Fire Management today Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004
FIRE USES FROM THE PAST
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Prairie Meadows Burning (1832), George Catlin (1796–1832), oil on canvas. 11 x 14-1/8 inches. National American Art Museum. Gift of Mrs. Joseph Harrison, Jr. ©2003 Smithsonian Institution.
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On the Cover: CONTENTS Fire Use During the Great Sioux War...... 4 Karl Brauneis
American Indian Fire Use in the Arid West ...... 10 Gerald W. Williams
American Indian Influence on Fire Regimes in California’s Coastal Ranges ...... 15 Jon E. Keeley
Reports of American Indian Fire Use in the East . . . . . 17 Prairie Meadows Burning (detail—the entire painting is Hutch Brown shown on the facing page), an Early Voices for Light Burning...... 23 1832 painting by George Catlin, shows American Hutch Brown Indians riding away from an Altered Fire Intervals and Fire Cycles approaching prairie fire. On in the Northern Rockies ...... 25 the Great Plains, Indians used Stephen W. Barrett fire for many purposes, includ ing rejuvenating forage for What Is Fire? Eleven Ways of Seeing Fire...... 30 game and disrupting enemy Students of Wildland Fire Ecology and Management movements during war. See the story by Karl Brauneis The Ying and Yang of Wildland Firefighting ...... 32 beginning on page 4. Jeff Connor
Wildland Fire Investigation Standards ...... 36 The FIRE 21 symbol (shown below and on the Paul T. Steensland cover) stands for the safe and effective use of wildland fire, now and throughout the 21st cen tury. Its shape represents the fire triangle (oxy Fifth Annual Franklin Awards Ceremony ...... 39 gen, heat, and fuel). The three outer red triangles represent the basic functions of wildland fire April Baily organizations (planning, operations, and aviation management), and the three critical aspects of wildland fire management (prevention, suppres sion, and prescription). The black interior repre sents land affected by fire; the emerging green SHORT FEATURES points symbolize the growth, restoration, and sustainability associated with fire-adapted ecosystems. The flame represents fire itself as an ever-present force in nature. For more informa Blackfeet Fire Use in Battle ...... 9 tion on FIRE 21 and the science, research, and innovative thinking behind it, contact Mike Apicello, National Interagency Fire Center, Websites on Fire ...... 29 208-387-5460. NASA Honors Texas Forest Service Incident Management Team ...... 41 Amanda Fazzino
Guidelines for Contributors...... 42
Firefighter and public safety is Photo Contest Announcement...... 43 our first priority.
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 3 FIRE USE DURING THE GREAT SIOUX WAR
Karl Brauneis
he Great Sioux War of 1876–77 (see the sidebar) provides a The Sioux and Cheyenne traditionally set fire to the T glimpse into the military use of prairie as they moved their summer camps in fire by both American Indians and pursuit of game. the U.S. Army. The two sides used fire very differently during the cam paign. The Sioux and their to render the enemy incapable of Bighorn Mountains in present-day Northern Cheyenne allies used fire making war or even of surviving off Wyoming and then to the Black both as a resource management the reservation. Hills in what is now South Dakota. tool and as a tactical weapon to During a dry year, the area between disrupt and impede enemy move Traditional Fire Use the Bighorn and Powder Rivers was ments. By contrast, the U.S. Army a “smoky, blackened wasteland” by learned to deploy fire strategically The Sioux and Cheyenne tradition ally set fire to the prairie as they late August (Greene 1982). Karl Brauneis is a forester for the USDA moved their summer camps from Forest Service, Shoshone National Forest, the Little Bighorn River in present- The fires were set to bring forth Washakie Ranger District, Lander, WY. day southern Montana to the young grass early the following
Frederic S. Remington, The Grass Fire, 1908 (oil on canvas). On July 30, 1876, Sioux and Northern Cheyenne warriors similarly used fire as a tactical tool to slow down and disrupt movements by the U.S. Army. Artwork courtesy of the Amon Carter Museum, Fort Worth, TX (1961.228).
Fire Management Today 4 The Great Sioux War, 1876–77* The arrival of Europeans in North They also spread across the north- when the Black Hills gold rush America triggered a wave of ern Great Plains, becoming the brought large numbers of miners migrations by American Indians. dominant power in an area reach- into the most sacred of Sioux Decimated by disease and dis- ing from what is now the Dakotas lands, the stage was set for anoth placed by European settlers, into Montana and Wyoming. “These er major war. many eastern tribes moved west. lands once belonged to the Kiowa Tribes able to acquire firearms and the Crows,” observed a Sioux U.S. forces planned to drive often drove less well-armed tribes chief in the 1850s, “but we whipped nomadic bands of Sioux onto from their ancestral lands. In these nations out of them, and in reservations and then force the addition, the spread of horses this we did what the white men do agency Sioux to cede the Black across the Great Plains attracted when they want the land of the Hills by treaty. In winter 1876, tribal peoples eager to hunt bison Indians.” three Army columns, aided by and elk. For many tribes, a gener- Crow and Shoshone allies, were al westward migration began. Inevitably, U.S. territorial expansion sent to trap the Sioux in their brought direct confrontation with winter villages while the weather The Lakota, a group of closely the Sioux. In 1804, in a first chal- immobilized them and their related peoples known to whites lenge to U.S. authority, the Teton ponies were too gaunt for fight- as the Teton Sioux, spearheaded Sioux threatened the Lewis and ing. the migration of Siouan-speaking Clark Expedition on the Missouri peoples from the woodlands of River, demanding a heavy toll in They failed. At least 15 engage- Minnesota onto the Great Plains. exchange for passage. Cool heads ments followed, including the By 1776, the Sioux had reached prevailed, and the dispute was Battle of Little Bighorn in June the Black Hills in what is now resolved without bloodshed. 1876, a great victory for the South Dakota. They came to Sioux and their Cheyenne allies. regard the area as the sacred But sporadic battles began in 1854 But in May 1877, Chief Lame heart of their homeland. and continued into the 1860s. In Deer’s last stand in Montana’s the Red Cloud War of 1866–68, Rosebud River country marked * Largely based on the Websites “Sioux Nation” and “The Great Sioux War 1876–1877” (at, respectively, allied Sioux and Cheyenne forces the end of organized Sioux resist
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 5 Many fires set by the Sioux and Cheyenne were expressly intended to disrupt enemy movements.
At the Battle of Cedar Creek (October 21, 1876), the Sioux fired the ravines surrounding Colonel Nelson Miles and his soldiers. As the Indians withdrew, they contin ued to burn the prairie, effectively preventing pursuit. The fires grew so intense that Colonel Miles was forced to stop and set backfires Charles Schreyvogel, On the Skirmish Line, 1900 (oil on canvas). Dismounted U.S. caval rymen use Colt revolvers and Springfield carbines against mounted Plains Indians. (Greene 1991). During the Great Sioux War, troopers from F Company, 2nd Cavalry, used fire as a strate gic weapon on August 29, 1877. Artwork courtesy of the National Cowboy and Western Whether the fires of 1876 were tac Heritage Museum, Oklahoma City, OK (84.46c.2). tical, accidental, natural, or set for maintenance purposes, they caused (Greene 1997) claimed that a is one sheet of flames, from the val great difficulties for the U.S. troops. threatening prairie fire on July 30, ley to the mountain tops.” Crook’s For a month, General Crook and 1876, was “started by embers left at command would have been near his men marched through a black last [enemy] camp.” the Tongue River, on the east side ened landscape devoid of forage. of the Bighorn Mountains near the The infantry even passed the caval Tactical Fire Use present-day town of Sheridan, WY. ry on their wornout mounts, which Despite the chance of accidental were finally turned out to fend for fire, many fires set by the Sioux and Such fires served to cover the themselves. Many horses were also Cheyenne were expressly intended retreating Sioux and Cheyenne. shot. On what became known as to disrupt enemy movements. Early Indian warriors engaged in pro Crook’s Starvation March, the battles on Rosebud Creek (June 17, longed campaigns had to move troops were forced to eat their 1876) and the Little Bighorn River entire villages of women and chil mounts for survival. Meanwhile, a (June 25–26, 1876) involved such dren. Fire was one of the best tools well-mounted enemy was some rapid attacks that neither side used available for fighting a delaying times spotted just over the next fire. But the Indians subsequently action, especially when coupled ridge, but impossible to engage. used fire for tactical purposes. with strike-and-withdraw tactics. “Indians set fire to the prairie,” Strategic Fire Use Fire was also used at close quarters observed Private William W. Jordan By sheer luck, the troops at last (Greene 1997), attributing the to achieve tactical objectives. About an engagement at Spring Creek stumbled onto a Sioux village and threatening prairie fire of July 30, won a decisive victory over Chief 1876, to enemy action. “Entire (October 15–16, 1876), Second Lieutenant Alfred C. Sharpe wrote, American Horse at the Battle of command out fighting fire until Slim Buttes (September 9, 1876). It dark.” “Finally, we reached the foot of the opposite side, and with a cry, we was their first real success of the campaign. The following months In the days and weeks that fol charged up the hill. The Indians then set fire to the tall grass which brought a string of U.S. military lowed, fires continued to plague the successes, including the defeats of command of Brigadier General was dry as tinder. The smoke was blinding and the heat intolerable, Chief Dull Knife at the Battle of George Crook. “Marched all day Red Fork (November 25, 1876) and through smoke of prairie fires,” but rushing onward and upward, we gained the crest and again drove Chief Crazy Horse at the Battle of Private Jordan wrote on August 3. Wolf Mountains (January 8, 1877). “Weather hot.… The whole country the villains before us.”
Fire Management Today 6 The U.S. Army now turned the hard “I wish the grass burned behind you in the whole lessons learned on the Starvation section of the country, and the region of the Little March to its strategic advantage. In July 1877, Colonel Miles ordered Missouri left unsuitable for Indians or game.” his troops to burn off forage. –Colonel Nelson A. Miles, General Order of July 22, 1877 “When the commands turn west or back,” he wrote in a general order (Greene 1998), “should the Indians game—particularly buffalo—and Two days later, when the troopers retreat toward the head of the Indian ponies could graze, thus pre reached the Tongue River, the Powder River, I wish the grass cluding Sioux–Cheyenne use of Indians again set the grass on fire. burned behind you in the whole these traditional hunting lands dur But the Army’s strategy ultimately section of the country, and the ing the late summer and fall while prevailed. By the end of 1877, all region of the Little Missouri left promoting the necessity of their Sioux and Cheyenne bands had sur unsuitable for Indians or game.” going into the agencies for survival.” rendered—except for Chief Sitting Bull and his followers, who escaped The burnings that actually followed The war dragged on, with each side to Canada. But 4 years later, facing might have been more coincidental using fire. “The Indians have been starvation, the last free Sioux than purposeful; however, the order setting fires in our advance, either returned to South Dakota and were by Colonel Miles demonstrates the accidental or on purpose, thinking sent to a reservation. Army’s ability to adapt to—and initi they were doing right,” reads the ate—a strategic use of fire. diary of Trooper William F. Zimmer Contrasting Fire Use “Obviously,” concluded the historian (Greene 1998) on August 27. “50 The Great Sioux War provides a Jerome A. Greene (1998), “the burn men have been sent out to fight it sharp contrast in how two different ings by the troops were meant to to keep it out of our camp, which it cultures with diverse values and destroy the grass upon which is threatening.” objectives utilized fire. The Sioux
Charles M. Russell, Crow Burning the Blackfoot Range, 1905 (oil on canvas). Similar fire use during the Great Sioux War led to the monthlong Starvation March for Brigadier General George Crook and his forces. Artwork courtesy of the Buffalo Bill Historical Center, Cody, WY (loan from Mr. and Mrs. W.D. Weiss; L.25.93.3).
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 7 and Cheyenne employed fire as a resource management tool and a highly effective tactical weapon. By contrast, the U.S. Army learned through campaign hardship to deploy fire as a strategic weapon, helping to bring an end to the Great Sioux War.
Published diaries from the cam paign (see the sidebar) contain many additional references to wild- land fires, including fire use by American Indians. They offer valu able insights for both the historian and the natural resource manager Frederic S. Remington, Among the Led Horses, 1909 (oil on canvas). Without the horse, into fire history, wildlife occur life on the Great Plains was nearly impossible. The care and feeding of horses were essen rence, and the “natural world” on tial to military success for both the U.S. Army and American Indians. Artwork courtesy of the northern Great Plains. The Sid Richardson Collection of Western Art, Fort Worth, TX (#116). Implications for Management • Wildfire, an unwanted wildland Cultural fires are, in effect, pre fire; scribed fires used by past cultures Fire use during the Great Sioux • Prescribed fire, a wanted wildland for various purposes. For example, War illustrates a historical type of fire through ignition by trained wilderness areas on the Shoshone wildland fire that has too often professionals; and National Forest in Wyoming were been overlooked: cultural fire. • Wildland fire use fire, a wanted managed with fire by the Today, Federal agencies recognize wildland fire through natural Sheepeater and Shoshone Tribes three types of wildland fire: ignition. and, later, by immigrant shepherds
Diaries From the Great Sioux War As a resident of the Wind River • Trooper William F. Zimmer, War, 1876–1877: The military valley in Wyoming, I find myself Company F, 2nd Cavalry. view. Norman, OK: University ever more intrigued by local of Oklahoma Press. western history. Recently, I In addition, Dr. Greene has pub • Greene, J.A., ed. 1994. Sioux became aware of several writings lished accounts by Captain Anson and Cheyenne: Indian views of by Jerome A. Greene, a research Mills, the initial commander at the the Great Sioux War, historian for the U.S. Department Battle of Slim Buttes (September 9, 1876–1877. Norman, OK: of the Interior National Park 1876); and Second Lieutenant University of Oklahoma Press. Service in Denver, CO. Dr. Greene Alfred C. Sharpe, who fought in an • Greene, J.A. 2003. Morning Star has edited and annotated diaries engagement at Spring Creek Dawn: The Powder River of U.S. soldiers during what is (October 15–16, 1876). Expedition and the Northern known as the Great Sioux War of Cheyennes, 1876. Norman, OK: 1876–77, including diaries by: These diaries and accounts can be University of Oklahoma Press. found in the references shown on • Martin, G., ed. 1996. With • Private William W. Jordan, page 9. Additional reading can be Custer on the Little Bighorn. Company C, 14th Infantry; found in: (The journal of William O. • First Lieutenant Frank Taylor, Taylor.) New York, NY: Penguin Company I, 14th Infantry; and • Greene, J.A., ed. 1993. Battles and Books. skirmishes of the Great Sioux
Fire Management Today 8 to maintain and improve habitat for The West is dead my friend the U.S. Department of the Interior bighorn and domestic sheep. But writers hold the seed National Park Service, Harpers and what they saw will live Ferry Center, Harpers Ferry, WV Yet the wilderness concept embod (duty-stationed in Denver, CO), for ied in the Wilderness Act of 1964 and grow his invaluable contributions to this fails to recognize the role that cul Again to those who read article. The author also wishes to tural fires played in shaping some – C.M. Rusell, 1917 thank Joan Zalenski and Jan wilderness landscapes. The notion Brenneman of the Sid Richardson of wilderness as “an area where the Collection of Western Art, Fort earth and its community of life are It’s time to reevaluate the outdated Worth, TX, for their insights and untrammeled by man” is predicat thinking behind the proscription assistance in securing permission ed on an outdated belief that on prescribed fire use in wilder for the artwork used to illustrate American Indians had neither the ness areas. The use of cultural this article. means nor the desire to use tech fires in wilderness areas during nologies such as fire to shape late summer or fall would allow References ecosystems to their liking. fire managers to reintroduce fire Greene, J.A. 1982. Slim Buttes, 1876—An at a time and place that will episode of the Great Sioux War. Norman, Based on that mistaken belief, reduce the chance of an escaped OK: University of Oklahoma Press. Greene, J.A. 1991. Yellowstone Command: interagency wildland fire policy fire. In addition, the use of late- Colonel Nelson A. Miles and the Great now prohibits prescribed fire use season cultural fires could help the Sioux War, 1876–1877. Lincoln, NE: in wilderness areas. Fire man Federal agencies build a more per University of Nebraska Press. Greene, J.A. 1997. Chasing Sitting Bull and agers must wait for natural igni manent and professional fire man Crazy Horse. Nebraska History. 78(4) tions, which might come in a agement corps. [Winter]: 187–201. place where or at a time when Greene, J.A., ed. 1998. Frontier soldier: An enlisted man’s journal of the Sioux and wildland fire use would pose too Acknowledgments Nez Perce campaigns, 1877. (The journal great of a risk of a fire escape. The The author wishes to thank Jerome of William F. Zimmer.) Helena, MT: ■ wilderness resource might suffer A. Greene, a research historian for Montana Historical Society Press. as a result.
Blackfeet Fire Use in Battle* In September 1835, Osborne used fire to drive enemies from cle of flame and smoke which Russell and a party of fellow cover and that early frontiersmen united over our heads. This was trappers were attacked by “about used backfires for fire protection. the most horrid position I was 80 Blackfeet.” The party was ever placed in death seemed camped several miles west of the [T]he Indians had gained the bluffs almost inevitable but we did not Madison River in what is now and commenced shooting into the despair but all hands began southwestern Montana, near camp from both sides. … In the immediately to remove the rub present-day Yellowstone National meantime we concealed ourselves bish around the encampment and Park. Located in grass surround- in the thicket around the camp to setting fire to it to act against the ed by “thicket,” the campsite was await a nearer approach, but they flames that were hovering over overlooked by two bluffs, one were too much afraid of our rifles our heads: this plan proved suc covered “with tall pines … to come near enough for us [to] cessful beyond our expectations approaching within 40 yds of us,” use Ammunition - we lay almost Scarce half an hour had elapsed the other “with thick groves of silently about 3 hours when finding when the fire had passed around quaking asps.” Osborne’s account they could not arouse us to action us and driven our enemies from shows that American Indians by their long shots they com- their position. At length we saw menced Setting fire to the dry grass an Indian whom we supposed to * From Russell Osborne, Journal of a Trapper: Or Nine Years in the Rocky Mountains, 1934-1943 and rubbish with which we were be the Chief standing on a high (original manuscript, Utah State Historical Society; surrounded: the wind blowing brisk point of rock and give the signal on the World Wide Web at
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 9 AMERICAN INDIAN FIRE USE IN THE ARID WEST
Gerald W. Williams
merican Indians have been liv ing on the North American Where arid and semiarid landscapes were not A Continent for at least 12,000 already to their liking, American Indians often years and possibly much longer. changed them. Over many millennia, Indians used almost every part of the continent, including arid landscapes in the rarely understood the importance But by the 1840s and 1850s, when West. of what they were seeing. They gen settlers from the United States erally believed that the landscapes began arriving in great numbers, In the arid West, tribes used the they found were entirely natural many tribes in the arid West were different landscapes differently. (see the sidebar on page 11). already on the verge of extinction. They visited the mountains during Imported diseases, such as small summer and fall, leaving before the Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca (1905), pox, malaria, and influenza, had snows came. In winter, they stayed one of the earliest visitors to the destroyed up to 90 percent of the in the valleys and lowlands, where arid West, is a good case in point. native population. The early demise deer were plentiful and the climate Arriving in the region in the 1530s, of so many tribes meant that an was usually wet and mild. Still, the he mentioned that Indians in what entire way of life was gone by the forests and mountains were vitally is now Texas burned the plains and 1850s, never to be restored. important, supplying food, shelter, timber. The purpose, he said, was to and materials for clothing. drive off mosquitos, gather lizards, Later Documentation kill deer, and “deprive the animals Early Documentation Nevertheless, broadcast burning [deer] of pasture, compelling them was so useful for the Indians that it Where arid and semiarid landscapes to go for food where the Indians persisted into the early 20th centu were not already to their liking, the want [them to go for easier ry. In the early 1850s, Howard Indians often changed them. The killing].” He did not draw a connec Stansbury (1852) noted Indian-set easiest method for changing the tion between the fires he saw and fires in the Huntsville area of Utah. environment was to burn the vege the open landscapes he found. A.W. Whipple (1854) also noted tation. Documentation is difficult Indian-set fires near Purcell and to find, because most Indian cul Such accounts suggest that tribes Chickasha, OK. Major William tures did not have writing. Their routinely used fire long before the Thornton (n.d.) observed two signal methods for changing the land coming of the Spaniards. Indians fires in 1855 along the Arkansas scape were passed along orally. applied fire to the land to renew the River in southern Colorado. He biota they needed to survive—for then sent a scouting party “to However, Indian fire use in the arid example, to regenerate the forage examine the conditions of a large West was documented by European and thereby to concentrate bison prairie fire, which had been lighted explorers beginning in the 1500s. herds in certain places for hunting. by the Indians and appeared to be Of course, recording native land The ecological impacts were exten approaching us.” use practices was not a priority for sive. Southwestern landscapes, the explorers, and the records they notably the open ponderosa pine In 1870, John Wesley Powell left are often haphazard and frag forests that came to symbolize the (1878), the famous explorer and mentary. Moreover, the visitors American West, were highly adapt mapmaker for the U.S. Geological ed to frequent fires, including those Survey, reported Indians burning intentionally set by the original the land throughout the mountains Jerry Williams is the national historian for inhabitants (Alcoze 2003). the USDA Forest Service, Washington of Utah. Powell deplored the prac Office, Washington, DC. tice, claiming that “the fires can,
Fire Management Today 10 Presettlement North America: A Tabula Rasa? Many people believe that North taken as Western civilization’s sources (through Federal hand America was originally a pristine ignorance, chauvinism, and old outs on reservations), new and natural wilderness covered by prejudice against primitivism— restrictions on movement (by ancient forests. Rather amazingly, the noble but dumb savage. treaty), and forcible removal from millions of American Indians There is ample evidence that ancestral lands all disrupted tra were supposedly “transparent in Native Americans greatly ditional ways of life. Another the landscape, living as natural changed the character of the huge cultural change, usually in elements of the ecosphere. Their landscape with fire, and that they areas dominated by Spanish mis world, the New World of had major effects on the abun sions, was the adoption of Columbus, was a world of barely dances of some wildlife species Catholicism at the point of a perceptible human disturbance” through their hunting.” sword. The missions also changed (Shetler 1982). The notion of pre traditional land uses, sometimes settlement North America as a The notion of North America as a indenturing Indians as servants. peaceful, mythical, magical tabula rasa has roots in the experi world—sometimes referred to as ence of early European explorers. Each of these influences had far- a tabula rasa (from the Latin for In the 1500s and 1600s, when reaching consequences, some clean slate, meaning an original European explorers first traversed positive but many negative, on land without features, empty and many parts of North America, they Indian cultures and populations. free)—has influenced the modern found many areas emptied of their As a result, European explorers environmental movement. original inhabitants. A number of and settlers rarely saw or under Indian populations were already on stood the cause-and-effect rela However, as Daniel Botkin (1995) the verge of collapse, decimated by tionships between traditional has pointed out, Indians “had new diseases such as smallpox and Indian land use practices and the three powerful technologies: fire, influenza, against which they had landscapes they found. Unwit the ability to work wood into use no immunity. tingly, they created the myth that ful objects, and the bow and nature had shaped everything. To arrow. In addition, warfare (with old ene this day, the myth persists that mies and the new immigrants), new enormous landscapes, such as the To claim that people with these technologies (horses, ironware, and entire State of West Virginia, technologies did not or could firearms), new methods of making were never populated by not create major changes in a living (such as sheep grazing or American Indians. natural ecosystems can be European-style farming), new food then, be very greatly curtailed by Indian-set fires in the Gulf Coast the removal of the Indians” and Broadcast burning was area, especially in Texas and that “once protected from fires, the so useful for American Arkansas. Aldo Leopold (1924) forests will increase in extent and Indians that it persisted mentioned Indian-set fires near value.” Prescott, AZ. into the early 20th Franklin B. Hough, chief of the century. Many observers simply noted that USDA Division of Forestry, docu Indians set fires in the arid country, mented in his Report on Forestry without attributing the fires to any (1882) that in 1880 Indians set fires (1901) noted that Indians set fires particular tribe or band (Cabeza de in Houston County, TX; in Douglas, in West Texas, New Mexico, and Vaca 1905; Darrah 1951; Hensel Boulder, Rio Grande, and Weld Arizona to improve grazing. R.L. 1923; Hough 1882, Jurney [in Counties, CO; in Beaver, Kane, Salt Hensel (1923) noted Indian-set fires press]; Leopold 1924; Shear 1901; Lake, and Sevier Counties, UT; and on the Santa Rita Range Reserve in Stansbury 1852; Thornton n.d.; in Colfax, Moa, and Socorro Arizona. David Jurney (in press) Whipple 1854; Williams 2003). But Counties, NM. Cornelius Shear noted many recorded instances of
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 11 many reports, books, and articles Who Burned the Land? also mention specific tribes (see the sidebar). Fire use on a landscape level is • Mohave (Castetter and Bell not documented for every tribe or 1942; Drucker 1941); Purposes and band in the arid West. Some • Navajo (Gifford 1940; Hill 1938; Techniques tribes might not have used fire, Hough 1882; Stewart 1942); or perhaps nobody saw and • Osage (Irving 1832); Henry T. Lewis (1973) listed 70 dif recorded its use. However, docu- • Paiute (Chavez and Warner ferent reasons why Indians ignited mentation exists for large-scale 1976; Drucker 1941; Fowler the vegetation. Other writers have fire use by dozens of tribes in the 1986; Steward 1941, 1943; listed fewer reasons using different region (Williams 2003), includ- Stewart 1942); categories (Kay 1994; Russell ing: • Papago (Drucker 1941); 1983). From more than 300 studies • Pima (Drucker 1941; Rea 1979); describing or mentioning Indian • Apache (Bell 1870; Gifford • Pueblo (Gifford 1940); fire use (Williams 2003), I derived 1940; Moore 1972; Seklecki and • Santa Ana (Gifford 1940); 11 major reasons: others 1996; Swetnam and • Shoshone (Bryant 1948, 1951; Baisan 1996; Williams 2003); Egan 1917; Steward 1938, 1941, • Hunting, • Arapaho (Kephart 1916); 1943); • Managing crops, • Cocopa (Castetter and Bell • Tohono O’odham (Lewis 1994); • Improving growth and yields in 1942; Drucker 1941; Hough • Ute (Gifford 1940; Lewis 1994; wild plants, 1882); Stewart 1942); • Fireproofing areas, • Havasupai (Spier 1928); • Walapia (Drucker 1941); • Collecting insects, • Hopi (Gifford 1940); • Yavapai (Drucker 1941); and • Managing pests, • Karankawa (Foster 1998); • Yuma (Castetter and Bell 1951; • Fighting wars and sending sig • Maricopa (Drucker 1941); Drucker 1941). nals, • Extorting goods from other peo ple, • Clearing areas for travel, Many fires were deliberately set to partially open • Felling trees, and • Clearing riparian areas. up the landscape, thereby increasing the variety of habitats and resources available for consumption. Many accounts attribute purposeful burning by Indians to their desire for “mosaics, resource diversity, scape diversity. Ecotones and edge the mountains, so fires set there environmental stability, predictabil effects gave tribal peoples greater might have escaped detection. ity, and the maintenance of eco security and stability in their lives. tones” (Lewis 1985). Many fires By contrast, white settlers generally Indian-set fires differed from natu were deliberately set to partially preferred the second method. ral fires in location, seasonality, fre open up the landscape, thereby Through farming and grazing, they quency, and intensity. For example, increasing the variety of habitats created more uniform ecosystems, lightning fires typically burn in and resources available for con thereby increasing food supplies middle to late summer, whereas sumption. William Cronon (1983) and leading to the development of Indian fires in the hills and valleys described “two ways of living, two towns and cities. tended to be set during fall to help ways of belonging to an ecosystem”: promote plant growth during win To achieve the desired effects, ter. 1. Modifying the environment to Indians carefully chose where and enhance nature’s abundance, and when to burn. In the arid West, Indians tended to burn ecosystems 2. Changing the natural order to they extensively burned the prairies and habitats differently, depending increase production. and low hills. There is less evidence on the resources being managed. that they burned forests in the They rarely set fires when forests Generally, Indians used the first mountains (Booth 1994). Of course, were susceptible to crown fires method, burning to promote land- far fewer white people traveled into (Pyne 1995). Tribes set fires that,
Fire Management Today 12 for the most part, did not destroy Indian-set fires differed from natural fires in entire forests or ecosystems, were location, seasonality, frequency, and intensity. relatively easy to control, and were designed to encourage new plant growth. tions, especially ponderosa pine. Land Management Noting the fire scar record in the Implications Impacts of Fire Use old pines, Harold Weaver (1967) The results astounded white explor observed that “fires occurred as fre Some people disagree that Indians ers and settlers, who sent back quently as fuel accumulated in suf used fire on a scale large enough to glowing reports of the lands they ficient quantity to support combus affect ecosystems (Vale 2002; West found. The wonderful prairies filled tion over the forest floor, whenever 1988). One author called the idea with grasses higher than a horse’s weather conditions were favorable, that Indians purposely burned back were powerful magnets for and whenever lightning strikes or forests to preserve them “preposter people who wanted to make a fresh Indians caused them to start.” Such ous” (Coman 1911). Until the start in a new world. The early set fires generally occurred at intervals 1980s, according to Stephen J. tlers transformed millions of acres of 1 to 5 years. Pyne (1995), “the question of in the arid West into farms and pas ‘Indian burning’ was a quaint tures—and eventually into high Although there is no way to tell for appendix to fire management.” For ways and cities. example, a classic textbook on fire sure how many of these fires were human caused, it seems likely that control from the 1970s found it “at The settlers recognized—and often most of the acres burned were due least a fair assumption that no adopted—fire use as a powerful tool to Indian-set fires. Daniel Botkin habitual or systematic burning was for managing the southwestern (1990), George Gruell (1985), and carried out by the Indians” (Brown prairies and hills. The practice of Samuel Wilson (1992) all noted and Davis 1973). burning large landscapes, also dramatic changes in the landscape widespread in the South, became after tribes were removed to reser Many people still believe that the known as “Paiute forestry,” a direct vations or decimated by war and enormous burned areas found by but derogatory reference to south disease. “After the Indians died or John Wesley Powell and others in western tribal burning habits moved away,” observed Wilson the arid West were naturally caused (Greeley 1920, Hough 1882, Jurney (1992), “the Europeans began to by lightning (Barrett and Arno [In press], Saveland 1995, Schiff describe the forest as dense and 1982; Seklecki and others 1996). 1962). Beginning in the late 19th scrubby, with impenetrable thickets Indeed, the West gets thousands of century, such practices were dis of vegetation beneath the woodland lightning strikes each year, includ couraged by the States and, later, canopy.” ing many that start fires. However, by the USDA Forest Service because most lightning tends to strike of fire damage to young trees, Stephen J. Pyne (1982) observed rocky outcrops and other places not watersheds, and game animals. conducive to ignition; and most of that “the modification of the American continent by fire at the the small snag fires that do start Without periodic fire, ecosystems hands of Asian immigrants are quickly extinguished by rain or have changed in many parts of the [American Indians] was the result eventually go out on their own. It West. Native trees are dying from of repeated, controlled surface seems highly unlikely that the insects and disease, and highly burns on a cycle of one to three extensive fire effects observed in flammable woody vegetation has years.… So extensive were the the presettlement West, especially built up in forest understories or cumulative effects of these modifi at lower elevations, can be attrib invaded grasslands. Whether still cations that it may be said that the uted to lightning. growing or dead, these materials general consequence of the Indian are fueling uncharacteristically occupation of the New World was to Many of those fire effects are severe fires in the West, often with replace forested land with grassland inscribed in the ecosystems them catastrophic results. selves. Early travelers noted the or savannah, or, where the forest persisted, to open it up and free it open, parklike appearance of many Although little of the original open from underbrush.” dry western forests at lower eleva prairie remains, Federal and State agencies still manage millions of
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 13 acres of forest and rangeland in the Proceedings—Symposium and Workshop USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain arid West. Today, under the ecosys on Wilderness Fire; 15–18 November Forest and Range Experiment Station: 1983; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. 14–19. tem-based approach to Federal land INT–182. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Schiff, A.L. 1962. Fire and water: Scientific management, reintroducing Indian- Service, Intermountain Forest and Range heresy in the Forest Service. Cambridge, type fire is a distinct possibility. But Experiment Station: 68–74. MA: Harvard University Press. Hensel, R.L. 1923. Recent studies on the Seklecki, M.; Grissino-Mayer, H.D; managers often find themselves effect of burning on grassland vegetation. Swetnam, T.W. 1996. Fire history and the stymied by controversy or lack of Ecology. 4: 183–188. possible role of Apache-set fires in the funds. Hough, F.B. 1882. Report on forestry. Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Washington, DC: Government Printing Arizona. In: Ffolliott, P.F., et al., tech. Office. coords. Effects of Fire on Madrean Overlooking the interaction of Jurney, D. In press. Fire frequencies along Province Ecosystems: A Symposium Indians and ecosystems has often the Gulf Coastal Plain of southeastern Proceedings; 11–15 March 1986; Tucson, led to the erroneous conclusion North America. Proceedings—22nd AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM–289. Fort Talltimbers Fire Ecology Conference; Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky that people are a problem in the 2001 October 15–18; Calgary, Canada. Mountain Forest and Range Experiment “natural” ecosystems of the Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 238–246. Southwest. Actually, people must Station. Shear, C.L. 1901. Field work of the Division Kay, C.E. 1994. Aboriginal overkill: The role of Agrostology: A review and summary of become part of the solution: As the of Native Americans in structuring west the work done since the organization of record of Indian fire use shows, ern ecosystems. Human Nature. 5(4): the division, July 1, 1895. Bull. 25. people were the primary force in 359–398. Washington, DC: USDA Bureau of Leopold, Aldo. 1924. Grass, brush, timber, Agrostology. the development of many western and fire in Southern Arizona. Journal of Stansbury, H. 1852. Exploration and survey ecosystems, and the virtual disap Forestry. 22(10) [October]: 1–10. of the valley of the Great Salt Lake of pearance of that force often ails the Lewis, H.T. 1973. Patterns of Indian burn Utah, including a reconnaissance of a land today. Land managers can ben ing in California: Ecology and ethnohis new route through the Rocky Mountains. tory. Bean, L.J., ed. Ballena Anthrop. Pap. Senate Exec. Doc. 3. Special session of efit from that insight. 1. Ramona, CA: Ballena Press. [Reprinted Congress, March 1851. Philadelphia, PA: in: Blackburn, T.C.; Anderson, K., eds. Lippincott, Grambo and Co. 1993. Before the wilderness: Thornton, W.A. n.d. Diary of William References Environmental management by Native Anderson Thornton: Military expedition Alcoze, T. 2003. First Peoples in the pines: Californians. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena to New Mexico [1855–56]. Electronic ver Historical ecology of humans and pon Press: 55–116.] sion, University of Kansas, derosas. In Friederici, P. (ed.). Ecological Lewis, H.T. 1985. Why Indians burned:
Fire Management Today 14 AMERICAN INDIAN INFLUENCE ON FIRE REGIMES IN CALIFORNIA’S COASTAL RANGES*
Jon E. Keeley
nderstanding the historical pattern of human impacts on Was vegetation distribution in the coastal U landscapes is critical to cor ranges of California influenced by humans before rectly interpreting the ecological Euro-American colonization? basis for vegetation distribution. In some parts of the world, such as the Mediterranean Basin, a long and intensive utilization of resources has greatly altered the distribution of forests and wood lands. Was vegetation distribution in the coastal ranges of California similarly influenced by humans before Euro-American coloniza tion? Fire-Dependent Landscape The natural vegetation in much of California’s coastal ranges has long been chaparral shrubland. Natural grassland is widespread only on the very arid interior margins of the central and southern coastal ranges. On less arid sites on coastal slopes, the natural dominant cover Figure 1—Vegetation mosaic in the coastal ranges of California. Such commonplace is shrubs rather than grasses and scenes in coastal California originated when human-caused fires became frequent enough to open the native chaparral. Photo: John E. Keeley, U.S. Geological Survey, Sequoia forbs. Kings Canyon Field Station, Three Rivers, CA.
Historically, fire seems to have percent of these grasslands have a Natural fire frequencies from light played a key role in opening up the significant native grass presence. ning are low in the coastal ranges. native shrublands. Today, grass Ecological studies in the coastal Modeling studies and circumstan lands dominated by nonnative ranges have failed to discover any tial evidence, such as fossil pollen plants cover about 25 percent of clear soil or climate factors explain and charcoal deposition, suggest the landscape (fig. 1); less than 1 ing grassland and shrubland distri that fire return intervals were bution patterns. However, shrub- shorter where American Indians Jon Keeley is the station leader for the land communities are readily dis were present than natural ignitions USDI U.S. Geological Survey, Sequoia and placed by annual grasses and forbs would explain. Today, humans are Kings Canyon Field Station, Western under high fire frequency.* responsible for the vast majority of Ecological Research Center, Three Rivers, CA. ignitions in the region. The same * For more information on fire regimes in coastal was likely true before Euro- * Based on Jon E. Keeley, “Native American Impacts on California, see Jon E. Keeley, “Fire and Invasive Plants American colonization. Fire Regimes of the California Coastal Ranges,” in in California Ecosystems,” Fire Management Today Journal of Biogeography 29 [March 2002]: 303–320. 63(2) [Spring 2003]: 18–19.
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 15 Even before Europeans arrived, the • Increasing habitat for game. helped reveal mineral resources coastal ranges of California had rel Repeated burning produces grass such as steatite, tourmaline, and atively high human population den land with patches of shrubland, clay, which were quarried and sities. Agriculture was unknown in excellent habitat for game such as used in food processing, hunting, the region, and marine or riverine deer, valley quail, brush rabbit, and decorations. resources were not enough to sus and mourning dove. tain the high populations. Terrest • Increasing water resources. For many reasons, American rial resources were key. For exam Conversion of chaparral to grass Indians used fire to convert a large ple, we know from archeological land increases annual stream- part of California’s coastal land evidence that American Indians flows by reducing evapotranspira scape from shrubland to grassland. used mortars, pestles, and other tion. By using fire to keep Holocene peoples performed simi milling devices to grind acorns as streamflows perennial, American lar agropastoral modifications of well as seeds from native grasses ecologically related shrublands in and forbs. the Mediterranean Basin. Much of American Indians would the converted California landscape The native shrublands formed have had strong was subsequently maintained by dense, impenetrable stands with reasons for using fire to Euro-American colonizers as pas limited resources for American ture. Indians. Lightning fires would not convert dense chaparral have been frequent enough to into an open mosaic of Management maintain the open shrublands/ shrubland/grassland Implications grasslands that people needed to Understanding the role that subsist in high numbers. However, American Indians played in shaping an additional human subsidy of Indians would have obviated the vegetation patterns in California’s ignitions readily produces such need for seasonal migration when coastal range is critical for today’s landscape mosaics. streams dried up. land managers. Woody vegetation • Reducing hazards. American was likely the natural dominant Purposes for Burning Indians shared the top of the food cover over large stretches of land American Indians would have had chain with the highly feared griz scape, including areas that today strong reasons for using fire to zly bear, now extinct but formerly are grasslands dominated by non convert dense chaparral into an widespread in the coastal ranges. native species. Attempts to intro open mosaic of shrubland/grass By using fire to reduce chaparral duce native bunchgrasses in such land: near villages, American Indians areas, in the mistaken belief that would have diminished the threat they were the dominant natural • Increasing seed, bulb, and fruit of being surprised by bears, vegetation before Euro-American production. Shrublands convert ambushed by human enemies, or colonization, might be misguided ed to herbaceous associations overrun by wildfires driven by dry and will likely fail. would have been dominated by Santa Ana winds. important plant resources. For • Facilitating travel and resource For more information, contact Dr. example, chia was one of the extraction. Travel through chap Jon E. Keeley, Sequoia and Kings richest sources of fat in the arral is nearly impossible without Canyon Field Station, 47050 American Indian diet. extreme epidermal abrasion. Generals Highway, Three Rivers, CA Frequent burning would have 93271-9651, 559-565-3170 (voice), cleared routes for travel and [email protected] (e-mail). ■
Fire Management Today 16 REPORTS OF AMERICAN INDIAN FIRE USE IN THE EAST
Hutch Brown
ire use by American Indians has long been a contentious subject. The evidence that American Indians used fire to FPyne (1995) noted that fire use shape their environments is too strong to simply by native peoples to alter ecosys dismiss or ignore. tems is almost universal, a con tention supported by a growing body of studies (see the sidebar). They include a recently published, long-ignored study from 1954 by References on American Indian Omer C. Stewart, introduced by the Fire Use anthropologist Henry T. Lewis and Literature on the ecological impact of wildland burning by American the ecologist M. Kat Anderson. Indians has been growing since the ground-breaking studies by Omer Stewart (2003) marshaled com C. Stewart in 1954 (Stewart 2003) and E.V. Komarek in the 1960s pelling evidence that American (Komarek 1965, 1967, 1969). Still, the scattered pieces of evidence Indians used fire to shape ecosys have long appeared inconsequential, partly because scholars have tems all across the continental treated them in isolation. United States. Now a comprehensive 112-page list of references is available on fire By contrast, a collection of articles use by American Indians in North America (Williams 2003). The list published in 2002 raised doubts draws on bibliographies from many articles, reports, chapters, and about native fire use in North books on the subject. It has hundreds of entries; many are annotated. America (Vale 2002). The authors The sources are divided into six categories: argued that the scale of American Indian fire use has been greatly • General North America: no specific tribe or location; overblown. They made a good • Boreal forests: Alaska and Canada; point: Records and eyewitness • East: east of the Mississippi River, including the Great Lakes accounts of wildland fires set by region; American Indians are relatively • Rocky Mountains, Southwest, and Great Plains; sparse. In fact, the scale of • California; and American Indian fire use and its • Pacific Northwest: Oregon, Washington, and the Great Basin. impact on the land will probably never be fully known anywhere Looked at in its entirety, the growing mountain of evidence that with absolute certainty. Too much American Indians shaped ecosystems through the use of fire seems depends on extrapolation from frag overwhelming. Readers can obtain more information from Gerald mentary historical, biological, (Jerry) Williams, USDA Forest Service, Mail Stop 1111, 1400 archeological, and paleoecological Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-1103, 202-205 evidence. 0958 (voice), 202-205-0885 (fax), [email protected] (e-mail). Hough’s 1882 Study Yet the evidence remains too strong example comes from Franklin B. United States at a time of growing to simply dismiss or ignore. A good Hough’s ground-breaking Report concern over forest destruction and on Forestry (1882). Hough, the resource waste. His study contains Hutch Brown is the managing editor of first chief of the USDA Division of a long section on wildland fires, Fire Management Today, USDA Forest Forestry, reported to Congress on including many reports made by Service, Washington Office, Washington, the condition of forests in the Hough’s correspondents in the field DC.
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 17 (see the sidebar). This article draws The whole country had “the appearance of a on their reports to discuss some of beautiful park. A deer could be seen at a distance the impacts and implications of American Indian fire use in the of a quarter mile, and a carriage could be drawn East. in any direction.” –Report from Mississippi By 1880, most surviving tribes were confined to reservations, their tra ditional way of life either a memory all American Indians had vanished It was, he reported, their “custom or in severe decline. The few tribes by 1750.* However, correspondents to burn the woods every fall, which that continued their ancestral way in States where intact tribes re kept down the undergrowth.” of life, such as some Apaches in the mained or were still remembered Southwest and some Seminoles in often reported burning by Amer The result was a remarkably open Florida, faced severe pressure from ican Indians. savanna. “The few large post oaks whites. Their land management were scattered sparsely over the practices—including fire use— South hills, and the intervening spaces might well no longer have fully A striking example came from P.H. were covered with prairie grass and reflected their traditions many Skipwith of La Fayette County in flowers, giving the whole country thousands of years old. northern Mississippi, where the the appearance of a beautiful park. Holly Springs National Forest is A deer could be seen at a distance In the East, Government policy and today. Skipwith recalled first pass of a quarter mile [0.4 km], and a the effects of war and disease had ing through the area in May 1832, carriage could be drawn in any all but eliminated American Indians when “the Indians were still here.” direction.” from entire regions by 1880. In Virginia, for example, where the The Piney Woods of East Texas were Jamestown settlers found well-pop * According to one source, the Commonwealth of once similarly open. “The Indians Virginia recognizes eight tribes, two of which have small ulated rivers and a flourishing reservations based on treaties predating the United were formerly in the habit of burn States. For more information, see the Virginia Museum ing the woods to check the under Powhatan culture in 1607, almost of Natural History Website at
A 19th-Century Snapshot of Burning Practices Franklin B. Hough’s Report on ty by county. The correspondents ble, they offered glimpses of Forestry (1882) contains a sec- reported on the number of fires, American Indian practices from tion on fire that summarized laws acreage burned, fire cause, fire sup- afar, their interpretations proba and regulations governing burn- pression activities, fire damage, and bly colored by prejudice. ing in individual States and other reasons for any deliberate burning. countries. It also discussed past In effect, Hough delivered a snap- Still, report after report men- large fires, such as the great shot of fire management in the tioned burning by American Peshtigo Fire of 1871. Inter- United States in 1880, including Indians. Hough counted 21 cases estingly, the report made perhaps burning by American Indians. of fires caused by American the first systematic attempt to Indians out of the 464 cases he collect national data from a sin- Hough’s correspondents were any- attributed to “the direct or inci gle fire season—the 1880 fire thing but objective observers, and dental act of man.” Most cases season. none seem to have been American were in the West, where preset- Indians. Hough himself cautioned tlement conditions in many areas In his fire season report for 1880, that his correspondents relied were not yet far in the past. But Hough summarized accounts greatly on hearsay, “for in a great even in the East, some of Hough’s from “correspondents in the sev- majority of cases the origin of these correspondents reported past or eral States and Territories,” coun- fires is to them unknown.” To the present native fire use. extent that their reports were credi
Fire Management Today 18 Upper Midwest In northern Minnesota, H. Richardson of Morrison County alluded to fires caused by American Indians. “The people should be more generally informed on the subject [of fire danger], including the Indians who roam about the country,” he declared. In Richardson’s view, the American Indians were among those respon sible for destructive fires.
What Richardson might have meant is illuminated by Hough’s summary of an account by Father Peter Pernin, a priest who survived the 1871 Peshtigo Fire. Pernin “The manner of makinge their boates [sic],” from a drawing in about 1585 by John White near the ill-fated Roanoke colony in what is now coastal North Carolina. Coastal tribes partly attributed the fire to prac made canoes by using fire to hollow out large trees (foreground). Fire also gave them the tices common to the inhabitants of technology they needed to fell large trees (background, upper right) and buck the boles northeastern Wisconsin, including (upper left). They would have used the technology not only for boatmaking, but also for agricultural clearing and acquiring timber for village palisades and buildings. the American Indians. “The hunters and the Indians roam continually through these forests, especially in “The woods had been kept burned by the Indians autumn,” he wrote. “… When evening comes they kindle a great so that there was nothing but large timber when fire,” and in the morning they leave the whites came in.” the embers “without a thought –Report from Alabama about extinguishing them.” The embers ignited surrounding dry leaves and caused widespread fires, were vast open savannas,” wrote fires killed undergrowth but did generally ignored by the inhabi E.C. Douglass from Houston “little injury to the large timber.” tants so long as they remained County, where the Davy Crockett harmless surface burns. But a com National Forest is today. “Now, the Dr. S.C. Williams of Calhoun bination of circumstances in 1871 undergrowth is destroying the County in northeastern Alabama, (Haines and Kuehnast 1970) blew grass and very materially injuring near today’s Talladega National them up into a series of tragedy the cattle range.” Forest, described an old custom of fires across Michigan and firing the woods “for the purpose of Wisconsin. In southern Florida, American keeping down the bushes so as to Indians were still burning the have a good cattle range.” He The ignitions and fuel conditions woods, according to Dr. R.B. Potter seemed to suggest that the custom that contributed to such blowups of Dade County. “Frequent fires originated with the American mostly came from settlers clearing occurred at intervals in this county Indians, who used fire to maintain farms, loggers burning slash, and from November to June, having an open old-growth forest. “The workers building railroads (Gess been generally set by Seminole woods had been kept burned by the and Lutz 2002; Pyne 2001; Wells Indians or worthless whites,” wrote Indians so that there was nothing 1968). But by the 1880s, the associ Potter. “… These forest fires existed but large timber when the whites ated dangers were increasingly almost every day at some point in came in,” wrote Williams. “The clear. Where Indians continued the pine woods during the season burning has been left off gradually, their ancestral burning practices, above mentioned.” The frequent until now it is a rare thing except they took part of the blame. in the mountains.”
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 19 Northeast “It is fully demonstrated that where fires are kept Although Hough’s correspondents out of forests, they soon become so entangled in the Northeast did not mention with undergrowth that all other vegetation is American Indian burning practices, blocked off.” Hough himself filled the gap in a section called, “Custom of Burning –Report from Missouri as practiced by the New England Indians.” Hough quoted “colonial tenth part of the county is overrun (3,200 ha). “On perhaps half of records in 1677” that cited “great every year by fires,” reported John this,” noted David C. Lang of damage … in the outskirt planta Pitman of Laurel County in eastern Bedford County, “the injury was tions” from “Indians kindling fires Kentucky, on what is now the limited to the young growth of one in the woods in the latter part of Daniel Boone National Forest. or two years, the older timber being the yeare [sic].” The record, appar From early March until late sum but little hurt.” ently a court document, called for mer, “fires could be seen most of regulating fire use by the American the time in two or three directions Elsewhere, too, many fires were Indians, confirming Hough’s own in this and neighboring counties,” described as killing young trees but belief in the need for rigorous fire according to Dr. R. Wood of Amelia leaving large trees intact. William control. County in central Virginia. Gibson of Mercer County, on Pennsylvania’s border with Ohio, Hough professed a strong convic Descriptions of a correspondingly described a large fire as “undermin tion that “Indian traditions” shaped open landscape abound. “We have ing large trees, completely clearing many landscapes through fire use, here thousands of acres with noth the ground.” A similar report of including “in many instances the ing to be seen but pine trees and large surface fires in “debris and prairies” of the East. He pointed wire-grass,” wrote Dr. J.B. Randall young growth” came from B.A. out that the “treeless soil in from Jefferson County in southeast Merritt of Suffolk County on Long Wisconsin, Michigan, and else ern Georgia. Maryland’s coastal Island, NY. According to George H. where” contained extensive root plain, today densely forested unless Ambrose of Levy County in north systems that, “if let alone, would in farmed, mowed, or grazed, featured ern Florida, fires “ran over about a very few years make their appear a woodland “so thin that fires sel one township” in March, “killing ance as young woodlands … by the dom do much damage,” according the young timber, but doing but lit simplest law of budding [f]rom liv to E.S. Tradwin of Wicomico tle damage to the older growth.” ing roots and natural growth.” The County. “We have very little under trees, he concluded, were “time and growth timber on account of fires,” again repressed … by fires” deliber Burning Purposes noted W.F. White of Hillsborough ately set by American Indians. Where did all this fire come from? County in central Florida, referring Surprisingly, Hough’s correspon to the open pine plains now Burning Legacy dents reported only three instances increasingly rare in the South. of lightning fire. Although many Particularly in the South and fires were reportedly accidental, adjoining areas, the decline of tra In the Blue Ridge and Allegheny most were deliberately set, particu ditional American Indian culture Mountains, which grow heavy larly in the South. Purposes ranged does not seem to have reversed woods except on rocky ridgetops, from clearing farmland, to stalking some of its effects on the land, at annual “undermining” fires burned or smoking out game, to finding least not immediately. Account in several States, opening up the chestnuts under leaves in the fall, after account suggested that sur forest. “The fire merely takes the to regenerating forage for cattle. face burns in spring or fall were leaves and bushes, and allows the common and widely tolerated. The grass to grow up early in the In the upper Midwest, clearing land fires apparently maintained open spring, making a fine range for cat seems to have been the primary forests with large trees and abun tle and sheep,” wrote C.C. Smith of purpose for burning; in the South dant herbaceous cover. Grainger County in eastern and adjoining areas, it was regener Tennessee. In the Pennsylvania ating forage. “Ninety-five per cent Many of Hough’s correspondents Alleghenies, a 10-day burn in May [sic] of the fires in the woods are described a fiery landscape. “One reportedly blackened 8,000 acres caused by persons who want to
Fire Management Today 20 range cattle in the mountains,” reported W. Milner from Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley. “Forest fires occur to a greater or less extent annually; a few are caused by acci dent, nearly all are started by per sons who wish to pasture their cat tle,” wrote J.W. Yeley of Vinton County in southern Ohio, near what is today the Wayne National Forest.
American Indians had analogous purposes for burning. The mention by Hough’s Mississippi correspon dent Skipwith of being able to see a deer at a quarter mile suggests that Pine plantation underburn on the Croatan National Forest in North Carolina, March spotting game was one purpose. 2001. Today’s fire use in southern pine forests has roots in ancestral burning practices by Today, game is often hidden from American Indians. Photo: Ken VanBuskirk, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest, WA, 2001. view in the East’s dense forest undergrowth, even if the animal is In northern Mississippi, the fire- only a few dozen yards away. Burning Decline maintained savanna described by Burning would have opened up the By 1880, the culture of light burn Skipwith soon disappeared after “a woods, increasing chances for ing was under attack. Many of penalty was imposed by law for set hunting success. In Hough’s day, Hough’s correspondents frowned ting fire to the woods.” As a result, Southerners continued “to burn on fire use and called for its prohi “a thick undergrowth of black-jack the undergrowth, so that they can bition, arguing that it did long [oak] has grown up, effectually better see the game,” according to term damage to forests. Hough destroying the grass and flowers.” an Arkansas correspondent. himself shared their views. Indeed, the entire purpose of the section on On North Carolina’s coastal plain, W.M. Baldwin described a similar Moreover, the rich prairie vegeta fire, he explained, was to highlight successional process after fires tion would have afforded better for “the importance of the injuries that “happily” stopped 20 years before. age than the sparse herbaceous are done to forests by running In many parts of the East, the layer on the shady floors of today’s fires” and the need for legislation to dense woodland so familiar today dense woods in the South. Hough’s stop the damage. got its start at about this time. Florida correspondent Potter, who lumped the Seminoles together Where fire exclusion was already in with “worthless whites” for burning effect, the land had dramatically Lost Biodiversity in the woods, suggested that whites changed. W.L. Scroggs of Dade Skipwith was not the only corre and Indians had the same purpose County in southwestern Missouri spondent to suggest that losing fire for fire use. Florida law, according described his area as “two-thirds meant losing biodiversity. “It is to J.W. Keyes of Calhoun County, prairie land, and the fires that do fully demonstrated,” wrote L.J. allowed people to “burn the woods” damage here are prairie fires.” Roach of Camden County in south- at certain times “so that new grass However, with so much of the land central Missouri, “that where fires may spring up for stock.” The grass now fenced and under cultivation, are kept out of forests, they soon would have been equally good for fires were “few and far between.” become so entangled with under deer. Such accounts suggest that The result was a striking resur growth that all other vegetation is settlers adopted native burning gence of woodland. “I have lived in blocked off.” The mixed landscape practices and adapted them to their this county thirty-three years,” of forest and prairie found by early own purposes, for example using wrote Scroggs, “and it is my opin settlers in many parts of the East fire to regenerate forage for cattle ion that there is as much as 500 was becoming a thing of the past. rather than game. per cent more of timber in the “Twenty-five years ago our open county now than then.” ings were sparsely covered with
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 21 large burr and white oak trees,” Management References observed E. Reynolds of Fond du Implications Brown, H. 2000. Wildland burning by Lac County in southeastern American Indians in Virginia. Fire What does it mean for land man Wisconsin. “They [the openings] Management Today. 60(3): 29–39. agers today that American Indians Gess, D.; Lutz, W. 2002. Firestorm at have all disappeared.” in the East likely used fire to shape Peshtigo: A town, its people, and the landscapes to their liking? Over the deadliest fire in American history. New Another report came from L. York, NY: Henry Holt and Company. last four centuries, the land and its Ballard in Monroe County, on West Haines, D.A.; Kuehnast, E.L. 1970. When use have irrevocably changed. Many the Midwest burned. Weatherwise. 23(3) Virginia’s border with Virginia. “We eastern forests are probably far [June]: 113–119. have fires annually in Peter’s Hough, F.B. 1882. Report on forestry. more dense than they were at the Mountain, one of the Alleghenies, Washington, DC: Government Printing time of European settlement (Pyne Office. usually in the latter part of April, or 1982). Almost everywhere, land Komarek, E.V. 1965. “Fire ecology— first of May, but occasionally in Grasslands and man.” In: Proceedings: managers are preoccupied by autumn,” wrote Ballard. “They are Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference; threats from invasive species and 18–19 March 1965. No. 4. Tallahassee, FL: usually set for the purpose of loss of open space. Conditions will Tall Timbers Research Station: 169–220. increasing the range.” The fires Komarek, E.V. 1967. “Fire—and the ecolo never again be the same as those extended “some 25 miles [40 km] gy of man.” In: Proceedings: Tall Timbers found by the first European explor in length, by from 3 to 10 [5–16 Fire Ecology Conference; 6–7 March ers. 1967. No. 6. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers km] in width,” doing “immense Research Station: 143–170. damage to the young timber.” By Komarek, E.V. 1969. “Fire and man in the Still, many ecosystems in the East implication, large trees survived Southwest.” In: Wagle, R.F., ed. evolved with fire. For land man Proceedings of the Symposium on Fire and a flourishing layer of grass and agers to protect and restore healthy Ecology and the Control and Use of Fire herbs furnished rich forage for cat in Wild Land Management. Tucson, AZ: ecosystems, they must understand tle. Journal of the Arizona Academy of the role that human-caused fire Science: 3–22. might have played in the structure, Michaux, F.A. 1802. Travels to the west of But in the 20th century, the fires the Allegheny Mountains. In: Thwaites, function, and composition of stopped in the area known as Peters R.G., ed. Early western travels, forests in the East for thousands of Mountain, much of which is now 1748–1846. Volume 3. Cleveland, OH: years. For example, American Arthur H. Clark: 221. on the densely forested Jefferson Indians tended to use fire to create Oelschlaeger, M. 2003. Ecological restora National Forest in Virginia. In the tion as thinking like a forest. In: landscape mosaics and thereby 1980s, researchers discovered that Friederici, P., ed. Ecological restoration of increase resource diversity southwestern ponderosa pine forests. an endangered flower, the Peters (Williams 2000). Judiciously Washington, DC: Island Press: 48–57. Mountain mallow, requires fire to Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: A cultural applied, such insights might help germinate. Prescribed burns on history of wildland and rural fire. Seattle land managers better “think like a and London: University of Washington protected land have since brought forest” (Oelschlaeger 2003) in find Press. the flower back from the edge of Pyne, S.J. 1995. World fire: The culture of ing local solutions that work for extinction. fire on Earth. Seattle, WA: University of the land. Washington Press. Pyne, S.J. 2001. Year of the fires: The story The Peters Mountain mallow of the Great Fires of 1910. New York: evolved with fire and depended on Acknowledgment Viking. it for survival. The flower probably The author thanks Gerald W. Stewart, O.C. 2003. Forgotten fires: Native Williams, the national historian for Americans and the transient wilderness. flourished under the frequent fire Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma regime described by Ballard, then the Forest Service, Washington Press. almost disappeared after several Office, Washington, DC, for fur Vale, T., ed. 2002. Fire, native peoples, and nishing the section of Hough the natural landscape. Washington, DC: decades of fire exclusion. The impli Island Press. cation is clear: Peters Mountain (1882) on which this article is Wells, R.W. 1968. Fire at Peshtigo. must have been burning for hun based and for reviewing the manu Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. script and offering helpful com Williams, G.W. 2000. Reintroducing Indian- dreds or thousands of years in fires type fire: Implications for land managers. set by American Indians. Otherwise, ments and suggestions. Fire Management Today. 60(3): 40–48. the Peters Mountain mallow would Williams, G.W. 2003. References on the never have evolved or would have American Indian use of fire in ecosys tems. Unpublished paper. Washington, perished long before. DC: USDA Forest Service, Washington Office. ■
Fire Management Today 22 EARLY VOICES FOR LIGHT BURNING
Hutch Brown
orests and fires don’t mix—or and summer fires are common, forest managers today are redis so most people thought but they hardly require looking covering (Friederici 2003). Fthroughout much of the 20th after, so far as our tract is con • Adjoining property is by defini century. But in the 19th century, cerned. I think there should be a tion “neglected” when it is not many people thought differently. law requiring every owner of routinely burned, suggesting that They believed that some forests timber and brush land in our fire use in fire-dependent forest needed fire to stay healthy. general pineries, to burn all the types is key to responsible land leaves that may fall during the management. A good example came from “a cor winter, thus leaving no fuel for respondent in Burlington County, summer fires (Hough 1882). Hough (1882) printed the report New Jersey,” who communicated from New Jersey without comment. with Franklin B. Hough, the first Elsewhere in his report, however, chief of the USDA Division of “I think there should be he warned against such views. “In Forestry, about burning practices in a law requiring every our reports from correspondents,” 1880. In Hough’s Report on owner of timber and he declared, “it will be seen that in Forestry (1882), the correspondent some instances whole communities stated: brush land in our regard these fires with satisfaction general pineries, to ….” Hough advocated laws to pre I have had under my care large burn all the leaves …” vent “the injuries that are done to tracts of growing timber, and –New Jersey timber manager, forests by running fires.” As mod have had very little loss from els, he listed laws from Europe, fire. Our plan is to burn over our 1880 where forest fire was usually con tracts early in spring, before the demned. sap starts—burning up all the underbrush, leaves, &c. We have Widespread Fire Use Transition to Fire found that a fire in February This voice from New Jersey was Exclusion echoed in Georgia (see the sidebar does not hurt the growing tim Hough’s work reflected a transi on page 24) and later in California ber; and should summer fires tional period. In Hough’s day, peo and other parts of the South and come in from adjoining property ple routinely used fire in the woods West (see Carle 2002). Indeed, case that has been neglected, they for purposes ranging from land after case in Hough’s Report on have nothing to feed on but very clearing, to roadbuilding, to slash Forestry, which helped set the green leaves, &c., and they are burning. Just as in developing stage for the system of Federal tim much more easily controlled. countries today, the seasonal smoke ber reserves that gave birth to the Even if they go through the that filled the air was widely seen as national forests and parks in the woods they find little to burn; a sign of progress and development. United States, suggests that light they get up but little heat, and Free-ranging fires were widely burning was widespread in the 19th do but little damage. The ignored unless they threatened century. Pemberton and New York farms, mills, and communities. Railroad runs through our tract,* By today’s standards, the points But the laissez-faire era of forest made by the correspondent from Hutch Brown is the managing editor of destruction, based on the belief that Fire Management Today for the USDA New Jersey sound remarkably America’s forest resources were Forest Service, Washington Office, advanced: Washington, DC. inexhaustible, was coming to a close. By the 1880s, conservation * Railways were corridors of fire ignited by sparks from • Controlled burns serve specifical ists were decrying the waste and 19th-century locomotives in dense early-successional ly to protect large trees from vegetation along railroad tracks. Hough (1882) identi devastation they saw everywhere. fied “locomotive sparks” as a major cause of accidental damage by fire, a technique that fires. Steeped in the principles of
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 23 European forestry, most deplored Light Burning in Georgia contemporary burning practices. For example, one of Hough’s corre Southern pine forest types once an oat-field, and affording an spondents from Florida claimed covered some 125 million acres unlimited and luxuriant pasturage that “it is ever damaging to forests (51 million ha). Much of the area for cattle, sheep, and goats. Frost anywhere to burn them over annu was in open forest maintained by kills the grass, and by bur[n]ing ally,” and a correspondent in fire (Bonnicksen 2000). In the off the old sedge in the winter it Alabama called for “legislation that 19th century, private landowners comes up again in the spring as will prevent any person from firing seasonally burned the pineries as regular and green as a wheat- the woods at any time.” Hough’s a “safeguard against destructive field, with no shrubbery or under- work expressed a growing contro forest fires” and to “secure this growth to obstruct the view as far versy. inestimable range for stock,” as the eye can reach. … It is the according to Dr. J.B. Randall of accumulation of years that creates In the early 20th century, the fledg Wadley, GA (Hough 1882): these destructive forest fires. ling USDA Forest Service became Were they burnt off regularly the standard-bearer in the fight We have here thousands of acres every winter or early in the spring against light burning (Arno and with nothing to be seen but [lon- there would seldom be any trou Allison-Bunnell 2002; Carle 2002; gleaf] pine trees and wire-grass, ble in controlling the fires. Pyne 2001). By the 1930s, the fight the latter, all summer, as green as was practically over. Despite a few stubborn holdouts (Carle 2002; Pyne 1982), the culture of fire con trol had prevailed. Today, fire use advocates face a long uphill struggle against a powerful legacy of fire Uphill Struggle exclusion. Today, fire use advocates face a long uphill struggle against a powerful legacy of fire exclusion (Arno and the Forest Service, Washington Carle, D. 2002. Burning questions: Office, Washington, DC, for fur America’s fight with nature’s fire. Allison-Bunnell 2003; Carle 2002; Westport, CT: Praeger. Pyne 2000). Fortunately, they can nishing the section of Hough Friederici, P., ed. 2003. Ecological restora draw inspiration from the early (1882) on which this article is tion of southwestern ponderosa pine based. forests. Washington, DC: Island Press. practitioners of light burning, Hough, F.B. 1882. Report on forestry. buried and fragmented though Washington, DC: Government Printing much of their story remains. References Office. Excellent renditions of the light Arno, S.F.; Allison-Bunnell, S. 2002. Flames Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: A cultural history of wildland and rural fire. Seattle, burning story come from Pyne in our forest: Disaster or renewal? Washington, DC: Island Press. London: University of Washington Press. (1982) and, more recently, Carle Arno, S.F.; Allison-Bunnell, S. 2003. Pyne, S.J. 2000. A story to tell. Fire (2002). Managing fire-prone forests: Roots of our Management Today. 60(4): 6–7. dilemma. Fire Management Today. 63(2): Pyne, S.J. 2001. Year of the fires: The story 12–16. of the Great Fires of 1910. New York: ■ Acknowledgment Bonnicksen, T.M. 2000. America’s ancient Viking. The author thanks Gerald W. forests: From the Ice Age to the Age of Discovery. New York, NY: Wiley & Sons. Williams, the national historian for
Fire Management Today 24 ALTERED FIRE INTERVALS AND FIRE CYCLES IN THE NORTHERN ROCKIES*
Stephen W. Barrett
ire history surveys and subse quent fire regimes classifica Fuel buildups have promoted a shift toward Ftions provide an important basis potentially more severe fires in the frequent-fire for understanding the role of fire in regimes. western ecosystems (Agee 1993; Brown 2000; Quigley and others 1996). Information on historical sequent management plans at vari sequent terrain modeling of fire fire regimes can be used to develop ous scales (Brown 2000; Cissel and regimes (Jones and others 2002) for ecosystem process models and sub- others 1999; Hardy and others land management planning 1998). (Barrett 2002). My fire history data Steve Barrett is a consulting fire ecologist base generally covers the period in Kalispell, MT. In 2002, I developed an empirically before the onset of fire exclusion
* The article is distilled from a contract final report based fire regimes classification for between about 1900 and 1935 (Barrett 2002) prepared for a recent USDA Forest forests of the Northern Rocky (Arno 2000; Hessburg and others Service landscape modeling project (Jones and others 2002). Mountains (table 1) to support sub- 1999). However, a subset of 421
Table 1—Fire regimes in forests of the Northern Rockies, by mean fire interval, typical tree mortality from fire, and characteristic location. Fire Mean fire Tree regime a interval mortality b Characteristic sites/forest types NL 10–25 yrs < 20% Climax ponderosa pine, dry Douglas-fir, dry grand fir MS1 25–40 yrs ≤ 30% West of Continental Divide: Warm–dry forests codominated by pon derosa pine, western larch, Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine East of Continental Divide: Cool–dry montane forest and adjacent cold–dry subalpine sites; limber pine in foothills bordering Great Plains; Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine bordering intermountain valleys MS2 40–120 yrs 50–100% West of Continental Divide: Productive or steep sites dominated by western redcedar, western hemlock, moist grand fir, moist Douglas-fir, subalpine fir East of Continental Divide: Productive or steep sites dominated by Douglas-fir or limber pine; gentle to moderately steep subalpine sites dominated by lodgepole pine MS3 50–275 yrs Variable Upper subalpine fir, whitebark pine, subalpine larch SR1 100–180 yrs 80–100% Productive or steep subalpine sites dominated by lodgepole pine, sub- alpine fir, Engelmann spruce; juxtaposed with MS regimes SR2 200–325 yrs 80–100% Productive or steep subalpine sites dominated by lodgepole pine, sub- alpine fir, Engelmann spruce; unproductive sites dominated by lodge pole pine; juxtaposed with SR1 regimes
a. NL = nonlethal; MS1 = short-interval mixed severity; MS2 = moderate- to long-interval mixed severity; MS3 = variable-interval mixed severity; SR1 = moderate- to long-interval stand replacement; SR2 = long-interval stand replacement. b. During or after a fire of typical severity. Source: Barrett (2002).
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 25 plots in the nonlethal (NL) and heavily grazed regions as south of the longest and most active wild- mixed severity (MS) fire regimes western Montana and eastern Idaho land fire use programs in the provides direct evidence of fire extolled the virtues of grazing as an United States, mean annual burned exclusion. effective fire suppression tool. As area in the subalpine zone has for the relatively productive MS2 declined dramatically compared to More Severe Fires stands, fire exclusion evidently historical rates (Brown and others Data from 137 plots in the NL fire extended some intervals that began 1994; Rollins and others 2001). regime suggested that the overall during the 1800s at the height of mean fire interval (MFI) was 17 the Little Ice Age (Barrett and oth As for the stand replacement (SR) years historically, as opposed to 76 ers 1997; Graumlich 1987). fire regimes, fire exclusion’s effects years long in the same plots today are not detectable at the stand scale (fig. 1). Similarly, data from 142 Decline of Whitebark because the natural fire intervals plots in the MS1 regime suggested Pine often exceed the length of the fire that the historical MFI was about Interpreting fire exclusion’s effects exclusion period to date (Agee 30 years long, versus 100 years on the high-elevation MS3 regime 1993; Barrett and others 1991). today (fig. 2). Resultant fuel is inherently difficult because of However, area fire cycles—the time buildups have promoted a shift required to burn an area equal in toward potentially more severe fires size to the study area (Romme in both the NL and MS1 fire At the landscape scale, 1980)—often reveal fire frequency changes in SR-dominated land regimes (Arno 2000). However, the repeatedly extinguishing increased severity potential might scapes. be even more pronounced in MS1 fires has contributed to stands because such sites generally the rapid decline of Some researchers (Johnson and are more productive. whitebark pine by others 1990; Johnson and Larsen 1991; Johnson and others 2001) favoring successional Data from 117 plots in the moder assert that fire exclusion has not ately long-interval MS2 fire regime replacement by shade- affected fire cycles in such forests suggested that the overall MFI was tolerant trees. because climate is the primary con 71 years historically, versus 98 trolling force. However, data from years at present (fig. 3). The cur two of the largest study areas to rent fire interval in that regime sparse data and highly variable fire date—the 326,000-acre (132,000 type is still shorter than the mean occurrence before 1900. Data from ha) east side of Glacier National maximum interval of 107 years his 25 plots suggested that the MFI Park (GNP) in Montana (Barrett torically, but fire exclusion clearly averaged 135 years long historical 1993b, 1996, 1997b) and the has lengthened many fire intervals. ly, as opposed to only 90 years at 200,000-acre (81,000-ha) Lamar present (fig. 4). The current mean study area in Yellowstone National Today’s fire intervals in the MS1 interval also is just half the length Park (Barrett 1994a)—did not sup and MS2 stands thus average about of the maximum historical interval, port that contention. 25 years longer than in NL stands suggesting that most stands are (figs. 1–3). This might seem coun still within their historical range of Altered Fire Cycles terintuitive, because many NL ecological conditions. For the GNP study area, conserva stands occur near major valley bot tive estimates of fire cycles for the toms and hence were among the At the landscape scale, however, 18th and 19th centuries were 225 first affected by fire exclusion. A repeatedly extinguishing fires has and 250 years, respectively. The fire possible reason for the discrepancy contributed to the rapid decline of cycle for the 20th century, based on is that fuel reduction by livestock whitebark pine by favoring succes observed fires, was 625 years, grazing might have been more pro sional replacement by shade-toler despite increasingly frequent nounced in areas that had a higher ant trees (Brown and others 1994; macroclimatic droughts (Barrett proportion of MS1 than NL terrain Keane and others 1990; Murray and and others 1997; Graumlich 1987) (Arno and Gruell 1983; Gruell others 1998). Even in the expansive and favorable fire weather during 1985; Jones and others 2002). In Selway–Bitterroot Wilderness of many fire seasons (Finklin 1986). fact, early-day rangers in such Idaho and Montana, which has one Similarly, the fire cycle between
Fire Management Today 26 Years Years 200 200 175 175
150 150
125 125
100 100 75 75 50 50 25 25
0 0 MIN MFI MAX CURRENT MIN MFI MAX CURRENT Average Fire Intervals Average Fire Intervals Figure 1—Historical versus current fire intervals in the NL (non Figure 3—Historical versus current fire intervals in the MS2 lethal) fire regime, based on 137 plots sampled between 1979 and (moderate- to long-interval mixed severity) fire regime, based on 2000. Average historical fire intervals are for the period before the 117 plots sampled between 1979 and 2000. Average historical fire last fire; MIN = minimum fire interval, MFI = mean fire interval, intervals are for the period before the last fire; MIN = minimum MAX = maximum fire interval. The average current fire interval is fire interval, MFI = mean fire interval, MAX = maximum fire based on the number of years between the last fire and the sam interval. The average current fire interval is based on the number pling year. of years between the last fire and the sampling year.
Years Years 200 200 175 175
150 150
125 125
100 100 75 75 50 50 25 25
0 0 MIN MFI MAX CURRENT MIN MFI MAX CURRENT Average Fire Intervals Average Fire Intervals Figure 2—Historical versus current fire intervals in the MS1 Figure 4—Historical versus current fire intervals in the MS3 (short-interval mixed severity) fire regime, based on 142 plots (variable-interval mixed severity) fire regime, based on 25 plots sampled between 1979 and 2000. Average historical fire intervals sampled between 1979 and 2000. Average historical fire intervals are for the period before the last fire; MIN = minimum fire inter are for the period before the last fire; MIN = minimum fire inter val, MFI = mean fire interval, MAX = maximum fire interval. The val, MFI = mean fire interval, MAX = maximum fire interval. The average current fire interval is based on the number of years average current fire interval is based on the number of years between the last fire and the sampling year. between the last fire and the sampling year.
1900 and 1987 in the Yellowstone exclusion had been effective 1982), albeit more subtly than the study area—that is, before the because no similar fire-free period frequent-fire types. Rather than extensive 1988 fires (Romme and had occurred in the pre-1900 fire promoting unnatural succession at Despain 1989)—had decreased 15- chronology (Barrett 1994a). the stand scale, fire exclusion in the to 30-fold compared to the 18th- SR, MS2, and MS3 regimes has and 19th-century fire cycles. Fire exclusion thus can affect even influenced landscape-scale patterns Although the 1988 fires might have the relatively long-interval fire and processes (Barrett and others been within the historical range of regimes (Baker 1993; Keane and 1991; Hessburg and others 1999; occurrence, I concluded that fire others 1998; Romme and Knight Quigley and others 1996). For
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 27 example, fire exclusion has promot Fire exclusion can affect even the relatively ed “artificially induced mosaic long-interval fire regimes, albeit more subtly than homogeneity” in some areas (Romme and Knight 1982). the frequent-fire types.
The implications of altered land References Barrett, S.W.; Arno, S.F.; Menakis, J.P. 1997. scape mosaics are uncertain. Fire episodes in the Inland Northwest However, fire exclusion might pro Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire ecology of Pacific (1540–1940) based on fire history data. Northwest forests. Washington, DC: Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–GTR–370. Ogden, mote reduced biodiversity (Murray Island Press. UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain and others 1998; Rollins and others Arno, S.F. 2000. Fire in western forest Research Station. 2001; Romme and Knight 1982) ecosystems. In: Brown, J.K.; Smith, J.K., Brown, J.K. 2000. Introduction and fire eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects and the spread of insect and disease regimes. In: Brown, J.K.; Smith, J.K., eds. of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire epidemics (Barrett and others 1991; RMRS–GTR–42, vol. 2. Ogden, UT: USDA on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–42, Hessburg and others 1999). Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research vol. 2. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Station: 97–120. Rocky Mountain Research Station: 1–7. Arno, S.F.; Gruell, G.E. 1983. Fire history at Brown, J.K.; Arno, S.F.; Barrett, S.W.; Fire regimes could be shifting as a the forest–grassland ecotone in south Menakis, J.P. 1994. Comparing the pre result of global climate change, but western Montana. Journal of Range scribed natural fire program with preset this is still highly speculative (Agee Management.. 36(3): 332–336. tlement fires in the Selway–Bitterroot Baker, W.L. 1993. Spatially heterogeneous Wilderness. International Journal of 1993; Morgan and others 2001). multi-scale response of landscapes to fire Wildland Fire. 4(3): 157–168. Presumably, major climate-induced suppression. Oikos. 66: 66–71. Cissel, J.H.; Swanson, F.J.; Weisberg, P.J. departures from historical fire Barrett, S.W. 1993b. Fire history of south 1999. Landscape management using his eastern Glacier National Park. regimes would occur over relatively torical fire regimes: Blue River, Oregon. Unpublished report on file, Resources Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1217–1231. long periods and thus might be Management Division, USDI National Finklin, A.I. 1986. A climatic handbook for detectable largely in hindsight—as Park Service, Glacier National Park, West Glacier National Park—With data for Glacier, MT. occurred with long-term fire exclu Waterton Lakes National Park. Gen. Tech. Barrett, S.W. 1994a. Fire regimes on Rep. INT–223. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest sion. Conversely, if climate-induced andesitic mountain terrain in northeast Service, Intermountain Research Station. changes in fire regimes were so ern Yellowstone National Park. Graumlich, L.J. 1987. Precipitation varia abrupt as to be catastrophic, restor International Journal of Wildland Fire. 4: tion in the Pacific Northwest (1675–1975) 65–76. as reconstructed from tree rings. Annals ing presettlement-type forests Barrett, S.W. 1996. The historical role of of the Association of American might be among society’s least fire in Waterton Lakes National Park, Geographers. 77: 19–29. pressing concerns. Alberta. Unpublished report on file, Fire Gruell, G.E. 1985. Fire on the early western Management Division, Environment landscape: An annotated record of wild- Canada, Canadian Parks Service Waterton land fires, 1776–1900. Northwest Science. Management Focus Lakes National Park, Waterton Townsite, 59(2): 97–107. Alberta. Without firm evidence that histori Hardy, C.C.; Menakis, J.P.; Long, D.G.; Barrett, S.W. 1997b. Fire history of Glacier Brown, J.K.; Bunnell, D.L. 1998. Mapping cal fire regimes are no longer rele National Park: Hudson Bay drainage. historic fire regimes for the Western vant to ecosystem-based manage Unpublished report on file, Resources United States: Integrating remote sensing Management Division, USDI National ment, those regimes will likely con and biophysical data. In: Proceedings of Park Service, Glacier National Park, W. the 7th Biennial Forest Service Remote tinue to serve as a foundation for Glacier, MT. Sensing Applications Conference; 6–9 forest planning. Ultimately, because Barrett, S.W. 2002. A fire regimes classifica April 1998; Nassau Bay, TX. Bethesda, forests and fire regimes are affected tion for northern Rocky Mountain MD: American Society for forests: Results from three decades of fire Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: by many complex and interacting history research. Contract final report on 288–300. factors, subjectively establishing a file, Planning Division, USDA Forest Hessburg, P.F.; Smith, B.G.; Kreiter, S.D.; desired future condition for any Service, Flathead National Forest, Miller, C.A.; Salter, R.B.; McNicholl, C.C.; Kalispell, MT. given locale will likely continue as Hann, W.J. 1999. Historical and current Barrett, S.W.; Arno, S.F.; Key, C.H. 1991. forest and range landscapes in the a main focus of forest management. Fire regimes of western larch–lodgepole Interior Columbia River Basin and por pine forests in Glacier National Park, tions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Part I: Linking vegetation patterns and Research. 21: 1711–1720. landscape vulnerability to potential insect and pathogen disturbances. Gen. Tech.
Fire Management Today 28 Rep. PNW–GTR–458. Portland OR: USDA Keane, R.E; Ryan, K.C.; Finney, M.A. 1998. Quigley, T.M.; Haynes, R.W.; Graham, R.T., Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Simulating the consequences of altered tech. eds. 1996. Integrated scientific Research Station. fire regimes on a complex landscape in assessment for ecosystem management in Johnson, E.A.; Larsen, C.P.S. 1991. Glacier National Park, USA. Tall Timbers the Interior Columbia Basin and portions Climatically induced change in fire fre Fire Ecology Conference. 20: 310–324. of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. quency in the southern Canadian Morgan, P.; Hardy, C.C.; Swetnam, T.W.; Tech. Rep. PNW–GTR–382. Portland, OR: Rockies. Ecology. 72(1): 194–201. Rollins, M.G.; Long, D.G. 2001. Mapping USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Johnson, E.A.; Fryer, G.I.; Heathcott, M.J. Research Station. 1990. The influence of man and climate Rollins, R.G.; Swetnam, T.W.; Morgan, P. on frequency of fire in the Interior Wet 2001. Evaluating a century of fire pat Belt Forest, British Columbia. Journal of Fire exclusion has terns in two Rocky Mountain wilderness Ecology. 78: 403–412. areas using digital fire atlases. Canadian Johnson, E.A.; Miyanishi, K.; Bridge, S.R.J. promoted a reduction in Journal of Forest Research. 31: 2001. Wildfire regime in the boreal forest biodiversity and might 2107–2123. and the idea of suppression and fuel Romme, W.H. 1980. Fire history terminolo buildup. Conservation Biology. 15(6): be enhancing the gy: Report of the ad hoc committee. In: 1554–1557. spread of insect and Stokes, M.A.; Dieterich, J.H., tech. coords. Jones, J.L.; Barrett, S.W.; Berglund, D. Proceedings of the Fire History 2002. Modeling historical and current fire disease epidemics. Workshop. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM–81. Fort regimes for major vegetation types in Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky northern Idaho and western Montana: A Mountain Forest and Range Experiment first approximation. Unpublished report Station: 135–137. fire regimes across time and space: on file, Planning Division, USDA Forest Romme, W.H.; Despain, D.G. 1989. Understanding coarse- and fine-scale pat Service, Flathead National Forest, Historical perspective on the Yellowstone terns. International Journal of Wildland Kalispell, MT. Fires of 1988. Bioscience. 39(10): Fire. 10: 329–342. Keane, R.E.; Arno, S.F.; Brown, J.K.; 695–699. Murray, M.P.; Bunting, S.C.; Morgan, P. Tomback, D.F. 1990. Modeling stand Romme, W.H.; Knight, D.H. 1982. 1998. Fire history of an isolated subalpine dynamics in whitebark pine (Pinus albi Landscape diversity: The concept applied mountain range of the Intermountain caulis) forests. Ecological Modeling. 51: to Yellowstone Park. Bioscience. 32(8): Region, United States. Journal of 73–95. 664–670. ■ Biogeography. 25: 1071–1080.
WEBSITES ON FIRE* Real-Time Observation Monitor and Analysis Network Do you need access to real-time weather data? This Website is for you. Known by its acronym ROMAN, the site gives real-time access to weather observations from networks across the United States. The system displays data in fast-loading formats tailored to the wildland fire community, with an interface that is intuitive, interactive, and dynamic. Complex scripting and high-resolution graphics are mini mal to ensure quick delivery of requested products, such as real-time observation monitoring, 24-hour to 30-day summaries and meteograms, precipitation tables, and weather near fires displays. More products are planned, including real-time analysis graphics, NFDRS/CFDRS output, and numerical weather prediction output.
Found at
* Occasionally, Fire Management Today briefly describes Websites brought to our attention by the wildland fire community. Readers should not construe the description of these sites as in any way exhaustive or as an official endorsement by the USDA Forest Service. To have a Website described, contact the managing editor, Hutch Brown, at USDA Forest Service, Office of the Chief, Yates Building, 4th Floor Northwest, 201 14th Street, SW, Washington, DC 20024, 202-205-0896 (tel.), 202-205-1765 (fax), [email protected] (e-mail).
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 29 WHAT IS FIRE? ELEVEN WAYS OF SEEING FIRE
Students of Wildland Fire Ecology and Management
The alarm rings at 4:30 a.m. many points of contact—plants, Editor’s note: As this article Finally! I’d lain down 6 wildlife, soil, air, water, people— shows, wildland fire means 2. hours earlier and probably and it often touches these points much more to the wildland fire managed to sleep for 3. But that’s simultaneously. In chemistry, fire is community—and to the plenty. I throw my stuff together used to alter the physical state of a human community in gener and pick up my friend. We drive substance. In wildlands, it is an al—than the science of under through the dark, our conversation essential ecological process. In agri standing it and the techniques jumping back and forth, reflecting culture, it is used to prepare sites of managing it. Fire Manage our excitement. As soon as I’d for farming or grazing. In society, it ment Today welcomes broad heard about the chance to burn, I’d is used to convert fuel to energy. It perspectives on the meaning of called him to see if he wanted to go can be used to help foster growth wildland fire for both our along. Where at? Austin. How big? and change. Fire is change that ecosystems and our culture. Thirty-five acres. So we’re going to touches everything. drive a total of 10 hours for a 35 acre burn that may or may not hap I can’t cross a prairie or a As a young boy, I can recall pen? Yep. OK, I’m in. I knew he wooded ridge without think the evenings spent around the would be. It makes perfect sense; 4. ing of how a fire might move 1. campfires of the indios who through it. The prairie wind driving worked my grandfather’s ranch. over the hillside, lighting spots From southern Mexico, they arrived The light of fire gives ahead of the flames, effective wind- to work the land, Méxica by blood stories life, to be speed the same as 20 feet. Tallgrass and history. At night, around fires repeated again and and cured sunflowers head high, in open fields, I listened to stories flame lengths maybe 25 feet and of buried treasure, ghosts and talk again, reborn every day moving faster than you can run; ing animal demons, and the good somewhere on the land. stay out of the way of that headfire. that once prevailed on the land. The leaves of post oak, crunchy The light of fire gave these stories besides, it really isn’t a question of with frost, dried brown and still on life, to be repeated again and again; yes or no anymore. It’s in our the tree, ignite and float easily they are no doubt being reborn blood, seductive. The world stops across the firelines, prescribed fire today somewhere on the land. We for fire. Fire is all consuming. now wildfire. The tangles of green are cosas, collections of things briar, green even in winter, burn made up of experiences held to Carbon—from the Latin poorly but scratch and nick at you, gether by reflection and thoughts word for charcoal—plays a tying up your mobility, a brief that bind us to this good Earth. We dominant role in the chem moment of panic. You are no are hombres del país, people of the 3. longer a tourist. Fire ties you into istry of life. Carbon’s atomic struc country, of the land, of the soil, of ture contains four electrons in its the land. the fires, and all that these imply. outer shell, but it can hold eight. Fire begins with stories. This means that a carbon atom can In military survival train- share electrons with up to four ing—“Where the Weak are other different atoms. In this sense, 5. Killed & Eaten”—you are carbon has the ability to interact taught the nature of hunger, cold, The article was compiled in fall 2002 by heat, fatigue, pain, abandonment. students and professors in a class on wild- with, or “touch,” many other ele land fire ecology and management at the ments, and it can form many differ And when evasion can no longer be University of North Texas, Denton, TX. It ent compounds of varied types, sustained, you create fire. Fire for was edited by two of the class’s professors, warmth, fire for a friend, fire for Dwight Barry and Robie Robinson. sizes, and shapes. Fire, too, has sanity.
Fire Management Today 30 forest bloom from the collection of dabs. Fire is art on the landscape.
During part of the year, I spend my time checking the 9. weather, hoping for the right combination of wind, humidity, and temperature, so that I can meet a prescription. During the other part of the year, I spend my time watch ing the weather so that I can see where wildfires might break out. During both times of the year, the weather tells me what kind of fire I might encounter and how hard it will be to control. For half the year, I am reintroducing fire into nature; Fire is art on the landscape. Trees silhouetted by the advancing Hayman Fire in Colorado. and for the other half, I am taking Photo: Steven Smith, Colorado Springs Fire Department, Colorado Springs, CO, 2002. it away. I set “good” fires and attack “bad” ones. Fire consumes my con The heat of a grass fire is and towns in horrible conflagra tradictions. Fire doesn’t care about impossible to grasp unless tions. Ranchers say fire is good for paradoxes. 6. you’ve cozied up to a prairie the cows, and my grandfather once as the torch lights up the grass, the read to me from the Bible where it The bagpipes began wind pushes the flames, and you says to burn the weeds in the fields playing, the pictures of feel the heat singe your face. I have to help the harvest. Fire is an es 10. the men were displayed, seen running crown fires and trees sential ecological process, deeply and the television cameras panned torching like matchsticks only in entwined with the history of life on across our crews of yellow and movies and videos. I have never Earth. We evolved, as well as our green spread across the grandstand. heard the sounds they say accom habitats, hand in hand with fire. We fought to hold back the tears, pany that inferno, the sounds of Fire continues to be an evolution thinking of these lives lost. Lives of approaching trains. I once torched ary force, on habitats and human two men we never knew, but bound an eastern redcedar tree on a pre minds, whether we choose to apply to us by a connection, men who scribed fire; it exploded and red or withhold it. died doing what we were setting dened my face as I backed away. out to do. Fire brings death and The firewhirls danced across a field Fire connects pieces of the sorrow—and connects a brother- of cedars we burned, tossing 30 cultural and natural world. and sisterhood stronger than you foot flames and embers into the air. 8. Like a broad stroke of paint ever expected. Fire is family. I’m not sure I ever want to hear the across a canvas, fire spreads across trains, but I know why people a landscape. From a distance, as in A South-Texas-born park throw themselves from burning a Monet, the lines appear clearly ranger lights a cigarette buildings. Fire is a source of terror formed. However, the closer you 11. and throws down the and exhilaration. get, the forms become quick, short, match onto a dry grassy pasture. It and imprecise dabs of paint. The is his definition of prescribed fire. The media portray wildland boundaries are blurred and the dif He watches it burn with the wind, fire in terms such as ficulty lies in teasing them apart. smiles, and talks about the “old 7. destroyed, devastated, and Walking the fireline, where fire has days.” A college-trained natural devoured: “It’s like a nuclear bomb ebbed and crept, spilling across and resource manager talks of fire mod up there.” Biologists use such brought up short, I see black ash eling, fire dynamics, and fire ecolo terms as cleansed, rejuvenated, and merging into the golden sandy soil, gy. The old meeting the new— enhanced: “The modern tradition of a brown leaf, a dead wood rat, a whom do you believe? ■ firefighting gives rise to unhealthy boot print, all invisible from a dis forests.” Firestorms engulf forests tance. I stand back and watch the
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 31 THE YING AND YANG OF WILDLAND FIREFIGHTING*
Jeff Connor
n 12 years of wildland firefight ing, I had never seen anything During my 24 years as a wildland firefighter, I like it. The sun was barely visible knowing that I had protected someone’s home or through the smoke, which was a community has always made my chest swell. strange yellowish-green, looking surreal in the early afternoon light. Glancing to the south, I saw flames The gale made it hard to stand burn for a few more months, but from the approaching fire complex upright. The flames were eating not with the same intensity. swirl up over the ridge. The fire through sagebrush and pine, draw beast was galloping hard in our ing ever closer. Just when it looked Relief—and Anger direction, heading straight for the like we would be swallowed up, the town. Later that night, as snow blanketed wind shifted. For the first time, I the ground, the residents of noticed clouds overhead, not Yellowstone in Flames Gardiner and Mammoth Hotsprings smoke. began to return. No homes had It was early September 1988, and been lost and there was relief, but my crew and I had been on the Clouds were flowing over the burn also anger. Many blamed the USDI Yellowstone Fires for almost 3 ing ridge south of town, like fog National Park Service for what they weeks. The fires had been burning drifting in from the sea. The tem saw as a park management fiasco. out of control since late June. This perature dropped, and flakes of was the third fire we had fought. snow began to fall. It was the event In reality, the fires were no one’s Yellowstone had been praying for: fault. Nature was doing what it does A cold front, with winds better than The long season of fire was finally best in times of drought: burn. 60 miles (97 km) per hour, was ending. Fires would continue to Whether started by lightning or by pushing the blaze towards Gardi ner, MT. Mammoth Hotsprings, to the south, had already been evacu ated. The folks driving by looked tired and scared.
Our job was to hold the line, keep ing the fire from getting into town. We had six hand crews, including one hotshot crew, along with 10 engines. We were the last bastion. Hundreds of families were relying on us.
Jeff Connor is a natural resource specialist for the USDI National Park Service, Rocky Mountain National Park, Boulder, CO.
* The article is based on the introduction to the author’s book Making the Bear Dance: A Naturalist’s Journey into the World of Wildland Firefighting A crew of firefighters snakes up the line to work on a large burnout operation on the (St. Cloud, MN: North Star Press of St. Cloud, Inc., 2001). The book is a collection of firefighting stories Toolbox Fire, Fremont National Forest, OR. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, from around the West. Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 2002.
Fire Management Today 32 human carelessness, the fires of Yellowstone were following a pat tern thousands of years old. Only in the previous hundred years had people crowded into forests that evolved with fire and dared to imagine that fire played no role there.
The next day, as we left town, peo ple waved and put grateful signs in windows. I felt proud to be part of the National Park Service. When a wildland fire becomes the bad guy, the villain burning homes, fire fighters become heroes. During my 24 years as a wildland firefighter, knowing that I had protected some one’s home or community has always made my chest swell. “Yes!” The Moran Fire leaves a patchwork of burns below the Teton Peaks on Jackson Lake, I think. “I am an American, a fire promising future landscape diversity on Wyoming’s Grand Teton National Park. Photo: fighter and proud of it!” Allen Farnsworth, Coconino National Forest, Peaks Ranger District, Flagstaff, AZ, 2000.
Of course, there is another side to the glittering coin. As a wall of The ying and yang of firefighting is partly this: flame a hundred feet (30 m) high By suppressing fire for so many decades, we have races in my direction, I have found let fuels build up to dangerous levels. myself thinking, “What am I doing here?” I can’t even count the num ber of times that we had to get out building secluded homes in areas tle the beast. Yellowstone had expe of the way and “let the big dog eat.” where fire is a natural part of the rienced similar fires before, and it Tears have come into my eyes ecosystem. Defending such homes will see similar fires in the future. knowing that we would probably from the inevitable wildfires jeop It’s only a matter of time. not be able to save all the homes of ardizes the lives of both homeown the people who put their faith in us ers and firefighters. It’s then that Hardship and Danger as they drove away. firefighters are forced to jump in A lack of sleep is what I hate most when they should be standing aside about firefighting. I am an 8-hours Fuel Buildups and letting fire do what it is sup a-night type of guy, but I rarely get But seeing the smiles and tears of posed to do. more than 6 hours of sleep a night joy when families return to find on a fire. I have gone for as long as their homes still standing has made In much of the Greater Yellowstone 36 hours without sleep and for 48 it all worthwhile. Unfortunately, area, building a home in the forest hours with maybe an hour or two. years of heavy fuel buildups have is like building on a beach exposed The lack of sleep is cumulative and made such happy endings increas to hurricanes: The question is not wears me down faster, the older I ingly unlikely. The ying and yang of whether disaster will strike, but get. Being tired makes me more firefighting is partly this: By sup when. As the Yellowstone Fires susceptible to colds and other com pressing fire for so many decades, showed, great fires in ecosystems plications, as well. we have let fuels build up to dan adapted to great fires do not get put gerous levels. out by firefighters, no matter how Little sleep, little food, sometimes many millions of dollars are thrown little water—sore muscles, poison Climate change has contributed to at them and how many thousands ivy or poison oak, red eyes—all are the danger. So has our love for of firefighters risk their lives to bat- part of firefighting. I have wit-
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 33 nessed firefighters fall asleep stand- In many fire-prone areas, building a home is ing up; vomit uncontrollably from like building on a beach exposed to hurricanes: breathing too much smoke, ash, and carbon monoxide; get burned The question is not whether disaster will strike, from falling hot branches; and get but when. knocked down by falling trees. It all comes with the territory. I have often wondered why I do it. with incredible displays of orange For those who love the adrenaline The stress of personal danger or and violet. I’ve watched the sunrise rush, danger always lurks over the worrying about my fire crew wears shrouded in smoke the next morn hill. I have been evacuated off a me down. I am now 52, and the ing. I’ve watched a full moon rise mountaintop by a helicopter, with a older I get, the more I worry. over a valley while I stood high on wall of flame not far behind. I’ve a ridge or mountaintop. had to run to a safety zone a num Sublime Beauty ber of times. I have never had to But it’s all part of the ying and yang Sometimes I’ve seen wildlife behave deploy my fire shelter, but I have of firefighting. Over the years, I as if nothing is happening while the thought about it a couple of times. have enjoyed traveling around the forest burns nearby. At other times Once I was even shot at for build country battling the beast. I like I have witnessed wildlife running in ing a fireline into someone’s mari seeing new mountain ranges, val panic from a wall of flame. Once, a juana patch. leys, mesas, and plateaus. I’ve seen bear with its back smoldering from some of the wildest areas of the fallen ash ran down the fireline, I have seen lightning blow up a tree West, many square miles of open scattering firefighters left and right. as if it had been dynamited. I have space without human dwellings, Most of the time, the wildlife gets seen it completely envelope a tree where fire-adapted vegetation and away, but not always. I have found in a white ball of electricity, ignit wildlife have developed over thou burned carcasses. ing its top. I have seen firsthand sands of years. what lightning does to humans; I Some fires display incredible behav have great respect for it and also The beauty of these places has left ior. I’ve seen firewhirls 50 to 100 great fear, especially when caught fond memories. Many times, I have (15-30 m) feet high dance across a in a storm above treeline on some watched the sun, clouded in smoke, burning meadow, hissing, mountaintop. setting behind a mountain or ridge whistling, and scattering burning debris, starting hundreds of small spot fires. These minitornadoes of flame have mesmerized me into a dream state, beckoning me to dance with them. Once, late at night, looking down from a hilltop into a valley of about 5,000 acres (2,000 ha), I saw everything below me on fire—thousands of small fires, like the campfires of some giant army bivouacked in the valley below.
While on a fire at night in California, I once heard a strange humanlike whistle coming from a dense stand of burned-over woods. I investigated and found a 50-foot (15-m) tree burned through the The Eightmile Lookout is peacefully outlined against distant smoke from the Missionary Ridge Fire, San Juan–Rio Grande National Forest, CO. Photo: Mark Roper, USDA Forest middle, leaving a hollow core from Service, San Juan–Rio Grande National Forest, Pagosa Ranger District, Pagosa Springs, the base of the trunk to the CO, 2002. burned-out top. Hot coals inside
Fire Management Today 34 were sucking wind into the bottom Fire raced up the mountain on the Brothers and Sisters and pushing heated air out the top, opposite ridge, and I had to walk Firefighting—“the good, the bad, creating a loud whistle that could quickly because of the danger. But I and the ugly” of it—I have experi be heard from far away. wanted to linger under the canopy enced it all. Thousands of others of those beautiful trees. have, too. We are all brothers and Death and Rebirth sisters, bonded together by danger. Walls of flame licking at the starlit Sadly, I returned to find that fire sky above have left me with the had passed through the grove, I have enjoyed the camaraderie of sensation of heaven and hell com destroying the ancient trees. I knew my fellow firefighters. I’ve worked ing together. Sometimes I envision side by side with people of all fire as the force of evil fighting the races—American Indian, Hispanic, forces of good, the ultimate battle If fires were allowed to Asian, black, and white. Joined by between life and death. But death burn as they once did, fire, we’ve shared smiles and laugh always brings new life—the perhaps the fire that ter, games and sports, and the phoenix of the forest rising from its took that magnificent pleasure of chatter over dinner own ashes. Within a year, the black after a hard shift on the fireline. ened landscape often glows with grove might have stayed Covered with dirt and ash and reek wildflowers, ferns, and grasses. on the ground, leaving ing of smoke, we’ve chatted about Seedlings emerge from the ashes, the trees only slightly the day or told stories of past bat drawing life from the fiery death of scarred. tles with the beast, both won and their progenitors. lost.
I can vividly recall huge trees hun deep in my heart that other trees Looking back over the past 24 dreds of years old, with sunlight would replace them, growing equal years, I think about the many times beaming through the needles in ly tall and beautiful. But that would firefighters have been in the news smoke-filled rays. I stood at the be far in the future. getting our proverbial 15 minutes base of those trees, borrowing some of fame. I have to admit that my of their energy before continuing to If fires were allowed to burn as they chest has swelled a few times over battle the fire beast burning nearby. once did, perhaps the fire that took the years. that magnificent grove might have Once, on a fire in Idaho while stayed on the ground, leaving the So, if I had to do it all over again, descending from a mountaintop, I trees only slightly scarred. When would I? Without hesitation. ■ passed through a magnificent grove such a forest is in an ecological bal of old firs and pines. Far from any ance with fire, many of the older roads or trails, I was probably the trees can survive episodes of burn first human to pass in many years. ing.
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 35 WILDLAND FIRE INVESTIGATION STANDARDS
Paul T. Steensland
ore than 100,000 wildfires rage in the United States Identifying and apprehending those who commit M each year, destroying millions criminal acts is of vital public interest. of acres of wildland resources and hundreds of structures in the wild land/urban interface. Property loss es and suppression costs are stag gering. In 2000, Federal agencies spent more than $1 billion to sup press fires, most of which were caused by either negligence or arson.
Determining the cause of a fire affects the success of a fire preven tion program and determines accountability. When negligence is identified, the responsible party might be liable for fire suppression costs and property damage. Identi fying and apprehending those who commit criminal acts is of vital public interest. Australian fire investigators conducting an origin determination on a fire near Nelson Bay, New South Wales, Australia. The New South Wales Rural Fire Service has developed Specialized Standards a team of 80 fire investigators to determine the origin and cause of wildfires since 2000. Certified Fire Investigator (CFI) They have helped police determine the cause of many wildfires, playing a key role during programs help to increase the cred recent severe fire seasons. Photo: Richard Woods, New South Wales Rural Fire Service, Australia, 2002. ibility of fire investigators. These programs establish minimum pro In January 2000, a group of wild- The investigators’ presentation fessional standards and consistent land fire investigators brought the highlighted the need to establish scientific methodology to conduct shortcomings of the existing CFI professional standards and consis fire investigations. They lack, how program to the attention of the tent methodology for wildland fire ever, a set of standards specialized National Wildfire Coordinating investigations. Since skills and for wildland fire investigators, Group (NWCG). The NWCG con knowledge required to investigate a whose job is significantly different sists of representatives from wildland fire differ from a structure from a structure fire investigator. Federal, State, and local wildland fire investigation, the NWCG agreed Directions for conducting wildland fire management agencies; the that existing CFI programs needed fire investigations are often vague, National Fire Protection Associ revision to address the specific job descriptions are few, and the ation; and the New Zealand and needs of the wildland fire manage training curriculums are jumbled. Australian fire services. Congress ment community. They accepted established the NWCG to coordi the proposal to establish a profes Paul Steensland is the senior special agent nate wildland fire standardization sional standard and accompanying and wildland fire investigation specialist for the USDA Forest Service. He cochairs issues. Chartered teams identify training curriculum tailored for the National Wildfire Coordinating Group’s and resolve issues concerning wild- wildland fire investigators. Wildland Fire Investigation Working Team. land fire management.
Fire Management Today 36 In May 2000, the NWCG chartered Members of the Wildland Fire the Wildland Fire Investigation Team (see the sidebar). The team Investigation Working Team began preparing a set of draft stan The team chartered by the NWCG Investigators and the Great dards for wildland fire investigation to establish a professional stan- Lakes Forest Fire Compact); certification. The drafts were peer dard and training curriculum for • National Park Service; reviewed, and the team evaluated wildland fire investigators has • New South Wales Rural Fire about 160 written comments, representatives from the: Service, Australia; which were used to draft proposed • Oregon Department of Forestry; standards. The NWCG approved the • Bureau of Indian Affairs; • South Carolina Forestry standards at its October 2001 meet • Bureau of Land Management; Commission; ing. • California Department of • Tennessee Valley Authority; Forestry and Fire Protection • USDA Forest Service, Law (representing the Western Enforcement and Investigations; Existing certification States Fire Managers • Saskatchewan Environmental programs needed Association); Resource Ministry;* revision to address the • Federal Law Enforcement • Alberta Sustainable Resource specific needs of the Training Center; Development;* • Florida State Fire Marshal (rep- • Victoria Country Fire Authority, wildland fire resenting the National Australia; and management Association of State Fire • New Zealand Rural Fire community. Marshals); Authority. • Minnesota Department of * Canadian members also represent the interests of Natural Resources (represent- the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Center and ing the International their national training and resource management Three-Tiered working groups. They are working to create a wild- Certification Association of Arson land fire investigation standard for Canada. The standards are performance based and progressively tiered to allow for certification at each level—Wildland Fire Investigator, type 3 (entry level) to type 1.
Type 3 Certification. Investigators will have the minimum skills need ed to conduct origin and cause determination investigations suc cessfully. Specific required skills include knowledge of:
• Fire behavior, • Fire ignition sources and factors, • Burn pattern interpretation, and • Basic investigation methodology and techniques.
Type 2 Certification. Investigators must have an intermediate knowl edge needed to develop complex civil and criminal cases successful The point of origin on the 83,000-acre (34,000-ha) Jasper Fire in South Dakota. Investigators use color-coded flagging to mark areas of fire progression. Following a ly. Besides increased knowledge of month-long investigation, Forest Service investigators successfully identified the arsonist, fire behavior and of origin and who was later convicted and sentenced to 25 years in prison. Photo: Luke Konantz, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region, Grand Junction, CO, 2000.
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 37 cause determination, required New standards are performance based and knowledge includes: progressively tiered to allow for certification at • Civil and criminal processes, each of three levels of proficiency. • Investigation strategies for serial arson cases, and Prescribed Fire Qualification • Investigation methodologies Improved Training Now that the standards are com System Guide (PMS 310–1), agen beyond preliminary origin and cies that want to certify personnel cause determination. plete, development of the accompa nying training courses and task will establish their own certifica books is underway. The working tion programs following NWCG Type 1 Certification. Investigators standards and procedures. must have the advanced skills and team, with the help of the NWCG, knowledge necessary to serve as an is revising the existing Wildfire Origin and Cause Determination Professional standards and a peer- incident commander for a complex reviewed methodology for wildland investigation organization associat course. The team hopes to finish the additional type 2 and type 1 fire investigations are long overdue. ed with major civil and criminal The NWCG certification program investigations. certification levels by late 2004 or early 2005. will help ensure that investigations are conducted using consistent At each level, the participant com standards that take advantage of pletes a position task book, written After the training packages and task books are complete, the NWCG will the most current scientific and proficiency exam, and training ses technical information available. For sion. Additional training for devel distribute them to all member agencies. Like other national inter- more information, see the NWCG oping different skills at each level Website at
Fire Management Today 38 FIFTH ANNUAL FRANKLIN AWARDS CEREMONY
April J. Baily
he Franklin Awards recognize outstanding efforts by State T partners in ensuring that all citizens enjoy the benefits of the USDA Forest Service’s Cooperative Fire programs. The Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Management Staff annually awards the prestigious Franklin Award to acknowledge State programs that do an excep tional job in reaching underserved communities. The award was estab lished in 1999 and is named for Benjamin Franklin, the founder of America’s volunteer firefighting force.
Each year, four categories are con sidered for award: Figure 1—Jim Hull (center), Texas State Forester, receives the 2003 Franklin Award from • Volunteer fire assistance, Sally Collins, USDA Forest Service Associate Chief; and Joel Holtrop, Deputy Chief for • State fire assistance, State and Private Forestry. The award acknowledges the Texas Forest Service’s outstand • Management of Federal excess ing outreach in volunteer fire assistance. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Portland, OR, 2003. personal property, and • Overall excellence in reaching Foresters’ annual awards luncheon The Texas A&M University System. underserved communities in Portland, OR. Sally Collins, It is mandated by law to “assume (through a special Director’s Forest Service Associate Chief, and direction of all forest interests and Award). Joel Holtrop, Deputy Chief for State all matters pertaining to forestry and Private Forestry, presented the within the jurisdiction of the state.” Awards are not necessarily given for award. each category every year. In 2003, The Rural Volunteer Fire the award was given in a single cat The Volunteer Fire Assistance Department Assistance Program egory. Award was designed to help small receives grants from the Forest communities improve or begin fire Service, through Volunteer Fire Volunteer Fire protection. It is given to the State Assistance, and from the Texas Assistance Award that demonstrates the best out State legislature. Through joint reach to help underserved commu Federal/State funding, the Texas The 2003 award was presented on nities improve fire protection. The Forest Service provided more than September 15, 2003, at the winner of the Franklin Award for $11 million in grants to rural Texas National Association of State outstanding outreach in volunteer volunteer fire departments. This fire assistance was the Texas Forest effort is particularly successful con April Baily is the Federal Excess Personal Service. sidering today’s decreasing budgets Property Program officer for the USDA and increasing populations. Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC, and the The Texas Forest Service was creat general manager of Fire Management ed in 1915 as an integral part of Today.
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 39 In the first 9 months of operation, We gratefully acknowledge the outstanding the program provided cost-share efforts of all States to ensure fire protection grants to more than 468 volunteer fire departments to purchase 160 for all Americans. fire trucks, 31 slip-on modules, 561 items of fire equipment, 227 items to ensure that underserved com Judges evaluate the answers, taking of rescue equipment, 99 dry munities participate in the coop into account any statistics, news hydrants, and 112 training tuitions. erative programs? (Evaluated on stories, pictures, and other support a scale of 1 to 3, ranging from a ing materials. On April 13, 2003, James Elder, one-time initiative to an ongoing Fire Chief for the Simms District underserved community effort.) Each entry receives a score ranging Volunteer Fire Department, • What underserved community from 3 to 12 points. Entries with a expressed his appreciation to the benefited from the cooperative score of 5 or less are eliminated. Texas Forest Service, stating, “We programs and how did the State The Director’s Award is presented … would like to express our appre Forester encourage the participa only to entries with the best overall ciation for the grant, for our tion? (Evaluated on a scale of 1 to effort in at least two areas. bunker gear, computer, and train 6, ranging from limited participa ing. … [T]his is the first time we tion—such as by a single com A call letter is sent to all State have ever been able to fully clothe munity—to extensive participa Foresters in January of each year. our personnel in complete protec tion—such as by a county or The Forest Service welcomes all tive equipment.” counties). nominations, which must be post • What are the tangible and intan marked by May 31, and look for Nomination Guidelines gible effects of the cooperation? ward to honoring the efforts of our and Judging Criteria (Evaluated on a scale of 1 to 3, State partners as they continue to Nominations address the following ranging from limited effects— help communities in need. questions: such as a single school education program—to extensive effects— For more information, please visit • What specific outreach initiatives such as countywide dry
Fire Management Today 40 NASA HONORS TEXAS FOREST SERVICE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT TEAM
Amanda Fazzino
n October 3, 2003, the National Aeronautics and O Space Administration bestowed one of its highest awards, the Public Service Medal, on three members of the Texas Forest Service. Paul Hannemann, Mark Stanford, and Charles “Boo” Walker were recognized for their leader ship roles in the Columbia space shuttle recovery efforts.
Following the shuttle disaster on February 1, 2003, an incident man agement team was quickly assem bled. Stepping out of their custom ary roles in fire protection, Stanford served as incident com mander, Hannemann as deputy Charles “Boo” Walker, Paul Hannemann, and Mark Stanford stand before the neutral buoyance lab in the Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX. The lab has the largest indoor incident commander, and Walker as pool in the world, used by astronauts to prepare for working with zero gravity. Photo: aviation manager. Together, they James Blair, NASA Photography, Johnson Space Center, 2003. managed and coordinated 3 months of air and ground searches across teers, and more than 16 govern using geographic information sys 2,400 square miles (6,200 km2) of ment agencies. tems; developed an incident data East Texas. The effort involved 45 base for reported material and aircraft, more than 25,000 volun- It marked the first time that a State remains; operated the National wildland agency has taken the lead Shuttle Material Reporting Hotline; in a Federal emergency recovery secured the command posts; sup effort. In addition to their leader ported the media; and located, Amanda Fazzino is the communications assistant for the Texas Forest Service, ship role, Texas Forest Service per collected and stored shuttle College Station, TX sonnel plotted shuttle material material. ■
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 41 GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS Editorial Policy Paper Copy. Type or word-process the manu label all photos and illustrations (figure 1, 2, 3, Fire Management Today (FMT) is an internation script on white paper (double-spaced) on one etc.; photograph A, B, C, etc.). At the end of the al quarterly magazine for the wildland fire com side. Include the complete name(s), title(s), affili manuscript, include clear, thorough figure and munity. FMT welcomes unsolicited manuscripts ation(s), and address(es) of the author(s), as well photo captions labeled in the same way as the from readers on any subject related to fire man as telephone and fax numbers and e-mail infor corresponding material (figure 1, 2, 3; photo agement. Because space is a consideration, long mation. If the same or a similar manuscript is graph A, B, C; etc.). Captions should make pho manuscripts might be abridged by the editor, being submitted elsewhere, include that informa tos and illustrations understandable without subject to approval by the author; FMT does tion also. Authors who are affiliated should sub reading the text. For photos, indicate the name print short pieces of interest to readers. mit a camera-ready logo for their agency, institu and affiliation of the photographer and the year tion, or organization. the photo was taken. Submission Guidelines Submit manuscripts to either the general man Style. Authors are responsible for using wildland Electronic Files. See special mailing instruc ager or the managing editor at: fire terminology that conforms to the latest stan tions above. Please label all disks carefully with dards set by the National Wildfire Coordinating name(s) of file(s) and system(s) used. If the man USDA Forest Service Group under the National Interagency Incident uscript is word-processed, please submit a 3-1/2 Attn: April J. Baily, F&AM Staff Management System. FMT uses the spelling, cap inch, IBM-compatible disk together with the Mail Stop 1107 italization, hyphenation, and other styles recom paper copy (see above) as an electronic file in one 1400 Independence Avenue, SW mended in the United States Government of these formats: WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS; Washington, DC 20250-1107 Printing Office Style Manual, as required by the WordPerfect 7.0 or earlier for Windows 95; tel. 202-205-0891, fax 202-205-1272 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Authors should Microsoft Word 6.0 or earlier for Windows 95; e-mail: [email protected] use the U.S. system of weight and measure, with Rich Text format; or ASCII. Digital photos may equivalent values in the metric system. Try to be submitted but must be at least 300 dpi and USDA Forest Service keep titles concise and descriptive; subheadings accompanied by a high-resolution (preferably Attn: Hutch Brown, Office of the Chief and bulleted material are useful and help read laser) printout for editorial review and quality Yates Building, 4th Floor Northwest ability. As a general rule of clear writing, use the control during the printing process. Do not 201 14th Street, SW active voice (e.g., write, “Fire managers know…” embed illustrations (such as maps, charts, and Washington, DC 20024 and not, “It is known…”). Provide spellouts for all graphs) in the electronic file for the manuscript. tel. 202-205-0896, fax 202-205-1765 abbreviations. Consult recent issues (on the World Instead, submit each illustration at 1,200 dpi in a e-mail: [email protected] Wide Web at separate file using a standard interchange format
Contributors Wanted We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length. We also need short items of up to 200 words. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Today include: Aviation Firefighting experiences Communication Incident management Cooperation Information management (including systems) Ecosystem management Personnel Equipment/Technology Planning (including budgeting) Fire behavior Preparedness Fire ecology Prevention/Education Fire effects Safety Fire history Suppression Fire science Training Fire use (including prescribed fire) Weather Fuels management Wildland–urban interface To help prepare your submission, see “Guidelines for Contributors” in this issue.
Fire Management Today 42 PHOTO CONTEST ANNOUNCEMENT Fire Management Today invites Rules job descriptions; and descriptions you to submit your best fire-related • The contest is open to everyone. of any vegetation and/or wildlife). photos to be judged in our annual You may submit an unlimited • You must complete and sign a competition. Judging begins after number of entries from any place statement granting rights to use the first Friday in March of each or time; but for each photo, you your photo(s) to the USDA Forest year. must indicate only one competi Service (see sample statement tion category. To ensure fair eval below). Include your full name, Awards uation, we reserve the right to agency or institutional affiliation All contestants will receive a change the competition category (if any), address, and telephone CD–ROM with all photos not elimi for your photo. number. nated from competition. Winning • An original color slide is pre • Photos are eliminated from com photos will appear in a future issue ferred; however, we will accept petition if they have date stamps; of Fire Management Today. In high-quality color prints, as long show unsafe firefighting practices addition, winners in each category as they are accompanied by nega (unless that is their express pur will receive: tives. Digitally shot slides (pre pose); or are of low technical ferred) or prints will be accepted quality (for example, have soft • 1st place—Camera equipment if they are scanned at 300 lines focus or show camera move worth $300 and a 16- by 20-inch per inch or equivalent. Digital ment). (Duplicates—including framed copy of your photo. images will be accepted if you most overlays and other compos • 2nd place—An 11- by 14-inch used a camera with at least 2.5 ites—have soft focus and will be framed copy of your photo. megapixels and the image is shot eliminated.) • 3rd place—An 8- by 10-inch at the highest resolution or in a • Photos are judged by a photogra framed copy of your photo. TIFF format. phy professional whose decision • You must have the right to grant is final. Categories the Forest Service unlimited use • Wildland fire of the image, and you must agree Postmark Deadline • Prescribed fire that the image will become public First Friday in March • Wildland-urban interface fire domain. Moreover, the image • Aerial resources must not have been previously Send submissions to: • Ground resources published. Madelyn Dillon • Miscellaneous (fire effects; fire • For every photo you submit, you CAT Publishing Arts weather; fire-dependent commu must give a detailed caption 2150 Centre Avenue nities or species; etc.) (including, for example, name, Building A, Suite 361 location, and date of the fire; Fort Collins, CO 80526 names of any people and/or their
Sample Photo Release Statement
Enclosed is/are (number) slide(s) for publication by the USDA Forest Service. For each slide submitted, the contest category is indicated and a detailed caption is enclosed. I have the right to grant the Forest Service unlimited use of the image, and I agree that the image will become public domain. Moreover, the image has not been previously published.
Signature Date
Volume 64 • No. 3 • Summer 2004 43