Tennessee's Black Postwar Emigration Movements, 1866–1880

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Winter 2014 Tennessee’s Black Postwar Emigration Movements, 1866–1880 Selena Sanderfer Western Kentucky University, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Sanderfer, Selena, (2014) Tennessee’s Post Civil War Black Emigration Movements, Tennessee Historical Quarterly Volume LXXIII, Number 4 (Winter 2014).

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Soldiers of the Continental A publication of the Tennessee Historical Society in cooperation with the Tennessee Historical Commission. Lines formed the core of the army in the American Revolu- 254 Tennessee’s Black Postwar Emigration Movements, 1866–1880 tionary War. North Carolina BY Selena Sanderfer rewarded many in its state’s Continental Line with land 280 “A Democrat for All the People”: The Historic Election of grants in its western district, Harold E. Ford, Sr., to the United States House of Representatives which would later become BY Steven A. Knowlton Tennessee. (“Yankee Doodle 1776,” ca. 1876 print, Li- 312 From Germantown and Valley Forge to Middle Tennessee: brary of Congress) A Research Note on Land Grants and Paying for the North Carolina Continental Line By Robert T. Nash

332 Contributors

333 Book Reviews

342 Guidelines

TheTennessee Historical Quarterly (ISSN 0400–3261) is published quarterly Back Cover for $35 per year by the Tennessee Historical Society, Ground Floor, War Memorial Building, Nashville, TN 37243–0084. Periodicals postage paid at Nashville, TN. Correspondence concerning subscriptions or membership should be addressed Between 1866 and 1880, to Membership Director, Tennessee Historical Society, Ground Floor, War Memo- many of Tennessee’s ex-slaves rial Building, Nashville, TN 37243–0084. Phone: 615–741–8934. This number chose to leave the state. The may be obtained at $7.50 per copy, plus tax and postage, if applicable. Exodusters headed for Kansas; POSTMASTER: Send address changes to the Tennessee Historical Society, this homestead ca. 1890 in Ni- Ground Floor, War Memorial Building, Nashville, TN 37243–0084. codemus epitomizes their new Correspondence concerning contributions and manuscripts for the quarterly life there. (Library of Congress) should be addressed to Kristofer Ray, Editor, Post Office Box 4486 Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, TN 37044 [email protected]. The Tennessee Historical Commission and the Tennessee Historical Society dis- claim responsibility for statements, whether fact or of opinion, made by contributors.

Copyright ©2014 by The Tennessee Historical Society 254 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY president. Hewillgoonbeforeus Chorus—Marching along,yes,we quiet firesides;noonetodisturb T ourselves toseeifwecan’tplan state, andwefindnofriendsin We haveMr.Singletonforour are marchingalong,ToKansas For Tennesseeisahardslavery We wantpeacefulhomesand and leadusthrough.(Repeat) City wearebound.(Repeat) some waytolive.(Repeat) us orturnout.(Repeat) We haveheldmeetingsto ennessee that country.(Repeat) M ovemen ’ BY SelenaSanderfer s B lack t s P , 1866–1880 os driven primarilybypractical concerns Exodusters, Liberian emigrants were emigrants aftertheCivilWar.Like ued to serve as a destination for black free blackpopulation,Liberiacontin- for theresettlementofRepublic’s American Colonization Society (ACS) African coast.Foundedin1822bythe to emigrateLiberia,ontheWest war periodmanyTennesseanschose consideration. Throughoutthepost- ever, was notthe only destination under thousands leftthestate.Kansas,how- Fever,” wheninthecourseofoneyear zenith in1879duringthe“Exodus 1860s. The movement reached its ments inKansasbeginningthelate ex-slaves emigratedtoall-blacksettle- political freedom,manyofTennessee’s “Exodusters.” Deniedeconomicand tress andthehopefeltbyTennessee’s T twar Freedom,” expresses the dis Land thatGivesBirthto his song,titled“The E migra tion

- Black Emigration 1866–1880 255255 ennessee’s ex-slaves chose to leave the state. The Exodust- ex-slaves ennessee’s Between 1866 and 1880, many of T ers headed for Kansas; this poster sets a departure from Nashville on April 15, 1878. (Kansas State Historical Society) 256 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY tion. black territorialseparatismandemigra- political powerinthepostbellumSouth. surrounding theirlackofeconomicand ments illuminatesanalternative viewfor Tennessee’s grassrootsemigration move- Perhaps more powerfully, its focus on spread newstoothergeographicareas. fusion—when supportersinoneregion through the process of information dif- the dynamics of “movement emergence” three granddivisions,this article reveals move toLiberia. and early 1870s; they, too, tended to eral movements emergedin the late 1860s their destination.InEastTennesseesev- Liberia, theseseparatistschoseKansasas inability topurchaseland.Insteadof economic mobility was impeded by the exploded inthemid-to-late1870s,when Liberia. TheexodusfromWestTennessee often, separatistsfromthisregionleftfor of blacksbetween1866and1870.Most caused by the violent political oppression In MiddleTennessee,emigrationwas of the three grand divisionsof Tennessee. survey ofseparatistmovementsfromeach oversights by conducting a chronological pleted. Thisarticleaimstocorrectthese ments overtimeandregionyetbeencom- tal patternsofmultipleseparatistmove- has astudycomparingthedevelopmen- than aresponsetoracialoppression.Nor or Kansaswasaformofresistancerather tant tosuggestthatrelocatingLiberia Numerous studieshaveexamined In followingemigrationfromthe 2 Evenso,scholarshavebeenreluc- aging racialpride,collective action, political visionsgeared toward encour- template ofideologies,programs, and defines BlackNationalismas“ageneral liberty. ly shapedbysouthernidealsoflandand Nationalism, givingitacharacterunique- development of nineteenth century Black freedmen andwomencontributedtothe conditions. Andinsupportingrelocation ingful alternative for alleviating these had gained. Emigration offered amean- the fewrightsfreedmancommunity white southernerscontinuallythreatened political equalityalsowentunfulfilled,as during thepostwarera.Expectationsof black Southerneconomicindependence are butafewofthefactorsthathindered into unfairlaborandtenancycontracts to ex-slaves,andthecoercionofblacks refusal ofwhitelandownerstosellland to implementlandredistribution,the goals, however.Thegovernment’sfailure lies. Most freedmen never achieved these livelihood forthemselvesandtheirfami- dent landowners,andsecureaprosperous racy. Manyhopedtobecomeindepen- life offreedomandthebenefitsdemoc- Civil Warex-slaveslookedforwardtoa freedmen andwomen.Indeed,afterthe explores contributions made by southern it focusonfreeblackelites.Instead, history oftheantebellumNorth,nordoes does notcenter on the black intellectual in theUnitedStates.Thisperspective the developmentofradicalblackthought Historian Claude Andrew Clegg Black Emigration 1866–1880 257 ennessee State ennessee At the 1871 T At the 1871 blacks Colored Convention, Faces or Kuk- decried the “Pale to “depreciate lux,” who sought colored men the labor of the their individ- and control it by action.” (Mem- ual and united from Harper’s bers of the KKK, 1868) , December 19, Weekly While historians have traditionally While historians have traditionally Community-directed territorial separatism developed after 1865, when freedmen were able publicly to articulate and inde- pendently organize a Black Nationalist agenda. Nationalism Black of advent the studied and protest in the United States in the northern and urban black of context

4 Territorial separatism Territorial separatism 3 is one component of Black Nationalism is one component of Black Nationalism whereby blacks sought to emigrate to or establish all-black areas in which to live. political of lack the War Civil the Before opportunities necessitated black participation in white social movements in order to achieve goals of self-determination. and group autonomy among people of of people among autonomy group and African descent.” 258 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY education, politicalandlaborrights. improvements inprotection,housing, the 1860sand1870sinsistedonbasic tion meetingsthroughoutthestatein Reconstruction Era.Blackconven- cerns of black Tennesseans during the ation. ex-slaves andotherstoimprovetheirsitu- and representthepoliticalassertivenessof political activisminordertocreditfully continue to employ a broad definition of economic self-determination. Atan1871 most resounding calls, however, were for tain, politicalactivism.” to “widenandtransform,aswellsus- Hahn calls“politicalresonance,”helping it nonethelesshadwhathistorianSteven tion, suffrage,orpoliticalrepresentation, an overtpoliticalmessagesuchasintegra- Although emigrationmaynothavehad to relocateamorehospitablearea. or economicredressinonelocale,chose with limitedopportunitiesforpolitical occurred whendissatisfiedresidents,faced became known as “voting by one’s feet.” It cal mobility. A common form of protest that wasdifficulttodeny:ofphysi- ever, theydidhaveoneprotestweapon and economicgoals.Asfreedmen,how- black southernerstoobtaintheirpolitical created aninauspiciousatmospherefor lence andblackvoterdisenfranchisement, of repression,suchasactsracialvio- tance intheSouth.Post-CivilWartactics investigate thetraditionofpoliticalresis- elites, morerecentstudieshavebegunto State conventionsillustratethecon- 5 Historiansmust 6 The tion oftheoppressiveland-holder.” selves fromtheinfluenceanddicta- earth, andasfarpossiblefreethem- gain a competence bythe products ofthe cultural pursuits,secureahomesteadand State, to identify themselves withhorti- mend thecoloredcitizensthroughout from ObionCountyresolvedto“recom- mobility wereexpressedwhendelegates ing landacquisitionandsocioeconomic timents ofcommonfreedmenregard- individual andunitedaction.” the coloredmenandcontrolitbytheir who sought to “depreciate the labor of blacks decriedthe“PaleFacesorKuklux” Tennessee ColoredStateConvention, only placesseparatistsconsidered suitable. ability. Kansas and Liberia were not the timing, organizationaloutlook,andavail- ments. Decidingwheretosettlevariedby decided whentoinitiateseparatistmove- that black southerners forthefirst time their ownhands.Itwasduringthisperiod Tennesseans began to take matters into the federalgovernmentdissipated,black protection andeconomicsupportfrom hopes offreedmenandfreedwomenfor ment. lease tractsoflandtoex-slavesforsettle- creation ofacommissiontopurchaseand economic livelihoods, specifically by the calling onthemtohelpfreedmensecure Congress andPresidentUlyssesS.Grant of thatconventionapetition was sent to alone intheircharge.Attheconclusion Obion Countryrepresentativeswerenot As Reconstructionprogressedandthe 9 7 Thesen- 8 The Black Emigration 1866–1880 259 In 12 Contemporary community leaders Contemporary community leaders Indeed, during the nineteenth century nineteenth century Indeed, during the Necessity often compels men to Necessity often compels men to migrate, to leave their old homes ties old sever to ones, new seek and addition, they sought to exercise political political addition, they sought to exercise juries, power through voting, serving on for- For the office. holding political and com- mer slaves and poor free blacks who goal prised the black lower class, neither by the was negotiable. When challenged dominant society they formed a separatist and ideology equating both political rights free- economic independence with true of dom. These aspirations implied degrees economic and political self-determination class and reflected the priorities of lower black southern separatists. commented on postwar black emigrant motivation, in the process addressing a central question: why choose to leave the South, and with it the only home most an in settle to order in known, ever had unfamiliar territory? In 1880 the emi- nent abolitionist and civil rights activist noted perceptively Frederick Douglass that - whether choos in Tennessee, separatists were Kansas, or Liberia for leave to ing cause to obtain by the common motivated rights as landowners. - founda the was production agricultural economy, and like tion of the southern the throughout freedmen other many Tennesseans’ desire Atlantic World black unwavering. was landownership for

- 11 Kansas and Liberia Kansas and Liberia 10 Ideological motivations such as as such motivations Ideological Racial uplift strategies implied a devi- implied strategies uplift Racial ancy among black people and culture, while civilizing missions most commonly referred to the need for evangelization and adoption of middle class social values. Instead of ranking destinations by these objectives, black southerners rationalized consid- locations by possible settlement ering principally the geo-economic and political characteristics of a region. Black In 1876 a convention of black men in of black men in a convention In 1876 - the forma Tennessee, suggested Jackson, out of parts of all-black state tion of an and Mississippi. Kentucky, Tennessee, that a significant num- They reasoned southern to immigrating blacks of ber cause whites to leave Mississippi would a number of Gulf States the area and that become entirely popu- would eventually lated by blacks. ing the mid-1850s, and the opportunities ing the mid-1850s, and the opportunities and for land ownership (for both black Act white) ushered in by the Homestead hearts of 1862 endeared both areas in the of black southerners. uplift, racial affinity, cultural African to important were evangelization and but Nationalists, Black or northern elite they were not decisive for southern black emigrants when considering relocation. would have been more familiar, however, however, would have been more familiar, of sup- because of their shared histories - porting black freedom and entrepreneur Liberian ship prior to 1865. Memories of tactics independence in 1849, the violent dur Kansas” “Bleeding in soilers free of 260 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY Newspaper, March6,1876) from ored ConventioninNashville, sissippi. (T of T of anall-blackstateoutparts Jackson suggestedtheformation In 1876,acoloredconventionin ready todemandtheportion ofgoods are prodigalsonseverywhere, whoare as wellwhatisinfavorofit.There sidering whatisagainstthemeasure, and onlyadoptedaftercarefullycon- imperative. Itshouldbealastresort, the necessityshould be obvious and and create new ones; but to do this ennessee, Kentucky, andMis- Frank Leslie’s Illustrated ennessee StateCol- necessity thatcompelled blacksouthern- lished populationtouproot itself.The causes. “Necessity”mustcompelanestab- advocate ofemigration,heunderstoodits themselves toastrangecountry. that wouldfalltothem,andbetake

Although Douglasswasnotan 13 Black Emigration 1866–1880 261 16 Early black separatists depended on the the Early black separatists depended on support of white sympathizers. Enslaved Enslaved sympathizers. white of support had no blacks who wanted to emigrate colo- choice but to work within the white nization movement. Black southerners move- participated in these types of social means the only were ments because these goals of available to them to achieve their Even so, political and economic freedom. to their contribution and commitment black territorial separatism should not be underestimated. While many early black participants were ex-slaves who were freed to had they that stipulation the under had still they manumitted, once emigrate a choice. They were not forced to partake in utopian or colonization schemes, and many chose to remain enslaved and stay in the South. These antebellum black emigrants left the South in order to cor- injustice by seeking prosperity rect racial abroad, which solidifies their place in the Black Nationalist tradition. each black person removed from Middle from Middle person removed each black to Liberia. and transported Tennessee measures, black of these In part because by about eighteen participation increased 1837 By years. three next the over percent people had success- a total of fifty-eight In the proslavery climate fully emigrated. witnessed yet of the 1850s, Tennessee increase in the number another marked While only four expe- of black emigrants. during ditions to Liberia had taken place carry- the 1840s, thirty-four expeditions during ing a total of 508 emigrants left the 1850s. 15 Wright’s solution was designed Wright’s solution was designed 14 Senator Kennedy’s support of coloni- Tennessee has an extensive history of extensive history of Tennessee has an The membership of the ACS and its its The membership of the ACS and zation would not have alienated him from zation would not have alienated him from his constituents. In the 1830s and 1850s the Tennessee General Assembly allocat- ed state funds to the colonization move- measure a supported also it 1833 In ment. TCS for the to ten dollars that provided - of fac was a combination ers to emigrate the frustration it was primarily tors, but liberty by political and economic of black to white suprem- a government dedicated inflicted upon blacks by acy and the terror whites. In the 1820s abolition- black emigration. founded the Nashoba ist Francis Wright who agreed to work settlement for slaves before and undergo a period of training obtaining full freedom and resettling abroad. to appease both pro- and anti-slavery to appease both pro- and anti-slavery manumission for providing by advocates fears while simultaneously alleviating blacks—who free of presence the about elements were often seen as subversive within a slave society. state auxiliary the Tennessee Colonization Society (TCS) included both anti-slavery with factions. Beginning and pro-slavery 1829, the first group of emigrants in the ACS and TCS sent over 700 black Tennesseans to Liberia during the ante- the included Emigrants period. bellum slaves of such notable state figures as industrialist Montgomery Bell and State Senator William E. Kennedy. 262 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY to tearourshirtsabout.” gration wassomething“wearenotgoing support forExodusters,notingthatemi- state conventionshowedonlypassive ratism. Blackrepresentativesatthe1876 were muchlesslikelytoadvocatesepa- members oftheblackupperclass,they widely supportedthemovements.As convention representatives would have or Kansas.Evenso,itisunlikelythat grants left Tennessee for either Liberia all threeyearsalargenumberofemi- National Conventionin1879.During was oneofthemaintopicsNegro of ColoredMenin1866and1876, representatives attheStateConvention condition. Itwasconsideredbyblack a plausible solution to improving their freedmen began to discuss emigration as ties. consideration giventowhitesensibili- under theirownleadership,withfarless movements attheirowndiscretionand Now, however,theycouldorganize when attemptingtoemigrateLiberia. not deter blacks from seeking assistance were formerslaveownersgenerallydid ACS. ThefactthatsomeACSmembers white colonizationsocietiessuchasthe continued toworkwithpredominantly ring inthesecondhalfof the1860s. large partbypoliticalpersecution occur- Tennessee, thisclasswasmotivatedin among theblacklowerclass.InMiddle it seemed,wasmuch more popular Soon afterthewarendedTennessee After theCivilWar,southernblacks 17 Separatism, any armedgroupsthey encountered. by orderingthestatemilitia todisperse band in1868.Hereinforcedthiswarning Brownlow warnedarmedgroupstodis- to curbtheviolenceGovernorWilliam and no one was convicted. In an attempt accused perpetratorsweretriedincourt, freedmen. Ofthatnumberonlyeleven ders werecommitted,mostlyagainst During thisperiodmorethan179mur- in threeemigrationmovementstoLiberia. Middle Tennesseefreedmenparticipated for betteropportunitiesinLiberia. vinced separatistsympathizerstosearch oppression in Middle Tennessee con Violence and educational and political when choosingtoinstitutepublicschools. ernments couldusetheirowndiscretion a segregatedsysteminwhichcountygov- of blacksandwhites,replacingthemwith nated provisionsfortheequaleducation physical violence.Legislatorsalsoelimi- intimidated would-beblackvoterswith of RadicalRepublicanism,whitesalso black politicalpower.Fearingthegrowth open ballots,allofwhichundermined poll taxes, followed by literacy tests and “Redeemed.” Whiteleadersimplemented ates. By1870thestatehadbeenpolitically men anddisenfranchisedex-Confeder- as political changes enfranchised freed 1869 racialtensionsaroseacrossthestate ally didnotrespectit.Between1866and suffrage, but the white population gener- state intheSouthtograntuniversalmale Between 1867 and 1869 seventy-six In 1867 Tennessee became the first 18 19 - -

Black Emigration 1866–1880 263 ennessee State Violent acts like these prompted fif- Violent acts like these prompted 22 Black residents of Stewart County Black residents of Stewart County In the 1850s, prominent ironworks own- In the 1850s, prominent ironworks er Montgomery two Bell chose to send groups of twenty-eight and twenty-one formerslaves to Liberia. (T Library and Archives) January. The assailants took the group’s group’s January. The assailants took the dol- arms and robbed one man of fifteen lars. ty-eight black residents of Stewart County ty-eight black residents of Stewart County to emigrate to Liberia the following year. communicated with each other and with blacks in surrounding areas. Thus they were aware of numerous incidents of racial violence taking place throughout their communities and across county lines. For Fleming Crump, a Baptist minister in became enough—he was enough Dover, an emigration leader and initially sought the help of J. F. Flood, a white captain General contacted Flood nearby. living

20 21 Rural areas were particularly at the the Rural areas were particularly at When black Middle Tennesseans Tennesseans When black Middle - peri this During terror. white of mercy od black schools, churches, and political organizations were often targeted by white vigilantes because they challenged order. racial social and the dominant In 1866 freedmen in Montgomery County held meetings to defend themselves against violent whites. Members armed Ready Alliance and Rough the of themselves for protection, and in doing A whites. undoubtedly offended local so witness from neighboring Stewart County reported that members were attacked that However, for most black Tennesseans this Tennesseans this for most black However, - effective pro provided little declaration armed vigilantes. tection from themselves, many attempted to defend that their efforts were times they found William In 1865 whites. by thwarted white armed six that reported Ballard his house and stole men forcibly entered Similarly, T. Mahoney his gun powder. search in house Drennon’s Lewis entered he of weapons. When none were found, the head viciously beat Drennon about with a pistol while his family members fam- the to Drennon’s wife went watched. their meager gave Mahoney chest and ily’s valu- savings along with other household to ables. Drennon found safety by fleeing but attack, the after house neighbor’s a He was his father-in-law was not so lucky. too elderly to flee, and when Mahoney returned with more men, they mercilessly later. beat the old man. He died two days 264 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY Liberia. (Library ofCongress) Liberia. (Library to emigrate to for help in their effort Howard attheFreedmen’s Bureau ofGeneralOliver sought thesupport County Black residentsofStewart Black Emigration 1866–1880 265

Clarksville Clarksville Many separat- 26 added strength to such reports reports such to strength added Negative firsthand accounts provid- Sometimes rumors and bad press bad press rumors and Sometimes ist supporters in Middle Tennessee may may ist supporters in Middle Tennessee by have been swayed from emigrating the in published unverified rumors such city’s paper. ed perhaps the strongest deterrent. After hearing of the hardship, death, and mis- fortune in Liberia, potential emigrants could easily lose confidence in the ven- ture and decide to stay put. A few days before the Dover emigrants were set to depart in November 1867 the Nashville scath - republished a Dispatch and Union ing article about recent emigrants from South Carolina. The paper suggested that the ACS engaged in an ongoing con- spiracy to publish falsified reports about - enthu cause local movement could also the Nashville- dissipate. In 1866 siasm to The Union and American based newspaper to “be sure that warned black emigrants to Liberia, and not to they are really going country where they Cuba, or some other from $800 to $1,200 per would be worth the year following The head!” Chronicle prom- by claiming to know of at least one a inent South Carolinian, who, owning one of plantation in Cuba, had purchased paper his former slaves on the island. The declared that a reliable source informed shipped “that the freedmen are being Southern the on points various from to coast, ostensibly as free emigrants of Liberia, but in reality to be disposed Cuban planters.” slaves to - Crump eventually Crump eventually

Many reasons, not not reasons, Many 23 25 Black separatists like Crump and like Crump and Black separatists 24 Although the number of emigrants Although the number of emigrants white sympathizers like Flood would not like Flood would not white sympathizers in believing that have been unwarranted to leave blacks in Middle Tennessee had - oppres from free be to order in state the Liberia sion. Crump ultimately arrived in in 1867. who actually left for Liberia was relatively population black the to compared small interest in the South, it reflects a larger condi- in escaping the region’s repressive masks tions. Moreover, the small number support- significant complexity: many actually ers of territorial separatism were for prevented from emigrating. In 1866, a group example, the emigration plans of of ex-slaves in Williamson County were stalled by their deceased former owner’s relatives, who claimed for themselves the $25,000 he had set aside for their Liberia. to removal corresponded with Coppinger himself to to himself Coppinger with corresponded County Stewart in freedmen how explain and in a “needy condi- were “oppressed” tion.” Oliver Howard of the Freedmen’s Bureau Bureau of the Freedmen’s Oliver Howard Secretary ACS write to directed was and of the fifty- Coppinger on behalf William party. four member only financial need or judicial wrangling, only financial need or judicial wrangling, could have impeded more black support- diffi The relocating. actually from ers culty associated with leaving family and other and disease of effects the or friends physical ailments are but a few of the many obstacles that worked to impede black emigration. 266 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY Street, Monrovia, Liberia, in 1893, Library ofCongress) Street, Monrovia,Liberia,in1893,Library side.”(Ashmun in1867that“newcomersaretrickedandcajoledonevery emigrant reported Negative firsthand accounts deterred some potential emigrants from setting out for Liberia. ate “cats, snakes, rats, snails, wormsand went onto declare that native Liberians ity rateamongarrivingimmigrants,and munity. Healsorevealedthehighmortal- by theestablishedAmerico-Liberiancom- ers aretrickedandcajoledoneveryside” months inLiberiatestifiedthat“newcom- who hadreturnedtotheU.S.aftereight hand accounttakenfromanimmigrant experienced by most emigrants. A first- to reporttheoverwhelmingdegradation their success,whileinrealityneglecting illiterate members of his party, who made nization andpublishedby theACS,to Repository, read anddistributedtractsoftheAfrican rhetorical flourishes.FlemingCrump round, inrichesthogandhominy.” all creation,reveling[sic],theyear “the bigplantation[where]theyateout insisted, newcomerslongedtoreturn gust ofnewsettlers.Assuch,thisperson every descriptionofvermin”tothedis- Not everyonewasconvincedbysuch a newspapersupportingcolo- 27 One Black Emigration 1866–1880 267 - Although such Although such 29 In this same period, In this same period, 31 The hopes of black land own- 30 Land ownership was critical for for Land ownership was critical Support for emigration to Kansas Support for emigration to Kansas arrangements afforded freed people some some people freed afforded arrangements their economic liberties, it did not fulfill desire for land ownership and economic independence. Writing post-bellum black Tennesseans. General about Tennessee’s freedmen, mass “The observed, Fisk B. Clinton that of them have been made to believe all to be the plantations of rebels were slaves— divided out among the former for their and daily applications are made portion.” ed the state and with it went appropria- tion for community schools, local courts where blacks could hold whites account- able for their mistreatment, and perhaps most notably the hope for economic advancement. ership through governmental redistri- ership through governmental when bution programs officially ended Reconstruction fell apart in Tennessee. depart Bureau Freedmen’s the 1870 In on plantations. This policy is most readily readily is most policy This plantations. on in where Tennessee, West in observable - freed 1,700 Memphis-area 1866 nearly such contracts. In the men entered into credit and coming years sharecropping, arrangements became delayed payment order to overcome the more prevalent in secure to and revenue of lack planter’s ex-slaves. labor from the black Tennesseans organized the first black Tennesseans organized the first emigration movements to Kansas. gained momentum throughout the 1870s. counties the Many emigrants came from 28 Daily Union and and Union Daily The newspaper’s sug- The newspaper’s While the particular reason why this this While the particular reason why During the late 1860s and early 1870s group chose Liberia over Kansas remains remains Kansas over Liberia chose group understand certainly scholars a mystery, when why they undertook the expedition of they did: to avoid the worst excesses upheaval political intense of period a black and racialized violence. Although also Tennesseans from other regions chose emigration to end their oppression, they connected it more to economic than political intimidation. the suppression of black agricultural enterprise led some Tennessee freedmen to seek livelihoods in Kansas. Unlike the Middle Tennessee emigrants to Liberia, these West Tennessee participants in the Exoduster Movement were primarily driven by economic motivations. Immediately following the Civil War the Freedmen’s Bureau in Tennessee coerced ex-slaves into signing labor contracts to work for wages up more than half of the group. Crump Crump group. the of half than more up have debated than likely would more the in given advice . Dispatch as well gested that southern blacks should “pitch blacks should “pitch gested that southern and keep steadily at to the winds politics could live better and work, [so that] they and more profitably in more comfortably, than in any Liberia, the Southern country the and Crump but imaginary,” real or his party remained fifty-seven others in hopeful resolute. They reportedly were in that “they will better their condition” chris- addition to helping “to civilize and tianize (sic) the natives of Africa.” 268 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY nessee State Library andArchives) nessee StateLibrary slaves…” (T divided out among the former that theplantationsofrebelswerealltobe see’s freedmen“havebeenmadetobelieve that General Clinton B. Fisk observed Rutherford. counties includingMaury,Davidson,and others camefromMiddleTennessee located alongtheMississippi, although more thansixthousand blackKansans of the total populationto 12%. By 1890 nally fromTennesseeincreased4% percentage ofblackKansassettlersorigi- the tenyearperiodfrom1870to1880 Movement in the Volunteer State. During attest tothepopularityofExoduster with names such as“TennesseeTown” 32 NewKansascommunities T ennes- en- did nothavethemeanstodoso. support, manywhowantedtoemigrate that althoughthemovementhadalotof area were impoverished, andlamented how blacksthroughouttheClarksville Members ofthecooperativedescribed opportunities forworkwithinthestate. John ofKansasandinquiredaboutthe ic. Members wrote Governor John St. tion’s primarygrievanceswereeconom- Emigrant Association.Theorganiza- Colored People Cooperative Land and in Clarksville,Tennessee,formedthe of theExodusterMovementblacks Tennessee aswell.Duringtheheight to Kansas was present in Middle Tennessee, interest in emigration during thelate1860s,although hishigh- first began to take emigrants to Kansas found excellentprospectsinKansas.He black Tennessee farmers, and eventually which soughttosecurelandpurchasesfor Real EstateAssociation,anorganization Singleton wasfounderoftheEdgefield mental part of his separatist ideology. economic securityandmadeitafunda- ences he understood the importance of most ofhislife.Becausetheseexperi- been ontheeconomicfringesofsociety a slave,fugitive,andscavenger,hehad Movement inTennessee.Atvarioustimes the unofficialleaderofExoduster form ofBenjamin “Pap” Singleton, place. claimed Tennesseeastheiroriginalbirth- Although predominant in West Economic opportunity was the plat 33 34 - Black Emigration 1866–1880 269 - - Year 1868 1869 1880 1873 1866 1867 1869 1867 1869 1874 37 8 9 1 7 3 2 39 10 58 144 Number The racial unrest was particularly The racial unrest was particularly 38 Much of the violence commit violence the of Much During the mid-1870s racial tensions During the mid-1870s racial tensions acute in West Tennessee, where lynchings acute in West Tennessee, where lynchings occurred more frequently than any other Singleton needed to convey the impor- Singleton needed to convey the while tance of economic independence eco- minimizing white hostility to black nomic aspirations. in West whites against freedmen by ted - main to attempts from drew Tennessee tain control over black labor. Freedmen’s County Bureau officials in Hickman erupt commonly violence that noted to settle attempted freedmen when ed with their earnings for the previous year state a in remained had Some employers. the at death of fear for near-slavery of of knew officials Bureau whites. of hands at least six who had been shot and killed while attempting to escape. and violence again increased dramati- cally.

36 35 City Nashville Nashville Nashville Strawberry Plains Knoxville Philadelphia Philadelphia Dover Mason Cypress Inn Tennessee Emigration Movements to Liberia Movements to Emigration Tennessee County Davidson Davidson Davidson Jefferson Knox Loudon Loudon Stewart Tipton Wayne Singleton championed the importance Singleton championed the importance Singleton’s statement may not have been Singleton’s statement may not have been grammatically correct, but he chose his words carefully. Black Tennesseans were and violence of wave new a experiencing of economic self-sufficiency, specifically specifically self-sufficiency, economic of in the form of available land for farming. told he Exodus the of height the During a reporter that in Tennessee “the whites and [cents], had the lands and the sense de blacks had nothing but their freedom.” He believed blacks “ought to be trying to get homes of their own, lands of their own, instead of depending on renting or subsisting.” masters former their from est numbers came during the economic economic the during came numbers est Eventually 1870s. early the of depression settle- he helped to found three farming in ments in Kansas: the Dunlap Colony Morris and Lyon Counties, the Singleton and Colony in Cherokee County, Nicodemus Colony in Graham County. 270 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY Memphis. blacks diedwhenraceriotsconsumed while in1866anestimatedforty-six during thelate1860sandearly1870s, County threeblackmenwerelynched in actsofmobviolence.InLauderdale Counties, over fifty blacks were killed 1931. BetweenLauderdaleandShelby were lynchedtherebetween1861and area in the state.Atleastfifty-sixblacks were wounded during the incident. York, were killed. As many as seven others Daniel Horn,andonewhiteman,J. and Radicalelements.Oneblackman, small riotoccurredbetweenConservative On July23,1867,inHawkinsCountya ical factionsfoughtforcontrolintheeast. Tennessee, radicalandconservativepolit- their emergenceaswell.AsinMiddle early 1870s. Racial violence surrounded ments occurredinthelate1860sand most severe. subjugation andviolentconditionswere cant inthisarea,whereblackeconomic Exoduster Movementwasmostsignifi- submit a report. have enoughdetailsabout theincidentsto of numerousothermurdersbutdidnot sioner intheKnoxvillesub-district,knew William Walker,theFreedmen’scommis- the TennesseeStateGuardinarea. G. Brownlowstationedaregimentof lence wassogreatthatGovernorWilliam dead in Knoxville. The increase of vio- authorities asablackradicalwasshot day ofthatriotamanidentifiedbylocal In EastTennesseeseparatistmove- 39 Participationinthe1870s 41 The upsurge in politi- 40 The participation nearby. how participantsinoneareacaninspire disruptive localconditions andillustrates counties thatwereexperiencingsimilar tion movement spread into neighboring progressed. TheKnoxCountyemigra- emerge, but also how they occurred and not only when and why social movements ars withauniqueopportunitytostudy Knox Countymovementpresentsschol- from KnoxCountytoLiberiain1866. spurred theemigrationof144freedmen cal violenceinlate1860sEastTennessee literacy andwealthwerescarce. slaves, fundamentalresourcessuchas ipate inemigrationmovementstoLiberia. different areasinEastTennesseetopartic- encouraged over200blacksfromthree a KnoxCountyemigrationmovement From 1867to1873,theemergenceof information diffusionandleadership. is mostobservablethroughnetworksof local residents.InKnoxville, herecruited mer of1866hequickly began recruiting in KnoxvillefromLiberiathesum- Reverend Hopkins W. Erskine arrived existing communicationnetworks.When leaders particularly took advantage of pre- nal networkofsupporters.Emigration finding new recruits outside of the origi course onemigrationtospread,eventually resources andinformationcausedthedis- from trustedacquaintances.Sharing for potential emigrants to seek assistance these conditions,itwasnotuncommon Motivated bypoliticalviolence,the Because most emigrants were ex- 42 Thisphenomenon 43 Under - Black Emigration 1866–1880 271 - 47 Erskine’s presence undoubtedly reas- presence undoubtedly Erskine’s sup- Not everyone in the community I distributed the tracks [sic] and pam- I distributed the kind enough to give phlets you were to talk, and reason me and then began soon as—I became with them.—as people and inform known to our and them that I was born in Knoxville both had lived in Liberia for 26 years, me, crowded around and black white seeking information. supporters he efficiently circulated news circulated news he efficiently supporters throughout emigration about Liberian Erskine progress his Regarding area. the wrote, move- sured apprehensive and uncertain ment sympathizers with his first-hand to lead accounts of Liberia, enabling him blacks of movement emigration largest the period. from the state during the postwar of ported Erskine’s recruitment efforts, course, and some passionately denounced news- local the to According emigration. paper, a lecture he delivered in Knoxville in October 1866 to a black assembly ini- encour much with meet not “did tially agement from his bretheren (sic)” and was particularly opposed by a black Methodist He undeterred. was Erskine minister. audience convince his to try to continued of the opportunities for economic success in Liberia by describing the liberal homestead allotments, free transportation costs, and six-month provisions guaranteed to new emigrants. He was unsuccessful in

- 44 46 Hopkins Erskine’s story Hopkins Erskine’s story 45 The Erskine family history in East The Erskine family history in East Erskine first emigrated from Knoxville Erskine first emigrated from Knoxville Tennessee, Hopkins Erskine’s political Tennessee, Hopkins Erskine’s political with the connection his and attainments, ministry all worked to legitimize him and black local of the the eyes in cause his community. Through his new-found His success in recruiting would not have would not have His success in recruiting of a been possible without the existence shared network of communication. old. to Liberia when he was only ten years Under the auspices of Dr. Isaac Anderson had his father George John Caldwell, and become a minister in the Presbyterian act of Church. He was freed by a special for the the General Assembly in 1817, and entire next ten years he worked to free his to family of nine. The family emigrated Liberia in 1829. dozens of participants for emigration to emigration to participants for dozens of - to surround He also traveled Liberia. and Georgia. in both Tennessee ing areas Erskine forwarded That September, partici hundred two over of names the from New Market, in pants to the ACS and expected more Jefferson County, from the nearby towns names to come in Strawberry Plains. of Dandridge and is bittersweet. Most of his family died died family his of Most bittersweet. is by but Liberia, in arriving after shortly emigrating he was able to attend school. Eventually he became an ordained minis- gained Church. He Presbyterian in the ter national recognition when he was elected to the Liberian House of Representatives in 1853, and continued to play an active role in Liberian politics for decades. 272 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY negro.” that “Africawasthetruehomeof this instance in convincing the audience able informationaboutemigration. When gave theblackcommunity accesstovalu- such as collective reading and writing ing Reconstruction,utilizingresources industry athousandfold.” “Come andtillmeIwillrewardyour abundant, andthesoilseemedtosay, purposes, waterwasplentiful,trade possessed plentyof timber for building been allotted, their settlement location new homes—homesteadshadalready Knoxville emigrants were happy in their well. In it Erskineproclaimedthat1866 likely newspapersinEastTennesseeas Union andDispatch,morethan lish aletterbyErskineintheNashville In August1867Caldwellhelpedpub- helped publicizehisrecruitmentefforts. his old family friend John Caldwell, who areas inMiddleandWestTennessee, to expandhisrecruitmentactivities William Brownlow,whoencouragedhim from influentialwhitessuchasGovernor Liberia. Erskine also received support dred individualswillingtoemigrate had gainedthenamesofovertwohun- more trusting.Bytheendofhistriphe Tennessee heritage they began to feel about hisaccomplishmentsandEast movement sympathizerslearnedmore endear himtoseparatistsupporters.As sonal experiencesinLiberiabeganto Although illiteracywasprevalentdur- Gradually, however,Erskine’sper- 48 49

on agriculturalenterprise suchasthisone two thousandgallonsof syrup.” five thousandgallonsofmolasses,and four hundred thousand pounds of sugar, planter whogrewenoughcane“tomake highlighted thesuccessofoneparticular tant development.”Thesamearticle into marketgivespromiseofanimpor- sugar, coffee,rice,&c.,areraisedandput and thefacilitywithwhichlargecropsof “Agriculture isstilltheleadinginterest, cle declaredthatinthecountryofLiberia, would resonatewiththem.An1867arti- Southerners andpublishedstoriesthat ple, wrotetoWilliamCoppinger: East Tennessee.Onefreedman,forexam- in thespreadofemigrationmovements out thestate,butismostreadilyobserved information sharing took place through- the causeofblackemigration.Thistype effect ofnetworkinginassociationwith tion, theyshareditwithothers.Ithadthe one interestedpersonpossessedinforma- fare ofLiberia. were quiteanxioustohearofthewel- hundreds ofmyfellow subjects who interest hisaddressandhavereaditto tol Janthe3rd.Ihavereadtomuch Roye madeatMonroviathecapi- Liberia andtheaddressofPresident elective officersoftheRepublic particulars oftheproceedingnewly made itsappearancesgivingmefull Your repositoryofthismonthhas The AfricanRepositorycourtedblack 50 51 Reports Black Emigration 1866–1880 273 ennessee. He 52 In the years following the Knoxville In the years following the Knoxville movement, smaller emigration movements to Liberia sprang up in neigh- Benjamin Singleton was the unofficial leader Benjamin Singleton was the unofficial in T Movement of the Exoduster helped found three farming settlements in Kan- sas, including Nicodemus. (Singleton, Kansas Nicodemus, Li- and State Historical Society, brary of Congress) War Civil the During cane. sugar and fee, imports to Liberia had occurred irregu- larly and Ricks was forced by necessity to herself order to clothe in weave to learn and her family. In a message that had the and self-affirmation of meaning double racial assertion, she implored other black East Tennesseans to uplift themselves and to do “what we ought to have done years ago, instead of waiting and depending on America.” published a letter by a native published a letter by a native In 1866, the same year that the In 1866, the same year that the daughter of the region, Martha Erskine Erskine Martha region, the of daughter Ricks. Ricks was the daughter of the Reverend George Erskine and the only surviving sister of Hopkins Erskine. In this letter she lauded the Liberian’s indus- triousness and the successes of various agricultural pursuits, including the raising of arrowroot, pepper, ginger, cocoa, cof- would be read at meetings and retold retold would be read at meetings and many times over by supporters. for Liberia left expedition Knoxville aboard the brig Golconda, the African Repository 274 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY for emigration. (Library ofCongress) for emigration.(Library Schleier. Erskinerecruiteddozensofparticipants Hopkins ErskineposedforphotographerT During a tripfrom Liberia toKnoxville in 1866, Nelson, aschoolteacher inPhiladelphia and sharetheirblessedprivileges.” James who havewrittenforthemtocomeover to jointheirrelativesandacquaintances influenced toparticipatebythe“desire Other sources confirmed that many were of theirfriendswilljointhemsoon.” the 1866 Knoxville emigrants left “many Erskine hadcorrectlypredictedthatafter boring Jefferson and Loudon Counties. .M. as I.” and induceasmanyotherstodothesame cal: “Godsparring[sic]mylifeIshallgo changed mypurpose.”Hewasunequivo- but forhimthosedevelopmentshad“not serve on juries and hold public office, new politicalrightssuchastherightto enticed tostayinthestatebecauseof commented that some local blacks were fifty othersemigratedtoLiberia.Nelson year, over thenext few years more than smaller number,seven,actuallyleftthat an 1867emigration.Althoughamuch he could recruit about fifty people for in neighboringLoudonCounty,thought After hearingpresumably positivereports spond withfamilyandfriends backhome. grants, wouldhavecontinuedtocorre- Mount, Liberia.He,likesomanyemi- similar workinhisnewhomeCape worked asan engineer, probably sought and LoudonCountyareas.Samuel,who interested personsintheKnox,Jefferson, reported tohavethenamesofoverforty responded with the ACS. In 1866 he a recruitmentagentwhoregularlycor- County group.SamuelMcMillanwas his familywhentheyleftwiththeKnox decided nottojoinhissonSamueland Daniel McMillan of Jefferson County locale occurredatdifferenttimes.In1866 account forwhymovementsfromone ing JeffersonCounty. 1873 thirty-ninedepartedfromneighbor- ten emigrantsleftLoudonCounty,andin gradually agreedwithNelson. In1869 Diffusion ofinformationcanalso 53 OtherblackEastTennesseans Black Emigration 1866–1880 275 (New (New Black Towns and Profit: Promotion and and Profit: Promotion Black Towns and (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); 1991); Press, of Illinois University (Urbana: 1. Walter Fleming, “Pap Singleton, the Moses Moses 1. Walter Fleming, “Pap Singleton, the Hope: of Journey The C. Barnes, Kenneth 2. 3. Claude Andrew Clegg, “Africa and the the and “Africa Clegg, Andrew Claude 3. The Tennessee experience shows how shows how experience The Tennessee The American Journal of of the Colored Exodus,” The American Journal of Sociology 15 (July 1909): 67. in the late The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkansas 1800s The Price Press, 2004); Claude Andrew Clegg, of Making the and Americans African Liberty: of Liberia Our under Nation A Hahn, Steven 2004); Press, Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003); Marvin Hamilton, Development in the Trans-Appalachian West 1877– 1915 Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977); Edwin Redkey, Black Exodus: Black and back-to-Africa Movement Nationalist Haven: Yale University Press, 1969). African American imagination,” (Ann Arbor, blacks rationalized emigration to locales to locales emigration blacks rationalized in light of acute or Kansas such as Liberia economic or political social violence and is true that in most areas strain. While it did movements emigration state the of more important conclu- not emerge, the and where emigration sion is that when unstable and violent movements occurred The experiences present. were conditions are unique, though Tennesseans, black of south- other black of to those comparable move- erners. Studying their grassroots into insights new scholars offers ments the in protest and thought black radical United States. -

54 The McMillan family is reflective of is reflective of The McMillan family Tennessee’s emigration movements Tennessee’s emigration movements and witnessing deteriorating economic economic deteriorating and witnessing home, seventy- prospects at and political son his join to opted Daniel old year five with his wife Rachel, in 1873. He left of his extended fam- numerous members other separatists from ily and thirty-two of Strawberry Plains in the small town Jefferson County. a larger successive trend in emigration trend in emigration a larger successive area will movements whereby a particular move- experience multiple emigration one ments spanning several years. Often first emigrated member family or family of the to survey a region before the rest des- the new followed. If party emigration emi initial the suitable proved tination grant would encourage others to come. come. grant would encourage others to her new If, by contrast, success in his or warnings then achieved, not was home would be given of the various hardships. to Letters to friends and family waiting of the hear reviews were an integral part decision making process. are representative of black emigration movements occurring throughout the century. The late nineteenth in the South close spatial proximity of the Tennessee movements to one another provide fitting cluster pattern the general of illustrations in the South, whereby movements spread into nearby areas and positively affect movement development. They also illus- trate the importance of information diffusion and first-hand accounts in facilitat- ing movement participation. 276 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Americans andthePoliticsof Racial Destinyafter Michelle Mitchell,RighteousPropagation:African Kentucky: UniversityPressofKentucky,1998); Nationalists andtheCivilizingMission(Lexington, UnAfrican Americans: Nineteenth-Century Black more onthecivilizingmissionseeTundeAdeleke, class whiteculturalpracticesandachievement.For like CrummelalsoprivilegedWesternorupper African orlowerclassblackAmericanculture.Men advocating emigrationwhilecriticizingaspectsof Church, manifestedtheirownformofelitismby Alexander CrummelloftheAmericanEpiscopal Recorder, 14. 10. (Cambridge: HarvardUniversityPress,1871),14. Quarterly of Tennessee, 1865–1866” Tennessee Historical Judy BussellLeForge,“StateColoredConventions of Southern History Tennessee Agriculture,1865–1880”TheJournal Soil intheUpperSouth:TheReorganizationof 361. the AmericanRevolution(NewYork:Ecco,2006). Schama, for Liberty of theAmericanRevolutionandTheirGlobalQuest Pybus, Historical SocietyofWisconsin,1963);Cassandra Communal ExperimentsinAmerica(Madison:State Jane andWilliamH.Pease,BlackUtopia:Negro (Gainesville: UniversityPressofFlorida,2005); A HistoryoftheAmericanColonizationSociety 2006): 24. Mich.: ProQuestInformationandLearning, 11. Someblackmissionaries,suchas 10. “TheBlackStates,”TheChristian 9. ProceedingsoftheColoredStateConvention, 8. ProceedingsoftheColoredStateConvention, 7 6. Robert McKenzie, “Freedmen and the 5. Hahn,ANationUnderOurFeet,3and 4. EricBurin,SlaveryandthePeculiarSolution: . ProceedingsoftheColoredStateConvention. Epic JourneysofFreedom:RunawaySlaves Rough Crossings,Britain,theSlavesand 21 August1876. (March 2006):231–253. (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006); Simon (February 1993): 68; See also

and Emancipation, Settlements in British Guiana,” in Apprenticeship mation seeRawleFarley,“TheRiseofVillage and thefreevillagesettlements.Formoreinfor- in Jamaica that helped instigatethe end of slavery decisive andcontinuous”objectivesheldbyslaves the desireforlandandlibertyasbeing“most 27 no.2(Summer2003):6;RawleFarleycites Movement,” Adeleke, Press, 2002),5.Wilson,AlexanderCrummell,7–8; North Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum Conn.: ArchonBooks,1978),23.PatrickRael, of BlackNationalism1850–1925(Hamden, 1989); JeremiahMosesWilson,TheGoldenAge Discontent Alexander Crummell: A Study ofCivilization and Carolina Press,2004);JeremiahMosesWilson, the SectionalConflictinTennessee, 1832–1861 5–40; JonathanM.Atkins, Parties, Politics,and 1815–1835,” Slavery MovementandtheMarketRevolution, Quarterly Vol.69No.4(Winter2010):292–319. and Liberian Colonization,”TennesseeHistorical Bell andWilliamE.Kennedy,MiddleTennessee 249–251; RichardJ.M.Blackett,“Montgomery 1904,” (PhDdiss.,VanderbiltUniversity,2010), Black TerritorialSeparatismintheSouth,1776– University ofVirginiaLibrary),46. from theGulfStates,”(ElectronicTextCenter, John HopkinsUniversityPress,1992), and Britain,1832–1938(BaltimoreLondon: of Freedom: Race, Labor, and Politics in Jamaica more informationseeThomasHolt,TheProblem political independenceafteremancipation.For freedmen inJamaicaalsosoughteconomicand University oftheWestIndies,1970),59.The (Mona, Jamaica:Dept.ofExtra-MuralStudies, 12. Mike Meacham, “The Exoduster 16. CaitlinA.Fitz,“TheTennesseeAnti- 15. Selena Sanderfer, “For Landand Liberty: 14. Pease,BlackUtopia,25–44. 13. FrederickDouglass,“TheNegroExodus (Chapel Hill:UniversityofNorthCarolina Unafrican Americans,9. (New York:OxfordUniversityPress, Western JournalofBlackStudiesVol. Civil WarHistory52(2006): ed. RexNettleford,etal. 149.

Black Emigration 1866–1880 277

“Departure of “Departure of Middle Tennessee Society Society Tennessee Middle (Baton Rouge: Louisiana Louisiana Rouge: (Baton 11 Times, and Press Daily Nashville 43 December, 1867, The African Repository 43 December, 1867, 21. Stephen V. Ash, V. Ash, Stephen 21. Murders. 2, Outrages, Riots, 22. Target Secretary William Coppinger, Flood to 23. J. to Secretary William 24. Fleming Crump 25. John Seys to Revered William McClain, , 31 26. “Ho for Liberia!” Union and American of 27. “Liberia. Gloomy Account Ship 28. “List of Emigrants for Liberia, By the 29. Dernoral Davis, “Hope versus Reality: 30. P.D., “Newspaper Account of a Speech by Transformed, 1860–1870 1860–1870 Transformed, 204–205. Press, 1988), State University 1868. Reel 34, 11, TBRFL. January 1866–August Tenn. Reel 100. Records 13 August 1867, Dover, Library Society, of the American Colonization referred to as ACS); J. P. of Congress (hereafter William Coppinger, Dover, Flood to Secretary Reel 100. ACS. Tenn., 19 July 1867. 1876. September 2 Tenn., Dover, Coppinger, Reel 115. ACS. ACS. 98. Reel 1866. February 7 Tenn., Nashville, July 1866; Clarksville Chronicle. 21 June 1867. Colonization—The Africo-American Republic— and The ‘Golconda’ Emigrants—Two Hundred Nashville Fifty Out of Six Hundred Already Dead” Union and Dispatch, 13 November 1867, 1. Golconda, From Charleston, S.C., November 1867,” 366; “Liberia. Gloomy Account of Colonization— The Africo-American Republic—The ‘Golconda’ of Six Emigrants—Two Hundred and Fifty Out Hundred Already Dead” Nashville Union and Dispatch, 13 November 1867, 1; Our Fall Expedition” The African Repository 43 December, 1867, 375. The Emancipation Era Labor Struggles of Memphis Area Freedmen, 1863–1870,” in Race, Class, and Community in Southern Labor History, ed. Gary M. Fink and Merl E. Reed, 97–120, (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1994), 105–107. the Freedmen’s Bureau Assistant Commissioner for Kentucky, Tennessee, and Northern Alabama,” 26 September The Christian Recorder, 26 September 64 no. 2 Tennessee Historical Quarterly 64 no. 2 21 August 1873; 1873; 21 August Recorder, Christian The The Negro in Taylor, The Negro in 17. Alrutheus A. the of History “A Phillips, D. Paul 18. 19. “News of the Week. States and 20. Target 2, Outrages, Riots, Murders, (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997), Press, 1997), University of Tennessee (Knoxville: to the Tennessee Lindsley et al., 4; “Philip 1833, Legislative October 25, General Assembly, 1, The vol. Schweninger, ed. Loren Petitions,” Slavery: Petitions to Southern Southern Debate Over University (Champaign: 1778–1864 Legislatures, “For Sanderfer, 143–145; 2001), Press, Illinois of 75–78. Land and Liberty,” (Washington, D.C.: Tennessee, 1865–1880 Black “The 106–107; 1941), Pub., Associated States,” of the Fleming, “Pap Singleton, the Moses at the Colored Exodus,” 73–75; Representatives when convention were quoting Abraham Lincoln nation of he referred to the independent black Haiti. (PhD Freedmen’s Bureau in Tennessee,” 267–325. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1964), hotbed of Williamson County became a particular in the postwar politics. Although some freedmen most Democrats, Conservative supported county Racial Republicans. League Union the supported wrestled violence intensified as the two factions fought on for political dominance. Freedmen rocked both sides during the political riots that result- which 1867, in of Franklin county seat the James ed in the death of twenty-seven blacks. Reconstructive A Franklin: of Battle “The Jones, Narrative,” (Summer 2005): 111, 115–116. Territories,” 1868. January 1866–August 1868. Reel 34, 6, 8, the for Commissioner Assistant the of Records State of Tennessee Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, (Hereafter Lands, 1865–1869. Abandoned and referred to as TBRFL), National Archives and Records Administration. 278 THE TENNESSEE HISTORICAL QUARTERLY a Negro Killed, Seven Mortally Wounded, and 34, TBRFL. Riots, Murders. January 1866–August 1868. Reel 32–33. (Brunswick: RutgersUniversityPress,2006,) Lynchings and Legal Executions inthe South TBRFL. January 1866–August1868.Reel34.No.18, County, Target2,Outrages,Riots,Murders. Chicago Tribune,22April1879,2. the ColoredExodus,”68. Kansas StateHistoricalSociety. 1879–1883 (HereafterreferredtoasKGJJ), rants; executivemessagesandproclamations, dence received;extraditionandrequisitionwar- 2, KansasGovernorJohnP.St.correspon- June 1879,Clarksville,Tennessee.Box14,folder Louisiana StatePress,1991),170. for RacialControl, 1861–1915 (Baton Rouge: Black Mobility and the Southern White Quest the ColoredExodus,”73–75. Tennessee Press,1996),41. 1791–1970, North CarolinaPress,2008),286. O’Donovan, et.al.,(ChapelHill:Universityof 1. 1861–1867: Land&Labor,1865,Series3:vol. Freedom: ADocumentaryHistoryofEmancipation Washington Headquarters.,RG105[A-6008]in 1865, F-113LettersReceived,ser.15, Fisk toMajorGeneralHoward,12September Hill,” enclosedinBrigadierGeneralClintonB. September, 1865;“GreatMassMeetingatSpring eds. StevenHahn,P.Miller,SusanE. 41. “RiotatRogersville—AWhite Manand 40. East Tennessee, Target 2, Outrages, 39. MargaretVandiver,LethalPunishment, 38. Taylor,TheNegroinTennessee,112–114. 37. J.M.Puckett,15July1966,Hickman 36. “TheOriginatoroftheExodus,”The 35. Fleming,“PapSingleton,theMosesof 34. A.AraytoGovernorJohnSt.John,25 33. WilliamCohen,FromFreedom’sEdge: 32. Fleming,“PapSingleton,theMosesof 31. LesterLamon,BlacksinTennessee, 3rd edition (Knoxville: University of “Liberian Intelligence,” The AfricanRepository29(September1853),285; “Steamboats toEngland:ResultsoftheElections,” appointed attorneygeneralofLiberiain1864. html (accessedJuly19,2009). odoflivingwaters.org/the_voice/0210/08ricks. The Voice (October 2002): 1–6, http://www.syn Victoria and Invited to Lunch at Windsor Castle,” Mrs. MarthaAnnRicksPresentedtoQueen Slave MeetstheMonarchofBritishEmpire, 10 September1866,ACS. William Coppinger, StrawberryPlains, Tennessee, 1868, ACS; Samuel McMillan to Secretary Coppinger, Knoxville, Tennessee, 24 September 1866, ACS;H.W.ErskinetoSecretaryWilliam Coppinger, Knoxville, Tennessee, 22 September of NorthCarolinaPress,2004),39. after Reconstruction(ChapelHill:TheUniversity African AmericansandthePoliticsofRacialDestiny 788–813. Journal ofSociology102,no.3(November1996), Southern Lynchings,1890–1919,”TheAmerican E. Tolnay,“VicariousViolence:SpatialEffectson 2005), 115–116. (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, Guard andItsRoleinReconstruction,1867–1869 Ben Severance,Tennessee’sRadicalArmy:TheState Wounded”, Tennessee—Two MenKilledandSevenMortally Times, from Twenty-fivetoThirtyInjured,”NewYork American who haslivedinLiberia,”NashvilleUnionand African Repository42no.10(October1866),315. ACS; “NumerousandPressingApplications,”The Coppinger, Knoxville,Tennessee,14August1866, (May 1865),136. 46. Perhapsmostprominently,Erskinewas 45. GeorgeM.Apperson,“FormerTennessee 44. H.W.ErskinetoSecretaryWilliam 43. MichelleMitchell,RighteousPropagation: 42. E.M.Beck,GlennDeane,andStewart 48. “Rev. Geo. Erskine, a negro minister 47. H.W.ErskinetoSecretaryWilliam 29 July 1867; “The Campaign Riotsin East 3 October1866,1. The NewYorkTimes,26July1867; The African Repository 40 40 - Black Emigration 1866–1880 279 42 (December (December 42 43 (September The African Repository 43 (September The African Repository African The 50. S.S. Stewart to Secretary William to Secretary William 50. S.S. Stewart Liberia,” The African 51. “Progress in “Letters to Liberia” The 52. Martha Ricks, 53. James Nelson to Secretary William 54. Samuel McMillan to Secretary William 49. H. W. Erskine to Secretary William William Erskine to Secretary 49. H. W. 1866), 374. 1866), 374. 1870, April 11 Tenn., Murfreesboro, Coppinger, ACS. 281. Repository, 43 (September 1867), African Repository 42 no. 1 (January 1866), 23. 1867, Coppinger, Philadelphia, Tenn., 20 July of the ACS; H. W. Erskine, “Arrival Out Golconda,” 1867), 283. Plains, Coppinger, 10 September 1866, Strawberry Tennessee. ACS; Peter J. Murdza Jr., Immigrants Listing to Liberia: 1865 to 1904—An Alphabetical 45. (Newark: University of Delaware, 1975), - ACS; The actu 24 September 1866, Coppinger, from year that leaving emigrants of number al for “A Large Expedition 144; was Knoxville Liberia,”