handshake in space 212 Future cooperation 216 : the last solo Soyuz 217 Soyuz 22 crewing 218 The Soyuz 22 mission 219 A solo Soyuz series? 219 Soyuz ferry missions to 220 Salyut 6 crewing 220 Visiting missions to Salyut 6 221 The docking failure 222 Success upon success 225 Setting the standards 225 New beginnings 226 Six in orbit 228 A failure in the engine 229 The end of an era 232 Summary 234 References 234

PROGRESS, 1978- 239 The development of 239 Military cargo ships 240 xii Table of contents

Automated docking tests 241 Progress precursor test flights 241 The role of Progress 242 Progress variants 242 Progress hardware 244 The Cargo Module (CM) 244 Loading and unloading Progress 245 The docking system 247 The Refuelling Module (RM) 248 The Propulsion Module () 250 Progress M upgrades 250 Raduga return capsules 251 Progress Ml upgrades 252 The disposal of Progress 253 Progress flight operations 253 Progress missions to Salyut 6 •. . 254 Varied cargoes 254 The KRT-10 antenna experiment 255 Progress missions to 256 Salyut springs a leak 256 Progress missions to 256 First-generation Progress 257 ejection seat tests 257 Progress M takes over 258 Schedules and setbacks 258 Additional hardware, experiments and research objectives 259 Small 261 The Raduga missions 262 Rendezvous and docking operations and incidents 263 The Progress M-34 collision 264 The de-orbiting of Mir 265 Progress Ml operations 266 Progress Ml at the International Space Station 266 Application of Progress hardware 268 268 Aelita 269 An Earth observation satellite 269 Plans for Soviet Star Wars 269 The ISS docking compartment 269 Docking Compartment 1 270 Pirs-based EVAs from the ISS, 2001-02 271 Progress cargo mass 272 Summary 273 References 273 Table of contents xiii

SOYUZ T, 1979-86 281 The role of Soyuz T 281 The origins of Soyuz T 281 Testing the technology, 1974-80 283 Soyuz T: the inaugural mission 284 Soyuz T upgrades 285 The Orbital Module 285 The Descent Module 286 The Propulsion Module 287 The Soyuz T training group, 1973-81 287 Salyut 6 operations 288 The Soyuz T training group, 1981-86 289 Salyut 7 operations 289 Soyuz T flight operations, 1980-81 292 Soyuz T-2: the first manned mission 292 Soyuz T-3: the three-man maintenance mission 294 Soyuz T-4: the long-duration test 294 Soyuz T flight operations, 1982 295 Soyuz T-5: the first operational mission 296 Soyuz T-6: a manual override 296 Soyuz T-7: delivering a fresh spacecraft 298 Landing in a snowstorm 298 Soyuz T flight operations, 1983 300 Soyuz T-8: a cancelled docking 300 Soyuz T-9: the failure of the solar array 303 Soyuz T-10-1: a very short long-duration flight 303 Issues arising from the abort of Soyuz T-10-1 306 Soyuz T flight operations, 1984 307 Soyuz T-10: repairs and records 307 Visitors come and go, and Soyuz T-10 lands 308 Soyuz T flight operations, 1985-86 309 Soyuz T-13: a rescue mission 310 Soyuz T-14: the first partial crew exchange 311 Soyuz T-15: the end of an era, the beginning of another 312 Summary 314 References 314

SOYUZ TM, 1986-2002 317 The origins of Soyuz TM 317 Soyuz TM modifications 319 Rendezvous and docking system 320 The Orbital Module 321 The landing system 321 The propulsion system 322 The onboard sub-system 322 xiv Table of contents

Crew provisions 323 The first occupation of Mir: Soyuz TM-l-TM-7 323 Soyuz TM crewing 323 The maiden flight of Soyuz TM 325 Permanent occupation begins 325 A in space 328 'A combination of circumstances' 329 Mir temporarily vacated 333 The end of the : Soyuz TM-8-TM-13 334 Soyuz TM crewing, 1989-91 335 A new era dawns 335 The reoccupation of Mir 335 'Like petals of a flower' 336 The EVA to repair the Soyuz TM 337 Bringing home Soyuz TM-9 339 International visitors 339 in space 341 Soyuz TM crewing, 1990-94 342 Russian international missions 344 A new port of call 345 Soyuz TM-17 strikes Mir 346 Shortage of hardware 348 Soyuz TM crewing, 1994-2000 349 The beginning of Phase 1 at Mir 350 America's first cosmonaut 350 A short stay and a longer stay 352 Phase IB operations 352 'An afternoon spin in a spaceship' 354 A fire and a collision 355 The last Americans on Mir 358 The last occupants? 361 MirCorp, and the final TM mission to Mir 363 Soyuz TM at the ISS: Soyuz TM-31-TM-34 363 A lifeboat for the ISS 364 Soyuz TM/ISS crewing 365 'Off we go!' 366 Taxis and tourists 368 Andromede: a French taxi mission 370 The first South African, and the last Soyuz TM 371 The return of the last TM 372 Summary 372 References 372 Table of contents xv

SOYUZ TMA, 2002 377 Soyuz TM and Mir 2 377 Further upgrades to Soyuz TM? 378 : an enlarged Soyuz 378 Soyuz TM and Freedom 381 Inclinations and durations 382 The Soyuz TM/ACRV feasibility team 382 Soyuz escape trajectory analysis 383 Crew accommodation 384 Medical and emergency evacuation 385 Training for pilots and passengers 386 A Soyuz TM lifeboat for Freedom 387 Soyuz : certification issues 387 Shuttle/Mir, Phase 1A 388 Shuttle/Mir, Phase IB 388 The initiation of the TMA series 390 Soyuz TMA design modifications 390 Soyuz TMA modifications 391 Soyuz TMA-1 crewing 393 The maiden flight of Soyuz TMA 394 The crewing of TMA missions in 2003 395 Future options 395 Soyuz TMM improvements 396 Soyuz TMS: an intermediate answer 397 Supply and demand 397 References 399

CONCLUSION 401

Biographies 421 Organisations 443 Bibliography 447 Index 451