Finite Disappointments Or Infinite Hope

Finite Disappointments or Infinite Hope

Working Through Tensions Within Transnational Feminist Movements

dorothy attakora-gyan

Ce texte explore les défis face aux Desmarais; Sachs and Alston; Shiva). re-articulation of power relations différences dans les organisations Food tends to shape, reflect, and characterizing the contemporary transnationales féministes et souligne mirror much of human nature and food system and as a project that la marginalisation et l’invisibilité des values (Van Esterick). Yet the study originates in the Global South. femmes rurales, des paysannes et des of food largely gets relegated to disci- In the first part of the paper I autochtones. Elle cite l’exemple de la plines such as nutrition, economics, want to first theoretically address Marche mondiale des femmes qui a and agronomy, which according to the identified challenges of working été un agent féministe qui a construit Penny Van Esterick, are disciplines across difference in transnational des solidarités féministes autour de la guided by rules of hard science. feminist organizing, with a particular souveraineté de la nourriture et au-delà Many have been and continue to focus on the marginalization and des différences. En mettant l’accent sur redefine the terms in which the invisibilization of rural, peasant, and la justice environnementale qui met globalized food system works and Indigenous women. Borrowing from en cause la gérance transnationale de how it can be rearticulated. I call for Chandra Talpade Mohanty I: la nutrition, l’auteure espère que les a redefinition of food that requires an féministes qui gèrent l’oppression sur analysis that would take into account want to speak of feminism plusieurs fronts, puissent exprimer leurs the complex circuits of power. I ask without silence and exclusion désappointements et les utiliser pour for us to reassess the contemporary in order to draw attention to the explorer des sites d’espoir. food system in ways that question tension and the emancipatory how power is created, reinforced, or potential of crossing through, In many countries, it is women who disrupted across dynamic, multiple, with, and over these borders in are first to experience increased work- and overlapping power imbalances our everyday lives. (2) loads, health problems, and other across various axes of difference. An damaging effects associated with appropriate space to observe how Because I inevitably will leave the off-putting impacts of global- such circuits operate is constituted people and issues out of this paper ization, deterioration of agriculture, by the engagement with and alli- due to constraints, I draw from Mo- economic instability, and migration ance-building framework on Food hanty “to address how the feminist (Van Esterick; Horvorka, DeZeeuw Sovereignty (fs) of the World March writings I analyzed here, discursively and Njenga; Patil, Balakrishnan of Women (wmw). The wmw is one colonizes the material” (19) I seek to and Narayan; Perry). From food of the most dynamic contemporary speak about. In the mapping out of production and acquisition to food transnational feminist networks and transnational feminist scholarship, processing, preparation and serv- Food Sovereignty, as a political proj- my concerns with tensions and power ing food both within their homes ect, represents an innovative space within feminist movements will inev- and for the public, we know that that brings together the urban, rural, itably show. However, in the words women play a major role in feeding peasant, and Indigenous women of of Mohanty, my “…comments and their communities worldwide (Van the world. Food Sovereignty aims criticisms are intended to encourage, Esterick; Pandey; Horvorka 2009; to achieve a re-configuration and not blame or induce guilt” (110). I

86 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME believe that feminist theories, practic- Grewal and Kaplan; Chowdhury; why voices cannot speak in unison, es, and theoretical works can be used Dufour, Masson and Caouette; Patil; stating that transnational feminism to counter inattention to rural and Bachetta; Alvaraz 2000, 2014; Black- has not been able to deliver the bases peasant women and help to address well; Conway 2012; Dempsey, Parker for political solidarity between wom- the context of rural women’s lives and Krone; Razack; Hawkesworth). en across race, ethnicity, sexuality, when it comes to food systems and Transnational practices vary and and national borders. In spite of the issues of food sovereignty (Sachs). include organizational, networks, different frames in which transna- In highlighting a key dimension of individual, collectives, local and national feminists envision themselves environmental justice that challenges tional movements, and feminist ngos, in relation to the theory and politics the food system’s transnational gover- international ngos who work towards of feminism, it is clear that there are nance, it is my hope that as feminists addressing gender and feminist issues limitations that have and continue fighting and simultaneously navigat- to rise. Such nuanced complex ways ing oppression on multiple fronts, we of understanding and making sense can reflect on our disappointments, of transnational feminism gives way using them as foundation to explore to various open interpretations of sites of possibility and hope. Growing debate the field and emerges as a site where over questions of power is reproduced. Challenges of Working Across power, privilege, Difference in Transnational Decentering Power(s) In (and Feminist Organizing and representation through) Transnational Feminist has shown that at Organizing and Beyond The body of literature on transnational feminism illustrates a times, feminists— As feminist discourses emerge and field that is contested, in flux, and both academic and grow, it becomes apparent that a constantly evolving and shifting. activists—may woman’s social location shapes and Growing debate over questions of impacts the ways in which she comes power, privilege, and representation reinscribe and to understand feminism. has shown that at times, feminists— reinforce the very What transnational feminism has both academic and activists—may meant for some women is what Mo- reinscribe and reinforce the very power imbalances hanty (2003) identifies as the reality power imbalances feminism seeks to feminism seeks to of international, global processes and dismantle. Many scholars have argued dismantle. organizing, heavily rooted in Western for feminisms rather than one mono- discourses privileging Western defi- lithic homogenized understanding nitions, and Western assumptions of the discourses and practices that about how things should be. This come to make up feminism. Viewing concept endorses the idea that the the field through a monolithic lens West is the origin of all organizing, creates imbalances and sets the stage (Dufour, Masson and Caouette; Patil; feminism, theory, discourse and thus for how feminism should be under- Vargas; Alvarez 2000, 2014a, 2014b; perceives itself as having the power stood and articulated. Any discourses Moghadam; Basu; Hewitt). Transna- and authority to grant the rest of the or practices falling outside of this tional processes are anchored in and world with a model and best practice assumed norm is rendered invisible, transcend more than one nation-state to follow. According to Mohanty, as alternative, or erased altogether. (Mahler and Pessar). Sherene Razack the West, it is assumed, equates to Transnational feminist practices, articulates that scholars interested in “originality,” whereas postcolonial is “while they connect collectives analyzing women’s agency within a perceived as “mimicry.” Oversimpli- located in more than one national globalizing context prefer the term fying, not recognizing, and taking for territory, also embody specific social transnational to other conceptual- granted diversity within Western and relations established between specif- izations like international women’s Third World areas has not only cre- ic people, situated in unequivocal movement or global feminism. Inder- ated problems, but dangerous myths localities, at historically determined pal Grewal and Caren Kaplan employ about women in the Global South, times” (Mahler 444). Contemporary the term transnational and call into particularly rural and peasant women. understandings of transnational question the use of the term global Philip McMichael asserts “to his- feminism developed as a response to feminism. These scholars argue that toricize food sovereignty is not simply exclusionary practices within feminist voices are not all the same, nor do they to recognize its multiple forms and discourses, development discourses, speak in unison (Razack; Grewal and circumstances across time and space, globalization, and tensions within Kaplan; Mohanty; Lock Swarr and but also to recognize its relations to ngos (Mohanty; Mahler and Pessar; Nagar). Breny Mendoza articulates the politics of capital” (1). If scholars

VOLUME 31, NUMBERS 1,2 87 are not attentive to how they present of power as well as organizations and introduce us to The Kenyan Green rural and peasant women, they risk nation-states (7). Not only must rural Belt Movement championed by Wan- reproducing the very narratives women always be made to disappear, gari Mathaai. Other scholars direct Mohanty, Grewal and Kaplan, and Robyn Dallow states that “rural life our attention to India, for instance. Jacquie Alexander and Chandra and some degree of geographical Anupam Pandey, Vandana Shiva, and Mohanty ask us to be weary of. isolation go hand-in-hand” (4). Emma Mawdsley add to the literature Carolyn Sachs provides an account Geographically, metaphorically, and and provide accounts of women’s in- of women in agriculture in a unique literally, rural women are rendered to volvement in the Chipko movement. way, tracing three specific crops: corn, the margins, the outskirts, and made This way of tracing women in the rice, and coffee. This preference of to feel isolated and invisible. Rural Mau Mau and Chipko movements, historicizing the genealogy of food women’s community involvement as well as Sachs tracing crops, brings movements by tracing crops rather in actors typically not spoken about than human bodies alone adds a from Native American women in the nuanced layer and rewriting/writing U.S. to Indigenous peoples in Latin in of Aboriginal, Indigenous, and America and Africa. First Nations peoples globally, and Other counter-narratives draw their knowledges and teachings that Women in the our attention to the role of rural and account for more than just human Global South have peasant women in urban centres. bodies, but rather acknowledges the long been resisting Rural and peasant women who find land and the harvest that it provides themselves in urban centres due to us. In Gendered Fields: Rural Wom- and organizing the difficulty of finding work in rural en, Agriculture and Environment, despite limited agriculture tend to find deserted, Sachs urges scholars to understand vacant lands to begin growing crops, the daily lives of women and their dialogue around sometimes starting kitchen gardens situated knowledges. Sachs pushes their agency, and (Sachs; Sachs and Alston; Hovorka, scholars to shift how they conceptu- yet some scholars in De Zeeuw and Njenga). In these cases, alize resistance in ways that capture crops are cultivated in people’s com- non-traditional understandings of positions of power pounds, along roads, railways, and it. This creates space to affirm the still render their under power lines; livestock’s is kept role of women traditionally as plant in compounds and slums, on vacant gatherers, and as early inventors of narratives as lands, while others are free-range horticulture, who have long studied alternative or and wander the city (Sachs; Sachs plants and crops. With this under- invisible. and Alston; Hovorka, De Zeeuw standing of women as historically, and Njenga). Other locations where already knowledgeable inventors and women grow their crops include road scientists. Carolyn Sachs helps shift reserves; bank and drainage channels; our traditional understanding of the wetlands; contaminated scrap yards; hard sciences, and ways of perceiving is accepted and even expected as dumping sites for solid and liquid women in the Global South, often the part of their “natural roles” as wives waste; vacated industrial areas; family object of the West’s conquest to save. and mothers, but never as decision gardens; gardens belonging to com- Sachs provides an account of rural makers’ (5). Women in the Global munity kitchens; community gar- women and their agency beyond our South have long been resisting and dens; school gardens; gardens located contemporary understandings, one organizing despite limited dialogue on private lands and communal areas; that disrupts traditional mainstream around their agency. Irrespective of public lands and institutional lands conceptualizations of rural and this, some scholars in positions of (Sachs; Sachs and Alston; Hovorka, peasant women as solely recipients of power still render their narratives as De Zeeuw and Njenga). Many of knowledge imported from the West. alternative or invisible. these locations come with limited ac- Building on Sarah Mahler and While many scholars either erase cess to clean water, and lack electricity Patricia Pessar, transnational feminists completely narratives outside of the (Sachs; Sachs and Alston; Hovorka, often leave unanswered the question Americas, or risk essentializing and De Zeeuw and Njenga). Simply put, of who gets to define issues to be perpetuating colonial narratives, lack of ownership and access to land brought to the transnational political Leigh Brownhill and Terisa Turner drives women to growing crops in arena, who gets to participate in differ- provide a historical account of wom- unsafe areas. ent forms of activism, whose voices are en’s organizing in Kenya tracing the Experiences of sexism while seek- left out of various dialogues that are Mau Mau resistance dating as far ing lands drive women to borrow had, and how transnational feminism back as the 1940s. Both Brownhill and search for free unused plots in risks privileging women in positions and Turner, and Emma Mawdsley, different, often dangerous neighbour-

88 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME hoods, garbage dumps, or undevel- yond being a safe space for women to Variations and diversity then should oped lands in valleys (Sachs; Sachs gather, are prominent places in com- not be articulated as falling within and Alston; Hovorka, De Zeeuw and munities and a source of civic pride. a hierarchy, or failure. Even within Njenga). If women are lucky, they It is said that public kitchens are so movements that were in the same lo- may find vacated plots of land closer to powerful that politicians understand cation, hemisphere, region or country, their homes of residence, or near their the power of women who run them some women found that relations of children’s schools so their children can and tend to approach them during power and dominance were present help them transport different crops election season looking to win voters and often failed to acknowledge such after school. In other cases, women (Shroeder). Going back to the work differences. work collectively to find land so they of Sach, Sachs and Alston, Brownhill While very little scholarship has can help each other out with tend- and Turner, and Mawdsley, we are still been documented around Aboriginal/ ing to it (Sachs; Sachs and Alston; Indigenous/ First Nations, Asian Hovorka, De Zeeuw and Njenga). (both East and South), Caribbean and Because they are seeking sources of Middle-Eastern women organizing income, many rural women arrive Desmarais (2007) acknowledges that at urban locations cash poor and are Many women have much work still needs to be done often left with no choice but to turn engaged in urban around these regions. In 1989, the to squatting, finding urban slums to first Latin American Meeting of Peas- reside in, or risking eviction and their agriculture as a means ant and Indigenous Organizations crops being destroyed at any moment. to not only feed their took place in Bogotá launching the Growing urban agriculture has meant families and save 500 Years of Indigenous and Popular that more women have been able to Resistance campaign. Since then, sub- feed their families and grow medicinal money, but to bring sequent meetings have taken placed herbs, and do so while saving money an added source of in Guatemala in 1991 and Nicaragua by avoiding market value products in 1992 (Deere and Royce 2). (Sachs; Sachs and Alston; Hovorka, income into their Women in the Global South have De Zeeuw and Njenga). Increasingly homes. In both small long been resisting and organizing many women have also engaged in and large scale plots, despite limited dialogue around their urban agriculture as a means to not agency, and yet some scholars in only feed their families and save women provide labour positions of power still render their money, but to bring an added source and yet production narratives as alternative or invisible. of income into their homes. In both Transnational movements such as small and large scale plots, women and land often still La Via Campesina, The World March provide labour and yet production belong to the men. of Women, Latin American Coordi- and land often still belong to the men nator of Rural Organizations (cloc), (Sachs; Sachs and Alston; Hovorka, The Continental Coordination of De Zeeuw and Njenga). Indigenous Nationalities and Peo- Furthermore, in some Latin reminded of the value of shifting how ple of Abya Yala are all making strides American countries such as Peru, scholars view rural women within to bridge many of these gaps within Bolivia, Mexico, and Venezuela, agriculture as knowledge producers food movements. (Desmarais 2007; women are taking their cooking and scientists. This shift grants rural Deereand Royce). In various places skills and transforming them into women the agency as experts working women are leading the way but con- “commercialized housework” in order carefully with crops in ways that not tinuously being silenced and written to support their families (Abarca 94). only heal and feed their communities, out. Viewing the negative outcomes Community kitchens, also known as but also brings profit and income. of globalization as mutually exclusive public kitchens in the literature, are The notion that certain issues are I argue has been detrimental to rural complex spaces with the potential to only taken up in the Global North women. both empower and subjugate women. and eventually travel to the Global Scholars such as Anupam Pandey Meredith Abarca shares that public South is problematic and has been a continue to argue that women are kitchens are grounded in three basic site of tension within transnational solely victims, thus limiting the po- principles: “to offer a space to listen feminism. Mina Roces argues that tential to incorporate them into high- to the voices of traditionally muted while “not all countries could boast er levels of decisionmaking. Because people; to recognize the validity of of a clearly organized movement for many view women as victims unable different fields of knowledge; build on female enfranchisement, this did to navigate globalization, such narra- trust which means keeping ourselves not mean that there were no wom- tives are still used to justify and keep honest” (106). Kathleen Shroeder en’s movements in Asia even dating women outside of decisionmaking. highlights how public kitchens, be- back to the 1920s and 1930s” (7). Economists, politicians, policies,

VOLUME 31, NUMBERS 1,2 89 decision-makers, men and women or use, thus such information about for the most part rural women farmers in positions of power and privilege, local trees, grasses and food related have found power in numbers and tend to provide partial accounts on forest produce which are required for working across borders transnation- situated perspectives of women, never nurturing families are threatened and ally has proven useful. stopping to consider that all knowl- under severe threat of food shortage Rural women have had and contin- edge is partial, situated and subject conditions (Agarwal 58). ue to have agency and utilize various to distortions (Sachs 1996). While Pharmaceutical companies have tools to resist and organize. They have women do not have the key to solving threatened such knowledges by in- been plant gatherers, early inventors all the world’s problems, neither do troducing patents and an attack on of horticulture, studying plants and men (Sachs 1996). To date, studies rural women’s knowledge is further crops and passing such knowledge of both international globalization at risk when younger generations are down to younger generations (Sachs and antiglobalization movements 1996; Shiva). Rural women’s work have largely ignored women, yet provides various insights on un- women have been at the forefront of derstanding how gender relations regional, national, international and in rural places have largely ignored transnational struggles. An attack on rural women (Sachs 1996). While power Peter Rosset contends that rural women’s knowledge imbalances limit the effectiveness of women’s voices traditionally are is further at risk when some of this organizing, progress is excluded from social, economic and being made. political power. Many women are younger generations The reluctance of scientists, dedicated to organizing vis-à-vis non- are not able to neither researchers, policy makers, politi- violent means that are grounded in cians, etc. to incorporate women’s concrete demands, seeking recogni- attain nor retain some knowledge into their conceptions of tion of their basic human and social of this knowledge. problems has slowed down the process rights (Rosset 7). They are concerned Being able to retain of solving various injustices including with the defense of rural livelihoods hunger, environmental degradation and increasingly, with the develop- and pass down and sexism, classism and other such ment of sustainable livelihoods that traditional knowledge forms of domination are at the root respect nature, and traditional knowl- cause (Sachs 1996). edge (Rosset 7). Across the literature, provides an outlet for Understanding the daily lives of the most striking narratives are out women to keep their rural women is important as it de- of India and point to the potential of ways of resisting mystifies our understandings of who women and traditional knowledge’s. they are and how they work. Under- In India, during the Chipko and survival alive. standing their situated knowledge Movement, Garhwali women were and that there are multiple women’s turning towards organic farming in knowledge’s (Desmarais) opens us up order to rejuvenate an ancient practice to finding new ways of advocating of farming (Pandey 351). Vandana not able to neither attain nor retain for rural women and working along Shiva, although contentious, provides some of this knowledge (Shiva). side, not in front or ahead of them. data and narratives on the ways in Being able to retain and pass down which women have been producers traditional knowledge provides an Conclusion of knowledge and continue to hold outlet for women to keep their ways on to knowledge that many scientists, of resisting and survival . The future of transnational solidar- pharmaceutical companies and food Any attempts to undo the past must ities, according to Paola Bachetta, corporations are seeking out. be engaged in collectively, working at depends largely upon “a continued The forest provides the means for all levels and across different regions. ability to self- critique and a mutual sustainable food production systems Given that privilege and access to will to avoid bulldozing, effacing, dis- in the form of nutrients and water, and resources are unequally distributed, torting and excluding” (970). Sachs women’s work in the forest facilitates Annette Desmarais points to how (2010) suggests women worldwide this process (Shiva 59). Rural women bringing women together from var- become more interconnected though hold on to knowledge that many are ious regions allows them to exchange the process of global restructuring not aware of. Bina Agarwal goes on ideas, information and experiences and that… to state that while rural women are about agricultural realities in differ- by no means the sole repositories of ent countries at local, national and it does not imply that women this knowledge they are often the sig- international levels. will know, nor form alliances or nificant bearers of such information While tensions will always be pres- organize with other women, or on the particular items they collect ent where people gather to organize, that their situations are the same,

90 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME however, it does mean that the A spiral is open ended, con- their Public Kitchens.” Taking impact of global economy on tinuous, ever enlargening our Food Public: Redefining Foodways their lives will be strengthened understanding of events, our in a Changing World. Eds. Psyche as corporations increasingly perspectives. The global women’s Williams and Carole Counihan, consider and compare the advan- movement can be thought of as Carole. New York: Routledge, tages and possibilities of using a spiral, a process that starts at 2012. Print. women’s labour. (141) the centre (rather than at the Agarwal, Bina. “Environmental beginning of the line) and works Management, Equity and Eco- Mainstream assumptions often its way outwards, turning, arriv- feminism: Debating India’s romanticize the rural woman and her ing and what might appear to be Experience.” Journal of Peasant work. These assumptions have im- the same point, but in reality, Studies 25 (4)(1998): 55-95. Print. pacted how rural women are perceived at an expanded understanding Alexander, M. Jacqui and Chandra and thus how they continue to be left of the same event. A spiral is Talpade Mohanty. “Cartographies out of roles that impact their day-to- dialective, allowing for the or- of Knowledge and Power: day lives. Paola Moya argues that any ganic growth of a movement of Transnational Feminism in Radical attempts to work with others across women organizing- a movement Praxis.” Feminist Genealogies, differences require us examining our in a state of on- going evolution Colonial Legacies, Democratic shadow selves and parts of us that we as consciousness expands in the Futures. Eds. M. Jacqui Alexander are not always proud of. Moya quotes process of exchanges between and Chandra Talpade Mohanty. Cherrie Moraga who eloquently and women, taking us backwards New York: Routledge, 1997a. 43- beautifully articulates, (to rethink and reevaluate old 84. Print. positions) and forwards (to new Alexander, M. Jacqui, and Chandra Because the source of op- areas of awareness). (21) Talpade Mohanty. “Introduction: pression form not only our Genealogies, Legacies, Move- radicalism, but also our pain, Shifting towards Sachs’s approach ments.” Feminist Genealogies, to do the kind of world self- ex- to rural women as knowledge pro- Colonial Legacies, Democratic amination requires us to admit ducers, rural women’s agency are Futures. Eds. M. Jacqui Alexander how deeply “the mans” words pushed forward rather than the and Chandra Talpade Mohanty. have been ingrained in us. The constant message of them being im- New York: Routledge, 1997b. project of examining our own poverished recipients of globalization xiii-xlii. Print. locations within the relations with nothing to offer. By shifting the Alvarez, Sonia E. “Feminist Politics of domination becomes even narrative and giving space for alter- of Translation in the Latin/A riskier when we realize that native ways of knowing and being Américas.” Translocalities/Trans- doing so might mean giving to be validated, hierarchies of power localidades: Feminist Politics of up whatever privileges we have slowly disentangle. Translation in the Latin/A Américas. managed to squeeze out of this Eds. Sonia E. Alvarez and Claudia society by virtue of our own A self-identified African feminist Dor- de Lima Costa. Durham, nc: Duke social locations. We are afraid othy Attakora-Gyan straddles multiple University Press, 2014a. Print. to admit that we have benefitted often conflicting positionalities. With Alvarez, Sonia E. “Introduction to the from the oppression of others. identities as hyphenated as her last Project and the Volume: Enacting We fear the immobilizations name, she is currently completing her A Translocal Feminist Politics of threatened by our own incipient Ph.D. at the Institute for Feminist and Translation.” Translocalities/Trans- guilt. We fear we might have to Gender Studies at the University of localidades: Feminist Politics of change our lives once we have Ottawa. Dorothy is invested in studying Translation in the Latin/A Américas. seen ourselves in the bodies the processes, discourses and practices Eds. Sonia E. Alvarez and Claudia of the people we have called of solidarity building across differences de Lima Costa. Durham, nc: different. We fear the hatred, within transnational feminist networks. Duke University Press, 2014b. anger, and vengeance of those Always keen on pushing boundaries and 1-17. Print. we have hurt. (Moya 150) disrupting taken for granted assump- Alvarez, Sonia E. “Translating the tions of normativity, she is continuously Global: Effects of Transnational As scholars we must shift how we interrogating how power and privilege Organizing on Local Feminist conceptualize feminism. Peggy An- operate in interlocking ways. Discourses and Practices in Latin trobus highlights that within Inuit America.” Meridians: Feminism, tradition, story telling takes form of References Race, Transnationalism 1.1 (2000): a spiral. She challenges feminists to 29-67. Print. perceive the transnational feminist Abarca, Meredith E. “Chalas Culina- Antrobus, Peggy. The Global Women’s movements as a spiral: ries: Mexican Women Speak From Movement. Origins, Issues, and

VOLUME 31, NUMBERS 1,2 91 Strategies. London: Zed Books, Livelihoods. Gainesville: University Mary Njenga, eds. Women Feed- 2004. Print. Press of Florida, 2009. Print. ing Cities: Mainstreaming Gender Bachetta, Paola (2002) “Re-Scaling Dempsey, Sarah E., Patricia S. in Urban Agriculture and Food Trans/national ‘Queerdom’: 1980s Parker and Kathleen J. Krone. Security. Warwickshire: Practical Lesbian and ‘Lesbian’ Identitary “Navigating Socio-Spatial Dif- Action Publications, 2009. Print. Positionalities in Delhi.” Antipode ference, Constructing Counter- Lock Swarr, Amanda and Richa Nagar. 34 (November 2002): 947-973. Space: Insights from Transnational “Continuing Conversations: Print. Feminist Praxis.” Journal of Critical Transnational Feminist Basu, Amrita (2004) “Women’s International and Intercultural Praxis Contributors.” Critical Movements and the Challenge of Communication 4.3 (2011): 201- Transnational Feminist Praxis. Eds. Transnationalism,” in Subhadra 220. Print. Amanda Lock Swarr and Richa Channa (ed.) Encyclopedia of Desmarais, A. “Chapter 6: Co- Nagar. Albany: State University Women’s Studies, vol. 1, Women’s operation, Collaboration and of New York Press, 2010. Print. Movements. New Delhi: Cosmo Community.” La Via Campesina: Mahler, Sarah and Patricia Pessar. Publications. 259-66. Print. Globalization and the Power “Gendered Geographies of Blackwell, Maylei. “Weaving in the of Peasants. Black Point, ns: Power: Analyzing Gender Across Spaces: Transnational Indigenous Fernwood Publishing, 2007. 161- Transnational Spaces.” Identities Women’s Organizing and the 189. Print. 7.4 (2001): 441-459. Politics of Scale.” Dissident Women. Dufour, Pascale, Dominique Masson Mawdsley, Emma. “After Chipko: Gender and Cultural Politics in and Dominique Caouette, eds. From Environment to Region in Chiapas. Ed. R. Aida Hernandez Solidarities Beyond Borders: Uttaranchal.” Journal of Peasant et al. Austin: University of Texas Transnationalizing Women’s Studies 25.4 (1998): 36-54. Print. Press, 2006. 115-154. Print. Movements. Vancouver: University McMichael, Phillip. “Historicizing Brownhill, Leigh and Terisa E. of British Columbia Press, 2010. Food Sovereignty.” The Journal Turner. “The Struggle for Land Grewal, Inderpal, and Caren of Peasant Studies 41.1 (2014): and Food Sovereignty: Feminism Kaplan “Transnational Feminist 17-41. Print. in the Mau Mau Resurgence.” Cultural Studies: Beyond the Mendoza, Breny.“Transnational Globalization and Third World Marxism/ Poststructuralism/ Feminisms in Question,” Feminist Women: Exploitation, Coping and Feminism Divides.” Scattered Theory 3.3 (2002): 295-314. Print. Resistance. Eds. Ligaya Lindio- Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Moghadam, Valentine M. Globalizing McGovern and Isidor Wallimann. Transnational Feminist Practices. Women: Transnational Feminist New York: Ashgate Publishing Eds. Indepal Grewal and Caren Networks. Baltimore: John Hopkins Ltd., 2011. 81-105. Print. Kaplan. Minneapolis: University University Press, 2005. Print. Chowdhury, Elora Halim. “Locating of Minnesota Press, 1994. Print. Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. “Under Global Feminisms Elsewhere: Hawkesworth, Mary E. Globalization Western Eyes Revisited: Feminist Braiding U.S. Women of Color and Feminist Activism. Lanham: Solidarity Through Anticapita- and Transnational Feminism.” Rowman and Littlefield, 2006. list Struggles.” Feminism Without Cultural Dynamics 21.1 (2009): Print. Borders: Decolonizing Theory, 51-78. Print. Hewitt, Lyndi. “Framing Across Practicing Solidarity. Durham: Conway, Janet M. “Geographies of Differences, Building Solidarities: Duke University Press, 2003. Print. Transnational Feminisms: The Lessons from Women’s Rights Moya, Paula M. L. “Postmodernism, Politics of Place and Scale in the Activism in Transnational Spaces.” ‘Realism’ and the Politics of World March of Women.” Social Interface: a Journal For and About Identity: Cherrie Moraga and Politics 15.2 (2008): 207-231. Social Movements 3.2 (2011): 65- Chicana Feminism.” Feminist Print. 99. Print. Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Conway, Janet M. “Transnational Horvorka, A. “The No. 1 Ladies’ Democratic Futures. Eds. M. Jacqui Feminisms Building Anti- Poultry Farm: A Feminist Political Alexander and Chandra Talpade Globalization Solidarities.” Ecology of Urban Agriculture Mohanty. New York: Routledge, Globalizations 9.3 (2012): 367- in Botswana.” Gender, Place & 1997. Print. 381. Print. Culture: A Journal of Feminist Pandey, Anupam. “Globalization Dallow, Robyn. “The Role of Women Geography 13 (3) (2006a). Print. and Ecofeminism in the South: in Agriculture and Rural Settings.” Hovorka, A. “Urban Agriculture: Keeping the ‘Third World’ Alive.” Australian Journal of Rural Health Addressing Practical and Strategic Journal of Global Ethics 9.3 (2013): 1.1 (1992): 3-10. Print. Gender Needs Development.” 345-358. Print. Deere, Carmen and Frederick Royce, Practice 16(1) (2006b): 51-61. Patil, Rajeev, Radhika Balakrishnan eds. Rural Social Movements in Latin Print. and Uma Narayan. “Transgressing America: Organizing for Sustainable Hovorka, Alica, Henk De Zeeuw and Rights: La Via Campesina’s Call

92 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME