Can We Speak of Global Feminism?

Journal of International and Local Studies - ISSN: 25281674 (p); 25497855 (e) Vol.1, Issue.1, January 2017, pp.1-58

CAN WE SPEAK OF GLOBAL FEMINISM?

Beche Bt Mamma International Relations Department, Social and Political Faculty Bosowa University, Makasssar, 90231 ([email protected])

Abstract This paper attempts to answer the question whether globalization that blurs the state’s boundaries can unite feminist movement to be a global feminism. The goal is to eliminate all the diuerences and diversities that obstruct women in the West and women in the South, such as the wealth issue, the western women perspective, the commonality and the colonialism in the third/ south/ countries. Used post-colonialism feminism approach, this paper argues the attempt to unite all the diuerences and diversities that lie between women in the West and women in the South obstructed by the sharp of live diuerentiations and history that inﬁuenced them. Key words: globalization, global feminism, wealth issue, western women perspective, commonality, colonialism, post-colonialism.

Abstrak Tulisan ini mencoba menjawab pertanyaan apakah globalisasi yang mengaburkan batas-batas terri- tory negara mampu mempersatukan gerakan feminis menjadi sebuah gerakan global yang menghi- langkan semua perbedaan-perbedaan yang menghambat seperti isu kesejahteraan, isu, bekas tanah jajahan dan pandangan barat terhadap perempuan di negara bekas jajahan/ dunia ketiga/ selatan. Dengan mengunakan pendekatan feminism post-colonial, tulisan ini berargumen bahwa upaya un- tuk menyatukan semua perbedaan yang ada terutama yang berkaitan dengan perempuan yang berada di negara bekas jajahan menimbulkan beberapa hambatan yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan perempuan dinegara jajahan dan kehidupan perempuan yang berada di negara maju/ barat. Kata kunci: activist feminist, feminist global, negara berkembang, negara maju, perbedaan dan persamaan.

Introduction which it could unite all the diuerences and the similarity that women have weather they are in In the twenty-›rst century, feminism has developing countries or developed countries. shaped its movement to be a global dimension Further, they said that both men and women where the goal to form single movement do the practice of feminism both in the wider become the target.1 It is because the infiuence institutional context both governmental and of the globalization that gave immense euect to non-governmental organizations. As Moghadam feminism activists to reformulate its action in argues that the changing orientation and nature of feminism from national context to international context started in the mid of 1980s, this indicated 1 M. M. Feree and A. M. Tripp,’ Global feminism: by the UN world women conference which was transnational women’s activism, organizing, and held in Nairobi, Kenya. UN has a signi›cant role human rights’, New York University Press, New York in promoting women activities throughout the and London, 2006, pp. vii-ix. Beche Bt Mamma world in the early inception. It was due to the which it resides. Term such as “third world women” connection between UN programs and women’s in the study of women represents homogeneous issues, for instance, poverty, illiteracy, and famine. racial and sexual diuerences. Model transnational Those issues at the same time promoted women’s shifted from an analysis of diuerences and post problems, particularly in the developing world.2 colonialism homogeneous ›gures, encouraging During the preparation of this conference, the the interdisciplinary studies are not even and make issues of how to bridge the diuerence in ideology it more complicated in relation between women in and make consensus on the issues had emerged. diuerent part of the world. It highlights diuerent These issues are questioned by new types of needs and diuerent agendas in many cultures and women’s organization.3 She also maintains that communities that make it even more complicated there were three situations in which infiuence in the context of state.6 the shift of feminism movement to global; ›rst is the development of economic-political issues Post-colonial feminist approach within countries and regional; second is the transition of economic practice from Keynesian to This paper uses postcolonial feminism neoliberal economic, and the last is the emerging approach in international relations. This approach of many fundamentalist women’s movements. is used to show the diuerence between feminism These all development according to Moghadam relations in the west and feminism in the south and has signi›cantly infiuenced and contributed to to argue whether global feminism can eliminate the diuerent thoughts in how to re-organize the all the diuerences and diversity between them. movement considering the issue of women in the The base principle of this approach is the way developing and developed world. western feminism constructed knowledge about non-western women. Postcolonial Feminism sees As a result of this global dimension is the false generalization of knowledge which based the formation of few women’s transnational on the privileged live of Western white women. feminists’ networks in which united women Moreover, post-colonialism feminism emphasized from developing and developed countries to take on the assumption of western feminism that said action on problems relating to social-economic all women have a similar need of emancipation and patriarchal issues. Those networks included whereas it is very diuerent. Postcolonialism Development Alternatives with Women for a new feminism challenges the portrayal of western Era (DAWN), Women in Development Europe women on women who live in the south that is (WIDE), Women Living under Muslim Laws poor, uneducated, victimized. About the issue, (WLUML), and the Sisterhood Is Global Institute the writer will use this approach to see if it can (SIGI).4 The lists of global networks are multiply unite all the diuerences and the similarity of when in the 1990s the Women’s environment women in the developing world and developed and development Organization (WEDO) and world. Postcolonialism feminism approach can the Association of Women of the Mediterranean explain why talking about global feminism is Region (AWMR) joined the global feminist impossible. Chandra Mohanty, the postcolonial network.5 feminist activist, criticized Western feminism that treating women as a homogenous which does not Furthermore, Feminist, as a movement, recognize the diuerences based on their culture, always attached to the idea of conformity and geographical location, race and social class.7 rights. On the other hand, feminist not a monolithic discourse that considers historical and ideological This paper will answer research questions diuerences. The relationship between the that have raised that are questioning the ability feminists based on economic politics conditions of this global feminism to exist, and it could be that diuerent in the identity, the workload and the the single medium to formulate women gender value of feminists themselves in the community in problems worldwide, including eliminating all the diuerences and diversities they have.

2 J. Steans,’ Gender and international relation’, Polity, 6 E. H. Chowdhury, ‘Locating global feminism: Braid- United Kingdom, 2006, p. 93. ing US women of colour and transnational feminists’, 3 V. M. Moghaddam,’ Globalizing women: transnation- Cultural Dynamics, 21(1), p. 55. al feminist networks’, The John Hopkins University 7 J.A. Tickner and L. Sjoberg, Postcolonial Feminisme, Press, Baltimore and London, 2005, pp. 6-7 in T. Dunn, M. Kurki, and S. Smith, International 4 V. M. Moghaddam, p. 8 Relations Theories Dicipline and Diversity, 3 edn, p. 5 V. M. Moghaddam, p. 8 205-206.

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Feminism and Women Movement: a way to happened between women in the industrialized understand global feminism countries and women in the developing countries. This condition is also impossible to unity those There are some authors separating between diuerence. feminists and women movement. This diuerent meaning is important to know because to continue While feminism is well known with its making an argument about global feminism; it practice to eliminate the subordination happens seems important to know whether both of words between men and women. The issue of inequality above have the same meaning and connotation. and power in social, political structure, it also As Ferree argues that women movement should de›nes by its knowledge, beliefs, and theory not put at the same de›nition as feminist, it that constructed its movement in which it may is because, implicitly, it has slightly diuerent take place inside in any kinds of organizations meaning. Women movement, according to her, forms, including women movements. The is formed by the constituency of the organization fundamental issue that may make it diuerent in which it consists of women gender, including is the aim of feminism to challenge all forms mother, sister, and daughters, and because of this of unequal gender relation between men and reason, it formed distinctive social movement women.11 To reach those goals, feminists argue group. On the other hand, this women movement that gender perspective is useful in three ways is also not signi›cantly having a gendered goal but that are conceptually for understanding what rather focus on the issue of peace, or social justice. global politics means; second is empirically Similarly, Antrobus argues that many women’s for identifying realities, knowing causes, and organization particularly which focus on the predicting outcomes; and the third is normatively traditional problems and have a strong advocacy for disseminating positive change and value.12 A towards women’s issues is not necessarily similar de›nition wrote by Hannam; she de›nes identi›ed themselves as feminists.8 Only these feminism as a set of ideas which challenges the recent years, the goal and issue that is fought by social and political structure in which put women these kinds of organizations changed to more in unlucky condition. 13According to Hannam, that gendered issues.9 Furthermore, Basu categorized condition caused by the social construction that women’s movement into three broad tendencies;10 gives more bene›t to men, this is because of the ›rst is regarding silence and omission. It can be strong inﬁuence of patriarchal, particularly in the seen that most of the story about women merely developing world. Furthermore, Clough argues talking about women in the western countries and that feminism phenomenon nowadays is more ignoring women issue in the third world; second complex. It is because the issues are more about is that there is an opinion which categorized public discourse such as the issue of freedom, women movements as a result/ product of sexual abuse, domestic violence, health care, development/ modernization. Some scholars education, crime, environment, and children.14 such as Anthony Dworkin and Diane Margolis argues that women movements have a correlation Global Feminism: the challenge to moving to with the modernization in which they form a new space themselves into the middle class. This condition according to them becomes important to women When the question of can we speak of movements, but all part of places where women global feminism is asked, the good answer is movement exists had experienced the middle- probably no for the following reasons. This based class condition. For example in India women on the history of global feminism in which can movements is characterized by the emerging of be obtained through review the long struggle and poor women; the third is there is a tendency to say that women worldwide has experienced the same thing. This condition negated the diuerence that 11 M. M. Feree and A. M. Tripp, p. 7. 12 L. Sjoberg and J. A. Tickner,’ International relation through feminist lenses’, in Feminism and internation- 8 P. Antrobus,’ The global women’s movement: origins, al relation; conversation about the past, present, and issues and strategies’, Zed Book Ltd, London, New future (ed), Routledge, London and New York, 2011, York, 2004, p. 13. p. 11. 9 M. M. Feree and A. M. Tripp, p. 6. 13 J. Hannam,’ Feminism’, Pearson Education Limited, 10 A. Basu,’ The challenge of local feminism: women Great Britain, London, 2012, p. 7. movements in global perspective (ed.), Westview 14 P. T. Clough,’ Feminist thought’, Blackwell, Oxford Press, Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford, 1995, pp. 1-2. UK and Cambridge USA, 1994, p. viiii

JILS, Vol.1 ,Issue.1, January 2017 17 Beche Bt Mamma stories from a diuerent part of this world since the issue was the issue of wealth. It is a reality that 1940s.15 As Smith maintains, in the past ›fty years women are in poor condition whether they live in the activity of feminism should be considered as “south” or “north.” However, the term of poor is global. There are collections of histories of women very diuerent when it confronted by the women in various contexts from diuerent countries like who lived in the South including Africa, the the issue of imperialism and nationalism in Asia Asian countries, Latin America. This condition is and Africa region. The issue of working condition because women in the South received the adverse in Korea, the issue of masculinity domination in euect of male domination on agricultural sectors; democracy life in Eastern Europe, and the issue women also have less access to advanced medical of how to get better life for their family life and treatment which could save their lives; they were prevent adverse euect of abuse on women.16 also prone to the epidemic and dangerous disease. Relating to the term ‘global,’ Tong argues that that For example in Bangladesh women generally, is a term that expressed the life condition of women lives in poor condition. it happens because the who lived in the developing world are much worse social structure put Bangladeshi women in a than women who lived in the developed world.17 disadvantaged position where women are very Further, she maintains that this has challenged dependent on men in term of living hood.20 Similar the privilege of women in the developed world condition happened in Africa, particularly towards to think that what they experienced in their life women in the rural area. Most of them depend on at this moment is so diuerent with women in their life on a farm in which their work as a farmer. the third world. On the other words, women in However, their position as a farmer undermined the third world should sacri›ce their life to get by the development project which they excluded the privilege. Also, the result of post-industrial from being as workers.21 Conversely, women in development was uneven in the most countries the North have very diuerent issues with those in such as South Korea, Indonesia, Taiwan, and the south. They asked more of getting a greater Thailand. Women in these countries were promised opportunity to public spaces and economic, issue by the manufacturing to give a high salary but of lesbian and bisexual, an environmental issue the reality they should work harder and sweated and freedom of sexual harassment.22 Women than they thought. In the recent decade, most of in the west particularly from United States, the manufacturing ›rms that are operating in host Australia, Canada, and New Zealand had their countries had provided an unequal opportunity power to control their right to their reproduction for women. It was because they only recruited and freedom from sexual assault or any violence men not women as their workers; this happens because men will get punish for it.23 This diuerent in African, particularly in agricultural sectors. side of issues which derived from two sides of the Antrobus de›nes Another meaning of ”global‘; world is indicating that global feminism is not an she explains that the term of global is an euort easy movement to uniting all the diuerence that to minimize the cultural diuerence that women they have. in worldwide have regarding the diuerence in race, national boundaries, cultural, religion, race, Colonialism ethnicity, and political avliation which led to sharp diuerentiation.18 As a consequence, women The deeply analyzing of condition on position was undermined by this condition.19 women in the south is described succinctly by Mohanty.24 She argues that the condition of Wealth Issue 20 A. Basu, pp. 89-90. Despite those conditions above, the 21 B. O’Laughin,’ A bigger piece of a very small pie: important issue that has signi›cantly emphasized intrahousehold resource allocation and proverty in which putting more gap on global feminism reduction in Africa‘, in Gender Myths & Feminist Fable: the struggle for interpretative power in gender and development’, Blackwell Publishing, Australia, 15 B. G. Smith, ‘ Global feminism since 1945: rewrit- 2008, pp. 21-22. ing histories (ed.)’, Routledge, London and New York, 22 B. G. Smith, pp. 6-7 2000, pp. 1-8. 23 C. Bulbeck,’ Re-orienting western feminisms: wom- 16 B. G. Smith, p. 2 en’s diversity in a postcolonial world’, Cambridge 17 R. Tong,’ Feminist thought 3 ed.’, Westview Press, University Press, Melbourne, Australia, 1998, p. 20. America, 2009, p. 8 24 C. T. Mohanty,’ Feminist without boarder’, Duke 18 P. Antrobus, p. 1 University Press, Durham and London, 2003, pp. 19 B. G. Smith, p. 5 17-18.

18 JILS, Vol.1 ,Issue.1, January 2017 Can We Speak of Global Feminism? women in the South based on its knowledge of to ›x the problems that caused by the colonist colonialism. This term has created varieties of such as communalism, environmental euects, a phenomenon which caused the construction and the unrepresentative bureaucracy where the of domination relating to suppression towards system of personal law still refers to colonial women. The Marxist theory could explain the why administration.29 this happened; colonialism and imperialism in classic means opening and expand trade overseas Under western eye for gaining much pro›t by reducing expenses. For example purchase cheaper slaves from Colonialism, on the other hand, has South countries. In the modern era colonialism simultaneously emerged the issue of ‘under implicitly means the existence of multinational the western eye.’ This term is used to describe cooperation that operated in the third world where the situation on how women in the South/ the in practice they hired a worker and then pay them third world see women from the western. This with very low salary. Colonialism itself is a part perspective based on of being colonized for of the domination of military forces and political been long time; the image that comes to mind arrogance.25 is those western women who come to them are also representative or at least having relation with Furthermore, Mohanty maintains that the colonists. As Smith argues that imperialism colonial states had relation with the knowledge had given privilege to the ‘whiteness’ just as and organization that connected it with class/ ‘maleness,’30 non-western women from the West, caste, racial, and sexual. There are three aspects for instance, India, and Egypt have identi›ed that had been used by imperial powers to rule their selves as feminists that have knowledge their colonies. First is white masculine became of democracy, individual freedom, and the free the centre of ideological construction in which market. However, they are preferred not to imitate corresponding it to the concept of racism and what feminist in the West did; they choose to be sexual towards the colonized people. Second is more authentic against the imperialist power. colonial institutions and politics had inﬁuenced Because of that, women in the developing world the middle-class culture towards colonized people, connected feminism from the west as women and the third is National liberation movements who are only ›ghting for middle-class interest, caused the rise of feminism political movement and they believe that those issues do not ›x on historical context of colonist.26 As Syed and them well. This situation may well describe as Ali argue that there is such mistrust of women in feminist and myth in the developing countries.31 the developing countries towards women from It is because it seems that feminists knowledge the West regarding gender equality and changing become fragmentized when facing issues in issues that ouered by them. It relates to the the developing world. As Mohanty argues that role that alleged by Western women in colonial feminists theory and political interest should not agenda.27 Also, Rajan explains that colonialism ignore the complex connection between developed may be only a history of postcolonial countries in and developing world economy; it is because it which it had auected severely on social, politics, ties all the women around the world. Further, she economy, and cultural of ex-colonized people at maintains that it is important to draw international present.28 Rajan gives an example of the colonial feminists’ link to break the silence that happened legacy that had happened in India. The legacy that towards women in the third world by giving more is known as a parliamentary system, the railways, attention to signi›cant explanation and analysis and English language, often becomes a causal in their writing. By doing this, it could minimize the hegemony of western feminist perspective 32 25 C. Bulbeck,’ Re-orienting western feminisms: wom- upon women in the developing countries. Also, en’s diversity in a postcolonial world’, Cambridge western feminists discourse constituted women University Press, Melbourne, Australia, 1998, pp. into categories that are kinship, legal, and other 18-19. 26 C. T. Mohanty, p. 58 29 27 J. Syed and F. Ali,’ The white women’s burden: from R. S. Rajan, p. 7. 30 colonial civilization to third world development’, B. G. Smith, p. 7 Third World Quarterly, vol. 32, no. 2, 2011, pp. 31 A. Cornwall, E. Harrison, and A. Whitehead,’ Gen- 349-351. der Myths and feminist fables: the struggle for inter- 28 R. S. Rajan,’ Real and imagined women: Gender, pretive power in gender and development’, Blackwell culture, and postcolonial’, Routledge, London and Publishing, Australia, 2008, pp. 4-5. New York, 1993, pp. 6-7. 32 C. T. Mohanty, pp. 19-21.

JILS, Vol.1 ,Issue.1, January 2017 19 Beche Bt Mamma structures, this de›ning woman in the third world Another argument from Tong says that it is a are outside of the social structure. It based on the major challenge for a feminist to unify all of the way they constituted the structures that experienced diuerence and diversity that exists in the women‘s by them which categorized women position into world from a diuerent part of the world.37 This ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries.33 One argument supported by Postmodern Feminists reason why women in the third world consider which says that women cannot be one that feminist as bourgeois and Western is because of reﬁected the feminists‘ knowledge and thoughts. It the belief, inspiration, origins, and the irrelevance is because it is divcult to ›ght women oppression issues that they bring to the third world. This if there are no classes, groups, and collectivity. situation made women in the developing countries Furthermore, Rajan maintains that the divcult part considered that feminism associated with an for a feminist is to enter the literary as a way to get ideology, strategy, and approach.34 To show their trust from women situation. First showed by Rose opposition towards feminist, women in the third (cited on Rajan’s book) that the wider connection world found symbols as a women’s power in post- with literacy would open the possibility to enter colonial context. For example, women in Kenya the historical and political critics relating to class, singing and dancing to share their experience, religion, race, language, sexual diuerence.38 The women in India found women symbol of power challenge also comes from fundamentalist groups in the cycle of rituals, and in the Philippines, such ‘ jihad’ and ‘ Mc World’ which related to women found their symbol of power through the tribal, religious and national groups. These groups story of the baby which women are told that they have the intention to do hegemony on capital and were born separately to men. It means that they western norms. It said that such groups have symbolically have right on their body so to their highly patriarchal agendas.39These issues have destiny. been trying to overcome by transnational feminist through two ways. First is action against neoliberal Commonality cooperation and second is against patriarchal nationalism and fundamentalist movements. Another problem is relating to commonality. It may be true to say that global feminism success Moreover, global feminism recognized the to organize women’s organization by building up diuerence that all women around the world have. transnational networking to achieve feminists’ It is indicated by they claim that women indeed goal in gender equality particularly relating to cannot work together as true equals as long as power relation. However, it seems that it is hard to they understand the diuerence that they have. be true when looking at the complexity issues that Audre Lorde gives an example that if a woman women in the third world have comparing to issues enters one room which consisted of many women of women in the ›rst world. As Basu argues, the from worldwide, she would probably try hard to division among women is so massive and cannot lower the diuerence intensity that she has towards be categorized as a commonality. The diuerence other women. This example according to Lorde is based on nationality, race, class, religion, region, treating the idea of sisterhood and commonality language and sexual orientation.35 These divisions, and show the inability of feminists to deal with according to Basu are the basis of the sameness all the diuerence that women have. For example; of feminist movement which reﬁected the bias in Islam women wearing hijab which makes them of ethnocentric and middle-class women in the having a diuerent perspective regarding people ›rst world. This condition caused resentment who do not wear it;40 the issue of women in poverty among women in the third world and caused in Latin America reported more than men;41 which deep division ever. Further, Basu maintains that is stated in the Beijing Platform for Action in a better relationship could happen between them when this global feminist movement abandoned the idea of sameness and commonality, when this happen it could lead to respecting each other. 37 R. Tong, p. 9 This situation once happened in UN conference in 38 R. S. Rajan, p. 118 Mexico City in 1975 and Copenhagen in 1980.36 39 V. M. Moghadam, pp. 142-143 40 See T. F. Ruby,’ Listening to the voices of hijab’, Women’s Studies International Forum, Elsevier, 29, 33 C. T. Mohanty, p. 40. 2006, pp. 1-5 34 A. Basu, p. 7 41 M. Medelros and J. Costa,’ Is there a feminization 35 A. Basu, p. 3. of poverty in Latin America?’, World Development, 36 A. Basu, p. 3. Elsevier, 2008, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 115-127.

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1995. The issue of marriage law in Kenya42 where to which it refiects local need. In reality, outsiders culture determines with whom a Kenya woman tend to choose an issue that is sensational which is should marry. And another example of early not refiecting local priority.48 Thirdly, it cannot be marriage in the region of Sub African Sahara, a denied that women advocates who live in the north girl should marry early after menstruation as a have the power to infiuence the governments‘ symbol of family honor because if she does not decision makers that auect women worldwide. marry, she may dishonor her family. It causes a They can infiuence their government policy big social euect.43 Similarly, as Barungi argues, through foreign auairs, immigration, military since 20 years of the beginning of the international intervention, UN policy makers, foreign aids, and commitment to globalizing the issue of reducing another opportunity that they have which auects gender equality, the hard euort has been made by a women globally.49 And the ›nal is international feminist to against the inequality towards women. actors, particularly in the north, should engage Further, she maintains that one urgent thing that more with an international issue regarding women should not be forgotten is that the polarization gender equality around the world but should not between women in the south and women in the put behind their needs too.50 west. This situation has been increasingly true in the international level, particularly in the case of Conclusion Uganda.44 .As a result, this could lead to a problem to build up an alliance for a better world.45 In conclusion, to uniting all women worldwide through the idea of global feminism Recommendations seems facing some obstacles regarding the sharp diuerentiation among women in the developing Responding to all the challenges regarding countries and developed countries. As this essay global feminism, some recommendations have has argued that there are four aspects which still been ouered to deal with the diversi›cation of need to study more, ›rst is the issue of wealth. international women’s movements. The gap Most women worldwide, particularly who live in between women in the south/ the third world/ the developing countries have lived in this unequal developing countries and women in the west/ division of wealth. Second is the issue of colonial. north/ the ›rst countries are signi›cantly build This issue has shaped the perspective of women up international linkage among women. As Tripp in the south towards women in the developed argues that when international support gained, it countries. The third is the issue of white westerners. is not always refiected the deeper understanding It relates with the privilege to women who have of other women movements, local contexts, and white skin compared to women who have other needs.46 Tripp suggests four recommendations colors. And the last is a commonality. It is divcult regarding global feminism. Firstly, outside actors for women worldwide to be generalized common should consider local actors sensitive issue relating in all aspects, it is because women are diuerent they condition, local laws, religious practice, and depends on where they lived, what they religion cultural sensitivities. It is because local actors have are, in what culture they lived, and in what part much legitimate power than outsiders, consulting of the world they lived. Regarding those issues any action to them is important.47 Secondly, above, Tripp suggests four recommendations. outside actors should consider and select an issue First, outsiders should consider local sensitive issue. Second, outsiders should select issues that refiect local needs. Third, women feminists who 42 See B. L. Shadle,’ Bridewealth and female con- lived in developed countries have an opportunity sent: marriage dispute in African courts, Gusiland, to infiuence their government policy which auects Kenya,’ Journal of African History, vol. 44, 2003, women worldwide, and fourth, women feminists pp. 241-262. from developed countries should not put behind 43 See B. S. Mensch, M. J. Grant and A. K. Blanc,’ The their priority while improving other women changing context of sexual initiation in Sub- Sahara interest. Africa’, Population and Development Review, vol. 32, no. 4, 2006, pp. 699-702. 44 B. M. Barungi,’ Uganda feminism: political rhetoric or reality’, Women’s Studies International, vol. 22, no. 2, 1999, pp. 435-437. 45 R. Tong, p. 217 48 A. M. Tripp, p. 308 46 A. M. Tripp,’ 49 A. M. Tripp, p. 310 47 A. M. Tripp, p. 306 50 A. M. Tripp, pp. 310-311

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List of References M. M. Feree and A. M. Tripp,’ Global feminism: transnational women’s activism, organizing, Books and human rights’, New York University Press, New York and London, 2006, pp. vii- A. Basu,’ The challenge of local feminism: 310. women movements in global perspective (ed.), Westview Press, Boulder, San Francisco, P. Antrobus,’ The global women’s movement: Oxford, 1995, pp. 1-90. origins, issues and strategies’, Zed Book Ltd, London, New York, 2004, p. 13. A. Cornwall, E. Harrison, and A. Whitehead,’ Gender Myths and feminist fables: the P. T. Clough,’ Feminist thought’, Blackwell, struggle for interpretive power in gender Oxford UK and Cambridge USA, 1994, p. and development’, Blackwell Publishing, viiii. Australia, 2008, pp. 4-5. R. S. Rajan,’ Real and imagined women: Gender, B. O’Laughin,’ A bigger piece of a very small culture, and postcolonial’, Routledge, London pie: intrahousehold resource allocation and and New York, 1993, pp. 6-7. proverty reduction in Africa’, in Gender Myths & Feminist Fable: the struggle for interpretative R. Tong,’ Feminist thought 3 ed.’, Westview power in gender and development’, Blackwell Press, America, 2009, p. 8 Publishing, Australia, 2008, pp. 21-22. V. M. Moghaddam,’ Globalizing women: B. G. Smith, ‘Global feminism since 1945: transnational feminist networks’, The John rewriting histories (ed.)’, Routledge, London Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and and New York, 2000, pp. 1-8. London, 2005, pp. 6-143.

C. Bulbeck,’ Re-orienting western feminisms: Journals women’s diversity in a postcolonial world’, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, B. M. Barungi,’ Uganda feminism: political Australia, 1998, p. 20. rhetoric or reality’, Women’s Studies International, vol. 22, no. 2, 1999, pp. 435- C. T. Mohanty, ’Feminist without boarder’, Duke 437. University Press, Durham and London, 2003, pp. 17-18. B. S. Mensch, M. J. Grant and A. K. Blanc ,’ The changing context of sexual initiation in Sub- J. A. Tickner and L. Sjoberg, Postcolonial Sahara Africa’, Population and Development Feminisme, in T. Dunn, M. Kurki, and S. Smith, Review, vol. 32, no. 4, 2006, pp. 699-702 International Relations Theories Dicipline and Diversity, 3 edn, Oxford University Press, C. L. Shadle,’ Bridewealth and female consent: United Kingdom, 2010, p. 205-206. marriage dispute in African courts, Gusiland, Kenya,’ Journal of African History, vol. 44, J. Hannam,’ Feminism’, Pearson Education 2003, pp. 241-262. Limited, Great Britain, London, 2012, p. 7. E. H. Chowdhury, ‘Locating global feminism: J. Steans,’Gender and international relation’, Braiding US women of color and transnational Polity, United Kingdom, 2006, p. 93. feminists’, Cultural Dynamics, 21(1), pp. 55- 56. J. Syed and F. Ali,’ The white women’s burden: from colonial civilization to third world M. Medelros and J. Costa,’ Is there a feminization development’, Third World Quarterly, vol. 32, of poverty in Latin America?’, World no. 2, 2011, pp. 349-351. Development, Elsevier, 2008, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 115-127. L. Sjoberg and J. A. Tickner,’ International relation through feminist lenses’, in Feminism T. F. Ruby,’ Listening to the voices of hijab’, and international relation; conversation about Women’s Studies International Forum, the past, present, and future (ed), Routledge, Elsevier, 29, 2006, pp. 1-5. London and New York, 2011, p. 11.

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