University of Kentucky UKnowledge Theses and Dissertations--English English 2019 “I’VE KNOWN RIVERS:” REPRESENTATIONS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE Catherine Gooch University of Kentucky, [email protected] Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.404 Right click to open a feedback form in a new tab to let us know how this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Gooch, Catherine, "“I’VE KNOWN RIVERS:” REPRESENTATIONS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE" (2019). Theses and Dissertations--English. 97. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/english_etds/97 This Doctoral Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the English at UKnowledge. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations--English by an authorized administrator of UKnowledge. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 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Catherine Gooch, Student Dr. Pearl James, Major Professor Dr. Michael Trask, Director of Graduate Studies “I’VE KNOWN RIVERS:” REPRESENTATIONS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE DISSERTATION A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the College of Arts and Sciences at the University of Kentucky By Catherine Gooch Lexington, Kentucky Director: Dr. Pearl James, Professor of English Lexington, Kentucky 2019 Copyright © Catherine Gooch 2019 ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION “I’VE KNOWN RIVERS:” REPRESENTATIONS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE My dissertation, titled “I’ve Known Rivers”: Representations of the Mississippi River in African American Literature and Culture, uncovers the impact of the Mississippi River as a powerful, recurring geographical feature in twentieth-century African American literature that conveys the consequences of capitalist expansion on the individual and communal lives of Black Americans. Recent scholarship on the Mississippi River theorizes the relationship between capitalism, geography, and slavery. Walter Johnson’s River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom, Sven Beckert’s Empire of Cotton: A Global History, and Edward Baptist’s The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism examine how enslaved black labor contributed to the expansion of capitalism in the nineteenth century, but little is known about artistic representations of the Mississippi in the twentieth century. While scholars point primarily to the Mississippi River’s impact on slavery in the nineteenth century, I’ve Known Rivers reveals how black writers and artists capture the relationship between slavery, capitalism, and the Mississippi River. I consider a wide variety of texts in this study, from Richard Wright’s Uncle Tom’s Children and early 20th century Blues music, to late 20th century novels such as Toni Morrison’s Sula. This broad array of interdisciplinary texts illustrates a literary tradition in which the Mississippi’s representation in twentieth-century African American literature serves as both a reflection of the continuously changing economic landscape and a haunting reminder of slavery’s aftermath through the cotton empire. Furthermore, I’ve Known Rivers demonstrates how traumatic sites of slavery along the river are often reclaimed by black artists as source of empowerment, thereby contributing a long overdue analysis of the Mississippi River in African American literature as a potent symbol of racial progress. KEYWORDS: African American Literature, Mississippi River, African American Culture, Slavery, Capitalism Catherine____________________________ Gooch ____________________________August 29, 2019 Date “I’VE KNOWN RIVERS:” REPRESENTATIONS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE By Catherine Gooch ___________________________________Pearl James Director of Dissertation ___________________________________Michael Trask Director of Graduate Studies ___________________________________August 29, 2019 Date ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe almost everything to my little brother, Cam Lane, who always lifted my spirits with inside jokes, movie quotes, and the worst/best made up song lyrics. My brother provided an endless well of support and positivity, and for that I am forever grateful. My other siblings, Duke Wiggins, Madison Gooch, and Mason Gooch, are my inspiration and motivation, and their phone calls and text messages were often the bright spots of my day. I am indebted to my many families who made this project possible: my parents, Pam and Derek Wiggins, who taught me the value of education, pushed me to be my best, and taught me to take pride in my heritage; my parents, Dan and Gina Gooch, whose home was a nearby place of refuge during graduate school; to all of the Waddells, who took me in as a part of their family and offered unconditional love and support; and finally, to my grandparents, Wallace and Vernell Gooch, who took me back to our Mississippi roots and shared countless memories that instilled in me the importance of place, family, and love. My advisor, Pearl James, helped me in more ways than I can count. Her feedback and encouragement have shaped my scholarship and made this project possible. She has provided invaluable professional and personal guidance that allowed me to thrive in inside and outside of UK, and I cannot thank her enough. In addition to Dr. James, my other committee members—Rynetta Davis, Nazera Wright, and Arnold Farr—offered advice and support from this project’s creation to its completion. My regular conversations and meetings with Rynetta Davis made me feel valued not just as a scholar, but as a person. I also would like to thank the Department of English at UK for bestowing me with fellowships that contributed to the success of this dissertation. I am grateful for all my friends who were there for me during this process. My best friend from day one, Micah Bradford, always kept me laughing and encouraged me when I needed it most. The love and joy I felt from my friends—Emily Handy, Farah Ardeshir, Sandra Carpenter, Alex Menrisky, and Vince Dominguez—propelled me forward and kept me sane. Finally, I offer my deepest gratitude to my wife, Katie Waddell, who has been my best friend and biggest supporter for the duration of this long, sometimes painful, process. She has provided the love, encouragement, and homemade cocktails that kept me going. It is with infinite love and appreciation that I dedicate this work to her. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements iii List of Figures v Chapter One – Introduction: The Mississippi River in African American Memory 1 Chapter Two – A Brief History of the Mississippi River 13 The Mississippi River and the Original American Dream 15 Slavery and the American Economy 21 Steamboat Technology and Capitalist Expansion 26 The Mississippi River and White Public Opinion 30 The Mississippi River and Black Public Opinion 33 The Mississippi River: The Aftermath 38 Chapter Three – Death by the Riverside: Richard Wright’s Uncle Tom’s 43 Children and the Mississippi Flood of 1927 Chapter Four – “High water everywhere”: The Mississippi River in 20th 84 Century Blues Music Chapter Five – “Shall we gather at the river?”: Trauma, Uncertainty, and 129 Folklore in Sula Coda 170 Bibliography 177 Vita 182 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1, “Slave Coffle, Virginia, 1839” 1 Figure 2.1, Map of the Mississippi River and its Tributaries 15 Figure 2.2, Map of the Lower Mississippi River 22 Figure 2.3, Selection of Map of the Lower Mississippi River 22 Figure 2.4, Map of New Orleans Slave Market 23 Figure 5.1, Margaret Garner Historical Marker 130 Figure 6.1, Beyoncé’s “Formation” 170 Figure 6.2, 12 Years a Slave, Mississippi River 172 Figure 6.3, 12 Years a Slave, St. Joseph Plantation 173 v Chapter One – Introduction: The Mississippi River in African American Memory In Slavery and Crime in Missouri, 1773-1865, Harriet C. Frazier provides a firsthand account from Aaron S. Fry, who witnessed the suicide of a man sold “down the river” into slavery. In an April 1835 journal entry, Fry wrote, “A negro man of Mr. Elies, having been sold to go down the river, attempted first to cut off both of his legs, failing to do that, cut his throat, did not entirely take his life, went a short distance and drowned himself” (110). The scene is one of desperation; the man is willing to do anything, willing to sacrifice his body, his own life to avoid being sold “down the river.” The implication here, though, is that the man isn’t simply trying to escape slavery; he is trying to escape the movement down the Mississippi River towards New Orleans, the biggest slave trade hub in America.