DOCSLIB.ORG

The Irony of Emancipation in the Civil War South Clark Scott Nesbit

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Irony of Emancipation in the Civil War South Clark Scott Nesbit The Irony of Emancipation in the Civil War South Clark Scott Nesbit, Jr. Richmond, Virginia B.A., Swarthmore College, 2001 M.A., University of Virginia, 2005 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Corcoran Department of History University of Virginia December, 2013 2 © Clark Scott Nesbit, Jr., 2013 3 ABSTRACT Nearly everyone in the Civil War South had opportunity to feel the irony of emancipation. This irony arose from the wartime difference between ending slavery as a regime and freeing slaves, as individuals. This dissertation explores the ways in which white southerners sacrificed, or refused to sacrifice, their interest in the enslavement of particular southern blacks for the sake of a regime that would safeguard slavery. It argues that African Americans at times sought their own freedom even if it meant aiding the Confederate regime, and at other times sought to avoid warzones even if it meant remaining legally enslaved. It argues that the Union’s war to defeat the Confederacy was also a war waged against the Confederates’ main source of labor. Such a war meant, for most who became free in the Civil War, emancipation through displacement and integration into a new system for managing former slaves, the refugee camp/plantation/recruitment complex. For those who remained in the wake of Sherman’s marches and other U.S. raids, it meant living in a land with little food. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my dissertation committee, Ed Ayers, Gary Gallagher, Peter Onuf, and Maurie McInnis for their patience and thoughtful critiques. I owe gratitude to a much larger group of the faculty at the University of Virginia, including Brian Balogh, Valerie Cooper, Grace Hale, Michael Holt, James Hunter, Charles Marsh, Louis Nelson, and Daphne Spain. Good friends, such as Allison Elias, Julian Hayter, Chris Hearn, Chris Loomis, Calvin Schermerhorn, Peter Slade, and Megan Stubbendeck gave much needed cheer through a lengthy graduate career. My colleagues at the University of Richmond Digital Scholarship Lab, Rob Nelson, Nate Ayers, and Justin Madron have been essential allies as I finished the dissertation. I would like to acknowledge the generous support of numerous institutions during my graduate study: at the University of Virginia I have benefitted from the program in southern history, the Corcoran Department of History, the Carter G. Woodson Institute, the William R. Kenan summer fellowship program, and especially the Institute for Advanced Studies in Culture. Outside UVA, I owe thanks to the Virginia Historical Society, Duke University Library, and the Presbyterian Historical Society for their support. Though the project was not initially built for this purpose, my dissertation made extensive use of Visualizing Emancipation, a project supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities and the University of Richmond. I would like to thank my family; Clark and Patsy Nesbit for their continuous encouragement; Liz Caritj for not tiring of her brother; Faith, Glenn, John, and Colin, for enduring childhood with a father who was still in school. Most of all I would like to thank Erin, for everything. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 6 CHAPTER ONE: FIRST CONTACTS 22 CHAPTER TWO: RUNNING AWAY 61 CHAPTER THREE: OCCUPATION 108 CHAPTER FOUR: REFUGEES AND RAIDERS 153 CHAPTER FIVE: "A HUNGRY BELLY AND FREEDOM" 200 EPILOGUE 245 APPENDICES 249 INTRODUCTION Nearly everyone in the Civil War South had opportunity to feel the irony of emancipation. The tension they experienced, the absurdity visited on them by the juxtaposition of war and freedom, might be put this way: in the Civil War, ending slavery was not the same as freeing slaves. To admit a difference between the two is to open a puzzle often passed over, but one powerfully experienced by those bound together in the conflict. Enslaved people saw a war they knew could end in their liberation destroying their homes, devouring their food, and taking what little stability they had carved out of their enslavement. Slaveholders could not help but grimace at the choices they faced, in which the regime they built to safeguard slavery in turn demanded the sacrifice of their slaves to ensure its survival. Northern generals “made Georgia howl” and devised strategies to dismantle the Confederacy by simultaneously destroying slavery and bringing war, with all its destruction, to black southerners’ doors. Slavery and the American Civil War have always been at the center of ironic interpretations of American history. Reinhold Neibuhr’s Irony of American History closed with a meditation on Abraham Lincoln and his ability both to act in history and stand detached from “the partiality of all historic commitments.” C. Vann 7 Woodward saw in the South’s experiences of slavery and defeat, of learning “the taste left in the mouth by the swallowing of one’s words,” a possibility that it might similarly be “set apart,” given a vantage from which to consider myths of national innocence. Robert Penn Warren, who skewered postwar myths of northern and southern whites alike, found little enough to admire in those who found comfort in the outcome of the war.1 For these writers, an ironic stance toward the past derives from a deep skepticism about human action in the world. Such a stance creates and leaves unresolved tension by juxtaposing our highest ideals with the terrible uses of power often necessary to recreate the world as it should be. An ironic history points out the gaps between the ideologies to which historical actors adhere and the conditions in which they find themselves, conditions that seem to make it impossible to act consistently, that break down radical and reactionary politics alike. Such an approach finds vice hidden in the highest virtues and sordid results coming from the most noble purposes. The simple fact that Americans often have not lived up to the better angels of our nature—that American history is full of racism, greed, violence, and bad faith—is not ironic, but life. In those situations, however, in which historical actors looking to protect slavery destroy it, in which they liberate at the expense of those hoping to become free, and in which deferred hopes for freedom 1 Reinhold Niebuhr, The Irony of American History (New York: Scribners, 1952), 171- 4; Niebuhr, “The Religion of Abraham Lincoln,” in Allan Nevins, ed., Lincoln and the Gettysburg Address: Commemorative Papers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964), 76; C. Vann Woodward, “The Irony of Southern History” in The Burden of Southern History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1960), 190; Robert Penn Warren, The Legacy of the Civil War (New York: Random House, 1961); Warren, “Uses of the Past,” in New and Selected Essays (New York: Random House, 1989), 29-54. 8 turn out to be preferable to emancipation in the midst of hunger and fire, historians can find irony, a combination of sympathy and detachment for those acting in a terrible war that ended slavery. These earlier, ironic accounts of the Civil War placed slavery at the center of their narratives but did not consider the wartime experience of enslaved men and women themselves. Niebuhr found Abraham Lincoln to be wise because he was able to assign blame for slavery “to both North and South” and tell a grieving nation that God had visited “this terrible war” on them both. Niebuhr approvingly summarized the president, “Sin and punishment, virtue and reward are never precisely proportioned.” Yet Lincoln’s moral accounting of the war treated African Americans as entirely marginal to the contest itself, as though God did not visit war on them, too. Their lives, in such a story, were implicated only in the war’s outcome, in “giving freedom to the slave.”2 Ira Berlin and, recently, scholars of all stripes working on the end of slavery have countered the assumption that blacks were marginal to the conflict. Historians at the Freedmen and Southern Society Project have made nuanced arguments for the centrality of enslaved people as agents in their own emancipation: that enslaved men and women were primary actors in bringing about their own freedom; that black southern men were eager to take up arms for the United States and their own freedom; and that plantations during and immediately after the war were sites of severe labor conflict, pitting the diametrically opposed economic and political desires of the formerly enslaved against landowners and proprietors. There is much 2 Niebuhr, “Religion of Lincoln,” 74, 85. 9 in these arguments with which I heartily agree. Enslaved people certainly played a pivotal role in the end both of their own enslavement and in the United States’ decision to consider the destruction of slavery a worthy means to win the war. Many ran to U.S. lines without regret and suffered little once there, though perhaps not as many did so, and they did with more ambivalence than some scholars have suggested. In both of these arguments, the pivotal moments arrive when the progressive forces of black southerners and their allies come into conflict with the forces of racist and reactionary politics and either achieve victory, as in the case of the destruction of slavery and the black military experience, or a barely concealed détente, in the case of the volumes on labor relations. Likewise, James Oakes’ useful Freedom National tells a tightly organized story with a foregone conclusion, tracing the ideological origins and political triumph of the antislavery movement in the United States. Such histories have very clear winners and losers, those with virtue and those without, depending on the beliefs they carried into the struggle for freedom.3 3 Ira Berlin, et al., eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985-2005); James Oakes, Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery, 1861-1865 (New York: W.W.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • (Extra)ORDINARY MEN
    (Extra)ORDINARY MEN: African-American Lawyers and Civil Rights in Arkansas Before 1950 Judith Kilpatrick* “The remarkable thing is not that black men attempted to regain their stolen civic rights, but that they tried over and over again, using a wide va- riety of techniques.”1 I. INTRODUCTION Arkansas has a tradition, beginning in 1865, of African- American attorneys who were active in civil rights. During the eighty years following the Emancipation Proclamation, at least sixty-nine African-American men were admitted to practice law in the state.2 They were all men of their times, frequently hold- * Associate Professor, University of Arkansas School of Law; J.S.D. 1999, LL.M. 1992, Columbia University, J.D. 1975, B.A. 1972, University of California-Berkeley. The author would like to thank the following: the historians whose work is cited here; em- ployees of The Arkansas History Commission, The Butler Center of the Little Rock Public Library, the Pine Bluff Public Library and the Helena Public Library for patience and help in locating additional resources; Patricia Cline Cohen, Professor of American History at the University of California, Santa Barbara, for reviewing the draft and providing comments; and Jon Porter (UA 1999) and Mickie Tucker (UA 2001) for their excellent research assis- tance. Much appreciation for summer research grants from the University of Arkansas School of Law in 1998 and 1999. Special thanks to Elizabeth Motherwell, of the Universi- ty of Arkansas Press, for starting me in this research direction. No claim is made as to the completeness of this record. Gaps exist and the author would appreciated receiving any information that might help to fill them.
    [Show full text]
  • Draft Interpretive Master Plan Technical Support Manual - Vol
    FORT MONROE DRAFT INTERPRETIVE MASTER PLAN TECHNICAL SUPPORT MANUAL - VOL. 1 PROJECT #: FMFADA -101-2009 Submitted to the: By: Fort Monroe Federal Area Development Authority Interpretive Solutions, Inc. West Chester, PA 19382 Old Quarters #1 151 Bernard Road In association with: Fort Monroe, VA 23651 Leisure Business Advisors, LLC Richmond, VA 23223 and Trudy O’Reilly Public Relations JUNE 24, 2010 Hampton, VA 23661 Cover illustration credit: "Fortress Monroe, Va. and its vicinity". Jacob Wells, 1865. Publisher: Virtue & Co. Courtesy the Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library Fort Monroe Interpretive Master Plan Technical Support Manual June 24, 2010 Interpretive Solutions, Inc. FORT MONROE DRAFT INTERPRETIVE MASTER PLAN TECHNICAL SUPPORT MANUAL Table of Contents Executive Summary . 6 Three Urgent Needs . 7 Part 1: Introduction . 8 1.1. Legislative Powers of the Fort Monroe Authority . 9 1.2. The Programmatic Agreement . 9 1.3 Strategic Goals, Mission and Purpose of the FMA . 10 1.3 The Interpretive Master Plan . 10 1.3.1 Project Background . 11 1.3.2 The National Park Service Planning Model . 12 1.3.3 Phased Approach . 13 1.3.4 Planning Team Overview . 13 1.3.5 Public Participation . 14 Part 2: Background . 16 2.1 The Hampton Roads Setting . 16 2.2 Description of the Resource . 17 2.3 Brief Historical Overview . 19 2.4 Prior Planning . 22 2.5 The Natural Resources Working Group . 22 2.6. The African American Culture Working Group . 22 Part 3: Foundation for Planning . 24 3.1 Significance of Fort Monroe . 24 3.2 Primary Interpretive Themes .
    [Show full text]
  • The Civil War Differences Between the North and South Geography of The
    Differences Between the North and The Civil War South Geography of the North Geography of the South • Climate – frozen winters; hot/humid summers • Climate – mild winters; long, hot, humid summers • Natural features: • Natural features: − coastline: bays and harbors – fishermen, − coastline: swamps and shipbuilding (i.e. Boston) marshes (rice & sugarcane, − inland: rocky soil – farming hard; turned fishing) to trade and crafts (timber for − inland: indigo, tobacco, & shipbuilding) corn − Towns follow rivers inland! Economy of the North Economy of the South • MORE Cities & Factories • Agriculture: Plantations and Slaves • Industrial Revolution: Introduction of the Machine − White Southerners made − products were made cheaper and faster living off the land − shift from skilled crafts people to less skilled − Cotton Kingdom – Eli laborers Whitney − Economy BOOST!!! •cotton made slavery more important •cotton spread west, so slavery increases 1 Transportation of the North Transportation of the South • National Road – better roads; inexpensive way • WATER! Southern rivers made water travel to deliver products easy and cheap (i.e. Mississippi) • Ships & Canals – river travels fast; steamboat • Southern town sprang up along waterways (i.e. Erie Canal) • Railroad – steam-powered machine (fastest transportation and travels across land ) Society of the North – industrial, urban Society of the South – life agrarian, rural life • Maine to Iowa • Black Northerners − free but not equal (i.e. segregation) • Maryland to Florida & west to Texas − worked
    [Show full text]
  • An Oral History Interview with John Joseph Patrick and James Leo
    Sandy Hook, Gateway NRA, National Park Service An Oral History Interview with John Joseph Patrick and James Leo Mulhern Sons of Fort Hancock Pumping Station and Power Plant Chief Engineer 1908-1927 Interviewed by Elaine Harmon, NPS August 14, 1982 Transcribed by Mary Rasa, 2012 The Fort Hancock Pumping Station in 1911 when John Francis Mulhern worked there. 1 John Mulhern in ROTC uniform at Battery Arrowsmith c. 1925. Photos courtesy of Gateway NRA/NPS Editor’s notes in parenthesis ( ) EH: Today is August 14, 1982. We have the honor of having as our guest John Joseph Patrick Mulhern and James Leo Mulhern. It is August 14th and my name is Elaine Harmon. I work at the Sandy Hook Museum as Park Technician, Museum Services. JLM: I am James Leo Mulhern. I was born on Sandy Hook on January 1, 1912. At least that is what the birth certificate says although there is a bit of argument as to the exact date. The certificate was issued by a doctor at the old Post Hospital and it indicates that I was born at the Post Hospital but we believe that I was actually born in my parents’ home at Camp Low. My father at the time was an employee, a civilian employee, of the Army and he was working at the old Power Plant and Pumping Station at Camp Low. And we lived in a house immediately across the street from the plant. The number of the building I do not know but the house is still there. I was the youngest of four children and of the four I was the only one born at Sandy Hook.
    [Show full text]
  • Hard-Rock Mining, Labor Unions, and Irish Nationalism in the Mountain West and Idaho, 1850-1900
    UNPOLISHED EMERALDS IN THE GEM STATE: HARD-ROCK MINING, LABOR UNIONS AND IRISH NATIONALISM IN THE MOUNTAIN WEST AND IDAHO, 1850-1900 by Victor D. Higgins A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History Boise State University August 2017 © 2017 Victor D. Higgins ALL RIGHTS RESERVED BOISE STATE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE COLLEGE DEFENSE COMMITTEE AND FINAL READING APPROVALS of the thesis submitted by Victor D. Higgins Thesis Title: Unpolished Emeralds in the Gem State: Hard-rock Mining, Labor Unions, and Irish Nationalism in the Mountain West and Idaho, 1850-1900 Date of Final Oral Examination: 16 June 2017 The following individuals read and discussed the thesis submitted by student Victor D. Higgins, and they evaluated his presentation and response to questions during the final oral examination. They found that the student passed the final oral examination. John Bieter, Ph.D. Chair, Supervisory Committee Jill K. Gill, Ph.D. Member, Supervisory Committee Raymond J. Krohn, Ph.D. Member, Supervisory Committee The final reading approval of the thesis was granted by John Bieter, Ph.D., Chair of the Supervisory Committee. The thesis was approved by the Graduate College. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author appreciates all the assistance rendered by Boise State University faculty and staff, and the university’s Basque Studies Program. Also, the Idaho Military Museum, the Idaho State Archives, the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture, and the Wallace District Mining Museum, all of whom helped immensely with research. And of course, Hunnybunny for all her support and patience. iv ABSTRACT Irish immigration to the United States, extant since the 1600s, exponentially increased during the Irish Great Famine of 1845-52.
    [Show full text]
  • Ulysses S. Grant and Julia Dent Grant Papers Finding Aid
    Mississippi State University Scholars Junction USGPL Finding Aids Ulysses S. Grant Presidential Library 12-1-2020 Ulysses S. Grant and Julia Dent Grant papers Finding Aid Ulysses S. Grant Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/usgpl-findingaids Recommended Citation Ulysses S. Grant and Julia Dent Grant papers, Ulysses S. Grant Presidential Library, Mississippi State University This Text is brought to you for free and open access by the Ulysses S. Grant Presidential Library at Scholars Junction. It has been accepted for inclusion in USGPL Finding Aids by an authorized administrator of Scholars Junction. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Ulysses S. Grant and Julia Dent Grant papers USGPL.USGJDG This finding aid was produced using ArchivesSpace on December 01, 2020. Mississippi State University Libraries P.O. Box 5408 Mississippi State 39762 [email protected] URL: http://library.msstate.edu/specialcollections Ulysses S. Grant and Julia Dent Grant papers USGPL.USGJDG Table of Contents Summary Information ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Biographical Note: Ulysses S. Grant ................................................................................................................. 3 Scope and Content Note ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Administrative
    [Show full text]
  • Mark A.Smith,Ph.D
    1005 State University Dr. Office: 478-825-6667 Dept. of Behavioral and Social Sciences Fax: 478-825-6161 ARK MITH H (he/him ) Fort Valley State University [email protected] M A. S ,P .D. Fort Valley, GA 31030-4313 Education Ph.D., History ° The University of Alabama, 2004. ° Fields: U.S. History to 1865, U.S. History since 1865, Military & Naval History. ° Dissertation Title: “The Corps of Engineers and National Defense in Antebellum America, 1815-1860.” M.A., History ° The State University of West Georgia, 1997. ° Thesis Title: “A Tactical Analysis of the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain with respect to the Tactical Precepts of Dennis Hart Mahan.” B.A., History ° Kennesaw State University, 1995 (Cum Laude). Employment Professor, Tenured ° Fort Valley State University, Department of History, Geography, Political Science, History and Criminal Justice; Fall 2017 to present. ° Taught first both of US History Surveys, Georgia History, Historical Methods, the Civil War and Reconstruction, the American Revolution and New Nation, and US Military History. Associate Professor, Tenured ° Fort Valley State University, Department of History, Geography, Political Science, and Criminal Justice; Fall 2010 to Fall 2017. ° Taught both US History Surveys (including an honors version of U.S. History to 1865), World Civilization since 1500, Georgia History, the Civil War and Reconstruction, Jacksonian America, the American Revolution and New Nation, Colonial America, US Military History, and Historical Methods. Assistant Professor ° Fort Valley State University, Department of History, Geography, Political Science, and Criminal Justice; Fall 2005 to Spring 2010. ° Taught both US History Surveys (including an honors version of U.S. History to 1865), World Civilization since 1500, Georgia History, the Civil War and Reconstruction, the Old South, Jacksonian America, and the American Revolution and New Nation.
    [Show full text]
  • Political Activities of African-American Members of the Arkansas Legislature, 1868-73
    University of Arkansas, Fayetteville ScholarWorks@UARK Theses and Dissertations 5-2011 "The Africans Have Taken Arkansas": Political Activities of African-American Members of the Arkansas Legislature, 1868-73 Christopher Warren Branam University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd Part of the African American Studies Commons, Political History Commons, and the United States History Commons Citation Branam, C. W. (2011). "The Africans Have Taken Arkansas": Political Activities of African-American Members of the Arkansas Legislature, 1868-73. Theses and Dissertations Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/90 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact [email protected]. “THE AFRICANS HAVE TAKEN ARKANSAS”: POLITICAL ACTIVITIES OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN MEMBERS OF THE ARKANSAS LEGISLATURE, 1868-73 “THE AFRICANS HAVE TAKEN ARKANSAS”: POLITICAL ACTIVITIES OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN MEMBERS OF THE ARKANSAS LEGISLATURE, 1868-73 A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History By Christopher Warren Branam California State University, Fresno Bachelor of Arts in Journalism, 1994 May 2011 University of Arkansas ABSTRACT African-American lawmakers in the Arkansas General Assembly during Radical Reconstruction became politically active at a time when the legislature was addressing the most basic issues of public life, such as creating the infrastructure of public education and transportation in the state. They were actively engaged in the work of the legislature. Between 1868 and 1873, they introduced bills that eventually became laws.
    [Show full text]
  • The Perceptions of Race and Identity in Birmingham
    SIT Graduate Institute/SIT Study Abroad SIT Digital Collections Capstone Collection SIT Graduate Institute Spring 5-25-2014 The eP rceptions of Race and Identity in Birmingham: Does 50 Years Forward Equal Progress? Lisa Murray SIT Graduate Institute Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones Part of the Political History Commons, Race, Ethnicity and Post-Colonial Studies Commons, and the Social History Commons Recommended Citation Murray, Lisa, "The eP rceptions of Race and Identity in Birmingham: Does 50 Years Forward Equal Progress?" (2014). Capstone Collection. 2658. https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/2658 This Thesis (Open Access) is brought to you for free and open access by the SIT Graduate Institute at SIT Digital Collections. It has been accepted for inclusion in Capstone Collection by an authorized administrator of SIT Digital Collections. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Perceptions of Race and Identity in Birmingham: Does 50 Years Forward Equal Progress? Lisa Jane Murray PIM 72 A Capstone Paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Arts in Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding at SIT Graduate Institute in Brattleboro, Vermont, USA. May 25, 2014 Advisor: John Ungerleider I hereby grant permission for World Learning to publish my capstone on its websites and in any of its digital/electronic collections, and to reproduce and transmit my CAPSTONE ELECTRONICALLY. I understand that World Learning’s websites and digital collections are publicly available via the Internet. I agree that World Learning is NOT responsible for any unauthorized use of my capstone by any third party who might access it on the Internet or otherwise.
    [Show full text]
  • Private Schools for Blacks in Early Twentieth Century Richmond, Virginia
    W&M ScholarWorks Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects 2016 Private Schools for Blacks in Early Twentieth Century Richmond, Virginia Sharron Smith College of William and Mary, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Smith, Sharron, "Private Schools for Blacks in Early Twentieth Century Richmond, Virginia" (2016). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1477068460. http://doi.org/10.21220/S2D30T This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Private Schools for Blacks in Early Twentieth Century Richmond, Virginia Sharron Renee Smith Richmond, Virginia Master of Liberal Arts, University of Richmond, 2004 Bachelor of Arts, Mary Baldwin College, 1989 A Thesis presented to the Graduate Faculty of the College of William and Mary in Candidacy for the Degree of Master of Arts Department of History The College of William and Mary August, 2016 © Copyright by Sharron R. Smith ABSTRACT The Virginia State Constitution of 1869 mandated that public school education be open to both black and white students on a segregated basis. In the city of Richmond, Virginia the public school system indeed offered separate school houses for blacks and whites, but public schools for blacks were conducted in small, overcrowded, poorly equipped and unclean facilities. At the beginning of the twentieth century, public schools for black students in the city of Richmond did not change and would not for many decades.
    [Show full text]
  • The Role of Officer Selection and Training on the Successful Formation and Employment of U.S
    THE ROLE OF OFFICER SELECTION AND TRAINING ON THE SUCCESSFUL FORMATION AND EMPLOYMENT OF U.S. COLORED TROOPS IN THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1863-1865 A thesis presented to the Faculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE Military History by DANIEL V. VAN EVERY, MAJOR, US ARMY B.S., Minnesota State University, Mankato, Minnesota, 1999 Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 2011-01 Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. Form Approved REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing this collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS. 1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From - To) 10-06-2011 Master‘s Thesis AUG 2010 – JUN 2011 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER The Role of Officer Selection and Training on the Successful 5b.
    [Show full text]
  • Butterfield Ja18
    P O S T HASTE STORY AND PHOTOGRAPHY BY SUSAN DRAGOO Now largely forgotten, the BUTTERFIELD OVERLAND MAIL ROUTE in SOUTHEASTERN Oklahoma is a historic tie to the nation’s westward expansion. For the intrepid traveler, following its trace through the state is a WILD WEST treasure hunt. The Brazil Creek Bridge in LeFlore County is a pony truss span over a scenic spot near what was a nineteenth- century mail station. 80 July/August 2018 OklahomaToday.com 81 HE LAND STILL bears the faded scars of the old route: a swale through a pasture, a cut-down creek bank, a path worn bare Tthrough the forest. In some forgotten places, walled springs still flow near the rubble of rock buildings or graveyards of broken stones. Tey testify to the At the time, long sea journeys were the easiest mode of TRAVEL long-ago passage of the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoaches through from the EAST COAST to the newly populous west, and the nation what would become Oklahoma. It’s been 160 years since the first needed a more efficient way to DELIVER THE MAIL. two bags of mail on the route crossed the Poteau River into Indian Territory. Today, an excursion along Oklahoma’s 192 miles of the Butterfield trail is both time warp and treasure hunt. My husband Bill and I set out to retrace the Indian Territory section of the 1858- 1861 Butterfield route, traveling the back roads of southeastern Oklahoma to discover what remains. Three-cent stamp from 1861, uspcs.org HE ROAD BEGAN in Tipton, Mis- Tsouri, at a terminus of the Pacific Railroad.
    [Show full text]