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Rex D. Hall and David J. Shayler Soyuz A Universal Spacecraft ruuiiMicPublishedu 11in1 aaaundiiuiassociationi witwimh ^^ • Springer Praxis Publishing PRHB Chichester, UK "^UF Table of contents Foreword xvii Authors' preface xix Acknowledgements xxi List of illustrations and tables xxiii Prologue xxix ORIGINS 1 Soviet manned spaceflight after Vostok 1 Design requirements 1 Sever and the 1L: the genesis of Soyuz 3 The Vostok 7/1L Soyuz Complex 4 The mission sequence of the early Soyuz Complex 6 The Soyuz 7K complex 7 Soyuz 7K (Soyuz A) design features 8 The American General Electric concept 10 Soyuz 9K and Soyuz 1 IK 11 The Soyuz Complex mission profile 12 Contracts, funding and schedules 13 Soyuz to the Moon 14 A redirection for Soyuz 14 The N1/L3 lunar landing mission profile 15 Exploring the potential of Soyuz 16 Soyuz 7K-P: a piloted anti-satellite interceptor 16 Soyuz 7K-R: a piloted reconnaissance space station 17 Soyuz VI: the military research spacecraft Zvezda 18 Adapting Soyuz for lunar missions 20 Spacecraft design changes 21 Crewing for circumlunar missions 22 The Zond missions 23 The end of the Soviet lunar programme 33 The lunar orbit module (7K-LOK) 33 viii Table of contents A change of direction 35 References 35 MISSION HARDWARE AND SUPPORT 39 Hardware and systems 39 Crew positions 40 The spacecraft 41 The Propulsion Module (PM) 41 The Descent Module (DM) 41 The Orbital Module (OM) 44 Pyrotechnic devices 45 Spacecraft sub-systems 46 Rendezvous, docking and transfer 47 Electrical power 53 Thermal control 54 Life support 54 Habitability 57 Propulsion and attitude control 59 Primary (KTDU) and back-up engines 59 Attitude control 60 Vernier translation 60 Re-entry attitude control 61 Vehicle control 62 Communications 63 Display and controls 65 Recovery 67 Support infrastructure 74 Flight planning 74 Soyuz cosmonaut training 75 Winter training 76 Desert training 77 Mountain training 77 Sea recovery 77 Swamp training 78 Parachute jumping 78 Zero-gravity training 78 Earth-observation 79 The simulator 79 Simulator ballistics 80 Simulators for space station operations 80 The neutral buoyancy laboratory 80 The centrifuge 82 Vacuum and pressure chambers 82 Foreign language training 84 Examinations 84 Table of contents ix Departing for Baikonur 85 The Soyuz launch vehicle 85 Raketa 7 ICBM 8K71 85 Power for the R-7 86 Basic design features of the 8K71 87 Adapting the R-7 for Soyuz 87 11A55 and 11A56 early Soyuz launch vehicles 89 11A511 standard launch vehicle 89 11A511U launch vehicle 89 11A511U2 launch vehicle 90 Soyuz FG 90 Soyuz-2 91 Soyuz facilities at Baikonur 92 Site 1: launch complex (PU) 5 93 Site 2: the launcher processing area and the MIK facility 94 Site 2B: the launcher processing area and the MIK 2A facility 94 Site 31: launch complex (PU) 6, or 17P32-6 95 Site 32: R-7 residential housing 95 Site 112: launch vehicle assembly building 95 Site 254: spacecraft assembly building 96 Soyuz manufacturing 96 Ground testing 97 Flight testing 100 The range of Soyuz system mock-ups 103 Soyuz at Baikonur 105 Launch preparations 105 Launch site test and verification sequence 109 Launch phase Ill Riding the 'package' Ill The flight control centre Ill Yevpatoria: the original Soyuz mission control 112 Kaliningrad: mission control Moscow 112 Recovery forces 115 References 116 DOCKING MISSIONS, 1966-70 119 The 'original Soyuz' 119 Preparing for the first flights 120 Early Soyuz assignments for cosmonauts 121 Cosmos 133: the first Soyuz in orbit 123 A fire at Pad 31 125 The mission of Cosmos 140 127 The tragedy of Soyuz 1 130 Concerns for flight 131 Launch preparations 132 x Table of contents The mission of Soyuz 1 133 The accident investigation 137 The Soyuz/Cosmos unmanned docking 138 The Cosmos 186/188 mission 139 The Cosmos 212/213 mission 142 Soyuz 2 and Soyuz 3: success and frustration 143 The Cosmos 238 unmanned shake-down mission 143 Manned flights resume 144 A docking and a transfer 147 Amending the flight plans 147 The first docking of two manned spacecraft 148 Stepping out of Soyuz 151 A dangerous re-entry 154 The troika mission 156 Kontakt crewing and missions 157 Preparing the spacecraft 158 Launch after launch 158 Frustration with docking 159 Three landings on three days 160 Why Igla failed 161 Science on Soyuz 162 Supplementary objectives 163 Science on Soyuz 6 164 Vulkan welding experiments in space 164 Soyuz 9: a space marathon 165 Falcons in flight 166 Orbital evaluation 168 Summary 169 References 169 THE SOYUZ FERRY, 1971-81 171 A ferry for Salyut 171 Salyut ferry operations, 1971 172 Salyut 1 crewing 173 Soyuz 10: the first ferry mission 173 Soyuz 11: triumph and tragedy 175 Soyuz, Salyuts and space suits, 1971-73 179 The new Salyut training group 180 Lost Salyuts 180 Crews for the Almaz (military) orbital station 181 Orbital operations, 1973 181 A two-day test flight 182 The Sokol (Falcon) pressure suit 184 Salyut 3 ferry missions, 1974 185 Salyut 3 crewing 185 Table of contents xi The Soyuz 15 docking failure 186 Salyut 4 ferry missions, 1975 187 Salyut 4 crewing 188 New steps toward permanent occupation 188 The 'April 5 anomaly' 188 A replacement mission 192 Salyut 5 ferry missions, 1976-77 193 Salyut 5 crewing 194 An acrid odour 194 Fluctuations in the flight plan 195 A Soyuz splash-down 196 The recovery of a Soyuz refrigerator 199 The last military Soyuz crew 201 The solo Soyuz missions, 1973-76 202 The early scientific missions 202 Soyuz 13 crewing 203 The Soyuz 13 mission 204 The Soyuz-Apollo Experimental Flight (EPAS), 1969-75 205 Early proposals 207 The flight 209 EPAS crewing 210 Cosmos 638 and Cosmos 672 210 Soyuz 16: dress rehearsal for the EPAS 211 Soyuz 19, and a handshake in space 212 Future cooperation 216 Soyuz 22: the last solo Soyuz 217 Soyuz 22 crewing 218 The Soyuz 22 mission 219 A solo Soyuz series? 219 Soyuz ferry missions to Salyut 6 220 Salyut 6 crewing 220 Visiting missions to Salyut 6 221 The Soyuz 25 docking failure 222 Success upon success 225 Setting the standards 225 New beginnings 226 Six months in orbit 228 A failure in the engine 229 The end of an era 232 Summary 234 References 234 PROGRESS, 1978- 239 The development of Progress 239 Military cargo ships 240 xii Table of contents Automated docking tests 241 Progress precursor test flights 241 The role of Progress 242 Progress variants 242 Progress hardware 244 The Cargo Module (CM) 244 Loading and unloading Progress 245 The docking system 247 The Refuelling Module (RM) 248 The Propulsion Module (Service Module) 250 Progress M upgrades 250 Raduga return capsules 251 Progress Ml upgrades 252 The disposal of Progress 253 Progress flight operations 253 Progress missions to Salyut 6 •. 254 Varied cargoes 254 The KRT-10 antenna experiment 255 Progress missions to Salyut 7 256 Salyut springs a leak 256 Progress missions to Mir 256 First-generation Progress 257 Buran ejection seat tests 257 Progress M takes over 258 Schedules and setbacks 258 Additional hardware, experiments and research objectives 259 Small satellites 261 The Raduga missions 262 Rendezvous and docking operations and incidents 263 The Progress M-34 collision 264 The de-orbiting of Mir 265 Progress Ml operations 266 Progress Ml at the International Space Station 266 Application of Progress hardware 268 Gamma 268 Aelita 269 An Earth observation satellite 269 Plans for Soviet Star Wars 269 The ISS docking compartment 269 Docking Compartment 1 270 Pirs-based EVAs from the ISS, 2001-02 271 Progress cargo mass 272 Summary 273 References 273 Table of contents xiii SOYUZ T, 1979-86 281 The role of Soyuz T 281 The origins of Soyuz T 281 Testing the technology, 1974-80 283 Soyuz T: the inaugural mission 284 Soyuz T upgrades 285 The Orbital Module 285 The Descent Module 286 The Propulsion Module 287 The Soyuz T training group, 1973-81 287 Salyut 6 operations 288 The Soyuz T training group, 1981-86 289 Salyut 7 operations 289 Soyuz T flight operations, 1980-81 292 Soyuz T-2: the first manned mission 292 Soyuz T-3: the three-man maintenance mission 294 Soyuz T-4: the long-duration test 294 Soyuz T flight operations, 1982 295 Soyuz T-5: the first operational mission 296 Soyuz T-6: a manual override 296 Soyuz T-7: delivering a fresh spacecraft 298 Landing in a snowstorm 298 Soyuz T flight operations, 1983 300 Soyuz T-8: a cancelled docking 300 Soyuz T-9: the failure of the solar array 303 Soyuz T-10-1: a very short long-duration flight 303 Issues arising from the abort of Soyuz T-10-1 306 Soyuz T flight operations, 1984 307 Soyuz T-10: repairs and records 307 Visitors come and go, and Soyuz T-10 lands 308 Soyuz T flight operations, 1985-86 309 Soyuz T-13: a rescue mission 310 Soyuz T-14: the first partial crew exchange 311 Soyuz T-15: the end of an era, the beginning of another 312 Summary 314 References 314 SOYUZ TM, 1986-2002 317 The origins of Soyuz TM 317 Soyuz TM modifications 319 Rendezvous and docking system 320 The Orbital Module 321 The landing system 321 The propulsion system 322 The onboard sub-system 322 xiv Table of contents Crew provisions 323 The first occupation of Mir: Soyuz TM-l-TM-7 323 Soyuz TM crewing 323 The maiden flight of Soyuz TM 325 Permanent occupation begins 325 A year in space 328 'A combination of circumstances' 329 Mir temporarily vacated 333 The end of the Soviet Union: Soyuz TM-8-TM-13 334 Soyuz TM crewing, 1989-91 335 A new era dawns 335 The reoccupation of Mir 335 'Like petals of a flower' 336 The EVA to repair the Soyuz TM 337 Bringing home Soyuz TM-9 339 International visitors 339 Russia in space 341 Soyuz TM crewing, 1990-94 342 Russian
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  • The Soviet Space Program

    The Soviet Space Program

    C05500088 TOP eEGRET iuf 3EEA~ NIE 11-1-71 THE SOVIET SPACE PROGRAM Declassified Under Authority of the lnteragency Security Classification Appeals Panel, E.O. 13526, sec. 5.3(b)(3) ISCAP Appeal No. 2011 -003, document 2 Declassification date: November 23, 2020 ifOP GEEAE:r C05500088 1'9P SloGRET CONTENTS Page THE PROBLEM ... 1 SUMMARY OF KEY JUDGMENTS l DISCUSSION 5 I. SOV.IET SPACE ACTIVITY DURING TfIE PAST TWO YEARS . 5 II. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING FUTURE PROSPECTS . 6 A. General ............................................. 6 B. Organization and Management . ............... 6 C. Economics .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. 8 III. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL FACTORS ... 9 A. General .. .. .. .. .. 9 B. Launch Vehicles . 9 C. High-Energy Propellants .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11 D. Manned Spacecraft . 12 E. Life Support Systems . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15 F. Non-Nuclear Power Sources for Spacecraft . 16 G. Nuclear Power and Propulsion ..... 16 Te>P M:EW TCS 2032-71 IOP SECl<ET" C05500088 TOP SECRGJ:. IOP SECREI Page H. Communications Systems for Space Operations . 16 I. Command and Control for Space Operations . 17 IV. FUTURE PROSPECTS ....................................... 18 A. General ............... ... ···•· ................. ····· ... 18 B. Manned Space Station . 19 C. Planetary Exploration . ........ 19 D. Unmanned Lunar Exploration ..... 21 E. Manned Lunar Landfog ... 21 F. Applied Satellites ......... 22 G. Scientific Satellites ........................................ 24 V. INTERNATIONAL SPACE COOPERATION ............. 24 A. USSR-European Nations .................................... 24 B. USSR-United States 25 ANNEX A. SOVIET SPACE ACTIVITY ANNEX B. SOVIET SPACE LAUNCH VEHICLES ANNEX C. SOVIET CHRONOLOGICAL SPACE LOG FOR THE PERIOD 24 June 1969 Through 27 June 1971 TCS 2032-71 IOP SLClt~ 70P SECRE1- C05500088 TOP SEGR:R THE SOVIET SPACE PROGRAM THE PROBLEM To estimate Soviet capabilities and probable accomplishments in space over the next 5 to 10 years.' SUMMARY OF KEY JUDGMENTS A.