Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Course Author Professor Ximena Jiménez
Series Editor Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.
Peace Operations Training Institute® Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time
Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Cover Photo: UN Photo #751984 by Pascual Gorriz. The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) conducted its first all-female foot patrol, with 10 female peacekeepers from six troop-contributing countries, in Rumaysh, south Lebanon. 13 December 2017.
Course Author Professor Ximena Jiménez
Series Editor Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.
Peace Operations Training Institute® Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time © 2018 Peace Operations Training Institute. All rights reserved.
Peace Operations Training Institute 1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202 Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA www.peaceopstraining.org
First edition: March 2007 by Ximena Jiménez Second edition: September 2011 by Ximena Jiménez
The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the eaceP Operations Training Institute (POTI), the Course Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. The Peace Operations Training Institute is an international not-for-profit NGO registered as a 501(c)(3) with the Internal Revenue Service of the United States of America. The Peace Operations Training Institute is a separate legal entity from the United Nations. Although every effort has been made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and the Course Author(s) disclaim any and all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated largely from open media and other independent sources. This course was written to be a pedagogical and teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy and doctrine, but this course does not establish or promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approved UN documents may establish or promulgate UN policy or doctrine. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.
Versions of this course offered in other languages may differ slightly from the primary English master copy. Translators make every effort to retain the integrity of the material. Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Table of Contents
Foreword viii
Method of Study ix
Lesson 1 Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions 10
Section 1.1 A Brief Review of CAC, 1990–today 12
Section 1.2 The New Concept of Peace Operations 16
Section 1.3 Defining Sex, Gender, and Other Related Concepts 19
Lesson 2 In Search of Gender Equality I 28
Section 2.1 Historical Retrospective of Gender Equality 30
Section 2.2 Gender Equality in the UN System from 1945–1989 31
Lesson 3 In Search of Gender Equality II 42
Section 3.1 Gender Equality in the UN System, 1990–1999 44
Section 3.2 Gender Equality in UN Agencies and Funds 51
Section 3.3 Gender Equality and Other International Organizations 56
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v Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Lesson 4 The Gender Perspective in CAC 60
Section 4.1 Conceptualizing VAW, GBV, SV, and SEA 62
Section 4.2 Gender Perspectives in CAC 67
Lesson 5 Sexual Violence in CAC 80
Section 5.1 SV in CAC as a Strategy and Tool of War 82
Section 5.2 UN Initiatives to Stop GBV and SV in CAC 93
Lesson 6 Gender Mainstreaming in Peace Operations 98
Section 6.1 Incorporating a Gender Perspective into Peace Operations 100
Section 6.2 DPKO Policies and Guidelines for Gender Mainstreaming in UN Peace Operations (2000–present) 107
Lesson 7 The Women, Peace, and Security Agenda 120
Section 7.1 Precursors to SCR 1325 122
Section 7.2 SCR 1325 126
Section 7.3 Subsequent Security Council Resolutions on the WPS Agenda 131
Annex A Facts and Figures on WPS Two Decades After SCR 1325 136
Lesson 8 UN Peacekeepers and SEA 140
Section 8.1 Definitions and Legal Framework on SV and SEA in Armed Conflicts 143
Section 8.2 How Peacekeepers’ Perpetration of SV and SEA Violates International Law 146
Section 8.3 SEA Committed by UN Personnel 152
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vi Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Lesson 9 Measures to Prevent and Correct SEA by Peacekeepers 160
Section 9.1 Measures to Prevent and Correct Acts of SEA, 2002–2004 162
Section 9.2 Measures to Prevent and Correct Acts of SEA, 2005–present 166
Section 9.3 The UN Strategy to Eliminate SEA in Peace Operations 174
Annex B key UN Documents and Resources on SEA in Peacekeeping 177
Lesson 10 Gender Training 186
Section 10.1 Gender Training for Peacekeepers 188
Section 10.2 Gender Training and SEA in Peace Operations 193
Section 10.3 The WPS Agenda and Gender Training 198
Lesson 11 Other Gender Issues in Peace Operations I 204
Section 11.1 SV Against Men and Boys 206
Section 11.2 Gender and Humanitarian Assistance 213
Section 11.3 Gender and Disaster Response 215
Lesson 12 Other Issues in Peace Operations II 220
Section 12.1 Gender and Humanitarian Demining 222
Section 12.2 Gender and SSR 223
Section 12.3 The Economics of War and Peace 231
Appendices
Appendix A List of Acronyms 236
Appendix B Current Peacekeeping Missions 243
About the Author: Ximena Jiménez 244
Instructions for the End-of-Course Examination 245
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vii Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Foreword
The nature of armed conflict changed considerably over the last century. At the beginning of the twentieth century, civilian victims of armed conflicts accounted for approximately 5 per cent of all deaths. During the First World War, the figure reached 15 per cent, mainly due to hunger and disease. By the end of the Second World War, estimates climbed to 65 per cent, partially due to hunger and disease, but also due in large part to another indiscriminate cause: the bombing of cities.1 Since the early 1990s, the nature of armed conflict has changed from predominantly inter-State conflicts to intra-State conflicts. Civilians represent anywhere from 75 to 90 per cent of the total victims of these conflicts. Even more disturbing, of these civilians, 75 to 90 per cent are women and children.2
Worse than simply being “incidental” victims or “collateral damage”, rebel groups and local, national, and international militias and armed forces specifically target women. Women are abducted, sexually exploited and abused, mutilated, and detained as sexual slaves or bargaining chips by rebel groups, even after a conflict has ended. This maltreatment usually is an exacerbated version of the extensive gender inequalities that existed prior to the armed conflict. These crimes regularly occurred as weapons and strategies of war — a trend that continues to present times.
Faced with this reality, the United Nations has faced great challenges to ensure the special protection of women and girls during armed conflicts. To overcome these obstacles, the Security Council; the General Assembly; the Department of Peacekeeping Operations; and other UN agencies, funds, and programmes have implemented declarations, resolutions, reports, agreements, and new tools. Gender training is now mandatory for the three components of peace operations (military, police, and civilian) and any associate personnel in the chain of command. These training modules are regularly updated at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. Acts of sexual abuse and exploitation by peacekeepers unfortunately continue to occur on mission, and they receive special attention. Awareness of gender issues in modern conflict is a crucial issue for peacekeepers to fill their roles and perform their deployment tasks properly.
This course strives to educate and train peacekeepers and all individuals about the academic, conceptual, and operational issues regarding the gender perspective in integrated, multidisciplinary, multidimensional, multitask, multifunctional, broad, integrated, and robust United Nations peace operations. The third edition of this course updates many topics and introduces new ones, including Gender and Humanitarian Disaster Response, Gender and Security Sector Reform, Gender and Humanitarian Demining, and Gender and Humanitarian Assistance.
–Prof. Ximena Jiménez, 2018
1) UN Security Council, Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, S/2001/331, 30 March 2001. Available from:
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viii Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Method of Study
This self-paced course aims to give students flexibility in their approach to learning. The following steps are meant to provide motivation and guidance about some possible strategies and minimum expectations for completing this course successfully:
• Before you begin studying, first browse through the entire course. Notice the lesson and section titles to get an overall idea of what will be involved as you proceed.
• The material is meant to be relevant and practical. Instead of memorizing individual details, strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the United Nations system.
• Set personal guidelines and benchmarks regarding how you want to schedule your time.
• Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each lesson, orient yourself to the main points. If possible, read the material twice to ensure maximum understanding and retention, and let time elapse between readings.
• At the end of each lesson, take the End-of-Lesson Quiz. Clarify any missed questions by rereading the appropriate sections, and focus on retaining the correct information.
• After you complete all of the lessons, prepare for the End-of-Course Examination by taking time to review the main points of each lesson. Then, when ready, log into your online student classroom and take the End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.
»» Access your online classroom at
• Your exam will be scored electronically. If you achieve a passing grade of 75 per cent or higher on the exam, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75 per cent, you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-of-Course Examination.
• A note about language: This course uses English spelling according to the standards of the Oxford English Dictionary (United Kingdom) and the United Nations Editorial Manual.
Key Features of Your Online Classroom »
• Access to all of your courses;
• A secure testing environment in which to complete your training;
• Access to additional training resources, including multimedia course supplements;
• The ability to download your Certificate of Completion for any completed course; and
• Forums where you can discuss relevant topics with the POTI community.
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ix GENDER PERSPECTIVES IN UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
LESSON Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender 1 Definitions
This lesson briefly introduces contemporary armed conflict (CAC), its characteristics, and its evolution, and how United Nations peace operations evolved and adapted in response to new scenarios presented by CAC.
UN Photo #106433 by Luke Powell.
In this lesson » Lesson Objectives »
Section 1.1 A Brief Review of CAC, 1990– • Identify and understand the root causes of CACs today and the effect on civilian populations.
Section 1.2 The New Concept of Peace • Know and understand the evolution of UN peace operations operations in the face of CAC.
Section 1.3 Defining Sex, Gender, and Other • Know and understand the gender dimension of Related Concepts contemporary conflicts.
• Know and understand the crucial importance that women play in peacekeeping.
• Recognize and understand gender concepts and how to use them.
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10 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Some of the hundreds of internally displaced persons return to their pre-conflict homes throughout Timor-Leste with the assistance of the Ministry of Social Solidarity and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the formed police unit (FPU) of the United Nations Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT), and the National Police of Timor-Leste providing security on the road. 29 March 2008. UN Photo #172811 by Martine Perret.
CAC first arose after the Second World War. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, an event many historians consider to be the end of the Cold War, States Content Warning » have faced new and different threats that exposed their respective economic, political, ethnic, religious, Certain sections of this course cultural, and military vulnerabilities. The acceleration contain discussions of graphic of technological development and the revolution violence of a sexual nature and globalization of communications has increased that may be disturbing to some interactions and interdependence among States, individuals. changing the nature of conflict. The overwhelming increase in civil wars, many of which have no clear political objectives or defined actors, has exacerbated this situation in recent years.
11 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Section 1.1 A Brief Review of CAC, 1990–today
Characteristics of CAC
Many conflicts since the Cold War have featured short periods of peace followed by virulent outbreaks of violence. These situations led to great suffering and desolation, especially among civilian populations. These conflicts separated, devastated, and ravaged communities, and some reached genocidal proportions, horrifying the international community. Achieving peace, stability, and the physical and political reconstruction of these States will take decades, but healing wounds and easing feelings of mistrust, betrayal, and hate are the true challenges that will determine the futures of the affected populations.
Civilians represent between 75 and 90 per cent of the total number of victims of CAC. Women and girls, who make up 75 to 85 per cent of all civilian victims, specifically experience gender-based violence (GBV) and sexual violence (SV).
Studies on the consequences of CAC on civilian populations began to take on global relevance in the early 1990s, particularly after the UN deployed peacekeeping missions in areas experiencing civil war, some of which had been going on for many years.1 These peacekeeping missions already followed Security Council mandates under Chapters VI and VII of the United Nations Charter.2 Thanks to an abundance of new information and communications technology, media coverage of peace operations exposed the atrocities, massacres, systems of torture, and brutality used against both civilian populations and enemy combatants. From their own homes, people around the world saw images of widespread starvation, massacres, and torture in real time. Victims numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Consequently, images of the atrocities and the discussions they caused spurred action around the globe, and hundreds of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were created to provide humanitarian aid. This View of a makeshift camp in the region of Blace, development resulted in the arrival of new actors into on the border between Kosovo and The former conflict zones,3 making the work of UN peacekeepers Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Up to 65,000 Kosovar refugees were caught in this no man’s land and agencies, as well as the International Red Cross and before being allowed to enter The former Yugoslav other humanitarian aid organizations with decades of Republic of Macedonia several days later. 1 April experience, even more complex.4 1999. UN Photo #31544 by UNHCR/HJ Davies.
1) Such as Cambodia, Angola, Somalia, Haiti, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and others. 2) That is, with the use of force. 3) Such as swarms of journalists, photographers, volunteers from different UN agencies and different NGOs. 4) Such as Médecins Sans Frontières, Oxfam, Save the Children, PeaceWomen, América Solidaria, Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, Women’s Environment & Development Organization, Stop Violence Against Women, and hundreds more.
12 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
CACs cause immense suffering and desolation, especially among civilian populations, who are the deliberate targets. It can separate, devastate, and destroy whole communities, leaving them in need of medical and psychological care; many residents are affected for life. The consequences continue to disgust the international community. Many studies have shown the horrors of modern war: devastation, pain and suffering, destruction of families and societies, towns and cities burned to the ground or bombed, and areas covered with minefields. It can take decades to attain sustainable peace, democratic stability, and physical and political reconstruction of these States. Healing wounds and easing the feelings of distrust, betrayal, and hate sown during war are some of the most significant challenges for the people affected.5
Consequences of CAC
The following table details significant figures on the number of victims of CAC. The table focuses solely on areas where the UN has deployed peace operations. These figures do not include the number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) or refugees, who number in the millions.6 As mentioned earlier, experts calculate that civilians make up as much as 90 per cent of all reported casualties of CAC. It is easy to see the effects this type of conflict has on the civilian population. The following table details UN peace operations with the largest numbers of civilian victims:7
Country Missioni Victims Democratic Republic of the MONUC (1999–2010) and MONUSCO 3,800,000–5,400,000 (1998– Congo (DRC) (2010–present) 2014) Sudan UNMIS (2005–2011) 1,900,000 Somalia UNOSOM I and II (1992–1995) 500,000 (300,000 from hunger alone) Up to 1999 1,000,000 Cambodia UNTAC (1992–1993) 1,000,000ii (hunger, torture, and disease) Mozambique UNOMOZ (1992–1994) 800,000 (1975–1992) Rwanda UNAMIR (1993–1996) 800,000–1,017,100 (in only 100 days) Angola UNAVEM II (1991–1995) 500,000 (1975–2002) Darfur UNAMID (2006–today) 200,000 to 400,000 with 2,500,000 people displacediii (1955–1972 and 1985–2005) Bosnia and Herzegovina UNMIBH (1995–2002) 350,000 (40 per cent civilians)iv Burundi ONUB (2004–2007) 200,000–300,000 (1993–1998) Liberia UNMIL (2003) 200,000 (1989–1996)v i) See Acronyms table for mission abbreviations ii) This refers only to victims of genocide during the regime of the Khmer Rouge (1975–1979) of a population of 7 million, representing one of the highest murder rates in history; Lucy Keller, “UNTAC in Cambodia — from Occupation, Civil War and Genocide to Peace” in Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, Volume 9, eds. Armil von Bogdandy and Rüdiger Wolfrum (Leidein: Koninklijke Brill N.V, 2005), 127–178. Available from:
5) Lessons 4 and 5 will explore the impact of contemporary conflict on women and girls in greater detail. 6) UNHCR, “Worldwide displacement hits all-time high as war and persecution increase”, 18 June 2015. Available from:
13 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Refugees and displaced persons
As the number of modern conflicts increased, so did the number of IDPs and refugees around the world. According to the 2015 Global Trends Report published by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), “Wars, conflict and persecution have forced more people than at any other time since records began to flee their homes and seek refuge and safety elsewhere.”8 The report further noted:
“Worldwide displacement was at the highest level ever recorded … the number of people forcibly displaced at the end of 2014 had risen to a staggering 59.5 million compared to 51.2 million a year earlier and 37.5 million a decade ago. The increase represents the biggest leap ever seen in a single year. Moreover, the report said the situation was likely to worsen still further.
Globally, one in every 122 humans is now either a refugee, internally displaced, or seeking asylum. If this were the population of a country, it would be the world’s 24th biggest.”9
Secretary-General António Guterres, who served as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees when the 2015 report came out, stated, “We are witnessing a paradigm change, an unchecked slide into an era in which the scale of global forced displacement as well as the response required is now clearly dwarfing anything seen before.”10
By the end of 2014, “at least 15 conflicts [had] erupted or reignited: eight in Africa (Côte d’Ivoire, Central African Republic, Libya, Mali, north-eastern Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan and … in Burundi); three in the Middle East (Syria, Iraq, and Yemen); one in Europe (Ukraine) and three in Asia (Kyrgyzstan, and in several areas of Myanmar and Pakistan).”11 Perhaps most devastating of all, “Half of all refugees are children.”12
UNHCR reported 65.6 million individuals had been forcibly displaced by the end of 2016, an increase of 300,000 from 2015, setting another record high. Of the displaced people, 10.3 million were newly displaced — 6.9 million within their own countries, and 3.4 million were new refugees.13 By mid-2015, 137,000 people had crossed the Mediterranean Sea to reach Europe, and the numbers continued to rise into 2016. As of December 2017, 168,976 refugees had crossed the Mediterranean, and 3,081 had been declared either dead or missing.14
8) UNHCR, “Worldwide displacement hits all-time high as war and persecution increase”, 18 June 2015. Available from:
14 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Current worldwide conflicts
According to the 2015 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Yearbook, there were more wars in 2014 than in any other year since 2000. Notably, 2014 was far more violent, “particularly … Russia’s annexation of Crimea and support of violent separatism in eastern Ukraine.”15 In Africa, Nigeria experienced the brutality of Boko Haram, and Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic saw the wars of the Islamic State, which expanded to Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as the Gaza War in the Middle East.16
Locations of ongoing conflicts worldwide as of April 2018. From Council on Foreign Relations, “Center for Preventative Action’s Global Conflict Tracker”. Available from:
On 15 May 2015, the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) in London launched its first major publication, “Armed Conflict Survey 2015”. According to the survey, there is a clear trend of intensified violence: although the number of conflicts has decreased, they have become deadlier.17 The table below outlines the number of conflict-related fatalities globally from 2008 to 2014.
World Armed Conflicts, 2008–201418
Year Number Number of of Conflicts Fatalities 2008 63 56,000 2010 55 49,000 2012 51 110,000 2014 42 180,000
15) SIPRI, “SIPRI Yearbook 2015: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security – Summary”, 2015. Available from:
15 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Gambian troops of the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) stand in formation for the arrival of Under-Secretary-General for Field Support, Ameerah Haq, at the UNAMID base in El Fasher. 7 November 2012. UN Photo #534001 by Albert González Farran.
The Global Peace Index
The annual Global Peace Index (GPI) “[measures] peace at the global and national level [and assesses] the social, political and economic factors that create peace.” In 2017, the GPI saw “the first improvement in global peacefulness recorded since 2014”; however, this “does not necessarily indicate a new trend.”19 The GPI measured improvements in peace in 93 countries, but declines in 68 countries. The five most peaceful countries in the world were Iceland, New Zealand, Portugal, Austria, and Denmark, while the five least peaceful were Yemen, South Sudan, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Syria.20
Section 1.2 The New Concept of Peace Operations
Evolutions in peacekeeping
Since deploying its first mission in 1948, the UN has gained a great deal of experience in peace operations, both successes and failures. Extrapolating and learning the valuable lessons from these experiences is one of the primary objectives of the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) Lessons Learned Unit. DPKO began holding seminars in 1995 to analyse and draw conclusions from practical cases of field operations. The extracted lessons are used to improve the planning, management, and execution of current and future UN peace operations.
Contemporary conflicts are predominantly intra-State conflicts that occur between rival factions with opposing political, cultural, or religious ideologies. With the emergence of these ambiguous and complex scenarios, it is imperative that UN peace operations have a clear and robust mandate. These mandates must have the support of the international community and the funds necessary to carry out the operation. Furthermore, each party to a conflict must genuinely desire a peaceful settlement.
19) institute for Economics and Peace. Global Peace Index 2017, accessed 19 April 2019, 8. Available from:
16 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Historically, conflicts in which the opposing sides do not openly seek agreement expose the potential limitations of peace operations.21 Such conflicts can lead to ethical, moral, and functional dilemmas in which peacekeeping is paradoxically combined with the use of force as a dissuasive element. This controversy often ends when the opposing sides demonstrate a commitment to achieving peace, sincere respect for any agreements reached, and a willingness to allow peacekeeping forces to exercise power.
As the number of peace operations has grown, mandates also have grown in complexity and the number of tasks that peacekeepers are expected to perform. Peacekeepers or “blue helmets” are responsible for observing, monitoring, and supervising ceasefires with non-armed peacekeepers, as well as providing humanitarian aid during the repatriation and resettlement of refugees and IDPs; the protection of civilians, especially women and girls, from sexual and domestic violence; disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) of ex-combatants; supporting and supervising democratic election processes; promoting and advising security sector reform (SSR) to facilitate and strengthen the rule of law; and investigating alleged human rights violations, among others.
The nature of peacekeeping has changed alongside the nature of conflict. Missions that occurred before 1989 are referred to as “first-generation” or “traditional” peace operations, while those that occurred after 1989 are called “multidimensional”, “multitask”, “multifunctional”, “broad”, “integrated”, or “robust” peace operations. More recently, terms such as “multilateral”, “multinational”, or “multicultural” have been used to describe contemporary operations. Some have used the term “hybrid operations” to describe collaborative operations between the UN and regional organizations, such as the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Mission in Darfur (UNAMID), which began in 2007.22 Recent years also saw several cases where the UN served as the governing authority of a territory or State, such as the United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) and United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET). Peacekeepers also can serve to prevent armed conflict from arising, as was the case in the 1993–1999 United Nations Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
Peacekeepers from the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) review their plans for the day in observing the Line of Control that separates the two Countries near Bhimbar UN Field Station, Pakistan. 20 October 2005. UN Photo #99346 by Evan Schneider.
21) Examples of such conflicts include those in Katanga, Congo (1961); Rwanda (1994); Somalia (1991–present); Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995); Timor-Leste (2000–2001); DRC (1999–present); Côte d’Ivoire; and Darfur, South Sudan (2003–present). 22) Hybrid operations can be defined as peace operations that are carried out by United Nations personnel together with personnel from aregional organization recognized by the UN. In the case of the mission in Darfur (UNAMID), the African Union is this regional organization collaborator. For more information on this hybrid operation, visit:
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The new peacekeeping environment
Executing new peacekeeping tasks has not always been easy. Peacekeeping forces face hostile and dangerous scenarios in which the consent of the parties is not always assured. At times, these situations require special actions of peace manoeuvring. As a result, the success of UN peace operations has varied. Many considered the peace operations in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in the mid-1990s to be failed missions due to limited mandates and lack of international support. At times, international and national forces have had to assist UN peace operations with enforcement (e.g. the North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO] forces). In 1992, Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali suggested the use of heavily armed “peace-enforcement units” to handle scenarios that exceeded traditional peacekeeping tasks.23
As of December 2017, the UN has deployed 71 peace operations since the first mission in 1948, the majority of which occurred after 1990.24 The eight peacekeeping missions operating in 1990 employed 10,304 personnel.25 By July 1993, this figure rose to 78,444 as the number of peace operations doubled to 16.26 The number of deployed peacekeepers declined significantly to 47,778 by November 2001.27 As of 31 October 2017, the UN had more than 106,544 deployed peacekeepers.28
The SIPRI Report
According to the SIPRI Yearbook 2017, 62 multilateral peace operations deployed by the UN and other regional organizations were active in 2016. The number of deployed personnel reached 153,056.29 Africa remains the focus of global peace operations, with the largest number of active operations — more than all other regions combined. Seven new operations were launched in 2014, three of which were in Africa.
New challenges continuously arise for peace operations. For example, non-State actors opposed the United Nations Operation SIPRI, “SIPRI Yearbook 2017: Armaments, Disarmament and in Somalia (UNOSOM), and jihadists attacked International Security – Summary”, 2017, 7. Available from: the United Nations Disengagement Observer
23) Paul Lewis, “U.N. Set to Debate Peacemaking Role”, New York Times, 6 September 1992. Available from:
18 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) faced the largest outbreak of Ebola virus disease in history in 2014. In that case, new measures had to be taken to protect peacekeepers from the disease, as they were tasked with protecting the local population. As of April 2016, the Ebola epidemic had infected 28,652 individuals, with 15,261 laboratory-confirmed cases and 11,325 confirmed deaths.30
Section 1.3 Defining Sex, Gender, and Other Related Concepts
Modern conflict disproportionately affects women and girls compared to men and boys; this is the “gender perspective” of CAC. To understand gender and how it applies in CAC, we need to define the terms and related concepts.
Before the 1970s, most theorists believed that a person’s biological sex determined their gender. Since then, the theory of differences between sex and gender has led feminist theorists to question that idea of biological determinism. Only in the 1970s did the term “gender” become distinct from the term “sex”.
This lesson provides an overview of the evolution of both terms, emphasizing the concept of gender in academic, social, and political environments. It also explains the correct usage of these terms, as they are closely linked with the characteristics and consequences of CAC and with the environments in which peacekeepers deploy.
What does sex mean for human beings?
A person’s sex is purely biological, while several factors determine whether a human being identifies as male or female. This distinction is known as sexual differentiation, and it occurs in different stages from conception to birth.
• Chromosomal sex is determined at conception in the union of the female gamete (the ovum) with the male gamete (the sperm), which come together to form the zygote. Each sex cell contains 23 chromosomes, one of which holds the information that determines the chromosomal sex of a zygote. The ovum contributes an X chromosome exclusively, and the sperm contributes either an X or a Y chromosome. The union of these two chromosomes will determine female sex (XX) or male sex (XY).
• Gonadal sex refers to the differentiation of the gonad, the organ that produces the gamete (i.e. ovary or testicle), during foetal development. This differentiation takes place due to certain hormones that act on the undifferentiated gonad during gestation. At the end of this stage, which occurs from the eighth to the tenth week of gestation, the foetus develops its phenotypic sex (i.e. its external male or internal female genitalia).
• Hormonal sex refers to the masculine or feminine determination of the phenotype. The secretion of three hormones from the male foetal gonad determines the masculinization of the foetus and stimulates the development of the male reproductive organs. The feminine phenotype does not require the female gonad at this stage. The final formation of the female genitals takes place through the maturing of the ovarian follicle during the last stage of gestation.
30) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “2014–2016 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa — Case Counts”, accessed 26 April 2018. Available from:
19 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Sex » • Biologically defined • Determined at birth • Universal • Does not change in time
UN Photo #574221 by Marco Dormino.
• Male and female secondary characteristics form during puberty due to the production of hormones that stimulate the maturing process of sex cells (i.e. ova and sperm cells) from the testicles and the ovaries. This process gives secondary characteristics to boys (e.g. pubic and underarm hair, facial hair, deeper voice, triangular body, etc.) and girls (e.g. growth of mammary glands, pubic and underarm hair, menstruation, guitar-shaped body, etc.).
• Sexual differentiation conditions can affect each stage of gestation and lead to chromosomal, gonadal, and phenotypic pathologies, which can blur sexual classification (e.g. hermaphroditism).
What does gender mean for human beings?
Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men, women, boys, and girls in a society. American anthropologist Gayle Rubin used the term “gender” — distinct from “sex” — in her 1975 essay, “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex”. In the essay, Rubin attempted to discover the origin of the subjugation of women; she also coined the phrase “sex/gender system”, which she defined as “a set of arrangements by which the biological raw material of human sex and procreation is shaped by human, social intervention”.31 Rubin believed this to be “the locus of the oppression of women”. Ultimately, Rubin argued, “Gender is a socially imposed division of the sexes. It is a product of the social relations of sexuality.”32
Gender often refers to the societal roles and responsibilities placed upon people by their cultures according to their sex, including societal expectations of the respective characteristics, aptitudes, and behaviours of men, women, boys, and girls. These expectations and roles are learned, vary within and among cultures, and can change over time. The concept of gender is vital because it shows that the subordination and domination of women and girls is a social construct and, as such, can be modified or terminated.33
31) Gayle Rubin, “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex”, in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R. Reiter (New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1975), 169. Available from:
20 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Gender-related definitions
The following terms are regularly used in gender studies.
• The gender identity “of men and women in any given society is socially and psychologically determined. Where people live together, culture will arise: they will develop based common values and rules to internalize these. The more hierarchical a society, the more oppression there will be because of the differences in power.”34
• Gender roles “are roles that men and women are expected to play in society. Socialization teaches and reinforces these roles. The culture of the community defines these roles.”35
• Gender-sensitive objectives are non-discriminating programme and project objectives that benefit men, women, boys, and girls equally. They aim to correct gender inequalities.
• Gender needs result from the differing positions that men, women, boys, and girls occupy in a society based on their gender roles. They are specific needs without which gender roles cannot occur.
• Gender practical needs are the immediate needs of all men, women, boys, and girls, such as water, shelter, or food.
• Gender perspective “implies analyses of relationships between women and men (boys and girls) in a given culturally and historically determined context. ... A gender perspective focuses on the social dynamics that underlie the unequal access to power, land, resources, [education,] or decision-making” of women.36
• Gender equality refers to the idea that men, women, boys, and girls should live under equal conditions that respect all their human rights and where all genders can benefit from economic, social, cultural, and political development. Gender equality occurs when a society places equal value on the roles of men, women, boys, and girls; however, different or similar they may be. It requires that men, women, boys, and girls act as partners in their households, communities, and societies.
Gender » • Socially defined • Determined by culture • Specific to each culture • Varies over time
UN Photo #612741 by Abdul Fatai.
34) DPKO, Gender and Peacekeeping Operations, 82. 35) DPKO, Gender and Peacekeeping Operations, 82. 36) DPKO, Gender and Peacekeeping Operations, 83.
21 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Gender equality also refers to equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities for men, women, boys, and girls. It is a human rights issue and a necessary precondition for people-focused sustainable development. As defined in the Report of the Secretary-General, Gender mainstreaming in peacekeeping activities, gender equality “does not mean that men and women will become the same, but that women’s and men’s rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are UN staff members reporting to work on the first day ofthe born male or female. Gender equality general debate of the General Assembly’s seventieth session. 28 implies that the interests, needs and September 2015. UN Photo #645591 by Rick Bajornas. priorities of both men and women are taken into consideration.”37
• Gender equity is the process of being fair to men, women, boys, and girls. Regular measures must be put in place to compensate for historical and social disadvantages that impede men, women, boys, and girls from living under equal conditions. Equity is a means; equality is a result.
• Empowerment refers to people (both men and women) taking control of their lives, including setting their own agendas, gaining skills, and building self-confidence to solve problems and develop self-reliance. You cannot empower another person; individuals can only empower themselves to make decisions and speak their minds. Institutions, however, including international cooperation agencies, can encourage empowerment in individuals or groups.
• Gender division of labour refers to how a society assigns work to the genders according to what is considered appropriate.
• Gender mainstreaming is “[t]he process of systematically incorporating gender perspectives into areas of work and assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes.”38
• Gender balance “refers to the equal representation of women and men at all levels of employment.”39 Gender balance and gender mainstreaming support gender equality directly.
37) UN General Assembly, Gender Mainstreaming in Peacekeeping Activities, Report of the Secretary-General, A/57/731, 13 February 2003. Available from:
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• Gender discrimination is “any distinction, exclusion or restriction on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.”40 Gender discrimination can be a way to distribute power, decision-making rights, food consumption, opportunities for skill development, access to education, the freedom to choose a partner, and the right to own property. Any type of discrimination has an impact on the social, economic, legal, and political areas of a society.
• Sex-disaggregated data is data collected separately for men and women.
• Gender analysis is the collection and analysis of sex-disaggregated data. Men and women, as well as boys and girls, perform different roles in a society. They have different experiences, knowledge, talents, and needs. Gender analysis explores these differences and considers the different needs of men, women, boys, and girls when establishing policies, programmes, and projects. Gender analysis also facilitates the strategic use of the diverse knowledge and skills men and women possess. It may also include systematic efforts to identify and document the roles of men and women within a specific context, and their potential impacts on planned interventions. Furthermore, gender analysis refers to identifying the different roles and activities of men, women, boys, and girls in a society, especially the social interactions between them. Examining these aspects in a society reveals clear differences for men, women, boys, and girls as well as the differences in their needs.41
Afghan men work on a road construction under the auspices of the World Food Programme (WFP) food-for-work project through which more than 560,000 people have been assisted with over 10,000 tons of food during March. The project also includes the rehabilitation of irrigation canals, ponds and water channels. 8 June 2009. UN Photo #398287 by WFP.
40) UN Women, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, resolution 34/180, A/RES/34/180, 18 December 1979, Part I, Art. I. Available from:
23 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
• Strategic gender interests focus on issues related to gender subordination and inequality of women (and, to a lesser extent, of men). Strategic gender interests are long-term, usually are not material in nature, and often connect to structural changes in society concerning the status and equality of women and girls. This includes legislation on equal rights for women and increasing their participation in decision-making.
• Strategic gender needs “represent what women or men require in order to improve their position or status in regard to each other.”42
The purpose of differentiating the needs of each gender is to alert programme specialists to the importance of research into the challenges of empowering women. The aim is not to deny the realities and experiences of women with rigid or preconceived notions of what constitutes a strategic need versus a practical need. In many cases, changes to practical conditions in women’s lives affect the power relations between men and women within the community.
Perspectives and misunderstandings in gender studies in peace operations43
• Gender is a controversial issue. Many languages do not differentiate between gender and sex. It is essential to understand gender relations and the nature of gender in any society when distinguishing between the two terms.
• Gender is an emotional subject. Being a man or a woman is an integral part of human identity. Gender affects how people face the world, how the world perceives them, what their expected behaviours are, the tasks they take on, and how they relate to other people.
• Gender is a political issue. It encompasses all realms of social structure, from the nuclear family to national institutions.
• Gender often is classified as a “feminine issue” or as a “women’s issue”, but itis not. This is the case because society often focuses on the interests of women when discussing gender due to the near-universal presence of “patriarchy”, which is the dominance of male perception, male value systems, and male priorities in society. The effects of patriarchy often blind people to the “gendering” of society.
• Gender is a neglected issue. Research into the effects of contemporary conflict on women and girls, the abuse of the human rights of women, the abuse of women and girls by peacekeepers (including reported cases of sexual exploitation and abuse [SEA]), and the exclusion of women from public affairs began to take on relevance in the mid-1990s. Today, it is an indisputable issue in public policy and within the UN. The purpose of gender research and the inclusion of women is not to exclude men, but to correct gender imbalances.
42) International Organization for Migration (IOM), “Guidelines on Implementing the IOM Programme Policy on Migrants and Gender Issues”, 8. Available from:
24 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions
Gender in Peace Operations » • A very serious issue • A controversial issue • A political issue • Often wrongly identified as a “women’s issue”
UN Photo #570222 by Martine Perret.
• Gender is a serious issue. It has far-reaching implications. Learning about gender issues helps us understand the importance of gender roles and their responsibilities throughout the entire process of peacemaking, peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and reconstruction. Many analysts and experts confirm that the role of women in conflict prevention, peace preservation, and rebuilding peace in post-conflict settings is crucial and imperative.
25 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions End-of-Lesson Quiz »
1. When did CAC first arise? 6. According to the “Armed Conflict Survey 2015”, which of the following is TRUE? A. After the Second World War B. Before the First World War A. There are more conflicts today, but they are C. During the formation of the UN less deadly D. During the Gulf War B. There are fewer conflicts today, and they are less deadly 2. One of the consequences of CAC is the C. There are more conflicts today, and they are number of civilian victims, who make up deadlier _____ of all victims. D. There are fewer conflicts today, but they are A. 35–45 per cent deadlier B. 55–65 per cent C. 75–85 per cent 7. Gender mainstreaming is _____. D. 75–90 per cent A. making gender equality the sole focus of a peace operation 3. In modern conflicts, civilians comprise B. recognizing gender issues in a society, but the majority of victims. Which of the not addressing their implications following groups disproportionally represents more victims? C. the process of systematically incorporating gender perspectives into areas of work A. Men and women and assessing the implications for women B. Women and girls and men of any planned action, including C. Men and boys legislation, policies, or programmes D. Children D. the process of replacing male leaders with
4. The targeting of civilians by combatants female leaders has tragic effects on local populations, including _____. 8. A person’s sex _____.
A. increasing the number of IDPs and refugees A. is biologically defined B. increasing food scarcity B. is determined by a person’s gender C. decreasing the availability of water C. can change if the person wants it to D. decreasing the number of IDPs and refugees D. is determined by culture and customs
5. Today, the number of refugees 9. Gender refers to _____. worldwide continues to increase to A. issues regarding the cultural development of unprecedented levels. Many of these men, women, boys, and girls in a society refugees are children. What percentage B. issues regarding sexual behaviour of men, of refugees are children? women, boys, and girls in a society A. one third C. issues involving the roles of women and girls B. one quarter in a society C. half D. issues regarding the social roles of men, D. none women, boys, and girls within a society
Answer Key provided on the next page.
26 LESSON 1 | Contemporary Armed Conflict, Peace Operations, and Gender Definitions End-of-Lesson Quiz »
10. What does “gender equality” refer to?
A. Equal numbers of women of the same age in an organization B. Equal salary for women doing the same job as other women C. Equal responsibilities for men and girls D. Equal responsibilities for women and boys
Answer Key »
1. A 2. D 3. B 4. A 5. C 6. D 7. C 8. A 9. D 10. C
27 GENDER PERSPECTIVES IN UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
Appendix A: List of Acronyms
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ACCORD African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes
AMISOM African Union Mission in Somalia
AU African Union
C34 Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations
CAC contemporary armed conflict
CAR Central African Republic
CDTs Conduct and Discipline Teams
CDU Conduct and Discipline Unit
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
CoC Code of Conduct
CPTMs Core Pre-deployment Training Materials
CRSV conflict-related sexual violence
CSO civil society organization
CSW Commission on the Status of Women
DAW United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women
DCAF Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces
DDR disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration
DRR disaster risk reduction
DFS United Nations Department of Field Support
DPET United Nations Division for Policy, Evaluation and Training
DPKO United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations
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DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
ECOSOC United Nations Economic and Social Council
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
EMT Expanded Management Team
ETS Evaluation and Training Service
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
FARDC Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo
FGM female genital mutilation
FPU formed police units
GBV gender-based violence
GII Gender Equality Index
GPI Global Peace Index
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
HOM head of mission
HOMC head of military component
HOPC head of police component
HRW Human Rights Watch
IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee
ICC International Criminal Court
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
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ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICPD International Conference on Population and Development
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICT Information and Communication Technology
ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
IDPs internally displaced persons
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
IGO intergovernmental organizations
IHL International Humanitarian Law
IISS International Institute for Strategic Studies
ILO International Labour Organization
IMTC Integrated Training Missions Centres
IOM International Organization for Migration
IPU Inter-Parliamentary Union
ISIL Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
ITS Integrated Training Service
MINURSO United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara
MINUSCA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic
MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali
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MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
MONUC United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
MOU memorandum of understanding
MTS Misconduct Tracking System
NAP National Action Plan
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NCCW National Council on Child Welfare
NGO non-governmental organization
OAS Organization of American States
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services
OMA Office of the Military Adviser
ONUB United Nations Operation in Burundi
OPA Office of the Police Adviser
OSAGI Office of the Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
OSOCC On-Site Operations Coordination Centre
PCC police-contributing country
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PDT pre-deployment training
PHR Physicians for Human Rights
POC protection of civilians
PorBatt Portugese battalion
SCR Security Council resolution
SCSL Special Court for Sierra Leone
SEA sexual abuse and exploitation
SEA/VAM SEA Victim Assistance Mechanism
SGBV sexual and gender-based violence
SGTM Standardized Generic Training Modules
SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SME subject matter expert
SOPs standard operating procedures
SRSG-SVC Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict
SSR security sector reform
STIs sexually transmitted infections
STMs Specialized Training Materials
SV sexual violence
TCC troop-contributing country
UN United Nations
UN Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women
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UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNAMID African Union–United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur
UNAMIR United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
UNAMSIL United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
UNAVEM II United Nations Angola Verification Mission II
UNDOF United Nations Disengagement Observer Force
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFICYP United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNHCR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNITAR United Nations Institute for Training and Research
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
UNIOGBIS United Nations Integrated Peace-building Office in Guinea-Bissau
UNISDR United Nations Office of Disaster Risk Reduction
UNMAS United Nations Mine Actions Service
UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
UNMIK United Nations Mission in Kosovo
UNMIL United Nations Mission in Liberia
UNMIS United Nations Mission in the Sudan
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UNMISS United Nations Mission in South Sudan
UNMIT United Nations Mission in Timor-Leste
UNMISET United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor
UNMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan
UNMOZ United Nations Mission in Mozambique
UNOA United Nations Office in Angola
UNOB United Nations Operation in Burundi
UNOCI United Nations Operation in Cote d’Ivoire
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNOSOM United Nations Operation in Somalia
UNOWA United Nations Office for West Africa
UNPOL United Nations Police
UNPREDEP United Nations Preventive Deployment Force
UNSMIL United Nations Support Mission in Libya
UNSOM United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia
UNSTATS United Nations Statistics Division
UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
UNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
UNTSO United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
VAW violence against women
WEDO Women’s Environment & Development Organization
WFP World Food Programme
WHO World Health Organization
WPAs Women’s Protection Advisers
WPS Women, Peace, and Security
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About the Author: Professor Ximena Jiménez
Professor Ximena Jiménez is a Registered Nurse and a graduate of the University of Chile’s Faculty of Medicine. She also holds a B.S. in Hospital Management from the Public Health School of the University of Chile, a B.S. and an M.A. in Security and Defense from the National Academy of Political and Strategies Studies (Chile), and an M.Sc. in Military Science and in UN peace operations from the Army War College of Chile. She has owned a management and marketing consulting company and has acted as an external consultant for the Chilean Army on management issues.
Since 2002, on an independent and voluntary basis, she has undertaken research in international relations and UN peacekeeping regarding issues such as gender, civil-military coordination, the protection of civilians, child protection, the UN Code of Conduct, preventing sexual violence in conflict, human rights, and genocide, among others.
From 2002 to 2009, she was a professor at the Chilean Joint Peacekeeping Training Centre (CECOPAC). From 2007 to 2009, she worked with the Office of the Special Adviser to the Secretary- General on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (now part of UN Women) to develop two online courses on the implementation of SCR 1325 in Africa and in Latin America and the Caribbean together with the Peace Operations Training Institute. During 2009 and 2010, she was a consultant to the Club of Madrid, where she served as a gender expert on the implementation of SCR 1325 and worked on projects for countries in Andean Latin America and the Horn of Africa.
She regularly holds lectures; teaches classes; and participates in international conferences, seminars, and workshops. She is the author of numerous articles, papers, and studies on gender and women, peace, and security issues.
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