Cultural Studies

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Irkutsk State Medical University” of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation

Department of Clinical, Social Psychology and Humanities

A. V. Zavialov, О. V. Antipina

CULTURAL STUDIES

Study guide

Irkutsk ISMU 2020

УДК 130.2(076.5)=111 ББК 71я73 Z 39

Recommended by the CCMС of FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia as a study guide for foreign students, mastering educational programs of higher education by the educational program of the specialty of General Medicine for mastering the discipline “Cultural Studies” (Protocol No. 1 of 28.10.2020)

Authors: A. V. Zavialov – Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Senior teacher, Department of Clinical, Social Psychology and Humanities, FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia O. V. Antipina – Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of Foreign Languages with Latin and “Russian for Foreigners” Programs, FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia

Reviewers: V. S. Fedchin – Doctor of Philosophical Sciences, Professor, Department of Cultural Studies and Management of Social Processes, FSBEI HE ISU O. A. Polyushkevich – Candidate of Philosophical Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of State and Municipal Administration, FSBEI HE ISU

Zavialov, A. V. Z 39 Cultural Studies : study guide / A. V. Zavialov, О. V. Antipina ; FSBEI HE ISMU MOH Russia, Department of Clinical, Social Psychology and Humanities. – Irkutsk : ISMU, 2020. – 141 p. – Text : unmediated.

The study guide covers the key concepts and terms of Cultural Studies, aimed at development of certain cultural competencies, and helps a student develop his / her reading, writing and presentation skills. The educational material is presented as texts of four main sections of the course, where the term in English is accompanied with its Russian equivalent, while the explanation is given in English. For the purpose of mastering the studied material and self-control, test tasks are included. The study guide is intended for foreign students, mastering educational programs of higher education by the educational program of the specialty of General Medicine for mastering the discipline “Cultural Studies”.

УДК 130.2(076.5)=111 ББК 71я73

CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ………….……………………………………..….. 4 INTRODUCTION …...…………………………….……………………...…..…. 5 Section 1. CULTURAL STUDIES AS A SCIENCE. CONCEPT OF CULTURE. CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION. CHANGE OF WORLDVIEWS 7 Section 2. CULTURE IN THE SYSTEM OF RELIGIONS ………………...... 40 Section 3. CULTURE IN THE SYSTEM OF HUMAN IMAGES ………...... 73 Section 4. ART AS A PART OF CULTURE .………………………………….... 109 KEYS TO THE TEST TASKS ………………………………………………..…. 137 RECOMMENDED LITERATURE …………………………………………..….. 138 Appendix. How to make a good presentation ...... …………..……... 139

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CE / AD – Common Era / Anno Domini BCE / BC – Before Common Era / Before Christ DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid FAP – fixed action pattern IMF – International Monetary Fund IOC – International Olympic Committee PR – public relations TV – television UK – United Kingdom UN – United Nations UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF – United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund U.S. / USA – United States of America WW I, WW II – World War I, World War II

INTRODUCTION The task of teaching Cultural Studies to foreign students is to let them master theoretical knowledge, formation of general cultural, general professional and professional competencies through development of forms of spiritual culture, allowing adequate assessment of emerging moral relations in implementation of professional activities, development of abilities to single out, analyze, summarize the most significant connections and features of cultural phenomena and processes, independently correlate and compare cultural facts in time and space. The suggested study guide is divided into four sections: 1. Cultural Studies as a science. Concept of culture. Culture and civilization. Change of worldviews; 2. Culture in the system of religions; 3. Culture in the system of human images; 4. Art as a part of culture. In its turn, each section is divided into four blocks in order to develop certain cultural competencies: − the ability to perform abstract thinking, analysis, and synthesis; − the ability to use the basics of cultural knowledge to form a worldview position; − readiness for self-development, self-realization, self-education, and making a good use of one’s creative potential; − willingness to work in a team, tolerant perception of social, ethnic, religious and cultural differences; − readiness for communication in the oral and written forms. The first block “Reading skill development focus” contains keywords of the lecture course given in the alphabetical order, accompanied with their definitions. A number of tasks for mastering the educational material are included. This block is aimed at developing the ability to correctly express one’s thought, separating the main information from the secondary one.

The next block “Presentation skill development focus” contains a list of topics for making presentations in order to control the process of mastering the presented material and training information search skills. This block is aimed at developing the ability to listen and hear the interlocutor’s arguments, define his / her position, and also argue one’s own. The third block “Writing skill development focus” contains problem questions, video and problem tasks aimed at expressing one’s position, opinion, analysis of the acquired knowledge and written self-analysis. This block of the study guide is aimed at developing writing skills, determination and reasoned presentation of one’s own position in the written form. The fourth block contains test tasks by means of which a student can check whether his / her image of Cultural Studies is complete enough. It is focused on current control of mastering the material. At the end of the study guide there is a list of recommended literature and an appendix “How to make a good presentation”, which provides practical tips for students who want to make substantial and effective presentations. Each time a student starts making reports and presentations for the “Presentation skill development focus” block, he / she is recommended to study the material of this section and follow the suggested tips. The study guide meets the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standards of Higher Education, the work program of the discipline “Cultural Studies” and is intended for foreign students mastering educational programs for specialists. It can be used both in class and for extra-curricular activities.

Section 1. CULTURAL STUDIES AS A SCIENCE. CONCEPT OF CULTURE. CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION. CHANGE OF WORLDVIEWS

Reading skill development focus 1. Read the suggested text material. 2. Make sure you understand the meaning of the concepts in bold: − identify the main point of each phrase in the definitions; − inform your groupmates about the meaning of a particular concept.

Analysis (анализ) is a process of breaking a complex topic or a substance into smaller parts in order to gain better understanding of it.1

Anthropology (антропология) is a scientific study of humans and human behavior and societies in the past and present. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour, and cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. Linguistic anthropology studies how the language influences social life. Biological, or physical, anthropology studies biological development of humans.2

Axial Age (Осевое время) is a term coined by a German philosopher Karl Jaspers in the sense of a “pivotal age” characterizing the period of ancient history from about the 8th to the 3rd century BCE. New ways of thinking appeared in Persia, India, China and the Greco-Roman world in religion and philosophy, in striking parallel development, without any obvious direct cultural contact between all of the participating Eurasian cultures. Jaspers identified the key thinkers of this age who had profound influence on future philosophies and religions, and identified the characteristics common to each area those thinkers emerged from.3

1 Beaney M. Analysis // The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analysis/. 2 Anthropology // Oxford Dictionaries. URL: https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/anthropology. 3 Jaspers K. The Origin and Goal of History. London: Routledge, 2014. 294 p. 7

Barter (бартер) is a system of exchange where participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. Barter features an immediate reciprocal exchange, not delayed in time; it usually takes place on a bilateral basis, but may be multilateral (i.e. mediated through a trade exchange).4

BCE and CE (до нашей эры и наша эра), also BC and AD, is the notation system for the world’s most widely used calendar era. BCE means “Before the Common Era” (whereas BC means “Before Christ”), and CE means “Common Era” (whereas AD means “Anno Domini”, or “The year of the Lord”). Notations refer to the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar). The year-numbering system utilized by the Gregorian calendar is used throughout the world today, and is an international standard for civil calendars.5

Behaviour (поведение) is a range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes other systems or organisms around, as well as the physical environment. It is a response of a system or an organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or unconscious, overt or covert, voluntary or involuntary. A behavior consists of a behavior actor, operation, interactions, and their properties.6

Bureaucracy (бюрократия) refers to both a body of non-elective government officials and an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials. Today, a bureaucracy is an administrative system governing any large

4 O’Sullivan A. Sheffrin S. M. Economics: Principles in Action. Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. P. 243. 5 Controversy over the use of the “CE/BCE” and “AD/BC” dating notation // Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. URL: http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm. 6 Minton E. A., Khale L. R. Belief Systems, Religion, and Behavioral Economics. New York: Business Expert Press LLC, 2014. 143 p. 8 institution, whether publicly or privately owned. The public administration in many countries is an example of a bureaucracy, but so is the centralized hierarchical structure of a business firm.7

Centralization (централизация) is a process by which activities of an organization, particularly those regarding planning and decision-making, become concentrated within a particular geographical location group. This moves important decision- making and planning powers within the organization center. In political science, centralization refers to concentration of the government’s power, both geographically and politically, into a centralized government.8

Civilization (цивилизация) is any complex society characterized with urban development, social stratification imposed by a cultural elite, symbolic systems of communication (e.g. writing systems), and perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment. Civilizations are intimately associated with and often further defined by other socio-politico-economic characteristics, including centralization, domestication of both humans and other organisms, specialization of labor, culturally ingrained ideologies, monumental architecture, taxation, societal dependence upon farming and expansionism.9

Colonialism (колониализм) is a policy of a state seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories, generally with the aim of developing or exploiting them to the benefit of the colonizing country, and of helping the colonies become modernized in terms defined by the colonizers, especially in economics, religion and health.10

7 Bureaucracy // Merriam-Webster Dictionary. URL: https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/bureaucracy. 8 Acharya A. What are the advantages and disadvantages of centralization of authority? // Preservearticles.com. URL: http://www.preservearticles.com/201101143291/advantages-and- disadvantages-of-centralisation-of-authority.html. 9 Haviland W. et al. Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge. Cengage Learning, 2010. P. 250. 10 Cooper F. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History. Univ. of California Press, 2005. 327 p. 9

Colonization (колонизация) is a process by which the central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components. It refers strictly to migration, for example, to settler colonies in America or Australia, trading posts, and plantations, while the term “colonialism” refers to the existing indigenous peoples of styled “new territories”.11

Colony (колония) is a territory under the immediate complete political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. A metropolitan state is a state that rules a colony. A colony has no independent international representation, and its top-level administration is under direct control of the metropolitan state.12

Conflict (конфликт). The term refers to some form of friction, or discord arising within a group when the beliefs or actions of one or more members of the group are either resisted by or unacceptable to one or more members of another group. It occurs when two or more actors oppose each other in social interaction, reciprocally exerting social power in an effort to attain scarce or incompatible goals and prevent the opponent from attaining them.13

Consciousness (сознание) is a state or a quality of awareness or of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It has been defined variously in terms of sentience, awareness, qualia, subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood or soul, the fact that there is something “that it is like” to “have” or “be” it, and the executive control system of the mind.14

11 Rockman M., Steele J. The Colonization of Unfamiliar Landscapes : The Archaeology of Adaptation. Routledge, 2003. 272 p. 12 Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia / Page M. E., ed. ABC- CLIO, 2003. 1208 p. 13 Social Conflict, Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement / Pruitt D. G., Kim S. H., eds. 3rd Edition., New York, NY: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2004. 316 p. 14 Gulick R., van. Consciousness // Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness/. 10

Counterculture (контркультура) is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of the mainstream society, often in the opposition to the mainstream cultural mores. Countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a specific population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass, countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes. Its examples are Romanticism (1790–1840), Bohemianism (1850–1910), a more fragmentary counterculture of the Beat Generation (1944–1964), followed by the globalized counterculture of the 1960s, like hippies and the diversified punk subculture of the 1970s and 1980s.15

Cultural heritage (культурное наследие) is a legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or a society that are inherited from the past generations. It includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity).16

Cultural identity (культурная идентификация) is identity or a feeling of belonging to a group. It is part of a person’s self-conception and self-perception and is related to some nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture. It is characteristic both of an individual and also of a culturally identical group of members sharing the same cultural identity or upbringing.17

Cultural studies (культурология) is a field of theoretically, politically, and empirically engaged cultural analysis that concentrates upon political dynamics of the

15 Hirsch E. D. et al. The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin, 2002. 647 p. 16 Sullivan A. M. Cultural Heritage & New Media: A Future for the Past // The John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law. URL: https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1392&context=ripl. 17 Ennaji M. Multilingualism, Cultural Identity, and Education in Morocco. Springer Science & Business Media, 2005. PP.19–23. 11 contemporary culture, its historical foundations, main features, conflicts, and contingencies. Despite derivative similarities, the term should not be confused with culturology.18

Culture (культура) is a social behavior and norms found in human societies. Culture is considered the central concept in anthropology, comprising a range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, rituals, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing.19

Culturology (культурология) is a branch of social sciences concerned with scientific understanding, description, analysis, and prediction of cultures as a whole. While different cultural practices were studied by ethnology and anthropology, such studies included diverse aspects: sociological, psychological, etc., and the need in a discipline focused exclusively on cultural aspects was finally recognized.20

Decolonization (деколонизация) is the undoing of colonialism. The term refers particularly to the dismantlement, in the years after World War II, of the colonial empires established prior to World War I throughout the world. It does not only refer to complete “removal of the domination of non-indigenous forces” within the geographical space, but also to intellectual decolonization from the colonizers’ ideas that made the colonized feel inferior. These include the breakup of the Spanish Empire in the 19th century; of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires following World War I; of the British, French, Dutch, Japanese, Portuguese, Belgian and Italian colonial empires following World War II.21

18 Bérubé M. What’s the Matter with Cultural Studies? // The Chronicle of Higher Education. URL: https://www.chronicle.com/article/Whats-the-Matter-With/48334. 19 Meaning of Culture // Cambridge English Dictionary. URL: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/culture. 20 White L. A. Culturology // Science. New Series. No. 128 (3334). 1958. P. 1246. 21 Betts R. F. Decolonization. Routledge, 2004. 144 p. 12

Domestication (одомашнивание) is a sustained multi-generational relationship where one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. For example, the dog was the first domesticated vertebrate well before cultivation and before domestication of other animals.22

Elite (элита) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society. The elite are those people or organizations that are considered the best or most powerful compared to others of a similar type.23

Empiricism (эмпиризм) is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, a study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism. It emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. It says that “knowledge is based on experience” and that “knowledge is tentative and probabilistic, subject to continued revision and falsification”. Empirical research, including experiments and validated measurement tools, guides the scientific method.24

Enlightenment (Эпоха Просвещения) was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, also

22 Zeder M. A. Core questions in domestication Research // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. No. 112 (11). 2015. PP. 3191–3198. URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4371924/. 23 Ansell B. W., Samuels D. J. Inequality and Democratization: An Elite-Competition Approach. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. 229 p. 24 Psillos S., Curd M. The Routledge companion to philosophy of science London: Routledge, 2010. PP. 129–138. 13 called “the Century of Philosophy”. It included a range of ideas centered on the reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy. The movement came to advance such ideals as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and separation of the church and the state.25

Ethics (этика) is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of the right and wrong conduct. It tries to settle the problems of human morality by giving definitions of such concepts as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.26

Etymology (этимология) is a science that studies the history of words, their origins, and how their forms and meanings have changed over time. It also means the origin of the particular word.27

Expansionism (экспансионизм) consists of policies of governments and states that involve territorial, military or economic expansion. This occurs usually, though not necessarily, by means of military aggression.28

Feminism (феминизм) is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social equality of sexes. This includes seeking to establish educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to those for men. Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women’s rights, for ensuring access to legal abortions and social integration, and for protecting women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence.29

25 Chisick H. Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment. Scarecrow Press, 2005. 552 p. 26 Ethics // Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. URL: https://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/. 27 Harper D. Etymology // Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/word/etymology. 28 Expansionism / Imperialism // ProjectWorldview.org. URL: http://www.projectworldview.org/wvtheme22.htm. 29 Beasley C. What is Feminism? : An Introduction to Feminist Theory. New York: Sage, 1999. PP. 3– 11. 14

Folklore (фольклор), or folk culture, is an expressive culture body shared by a particular group of people. It includes the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions, such as tales, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, forms and rituals of celebrations, folk dances and initiation rites. It also encompasses transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next. It is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another, either through verbal instruction or demonstration.30

Gender (гендер) is a range of characteristics referring to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include a biological sex (i.e. the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation), sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles), or gender identity. Traditionally, people who identify as men or women or use masculine or feminine gender pronouns use the system of the binary gender, whereas those who exist outside these groups fall under the umbrella terms of non-binary or genderqueer. Some cultures have specific gender roles that are distinct from “man” and “woman”, such as the hijras of South Asia. These are often referred to as third genders.31

Generation (поколение) is all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively; or an average period, generally considered to be about thirty years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults, and begin to have children of their own. It is a structural term designating the parent-child relationship. It is also known as biogenesis, reproduction, or procreation in biological sciences.32

30 Burns T. A. Folkloristics: A Conception of Theory // Western Folklore. No. 36 (2), 1977. PP. 109– 134. 31 What do we mean by “sex” and “gender”? // World Health Organization. URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20170130022356/http://apps.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/. 32 Pilcher J. Mannheim’s Sociology of Generations: An undervalued legacy // British Journal of Sociology. No. 45 (3), 1994. PP. 481–495. 15

Globalization (глобализация) is a process of interaction and integration between people, companies, and governments worldwide. It has grown due to advances in transportation and communication technologies. Increased global interactions are followed by the growth of international trade, ideas, and culture. It is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that is associated with social and cultural aspects. In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and knowledge dissemination. Further on, environmental challenges, such as global warming, cross-boundary water, air pollution, and over-fishing of the ocean, have been linked with globalization.33

Government (правительство) is a system or a group of people governing an organized community, often a state. It normally consists of legislative, executive, and judiciary branches. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining the state’s policy. Each government has a kind of constitution which states its governing principles and philosophy.34

Hegemony (гегемония) is political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others. It can also be described as social or cultural predominance or ascendancy; predominance by one group within a society or milieu.35

High culture (элитарная культура) encompasses cultural products of aesthetic value, which a society collectively esteems as exemplary art. It may also include intellectual works considered to be of supreme philosophical, historical, or literary value, as well as education which cultivates such aesthetic and intellectual pursuits.

33 Wolf M. Shaping Globalization // Finance & Development. No. 51 (3), 2014. PP. 22–25. 34 Government / Oxford English Dictionary. URL: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/government. 35 Hegemony / American Heritage Dictionary. URL: https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=hegemony&submit.x=22&submit.y=22. 16

In its present-day use, the term identifies culture of the upper class (the aristocracy) or of the status class (the intelligentsia).36

Humanities (гуманитарные науки) are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture. The humanities use methods that are primarily critical, or speculative, and have a significant historical element. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, history, human geography, law, religion, art.37

Ideal (идеал) is a principle or value that one actively pursues as a goal, usually in the context of ethics, and one’s prioritization of ideals that can serve to indicate the extent of one’s dedication to each. For example, someone who supports the ideal of honesty, but is willing to lie to protect a friend, demonstrates not only devotion to friendship, but also a belief in its superiority of honesty in importance.38

Ideal culture (идеальная культура) is a culture presented as a pattern or a precedent to people.39

Identity (идентичность) is qualities, beliefs, a personality, looks and / or expressions that make a person (self-identity) or a group (a particular social category or a social group). It is also a relation each thing / person bears to oneself.40

36 Williams R. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, 1985 г. 349 p. 37 Bod R. A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present. Oxford University Press, 2013. 400 p. 38 Rescher N. Ethical Idealism: An Inquiry into the Nature and Function of Ideals. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992. 148 p. 39 Types of Culture: Ideal, Real, Material & Non-Material Culture with Examples / Study lecture notes. URL: http://www.studylecturenotes.com/basics-of-sociology/types-of-culture-ideal-real- material-non-material-culture-with-examples. 40 Identity / Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity/. 17

Ideology (идеология) is a collection of normative beliefs and values that an individual or a group holds for other than purely epistemic reasons. It is “imagined existence (or idea) of things as it relates to real conditions of existence”. There are many well-known ideologies, which cover a wide range of human activity.41

Imperialism (империализм) is a state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas. Since it always involves the use of power, whether a military force or its elusive form, imperialism has often been considered morally reprehensible, and the term is frequently employed in international propaganda to denounce and discredit an opponent’s foreign policy.42

Indigenous peoples (коренные народы), also known as first peoples, aboriginal peoples or native peoples, are ethnic groups who are the original inhabitants of the given region, in contrast to groups that have settled, occupied or colonized the area more recently. Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of their early culture that is associated with the given region. The total population of indigenous peoples in the world is estimated from 220 million to 350 million.43

Invasion (вторжение) is a military offensive when large parts of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter a territory controlled by another entity, generally with an objective of either conquering, or liberating, or re-establishing control or authority over the territory, as well as forcing partition of the invaded country, or altering the established government, or gaining concessions from that government, or a combination of the above objectives.44

41 Feuer L. S. Ideology and the Ideologists. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, 2011. 236 p. 42 Bush B. Imperialism and Postcolonialism. Longmans, 2014. 304 p. 43 Sanders D. Indigenous peoples: Issues of definition // International Journal of Cultural Property. No. 8. PP. 4–13. 44 Bagnall N. The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage, and the Struggle for the Mediterranean. Random House, 2008. 368 p. 18

Law (право) is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. It regulates and ensures that individuals or a community adhere to the will of the state. State-enforced laws can be made by collective legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes, by the executive through decrees and regulations, or established by judges through precedent, normally in common law jurisdictions. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people.45

Legend (легенда) is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions perceived or believed both by the teller and listeners to have taken place within human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities. Many legends operate within the realm of uncertainty, never being entirely believed by the participants, but also never being resolutely doubted.46

Lifestyle (образ жизни) is a term that involves interests, opinions, behaviors, and behavioral orientations of an individual, a group, or the whole culture.47

Mass culture (массовая культура), or popular culture, is generally recognized by members of the society as a set of practices, beliefs, and objects that are dominant or general in the society at a given point in time. It also encompasses activities and feelings produced as a result of interaction with these dominant objects. Heavily influenced in modern times by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates everyday lives of people in the given society.48

45 Barzilai G. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. The University of Michigan Press, 2010. 384 p. 46 Georges R., Owens M. Folkloristics. Indiana University Press, 1995. P. 7. 47 Spaargaren G., van Vliet B. Lifestyle, Consumption and the Environment: The Ecological Modernisation of Domestic Consumption // Environmental Politics No. 9 (1), 2000. PP. 50–75. 48 Storey J. Cultural theory and popular culture: An introduction. Routledge, 2018. 191 p. 19

Material culture (материальная культура) is a physical aspect of culture in objects and architecture that surround people. It includes usage, consumption, creation, and trade of objects, as well as behaviors, norms, and rituals that objects create or take part in. The concept of material culture covers physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art.49

Materialism (материализм) holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all things, including mental aspects and consciousness, are results of material interactions. It is closely related to physicalism, the view that all that exists is ultimately physical.50

Migration (миграция) is movement by people from one place to another with the intention of settling, permanently or temporarily, in a new location. Such movement is often over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form globally. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. A person who moves from his home to another place because of a natural disaster or a civil disturbance may be described as a refugee or, especially within the same country, as a displaced person. A person seeking refuge from political, religious, or other forms of persecution is usually described as an asylum seeker.51

Militarism (милитаризм) is a belief or a desire of a government or a people that a state should maintain a strong military capability and use it aggressively to expand national interests and / or values. It may also imply glorification of the military and of the ideals of a professional military class and “predominance of the armed forces in

49 Buchli V. Material Culture: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences. Vol. 1. London: Routledge, 2004. P. 241. 50 Novack G. The Origins of Materialism. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1979. 300 p. 51 Oiarzabal P. J., Reips U.-D. Migration and diaspora in the age of information and communication technologies // Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. No. 38 (9), 2012. PP. 1333–1338. 20 the administration or policy of the state”. Militarism has been a significant element of imperialist or expansionist ideologies throughout world history.52

Monetary system (денежная система) is a set of institutions by which a government provides money in the country’s economy. Modern monetary systems usually consist of national treasuries, mints, central banks and commercial banks.53

Monopolism (монополизм) is a type of economic relationships that comes to exist when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. Monopolies are characterized with a lack of economic competition to produce the good or service, a lack of viable substitute goods, and the possibility of a high monopoly price well above the seller’s marginal cost that leads to a high monopoly profit.54

Moral (мораль) is a message that is conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or an event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader, or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim.55

Morality (мораль) is differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. It can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a person believes should be universal. Morality may also be specifically synonymous with “goodness” or “rightness”.56

52 Bacevich A. J. The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War. Oxford: University Press, 2013. 304 p. 53 What is monetary system? Definition and meaning / BusinessDictionary.com. URL: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/monetary-system.html. 54 Friedman M. Capitalism and Freedom. The University of Chicago Press, 2009. P. 208. 55 Pai R. S. And The Moral Of The Story Is... Kids Don’t Always Understand The Moral. URL: https://www.npr.org/2015/01/08/375878511/and-the-moral-of-the-story-is-kids-dont-always- understand-the-moral. 56 Morality / Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/morality- definition/. 21

Mores (нравы) are social norms that are widely observed and are considered to have greater moral significance than others. They usually predicate legislation prohibiting their taboos. Often, countries employ specialized vice squads or vice police engaged in suppressing specific crimes offending the societal mores.57

Multiculturalism (мультикультурализм) is a synonym of “ethnic pluralism”, with the two terms often used interchangeably, for example, cultural pluralism when various ethnic groups collaborate and become engaged in dialogue with one another without having to sacrifice their particular identities. It can describe a mixed ethnic community area (such as New York City) or a single country (such as Switzerland, Belgium or Russia) where multiple cultural traditions exist.58

Myth (миф) is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in the society, such as foundational tales. Myths often consist of sacred narratives about gods.59

Natural environment (окружающая среда) encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning “not artificial”. It involves interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity.60

Nature (природа) is the natural, physical, or material world or universe. It can refer to phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general.61

57 Sumner W. G., Folkways: A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores, and Morals. Ginn, 1906. 692 p. 58 Kenan M. Multiculturalism undermines diversity / The Guardian. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/17/multiculturalism-diversity-political- policy. 59 Armstrong K. A Short History of Myth (Myths series). Knopf Canada, 2010. 168 p. 60 Johnson D. L., Ambrose S. H., Bassett T. J., Bowen M. L., Crummey D. E., Isaacson J. S., Johnson D. N., Lamb P., Saul M., Winter-Nelson A. E. Meanings of Environmental Terms // Journal of Environmental Quality. No. 26 (3), 1997. PP. 581–589. 61 Harper D. Nature / Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/word/nature. 22

Nihilism (нигилизм) is a philosophical viewpoint that suggests the denial or lack of belief towards the reputedly meaningful aspects of life. Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential nihilism, which argues that life is without objective meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value. Moral nihilists assert that there is no inherent morality, and that the accepted moral values are abstractly contrived. Nihilism may also take epistemological, ontological, or metaphysical forms, meaning respectively that, in some aspect, knowledge is not possible, or reality does not actually exist. The term is sometimes used in association with anomie to explain the general mood of despair at the perceived pointlessness of existence that one may develop upon realizing there are no necessary norms, rules, or laws.62

Non-material culture (нематериальная культура) is thoughts or ideas that make up a culture. It does not include any physical objects or artifacts, but ideas, beliefs, values, norms that may help shape the society. The immaterial aspects of culture, such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science, comprise the intangible cultural heritage of the society.63

Pattern (паттерн) is a regularity in the world or in a humanmade design. The elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner.64

Phenomenon (феномен) is anything which manifests itself. Phenomena are often, but not always, understood as “things that appear” or “experiences” for a sentient being, or in principle may be so. In the scientific usage, a phenomenon is any event that is observable, whatever common it might be, even if it requires the use of instruments to observe, record, or compile data concerning it.65

62 Cunningham C. Genealogy of Nihilism. New York, NY: Routledge, 2005. 336 p. 63 Everett D. L. Language: The Cultural Tool. New York: Profile Books, 2012. 320 p. 64 Adam J. A. Mathematics in Nature: Modeling Patterns in the Natural World. Princeton, 2006. 392 p. 65 Phenomenon/Phenomena / Dictionary of Visual Discourse: A Dialectical Lexicon of Terms. URL: https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/ashgtvd/phenomenon_phenomena/0. 23

Philosophy (философия) is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters, such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation. From the time of Ancient Greeks to the 19th century, “natural philosophy” included astronomy, medicine, and physics. In the modern era, some investigations that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ontology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic and philosophy of science.66

Politics (политика) is a process of making decisions that are applied to members of a group. It refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance-organized control over a human community, particularly, a state. In modern nation-states, people have formed political parties to represent their ideas. They agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders.67

Polity (полития) is an identifiable political entity, or any group of people who have a collective identity and a capacity to mobilize resources, and are organized by some form of the institutionalized hierarchy. It can be the government of a country, or country subdivision, or any other group of people organized for governance, such as a corporate board.68

Power (власть) is an ability to influence or outright control the behavior of people. The term “authority” is often used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. In general, it is derived by the factors of interdependence between two

66 Grayling A. C. Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject. Oxford University Press, 1998. 677 p. 67 Political / Merriam-Webster. URL: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/political. 68 Ferguson Y., Mansbach R. W. Polities: Authority, Identities, and Change. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1996. 495 p. 24 entities and the environment. The power doing without oppression is the “soft power”.69

Primary source (первоисточник), or an original source or evidence, in the study of history as an academic discipline, is an artifact, a document, a diary, a manuscript, an autobiography, a recording, or any other source of information that was created at the time under study. It serves as an original source of information about the topic.70

Psychology (психология) is the science about behavior and mind, including conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also investigating physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion (affect), intelligence, phenomenology, motivation (conation), brain functioning, and personality.71

Real culture (реальная культура) can be observed in our social life. We act upon the culture in our social life; its part which people adopt in their social life is real culture.72

Reason (разум) is a capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is closely associated with such typically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art, and

69 Studies in Social Power / Cartwright D., ed. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1978. 224 p. 70 Marius R. P., Melvin E. A short guide to writing about history. New York: Pearson Longman, 2014. 194 p. 71 Fernald D. Psychology: Six perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2007. 391 p. 72 Types of Culture: Ideal, Real, Material & Non-Material Culture with Examples / Study lecture notes. URL: http://www.studylecturenotes.com/basics-of-sociology/types-of-culture-ideal-real- material-non-material-culture-with-examples. 25 is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect.73

Renaissance (Возрождение) is a period in European history, covering the span between the 14th and 17th centuries. It is an extension of the Middle Ages, and is bridged by the Age of Enlightenment to modern history. The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own invented version of humanism which became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science and literature. It encompassed an innovative heyday of literatures, development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting, a gradual but widespread educational reform. It also contributed to the development of customs and conventions of diplomacy, and to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning.74

Ritual (ритуал) is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, and objects, performed in a sequestered place, and performed according to the set order of actions. Rituals may be prescribed by traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, but not defined, with formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance.75

Rural area (сельская местность) is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are commonly rural, as are other types of areas, such as a forest.76

Sanction (санкция) may be either a permission or a restriction, depending upon the context, as the word is an auto-antonym. Examples of sanctions include: a) economic sanctions, typically a ban on trade, possibly limited to certain sectors, or with certain

73 Kompridis N. So We Need Something Else for Reason to Mean // International Journal of Philosophical Studies. No. 8, 2000. PP. 271–295. 74 Burke P. The European Renaissance: Centre and Peripheries. Wiley, 1998. 300 p. 75 Ritual / Merriam-Webster. URL: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ritual. 76 Defining the Rural Population / Hrsa.gov. URL: https://www.hrsa.gov/rural-health/about- us/definition/index.html. 26 exceptions; b) international sanctions, coercive measures adopted by a country or a group of countries against another state or individual(s) in order to elicit a change in their behavior; c) pragmatic sanctions, historically, a sovereign’s solemn decree which addresses a matter of primary importance and which has a force of the fundamental law; d) penalties imposed by courts; e) a mechanism of social control.77

Scepticism (скептицизм) is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief. It is often directed at domains, such as the supernatural, morality, religion, or knowledge. Philosophical skepticism comes in various forms. Radical forms of skepticism deny that knowledge or rational belief is possible, urging us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms of skepticism only claim that nothing can be known with certainty or that we can know little or nothing about “big questions” in life, such as whether the God exists or whether there is an afterlife. Scientific skepticism concerns testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method, to discover empirical evidence for them.78

Science (наука) is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of natural sciences (e.g. biology, chemistry, and physics), social sciences (e.g. economics, psychology, and sociology), and formal sciences (e.g. logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science). Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. Science is based on research, which is commonly conducted in academic and research institutions, as well as in government agencies and companies.79

77 Sanction / Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/word/sanction#etymonline_v_22689. 78 Skepticism / The free dictionary by Farlex. URL: http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Skeptikoi. 79 Science / Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/word/science. 27

Social class (социальный класс) is a set of subjectively defined concepts in social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification where people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes.80

Social institution (социальный институт) is a stable, valued, recurring pattern of behavior or mechanisms of social order, which governs the behavior of a set of individuals within a given community. Institutions are identified with a social purpose, transcending individuals and intentions by mediating the rules that govern the behavior. They include family, religion, peer groups, economic systems, legal systems, penal systems, language, mass media, education and research institutions, military organizations, industry, civil society, state.81

Social integration (социальная интеграция) is the process during which newcomers, or minorities, are incorporated into the social structure of the host society. Social integration, together with economic integration and identity integration, are three main dimensions of newcomers’ experiences in the society that is receiving them. A higher extent of social integration contributes to a closer social distance between groups and more consistent values and practices. In a broader view, it is a dynamic and structured process when all members participate in dialogue to achieve and maintain peaceful social relations.82

Social norm (социальная норма) is an informal understanding that governs the behavior of society members. Norms are regarded as collective representations of acceptable group conduct, as well as individual perceptions of particular group

80 Social class. WordNet Search. URL: http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=social+class&sub=Search+WordNet&o2=&o0=1& o8=1&o1=1&o7=&o5=&o9=&o6=&o3=&o4=&h=0. 81 Social Institutions / Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/social-institutions/. 82 Alba R., Nee V. Rethinking Assimilation Theory for a New Era of Immigration // International Migration Review. No. 31 (4), 1997. PP. 826–874. 28 conduct. They can be viewed as cultural products (including values, customs, and traditions) which represent individuals’ basic knowledge of what others do and think that they should do.83

Social sciences (социальные науки) are a category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and relationships among individuals within a society. Social sciences include anthropology, archaeology, communication studies, economics, history, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political science, psychology, public health, and sociology.84

Social stratification (социальная стратификация) is social differentiation between social groups of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is a relative social position of people within a social group, category, geographic region, or a social unit.85

Society (общество) is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized with patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions. A certain society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among the constituent members. In social sciences, a larger society often exhibits stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups.86

83 Lapinski M. K., Rimal R. N. An explication of social norms // Communication Theory. No. 15 (2), 2005. PP. 127–147. 84 Kuper A. The Social Science Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis, 1996. 923 p. 85 Ritzer G., Ryan J. M. The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. 800 p. 86 Jenkins R. Foundations of Sociology: Towards a Better Understanding of the Human World. London: Macmillan International Higher Education, 2018. 192 p. 29

Socioeconomic formation (общественно-экономическая формация) in Marxism is a stage of social evolution, characterized with a certain stage of development of productive forces of the society and the corresponding historical type of economic production relations which depend on it and are determined by it. According to Marxism, there are five formations: primitive communal system, slave- owning system, feudalism, capitalism, and communism. The last one is divided into two sub-formations: socialism and complete communism.87

Sociology (социология) is a scientific study of the society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture of everyday life. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, acceptance, and change or social evolution.88

State (государство) is a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory. The first states arose about 5,500 years ago in conjunction with a rapid growth of cities, invention of writing, and codification of new forms of religion.89

Subculture (субкультура) is a group of people within a culture that differentiates itself from the parent culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values. They are part of the society while keeping their specific characteristics intact (e.g. hippies, goths, bikers, etc.)90

87 Илюшечкин В. П. Теория стадийного развития общества (история и проблемы). М.: Издательская фирма «Восточная литература» РАН, 1996. 406 с. 88 Babbie E. R. The Practice of Social Research. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc., 2001. 640 p. 89 Bratsis P. Everyday Life and the State. Routledge, 2016. 150 p. 90 What Is Subculture? Theories, Definition & Examples. Video & Lesson Transcript / Study.com. URL: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-subculture-theories-definition-examples.html. 30

Supernatural (сверхъестественное) is something that cannot be explained by scientific understanding or the laws of nature. Examples often include characteristics of or are related to ghosts, angels, gods, souls and spirits, non-material beings, or anything else considered beyond the nature, like magic, miracles, etc. Over time, things once thought to be supernatural, such as lightning, seasons, and human senses, have been shown to have entirely naturalistic explanations and origins. The supernatural commonly features in paranormal, occult, and religious contexts. Belief in the supernatural can also occur in secular contexts.91

Supremacism (супермасизм) is an ideology which holds that a particular class of people is superior to others, and that it should dominate, control, and subjugate others, or is entitled to do it. The supposed superior class of people can be an age, race, species, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexuality, language, social class, ideology, nation, or culture, or any other part of the population.92

Theory (теория) is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalized thinking, or results of such thinking. Depending on the context, the results might, for example, include generalized explanations of how the nature works. Theories guide the process of finding facts, rather than of reaching goals, and are neutral concerning alternatives among the values. A theory can be a body of knowledge, which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory models. It refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with the scientific method, and fulfilling the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for, or empirically contradict (“falsify”) it.93

91 Supernatural / Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/word/supernatural. 92 Supremacist / Merriam-Webster. URL: https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/supremacist. 93 Theory / Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/word/theory. 31

Tradition (традиция) is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with a symbolic meaning or a special significance with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical, but socially meaningful, clothes (like lawyers’ wigs or military officers’ spurs). The idea has also been applied to social norms, such as greetings.94

Tribe (племя) is an organization among families (including clans and lineages), which generates a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an “ethnic group” or of a “nation”.95

Urban area (городская территория) is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment (cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs). Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization.96

Worldview (мировоззрение) is a fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or a society encompassing the whole of the individual’s or the society’s knowledge and point of view. A worldview can include natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics. Worldviews are often taken to operate at a conscious level, directly accessible to articulation and discussion. It refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs forming a global description through which an individual, a group or a culture watches and interprets the world and interacts with it.97

94 Green T. A. Folklore: an encyclopedia of beliefs, customs, tales, music, and art. ABC-CLIO, 1997. 892 p. 95 James P. Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In. London: Sage Publications, 2006. 392 p. 96 Urban and Rural Areas 2009 / United Nations Population Division – Department of Economic and Social Affairs. URL: https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/urbanization/urban-rural.shtml. 97 Smart N. Worldviews: Crosscultural Explorations of Human Beliefs. Prentice Hall, 1995. 178 p. 32

Presentation skill development focus Prepare a 10-minute presentation on a particular topic below. Read Appendix “How to make a good presentation” before you start. 1. Cultural Studies as a science. 2. Object and subject of Cultural Studies. 3. Cultural Studies in the system of humanities. 4. Methods of Cultural Studies. 5. Stages of Cultural Studies development. 6. Terms of culture. 7. Theoretical approaches to the concept of culture. 8. Functions of culture. 9. Types and forms of culture. 10. Folk culture. 11. Material and ideal culture: a comparative analysis. 12. Mass culture: advertising and PR as a means of spreading and consuming culture. Commercial success and profit. 13. Definitions of the term “civilization”. 14. Main features and stages of civilization. 15. Myth and its function in the life of an ancient person. 16. Cultural modernization in human history.

Writing skill development focus A. Problem questions Choose a problem question and write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay, answer the given question and express your own opinion. Supply your essay with some facts and examples. 1. What is the essence of culture as such? 2. Is it fair to evaluate one culture from the position of another? Is it possible to evaluate it objectively? 33

3. What is the picture of the world (worldview) in the modern society?

B. Video tasks Video task 1. How the person sees himself and how others see him: Social experiment about the perception of oneself by others and by oneself. Watch this video. Write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay, describe why the way others see us differs from the way we see ourselves, what influences the self-perception and discuss if it is possible to percept yourself the way others percept you. Give your own opinion. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ABGcQbfsU1E

Video task 2. Social experiment with water: about the lack of water in the developing world. Watch this video. Write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay, discuss if the problem risen in this video is important, and what can be done for eliminating it. Give your own opinion. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Nb1iX25z_g

C. Problem tasks Problem task 1. Make a chart of connections of the Cultural Studies with other sciences. Problem task 2. Give a comparative analysis of elite and mass culture.

Test tasks Tick only one correct variant. 1. In contemporary understanding, culture is … . 1) a state of the society based on the law and order 2) literature, painting, theater, music, etc. 3) a mode of existence in the society 4) all abovementioned 34

2. Cultural Studies is a humanitarian science that investigates … . 1) patterns of culture development and functioning, its structure and dynamics, interrelations and interaction with other spheres of material and spiritual life 2) people’s behavior in social environment 3) the role and importance of cultural aspects in public life 4) history of the origin and development of culture

3. The subject of Cultural Studies is … . 1) the result of people’s material and spiritual activity 2) an ability to understand existing cultures 3) designing spiritual processes of social development 4) a search for new methods of socialization of the human personality

4. The structure of contemporary Cultural Studies includes … . 1) history of European and Russian culture 2) ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, philosophy of art and culture 3) sociology of culture, cultural anthropology, applied Cultural Studies 4) philosophical anthropology, cultural anthropology, social anthropology

5. Cultural norms are … . 1) a set of naturally connected elements 2) products of human activity 3) laws and standards of people’s social life 4) the process of denoting the world of concepts and things

6. Originally the word “culture” meant … . 1) oratory 2) methods of soil cultivation 3) an ability to draw 4) good upbringing

7. Collectiveness of values, reliabilities, traditions and customs, which most members of the society rely on, is called the … culture. 1) dominant 2) prevailing 3) subculture 4) national

8. Subculture is … . 1) a culture in culture, a part within the framework of the official culture 2) a culture of any social or democratic group 3) a limited culture of social community, due to poverty of its social ties, incompleteness or a difficulty in accessing cultural heritage 4) all of the above

9. The term used for identification of different youth streams against the recognized social values is … . 1) mass culture 2) elite culture 3) counterculture 4) conceptual culture

10. The cause of mass culture creation is … . 1) a tendency for culture enlargement 2) formation of the society of mass production and consumption 3) a belief in the power of the liberated human spirit 4) Mediterranean synthesis of ancient and eastern religions

11. Works devoted to a narrow circle of society members belong to … culture. 1) people’s 2) mass 3) national 4) elite

12. Works created anonymously by those who mostly do not have a professional training belong to … culture. 1) on-screen 2) mass 3) people’s 4) spiritual

13. The type of culture which targets its material and spiritual values at the “average consumer” is … culture. 1) consumer 2) commercial 3) popular 4) mass

14. The concept characterizing the features of production of spiritual values in the modern industrial society, designed for mass consumption, is … . 1) elite culture 2) folk culture 3) youth culture 4) mass culture

15. A German philosopher Karl Jaspers introduced the term “…”. 1) Axial age 2) New age 3) Axial time 4) New time

16. Any complex society characterized with urban development, social stratification imposed by the culture elite, symbolic systems of communication (for example, writing systems), and perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment is called … . 1) primary source 2) civilization 3) humanity 4) globalization

17. The term used by the American researcher S. P. Huntington to explain the construction of the hypothesis about continuous contradiction of earth civilizations is … . 1) the clash of civilizations 2) the fight of civilizations 3) the war of civilizations 4) the confrontation of civilizations

18. The process by which the central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components is called … . 1) imperialism 2) invasion 3) colonization 4) assimilation

19. An action that involves a country extending its power by acquisition of territories is called … . 1) imperialism 2) colonization 3) assimilation 4) invasion

20. An artifact, a document, a diary, a manuscript, an autobiography, a record, or any other source of information that was created at the time under study is called … . 1) the subject of history 2) the historical method 3) a primary source 4) evidence or archaeology

Section 2. CULTURE IN THE SYSTEM OF RELIGIONS

Abrahamic religions (авраамические религии) are a group of Semitic-originated religious communities of faith that claim descent from Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic religions: they worship only one unique God. The term derives from patriarch Abraham, a major biblical figure from The Old Testament, which is recognized by Christians, Muslims and others. They are spread globally through Christianity, being adopted by the Roman Empire in the 4th century, and through Islam by the Islamic Empires from the 7th century. The major Abrahamic religions in the chronological order of founding are Judaism in the 7th century BCE, Christianity in the 1st century CE, and Islam in the 7th century CE.98

Agnosticism (агностицизм) is a view that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural, is unknown or unknowable. It is a view that the human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist. It is a doctrine or tenet of agnostics with regard to the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena or to the knowledge of the First Cause or God, and is not a religion.99

98 Bakhos C. The Family of Abraham. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014. 285 p. 99 An Atheist with a Tall Hat On: The Forgotten History of Agnosticism / The Humanist. URL: https://thehumanist.com/magazine/march-april-2019/philosophically-speaking/philosophically- speaking-an-atheist-with-a-tall-hat-on-the-forgotten-history-of-agnosticism. 40

Ahura Mazda (Ахурамазда) is the creator of the world, the highest spirit of worship and sole God in Zoroastrianism. The literal meaning of the word Ahura is “mighty” or “lord”, and Mazda is “wisdom”.100

Allah (Аллах) is an Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam.101

Animism (анимизм) is a religious belief that objects, places and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things (animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork and perhaps even words) as animated and alive. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples’ “spiritual” or “supernatural” perspectives.102

Asceticism (аскетизм) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their practices or continue to be part of their society, but typically adopt a frugal lifestyle, characterized by the renunciation of material possessions and physical pleasures, and the time spent fasting while concentrating on the practice of religion or reflection upon spiritual matters. It has been historically observed in many religious traditions.103

Atheism (атеизм) is the absence of belief in the existence of deities, or the rejection of belief that any deities exist, or the position that there are no deities.104

100 Boyce M. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Psychology Press, 2001. 252 p. 101 Holt P. M., Lambton A. K. S. The Cambridge history of Islam: The further Islamic lands, Islamic society and civilization. Cambridge: University Press, 1970. 966 p. 102 Harvey G. Animism: Respecting the Living World. Wakefield Press, 2005. 248 p. 103 Valantasis R. The Making of the Self: Ancient and Modern Asceticism. James Clarke & Co., 2008. 336 p. 104 The Oxford Handbook of Atheism / Bullivant S., Ruse M., eds. Oxford UP, 2013. 763 p. 41

Avesta (Авеста) is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism. The principal text in the liturgical group is the Yasna.105

Bhagavad Gita (Бхагавадгита) is a 700-verse Hindu scripture in Sanskrit that is part of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. It is set in the narrative framework of the dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Krishna. It covers a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon ethical dilemmas and philosophical issues.106

Bible (Библия) is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. The text which is regarded to be canonical differs depending on traditions and groups. The Bible has had a massive influence on literature and history, especially in the Western World.107

Buddha (Будда) was a monk, mendicant, and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in the northeastern part of ancient India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Buddhists believe him to be an enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end rebirth and suffering.108

Buddhism (буддизм) encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on the original teachings attributed to the Buddha and resulting interpreted philosophies. It was originated in ancient India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, spreading through much of Asia. Three major extant branches of Buddhism are Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. All Buddhist

105 Boyce M. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Psychology Press, 2001. 252 p. 106 Chidbhavananda S. The Bhagavad Gita. Tirupparaitturai: Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam, 1965. 1007 p. 107 Lienhard J. T. The Bible, The Church, and Authority: The Canon of the Christian Bible in History and Theology. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2017. 120 p. 108 Armstrong K. Buddha. Paw Prints, 2008. 205 p. 42 traditions share the goal of overcoming suffering and the cycle of death and rebirth, either by the attainment of Nirvana or through the path of Buddhahood.109

Caste (каста) is a form of social stratification characterized with endogamy, hereditary transmission of a life style which often includes an occupation, a ritual status in the hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity and pollution. Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of India’s Hindu society into rigid social groups, with its roots in India’s ancient history and persisting to the present time. However, its significance has been declining as a result of urbanization and affirmative action programs.110

Catechism (катехизис) is a summary or exposition of the doctrine that serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts. Catechisms are doctrinal manuals, often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorized – a format that has been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well.111

Catholicism (католицизм) is the largest Christian church, which has played a prominent role in the history and development of the Western civilization. The church is headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope. Its central administration, the Holy See, is in the Vatican. The Catholic Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christ’s apostles, and that the Pope is the successor to Saint Peter to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. Its teaching includes sanctification through faith and evangelization of the Gospel, as well as through

109 Anderson C. Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon. Routledge, 2013. 255 p. 110 Roberts N. P. Anthropology of Caste. URL: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social- sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/caste-anthropology. 111 Palmer R. F., McCausland J. G. The Catechist’s Handbook and The Church’s Guide: Teaching the Canadian [Anglican] Church Catechism to Children and to Older Persons. Bracebridge, Ont.: Society of Saint John the Evangelist, 1962. 43

Catholic social teaching, which emphasizes voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through corporal and spiritual works of mercy.112

Christianity (христианство) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life, teachings, and miracles of Jesus Christ. It is the world’s largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33 % of the global population. Worldwide, there are three largest branches of Christianity: Catholicism, Protestantism, and Orthodoxy.113

Cosmology (космология) is a branch of astronomy concerned with studies of the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang to today and on into the future. Physical cosmology is a scientific study of the universe’s origin, its large- scale structures and dynamics, its ultimate fate, as well as the laws of science that govern these areas. Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions of creation myths and eschatology.114

Creationism (креационизм) is a religious belief that nature, and aspects such as the universe, Earth, life, and humans, originated with supernatural acts of the divine creation. In its broadest sense, it includes a continuum of religious views, which vary in their acceptance or rejection of scientific explanations such as evolution that describe the origin and development of natural phenomena.115

Crusades (крестовые походы) were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period, like the campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean aimed at recovering of the Holy Land from the Muslim rule, or other church- sanctioned campaigns, such as against the Cathars and the Baltic Crusades. These

112 Bokenkotter T. A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Doubleday, 2007. 624 p. 113 Woodhead L. An Introduction to Christianity. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 439 p. 114 Hetherington N. S. Encyclopedia of Cosmology (Routledge Revivals): Historical, Philosophical, and Scientific Foundations of Modern Cosmology. Routledge, 2014. 686 p. 115 Aviezer N. In the Beginning: Biblical Creation and Science. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publishing House, 1990. 138 p. 44 were fought for a variety of reasons, including suppression of paganism and heresy, conflict resolution among rival Roman Catholic groups, or for political and territorial advantage.116

Deism (деизм) is a philosophical belief which posits that although God exists as the uncaused First Cause – ultimately responsible for the creation of the universe – God does not interact directly with that subsequently created world. Equivalently, deism can also be defined as a view which asserts God’s existence as the cause of all things, and admits its perfection (and usually the existence of the natural law and Providence), but rejects divine revelation or direct intervention of God in the universe by miracles. It also rejects revelation as a source of religious knowledge and asserts that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a single creator or the absolute principle of the universe.117

Deity (божество) is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred. It is a god or goddess (in a polytheistic religion), or anything revered as divine.118

Denomination (деноминация) in theology means a subgroup within a religion that operates under a common name, tradition, and identity. The term refers to various Christian denominations (i.e. Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and many varieties of Protestantism). It is also used to describe the four branches of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist). Within Islam, it can refer to its branches (such as Sunni, Shia), as well as to their various subdivisions, such as schools and religious movements.119

116 Asbridge T. The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land. Simon and Schuster, 2012. 784 p. 117 Hudson W. Enlightenment and modernity: The English deists and reform. Routledge, 2015. 240 p. 118 Andrews T. Dictionary of Nature Myths: Legends of the Earth, Sea, and Sky. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. 284 p. 119 Green C. R., Oldendorf S. B. Religious Diversity and Children’s Literature: Strategies and Resources. Information Age Publishing, 2011. 261 p. 45

Dharma (дхарма) is a key concept with multiple meanings. In Hinduism, it signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with Ṛta, the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and “the right way of living”. In Buddhism, dharma means “a cosmic law and order”, and is also applied to the teachings of Buddha. For Sikhs, it means the path of righteousness and a proper religious practice.120

Dogma (догмат) is an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, or positions of a philosopher or of a philosophical school. It may also refer to some strong belief whose adherents are not willing to discuss it rationally. This attitude is called dogmatism.121

East–West Schism of 1054 (Великий раскол 1054 года), or the Great Schism, was the break of communion between what is now the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox churches, which lasted until the 11th century. The Schism was the culmination of theological and political differences between the Christian East and West which had developed over the preceding centuries.122

Faith (вера) is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept. In the context of religion, one can define faith as confidence or trust in a particular system of a religious belief. Religious people often think of faith as confidence based on a perceived degree of warrant, while others who are more skeptical of religion tend to think of faith as simply a belief without evidence.123

120 Olivelle P. Dharma: Studies in Its Semantic, Cultural and Religious History. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2009. 492 p. 121 Dogma / Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: https://www.etymonline.com/word/dogma. 122 Great Schism / Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press, 2005. 1800 p. 123 Sproul R. C. Justified by Faith Alone. Crossway, 2010. 64 p. 46

Fetishism (фетишизм) is an emic attribution of the inherent value or powers to an object. A fetish is an object believed to have supernatural powers, or in particular, a human-made object that has power over others.124

Five Pillars of Islam (Пять столпов ислама) are the basic acts in Islam, considered mandatory by believers and are the foundation of Muslim life. They are summarized in the famous hadith of Gabriel. They are declaration of faith, obligatory prayer, compulsory giving, fasting in the month of Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca.125

Folk religion (народная религия) is either “a religion which occurs in small, local communities which does not adhere to the norms of large systems”, or “appropriation of religious beliefs and practices at a popular level.”126

Fundamentalism (фундаментализм) usually has a religious connotation that indicates unwavering attachment to a set of irreducible beliefs. It has come to be applied to a tendency among certain groups, mainly in religion, that is characterized with a markedly strict literalism as it is applied to certain specific scriptures, dogmas, or ideologies, and a strong sense of importance of maintaining ingroup and outgroup distinctions, leading to an emphasis on purity and the desire to return to the previous ideal from which advocates believe members have strayed. Rejection of diversity of opinion as applied to these established “fundamentals” and their accepted interpretation within the group often results from this tendency.127

God (Бог) in the monotheistic thought is conceived to be the Supreme Being, the creator deity, and the principal object of faith. God is conceived as being omniscient

124 Pietz W. The Problem of the Fetish, I // RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. No. 9, 1985. PP. 5– 17. 125 Farah C. Islam: Beliefs and Observances. Barron’s Educational Series, 2000. 468 p. 126 Religious Orthodoxy and Popular Faith in European Society / Badone E., ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. 230 p. 127 Brasher B. E. Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism. New York: Routledge, 2001. 558 p. 47

(all-knowing), omnipotent (all-powerful), omnipresent (all-present) and as having an eternal and necessary existence. God is most often held to be incorporeal (immaterial). Monotheists refer to their gods using names prescribed by their respective religions. In the ancient Egyptian era this deity was called Aten, in Judaism – Elohim, in Christianity – God (Yahweh; in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, coexisting in three “persons”, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), in Islam – Allah, in Hinduism – Brahman, in Zoroastrianism – Ahura Mazda.128

Heresy (ересь) is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with the established beliefs or customs, in particular, the accepted beliefs of the church or some religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of such claims or beliefs. The term is usually used to refer to deviations from important religious teachings, but is also used for views strongly opposed to any generally accepted ideas.129

Hinduism (индуизм) is an Indian religion and dharma, or a way of life, widely practiced in the Indian subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia. It has been called the oldest religion in the world. Hindu texts are classified into Śruti (“heard”) and Smṛti (“remembered”). Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, and the Āgamas. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma (ethics / duties), Artha (prosperity / work), Kama (desires / passions) and Moksha (liberation / freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth / salvation); karma (an action, intent and consequences), Saṃsāra (a cycle of death and rebirth), and various Yogas (paths or practices to attain moksha). The four largest denominations are the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion. Its followers, known as Hindus, count about 1.15 billion, or 15–16 % of the global population.130

128 Armstrong K. A History of God. Ballantine Books, 2011. 560 p. 129 Heresy / Dictionary.com. URL: http://www.dictionary.com/browse/heresy?s=t. 130 Fowler J. D. Hinduism: Beliefs, Practices, and Scriptures. Adarsh Books, 2000. 174 p. 48

Humanism (гуманизм) is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. It refers to the perspective that affirms the notions of human freedom and progress. It views humans as solely responsible for promotion and development of individuals and emphasizes a concern for human in relation to the world.131

Initiation (инициация) is a rite of passage marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society. It could also be a formal admission to adulthood in a community or one of its formal components. In an extended sense it can also signify a transformation in which the initiate is ‘reborn’ into a new role. Examples of initiation ceremonies might include Christian baptism or confirmation, Jewish bar or bat mitzvah, acceptance into a fraternal organization, a secret society or a religious order, or graduation from school or recruit training.132

Islam (ислам) is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, universal religion teaching that there is only one God (Allah), and that Muhammad is the messenger of God. It is the world’s second-largest religion with over 1.8 billion followers or 24 % of the world’s population, most commonly known as Muslims. It teaches that God is merciful, all- powerful, and unique, and has guided the humankind through prophets, revealed scriptures and natural signs. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the verbatim word of God, and the teachings and normative examples (called the sunnah, composed of accounts called hadith) of Muhammad. The cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are home to the three holiest sites in Islam. It is the fastest-growing major religion in the world.133

131 Davies T. Humanism. Routledge, 2006. 160 p. 132 Eliade M. Rites and Symbols of Initiation. Spring, 1998. 175 p. 133 Akbar A. Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World. I. B. Tauris, 1998. 272 p. 49

Islamic law (Шариат), or Sharia law, is a religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. The traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus). In the modern era, traditional laws in the Muslim world have been widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education were likewise brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules are largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.134

Jesus Christ (Иисус Христос) (c. 4 BC – c. AD 30 / 33) was a first-century Jewish preacher and a religious leader. He is the central figure of Christianity. Most Christians believe he is the incarnation of God the Son and the awaited Messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament. He was baptized by John the Baptist and began his own ministry. He preached orally. Jesus debated with fellow Jews on how to best follow God, engaged in healings, taught in parables and gathered followers. He was arrested and tried by the Jewish authorities, turned over to the Roman government, and crucified on the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect. Christian doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, founded the Christian Church, died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement for sin, rose from the dead, and ascended into Heaven, from where he will return. The birth of Jesus is celebrated annually on December 25 or on January 7 (depends on denomination) as Christmas. His crucifixion is honored on Good Friday and his resurrection on Easter. In Islam, Jesus (Isa) is considered one of God’s important prophets and the Messiah. Muslims believe Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin, but was not the son of God. The Quran states that Jesus never claimed divinity. Most Muslims do not believe that he was crucified, but that he was physically raised into Heaven by God.

134 Abiad N. Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations: A Comparative Study. British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2008. 240 p. 50

In contrast, Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill Messianic prophecies, and was neither divine nor resurrected.135

Judaism (иудаизм) is an ethnic religion of the Jewish people. It is an ancient, monotheistic, Abrahamic religion with the Torah as its foundational text. The Torah is part of a larger text known as the Tanakh or the Hebrew Bible, and a supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts, such as the Midrash and the Talmud. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth largest religion in the world.136

Karma (карма) is a spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect). A good intent and good deeds contribute to a good karma and happier rebirths, while a bad intent and bad deeds contribute to a bad karma and bad rebirths.137

Magic (магия) is a category into which have been placed various beliefs and practices considered separate from both religion and science. Emerging within Western culture, the term has historically often had pejorative connotations, with things labelled magical perceived as being socially unacceptable, primitive, or foreign. In Christian theology magic is associated with demons and thus is defined against the (Christian) religion. A diverse range of practices, such as enchantment, witchcraft, incantations, divination, necromancy, and astrology, are under the label of magic.138

Meditation (медитация) is a practice where an individual uses a technique, such as mindfulness, or focusing one’s mind on a particular object, thought or activity, to

135 Blomberg C. L. Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey. B&H Publishing Group, 2009. 500 p. 136 Cohn-Sherbok D. Judaism: history, belief, and practice. Psychology Press, 2003. 590 p. 137 Chapple C. Karma and Creativity. State University of New York Press, 1986. 144 p. 138 Meyer M., Smith R. Ancient Christian Magic: Coptic Texts of Ritual Power. Princeton University Press, 1999. 409 p. 51 train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state. Meditation has been practiced since antiquity in numerous religious traditions and beliefs, often as part of the path towards enlightenment and self- realization. Since the 19th century, it has spread from its origins to other cultures where it is commonly practiced. Meditation may be used with the aim to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and pain, and to increase peace, perception, self-concept, and well-being.139

Messiah (мессия) in Abrahamic religions is a savior or liberator of a group of people. The concept of messianism originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible. A messiah is a king or High Priest. In Christianity, the name “Messiah” is attributed to the Christ, the Son of God. In Islam, Jesus was a prophet and the Messiah sent to the Israelites.140

Monk (монах) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedicate his life to serving all other living beings, or to be an ascetic who voluntarily chooses to leave the mainstream society and live his or her life in prayer and contemplation.141

Monotheism (монотеизм) is a belief in one god; a belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and intervenes in the world.142

Muhammad (Мухаммед) (c. 570 CE – 8 June 632 CE) was the founder of Islam. According to the Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet, sent to present and confirm the

139 Austin J. H. Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. 868 p. 140 Aryeh K. The Aryeh Kaplan Anthology: Illuminating Expositions on Jewish Thought and Practice by a Revered Teacher. Vol. 1. Mesorah Publications, 1991. 333 p. 141 Vallely A. Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community. University of Toronto Press, 2002. 296 p. 142 Kirsch J. God Against The Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism. Penguin Books, 2005. 352 p. 52 monotheistic teachings preached previously by Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. He is viewed as the final prophet of God in all the main branches of Islam. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran, as well as his teachings and practices, forming the basis of the Islamic religious belief.143

Nirvana (нирвана) in Hinduism is a state of perfect quietude, freedom, highest happiness, as well as the liberation from or ending of samsara, a repeating cycle of birth, life and death.144

Occultism (оккультизм) is a notion used to refer to astrology, alchemy, and natural magic. It is often used to categorize such esoteric traditions as Spiritualism, Theosophy, Anthroposophy, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the New Age. It is a category into which varied beliefs and practices are placed if they are considered to fit into neither religion nor science encompassing such phenomena as beliefs in vampires or fairies, and movements like ufology and parapsychology.145

Old Believers (старообрядцы) are Eastern Orthodox Christians who maintain the liturgical and ritual practices of the Eastern Orthodox Church as they existed prior to the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow between 1652 and 1666. Resisting the accommodation of Russian godliness to the contemporary forms of Greek Orthodox worship, those Christians were anathematized, together with their rituals, in the Synod of 1666–1667, producing a division in Eastern Europe between the Old Believers and those who followed the state church in its condemnation of the Old Rite.146

143 Ali K. The Lives of Muhammad. Harvard University Press, 2014. 352 p. 144 Collins S. Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, Narrative. Cambridge University Press, 2010. 197 p. 145 The Occult World / Partridge C., ed. London: Routledge, 2014. 780 p. 146 Meyendorff P. Russia—Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century. Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1991. 235 p. 53

Oriental Orthodoxy (древневосточные православные церкви) is the fourth largest communion of Christian churches, with about 76 million members worldwide. It has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and parts of the Middle East and India. The Oriental Orthodox communion is composed of six autocephalous churches: Coptic of Alexandria, Syriac of Antioch, Armenian Apostolic, Ethiopian, Eritrean, and Malankara Syrian.147

Orthodoxy (православие) is one of the three largest branches of Christianity with over 250 million members. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern Europe, Greece, the Caucasus, and the Near East. The Orthodox Church has no central doctrinal or governance authority analogous to the Roman Catholic Church’s pope. However, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is recognized by all as “the First among equals” of the bishops. It differs from other branches of Christianity by the dogmatic, canonical, liturgical and disciplinary nature.148

Paganism (язычество) is a pejorative term used for populations who practice polytheism and sometimes idol-worship.149

Patriarch (Патриарх) is the highest-ranking bishop in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church (above the major archbishop and primate), and the Church of the East. The word comes from Greek meaning “a chief, or a father of the family”.150

147 Krikorian M. K. Christology of the Oriental Orthodox Churches: Christology in the Tradition of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Peter Lang, 2010. 309 p. 148 Binns J. An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches. Cambridge University Press, 2002. 270 p. 149 Owen D. Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2011. PP. 1–2. 150 Nedungatt G. ed. A Guide to the Eastern Code: A Commentary on the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. Rome: Oriental Institute Press, 2002. 976 p. 54

Polytheism (политеизм) is the worship of or belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. In most religions which accept polytheism, different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles, and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator deity or the transcendental absolute principle, which manifests immanently in nature. Most of the polytheistic deities of ancient religions, with the notable exceptions of the Ancient Egyptian and Hindu deities, were conceived as having physical bodies.151

Pope (Папа) is the Bishop of Rome and the leader of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church. Since 1929, the Pope has also been head of state of Vatican City, a city-state enclaved within Rome, Italy.152

Prayer (молитва) is an invocation or an act that seeks to activate a rapport with an object of worship through deliberate communication. It refers to an act of supplication or intercession directed towards a deity (a god), or a deified ancestor. Prayer can take a variety of forms. It can be part of a set liturgy or ritual, and it can be performed alone or in groups. Prayer may take the form of a hymn, an incantation, a formal creedal statement, or a spontaneous utterance in the praying person.153

Prophet (пророк) in religion is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on that entity’s behalf, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the supernatural source to other people.154

151 Kirsch J. God Against The Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism. Penguin Books, 2005. 352 p. 152 Bokenkotter T. A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Crown Publishing Group, 2007. 624 p. 153 Zaleski C., Zaleski P. Prayer: A History. Boston: Mariner Books, 2006. PP. 24–25. 154 Elst K. Psychology of prophetism: A secular look at the Bible. New Delhi: Voice of India, 1993. 136 p. 55

Protestantism (протестантизм) is the second largest form of Christianity with collectively of more than 900 million adherents worldwide or nearly 40 % of all Christians. It originated with the 16th century Reformation in Germany, a movement headed by Martin Luther against what its followers perceived to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. They rejected the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy and sacraments. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of Protestant denominational families: Adventists, Anabaptists, Anglicans, Baptists, Reformed, Lutherans, Methodists, Pentecostals, etc.155

Quran (Коран) is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God (Allah). It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature. The Quran is divided into chapters (sūrah), which are subdivided into verses (āyah).156

Reformation (Реформация) was a movement within Western Christianity in 16th- century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Roman Catholic Church, and papal authority in particular. It is usually considered to have started with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Martin Luther in 1517. It then led to the emergence of Protestantism in Christianity as a new denomination.157

Religion (религия) is a cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, which relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements. Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, prayers, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of

155 Noll M. A. Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. 161 p. 156 Robinson N. Discovering the Qur’an: a contemporary approach to a veiled text. SCM Press, 1996. 332 p. 157 Cameron E. The European Reformation. Oxford University Press, 2012. 616 p. 56 human culture. Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, which are aimed mostly to give a meaning to life. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, but about 84 % of the world’s population is affiliated with one of the five largest religion groups, namely, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion.158

Religious conversion (религиозное обращение) is adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particular religious denomination to the exclusion of others. It describes abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliating with another. Religious conversion marks a transformation of religious identity and is symbolized by special rituals. People convert to a different religion for various reasons, including active conversion by free choice due to a change in beliefs, secondary conversion, deathbed conversion, conversion for convenience, marital conversion, and forced conversion.159

Religious Studies (религиоведение) is an academic field devoted to research into religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives.160

Russian Orthodox Church (Русская православная церковь) is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches. Its Primate is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus’. The official Christianization of Kievan Rus’ is widely seen as its birth which occurred in 988 through the baptism of the Kievan prince Vladimir and his people.161

158 Brodd J. World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery. Winona, MN: Saint Mary’s Press, 2009. 310 p. 159 The Anthropology of Religious Conversion / Buckser A. S., Glazier S. D., eds. Rowman and Littlefield, 2003. 236 p. 160 Herling B. L. A Beginner’s Guide to the Study of Religion. London: Bloomsbury, 2016. 200 p. 161 Ellis J. The Russian Orthodox Church: A Contemporary History. Indiana University Press, 1986. 536 p. 57

Sacred (святость) is something dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity or considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspiring awe or reverence among believers. It is a sphere of extraordinary phenomena associated with awe-some supernatural forces.162

Samsara (сансара) is a Sanskrit word that means “wandering” or “world”, with the connotation of a cyclic, circuitous change. It also refers to the concept of rebirth and “cyclicality of all life, matter, and existence”, a fundamental assumption of most Indian religions. In short, it is a cycle of death and rebirth. It is sometimes referred to with terms or phrases, such as transmigration, a karmic cycle, reincarnation, and “a cycle of aimless drifting, wandering or mundane existence”.163

Schism (схизма, раскол) is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, a movement, or a religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what previously used to be a single religious body, such as the East–West Schism or the Great Western Schism. It is also used of a split within a non-religious organization or a movement or, more broadly, of a separation between two or more people, be it brothers, friends, lovers, etc.164

Sect (секта) is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. It comes from the Latin noun secta, meaning “a way, a road”, and figuratively a (prescribed) way, a mode, or a manner, a discipline or a school of thought as defined by a set of methods and doctrines. It also may be newly formed religious groups that form to protest elements of their parent religion (generally a denomination). Their motivation tends to be situated in accusations of apostasy or heresy in the parent denomination. They are often decrying liberal trends

162 Eliade M. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1959. 256 p. 163 Phillips S. Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy. Columbia University Press, 2009. 320 p. 164 Clarke P., Beyer P. The World’s Religions: Continuities and Transformations. Taylor & Francis, 2009. 786 p. 58 in denominational development and advocating a return to true religion. Sects claim to be an authentic purged, refurbished version of the faith from which they split. They have, in contrast to churches, a high degree of tension with the surrounding society. In Christianity the term has pejorative connotations, referring to a group or a movement with heretical beliefs or practices that deviate from those of groups considered orthodox. In an Indian context the word sect does not denote a split or excluded community, but rather an organized tradition, usually established by a founder with ascetic practices. Islam at the beginning of its existence was classically divided into three major sects: Sunni, Shia and Khariji.165

Secular humanism (светский гуманизм) is a philosophy or a life stance that embraces human reason, ethics, and philosophical naturalism while specifically rejecting a religious dogma, supernaturalism, pseudoscience, and superstition as the basis of morality and decision making. It posits that human beings are capable of being ethical and moral without religion or a god. It does not, however, assume that humans are either inherently good or evil, nor does it present humans as being superior to nature. Rather, the humanist life stance emphasizes unique responsibility facing humanity and ethical consequences of human decisions. An essential part of secular humanism is a continually adapting search for truth, primarily through science and philosophy.166

Secularism (секуляризм) is indifference to, or rejection or exclusion of, religion and religious considerations. In a certain context, the word can refer to anticlericalism, atheism, a desire to exclude religion from social activities or civic affairs, banishment of religious symbols from the public sphere, state neutrality toward religion, separation of religion from state, or disestablishment (separation of church and state). It seeks to interpret life on principles taken solely from the material

165 Barker E. New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction. H. M. Stationery Office, 1989. 234 p. 166 Ericson E. L. The Humanist Way: An introduction to ethical humanist religion. American Ethical Union, 2013. 220 p. 59 world, without recourse to religion. It is a principle of separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institution and religious dignitaries (while its attainment is termed secularity).167

Shamanism (шаманизм) is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world, and channel these transcendental energies into this world. A shaman is someone who is regarded as having an access to and influence in the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.168

Shias (шииты) is one of the two main branches of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor and the Imam (leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from the caliphate as a result of the incident of Saqifah. Shia Muslims count 10–15 % of all Muslims.169

Sunnah (сунна) is the body of literature which discusses and prescribes traditional customs and practices of the Islamic community, both social and legal, often but not necessarily based on the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions (or disapprovals) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as various reports about Muhammad’s companions. The Quran and the Sunnah make up two primary sources of Islamic theology and law. The Sunnah is also defined as “a path, a way, a manner of life”; “all the traditions and practices” of the Islamic prophet that “have become models to be followed” by Muslims.170

167 Domingo R. God and the Secular Legal System. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2016. 180 p. 168 Janhunen J. Siberian shamanistic terminology // Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia / Memoires de la Société finno-ougrienne, 1986. PP. 97–98. 169 Dakake M. The Charismatic Community: Shi’ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press, 2012. 335 p. 170 Musa A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam. Springer, 2008. 208 p. 60

Sunnis (сунниты) is the largest denomination of Islam, followed by 75–90 % of the world’s Muslims. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from the disagreement over the succession to Muhammad and subsequently acquired a broader political significance, as well as theological and juridical dimensions. According to Sunni traditions, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and the Muslim community acted according to his Sunnah in electing his father-in-law Abu Bakr as the first caliph. This contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad announced his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor, most notably at Ghadir Khumm.171

Talmud (Талмуд) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the centerpiece of Jewish cultural life and was foundational to “all Jewish thought and aspirations”, serving also as “the guide for the daily life” of Jews.172

Tanakh (Танах) is a canonical collection of Hebrew scripture, which is also the textual source for the Christian Old Testament. The form of this text that is authoritative for Rabbinic Judaism consists of 24 books, while the translations divide essentially the same material into 39 books for the Protestant Bible and into 46 books for the Catholic Bible.173

Temple (храм) is a building reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities, such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths, however, there are more specific terms having this meaning, such as church in

171 Harney J. How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? / The New York Times. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam- differ.html. 172 Parry A. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to The Talmud: Wisdom of the Ages About Law, Religion, Science, Mathematics, Philosophy, and More. Penguin, 2004. 368 p. 173 Kuntz J. K. The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2009. 576 p. 61

Christianity, synagogue in Judaism, mosque in Islam, datsan in Buddhism. The form and function of temples is rather variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the “house” of one or more deities. Typically, offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergy maintains and operates the temple. The degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly. Temples typically have a main building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings, or may be a dome shaped structure.174

Theism (теизм) is broadly defined as a belief in the existence of the Supreme Being or deities. In common parlance, or when contrasted with deism, the term often describes a classical conception of God that is found in monotheism (also referred to as classical theism), or gods found in polytheistic religions, a belief in God or in gods without rejection of revelation as is characteristic of deism.175

Theology (теология) is a critical study of the nature of the divine, and more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also especially with epistemology, and asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation. Revelation pertains to the acceptance of God, gods, or deities, as not only transcendent or above the natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and, in particular, to reveal themselves to the humankind. While theology has turned into a secular field, religious adherents still consider theology to be a discipline that helps them live and understand such concepts as life and love, and that helps them lead lives of obedience to the deities they follow or worship.176

174 Hani J. Le symbolisme du temple chrétien. La Colombe, 1962. 203 p. 175 Hudson W. Enlightenment and modernity: The English deists and reform. Routledge, 2015. 240 p. 176 Wiebe D. The Politics of Religious Studies: The Continuing Conflict with Theology in the Academy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. 332 p. 62

Torah (Тора) can most specifically mean the first five books (Pentateuch) of the 24 books of the Tanakh, and it can even mean the totality of Jewish teaching, culture and practice, whether derived from biblical texts or later rabbinic writings.177

Totem (тотем) is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe. Totemism is worship to this object.178

Trinity (Троица) in Christianity holds that God is one God, but three coeternal consubstantial persons or hypostases – the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit – as “one God in three Divine Persons”. The three Persons are distinct, yet are one “substance, essence or nature”. In this context, a “nature” is what one is, whereas a “person” is who one is.179

Vedas (Веды) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Hindus consider the Vedas to be “not of a man, superhuman” and “impersonal, authorless”. The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been preserved more carefully since ancient times. According to tradition, Vyasa is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of mantras into four Samhitas (Collections). There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types: the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (a text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts

177 Campbell A. F., O’Brien M. A. Sources of the Pentateuch: texts, introductions, annotations. Fortress Press, 1993. 266 p. 178 Grieves V. Aboriginal Spirituality: Aboriginal Philosophy, The Basis of Aboriginal Social and Emotional Wellbeing. Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal Health, 2009. 70 p. 179 Bates M. W. The Birth of the Trinity: Jesus, God, and Spirit in New Testament and Early Christian Interpretations of the Old Testament. Oxford University Press, 2015. 234 p. 63 discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).180

Vodou (вуду), or Voodoo, is a syncretic religion practiced chiefly in the Caribbean sea islands. Vodouists in Haiti, for example, believe in a distant and unknowable Supreme Creator Bondye (from the French term Bon Dieu, meaning good God) which does not intercede in human affairs, and thus they direct their worship toward spirits subservient to Bondye, called loa. Every loa is responsible for a particular aspect of life, with dynamic and changing personalities of each loa reflecting many possibilities inherent to the aspects of life over which they preside. To navigate daily life, vodouists cultivate personal relationships with the loa through presentation of offerings, creation of personal altars and devotional objects, and participation in elaborate ceremonies of music, dance, and spirit possession. Vodou originated in what is now Benin and developed in the French colonial empire in the 18th century among West African peoples who were enslaved, when African religious practice was actively suppressed, and enslaved Africans were forced to convert to Christianity. Vodou incorporates elements and symbolism from African peoples including the Fon, Ewe, Yoruba and Kongo; as well as Taíno religious beliefs, Roman Catholicism, and European spirituality including mysticism and other influences.181

Witchcraft (колдовство) is a “practice” of magical skills and abilities. Historically, and currently in most traditional cultures worldwide – notably in Africa, the African diaspora, and Indigenous communities – the term is commonly associated with those who “use” metaphysical means to cause harm to the innocent. Belief in witchcraft is often present within societies and groups whose cultural framework includes a magical worldview.182

180 Santucci J. A. An Outline of Vedic Literature, Scholars Press for the American Academy of Religion, 1976. 69 p. 181 Gordon L. The Book of Vodou: Charms and Rituals to Empower Your Life. Barron’s Educational Series, 2000. 128 p. 182 Goss D. K. The Salem witch trials: A Reference Guide. ABC-CLIO, 2008. 189 p. 64

Yoga (йога) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Outside India, it has developed into the form of posture-based physical fitness, stress-relief and a relaxation technique. Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more than physical exercise. It has a meditative and spiritual core. One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics, and is closely related to Hindu Samkhya philosophy. Yoga was listed by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage.183

Zarathustra (Заратустра), or Zoroaster, was an ancient Iranian-speaking spiritual leader and an ethical philosopher who taught a spiritual philosophy of self-realization and realization of the Divine. His teachings later developed into the religion of Mazdayasna or Zoroastrianism.184

Zoroastrianism (Зороастризм), or Mazdayasna, is one of the world’s oldest religions remaining active. It is a monotheistic faith, centered in a dualistic cosmology of good and evil and an eschatology predicting the ultimate destruction of evil. Ascribed to the teachings of Zarathustra, it exalts a deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord), as its Supreme Being. Major features of Zoroastrianism, such as messianism, judgment after death, heaven and hell, and free will may have influenced other religious systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the 5th century BCE. It served as a state religion of the pre-Islamic Iranian empires for more than a millennium, from around 600 BCE to 650 CE. Zoroastrianism was suppressed from the 7th century onwards following the Muslim conquest of Persia of 633–654. Recent estimates place the current number of Zoroastrians at around 190,000, with most living in India and in Iran. The most important text is Avesta.185

183 Phillips S. Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy. Columbia U. Press, 2009. 320 p. 184 Boyce M. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Psychology Press, 2001. 252 p. 185 Boyce M. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Psychology Press, 2001. 252 p. 65

Presentation skill development focus Prepare a 10-minute presentation on a particular topic below. Read Appendix “How to make a good presentation” before you start. 1. Culture and religion. 2. The General concept of religion. Religion as a form of culture. 3. Historical role of religion in shaping culture. 4. Religious worldview. 5. Phenomenon of faith. 6. Origins of Christianity (Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Ancient Philosophy). 7. Features of the Christian culture. 8. Orthodoxy. 9. Catholicism. 10. Protestantism. Protestant ethics. 11. The Origin of Islam. Five “pillars” of Islam. The Spread of Islam. 12. Denominations of Islam (Sunnis, Shiites, etc.). 13. Islamic culture: characteristics and specificity. 14. The Origin of Buddhism. The Teachings of the Buddha. 15. Categories of Buddhism (samsara, karma, reincarnation, nirvana, etc.). 16. Denominations of Buddhism. 17. Religious fundamentalism. 18. Religion and culture in modern society.

Writing skill development focus A. Problem questions Choose a problem question and write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay, answer the given question and express your own opinion. Supply your essay with some facts and examples. 1. Is it possible to assert that the culture of the modern Western world is post- Christian?

2. Why cannot religious fundamentalism and radicalism be considered as a true expression of the traditional Islam? 3. How do you think, is Hinduism (or Buddhism) a religion or a philosophy in terms of culture?

B. Problem tasks Problem task 1. Make a table of the main similarities and differences between major Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Problem task 2. Write a list of negative consequences of religious fundamentalism.

Test tasks Tick only one correct variant. 1. Any cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, world views, texts, sanctified places, ethics, or organizations that relate humanity to the supernatural or transcendental is called … . 1) culture 2) civilization 3) cultural identity 4) religion

2. A specific feature of religion is … . 1) a connection with human experiences 2) a belief in the supernatural 3) reflection of reality through artistic images 4) practical implementation of knowledge

3. A spirit being, a sacred object, or a symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, a clan, a lineage, or a tribe is called … . 1) totem 2) anima 3) fetish 4) theism

4. An object believed to have supernatural powers, or, in particular, a human-made object that has power over others is called … . 1) totem 2) anima 3) fetish 4) theism

5. A religious belief that objects, places and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence is called … . 1) animism 2) fetishism 3) totemism 4) pluralism

6. The religions which are considered as world religions are … . 1) Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism 2) Judaism, Confucianism, Islam 3) Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism 4) Buddhism, Christianity, Islam

7. An Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ is called … . 1) Islam 2) Judaism 3) Hinduism 4) Christianity

8. One of the three world religions, arising at the beginning of the 1st century in Palestine, becoming the principal religion of the Roman empire in the 4th century is … . 1) Christianity 2) Judaism 3) Confucianism 4) Islam

9. One of the largest denominations in Christianity founded due to the reforms in the 16th century is … . 1) Protestantism 2) Catholicism 3) Baptism 4) Orthodoxy

10. The Great Schism between the Western and Eastern branches of the Christian church took place in … . 1) 1054 2) 431 3) 1543 4) 301

11. The religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on the original teachings attributed to the Buddha and resulting interpreted philosophies is called … . 1) Islam 2) Judaism 3) Hinduism 4) Buddhism

12. A differentiative feature of Buddhism from other world religions is the idea of … 1) that everything was created by God out of nothing 2) ethical orientation and practical advice on moral perfection of the personality 3) not recognition of the separation of spiritual and secular functions 4) the existence of a triune God

13. The founder of Buddhism is … . 1) Somanatha 2) Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni 3) Panditacharya 4) Jesus Christ

14. An ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion with the Torah as its foundational text is called … . 1) Islam 2) Judaism 3) Hinduism 4) Christianity

15. An Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one incomparable God (Allah) and that Muhammad is the messenger of the God is called … . 1) Islam 2) Judaism 3) Hinduism 4) Christianity

16. The sacred book of Muslims is called the … . 1) Bible 2) Quran 3) Torah 4) Avesta

17. An Indian religion, or a way of life, widely practiced in South Asia is called … . 1) Islam 2) Judaism 3) Hinduism 4) Christianity

18. The absence of belief in the existence of deities is called … . 1) Theism 2) Deism 3) Monism 4) Atheism

19. The system of beliefs deviating from dogmas and organizational forms of the organized religion is called … . 1) Reformation 2) Absenteeism 3) Heresy 4) Reform

20. Religious and scientific knowledge both … . 1) have an objective character 2) are necessary for the person for rational activity 3) can be passed on from generation to generation 4) suggest evidence

Section 3. CULTURE IN THE SYSTEM OF HUMAN IMAGES

Acculturation (аккультурация) is a process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from the balancing of two cultures while adapting to the prevailing culture of the society. During this process an individual adopts, acquires and adjusts to a new cultural environment.186

Anti-Semitism (антисемитизм) is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against the Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an anti-Semite. Anti-Semitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. It has also been characterized as a political ideology which serves as an organizing principle and unites disparate groups which are opposed to liberalism.187

Apartheid (апартеид) was a system of the institutionalized racial segregation that existed in South Africa and Namibia from 1948 to 1994. It was characterized by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap (white supremacy), which encouraged the state repression of Black, Colored, and Asian South Africans for the benefit of the nation’s minority white population. It entailed the segregation of public facilities and social events, dictated housing and employment opportunities by race.188

186 Gudykunst W. B., Kim Y. Y. Communicating with Strangers: An Approach to Intercultural Communication. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2003. 468 p. 187 Falk A. Anti-semitism: A History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred. ABC-CLIO, 2008. 303 p. 188 Louw P. E. The Rise, Fall and Legacy of Apartheid. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004. 255 p. 73

Archaeology (археология) is a study of human activity through recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes.189

Assimilation (ассимиляция) is a process when a minority group or culture comes to resemble the dominant group or assume the values, behaviors, and beliefs of another group.190

Authoritarianism (авторитаризм) is a form of government characterized with strong central power and limited political freedoms, when individual freedoms are subordinate to the state, and there is no constitutional accountability. Its four qualities are: a) limited political pluralism, realized with constraints on the legislature, political parties, and interest groups; b) political legitimacy based upon appeals to emotion, and identification of the regime as a necessary evil to combat “easily recognizable societal problems, such as underdevelopment, and insurgency”; c) minimal political mobilization and suppression of anti-regime activities; d) ill-defined executive powers, often vague and shifting, which extends the executive power.191

Biosphere (биосфера) is a global sum of all ecosystems, a zone of life on Earth, a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior of the Earth), largely self-regulating. It is a global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.192

189 Hodder I., Shanks M., Alexandri A., Buchili V., Carman J., Last J., Lucas G. Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past. Routledge, 2013. 288 p. 190 Alba R. D., Nee V. Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration. Harvard University Press, 2009. 384 p. 191 Casper G. Fragile Democracies: The Legacies of Authoritarian Rule. University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995. 240 p. 192 Campbell N. A., Williamson B., Heyden R. J. Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. 864 p. 74

Capitalism (капитализм) is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. The main features of capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, the price system, and competitive markets. In a capitalist market economy, decision- making and investment are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in financial and capital markets, whereas prices and distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and service markets.193

Census (перепись населения) is a procedure of systematically acquired and recorded information about the members of the given population. This term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses. Other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses. The United Nations (UN) defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as “individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity”, and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every 10 years.194

Chiefdom (вождество) is a form of hierarchical political organization in non- industrial societies usually based on kinship, when formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of the selected families or “houses”. These elites form a political-ideological aristocracy relative to the general group.195

Collaborationism (коллаборационизм) is cooperation with the enemy against one’s country in wartime. It is subdivided into involuntary (reluctant recognition of

193 Bacher C. Capitalism, Ethics and the Paradoxon of Self-Exploitation. Munich: GRIN Verlag. P. 2. 194 Alterman H. Counting People: The Census in History. Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1969. 368 p. 195 Helm M. W. Access to Origins: Affines, Ancestors, and Aristocrats. Austin, TX: Univ Of Texas Press, 2010. P. 4. 75 the necessity) and voluntary (an attempt of turning the necessity to one’s advantage). It can be subdivided into servile and ideological.196

Communism (коммунизм) is a philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon common ownership of production means and the absence of social classes, money and the state. It shares the analysis that the current order of society stems from its economic system, capitalism; that in this system there are two major social classes (the working class and the capitalist class); that conflict between these two classes is the root of all problems in the society; and that this situation will ultimately be resolved through a social revolution. The revolution will put the working class in power and establish social ownership of production means, which, according to this analysis, are the primary element in transformation of the society towards communism.197

Conformity (конформность) is an act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms or politics. People often choose to conform to the society rather than to pursue personal desires because it is often easier to follow the path others have already made, rather than creating a new one. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or the society as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences (a predisposed state of mind), or direct and overt social pressure.198

Corruption (коррупция) is a form of dishonesty or a criminal activity undertaken by a person or organization entrusted with a position of authority, often to acquire illicit benefits. Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts in an official capacity for a personal gain. Corruption is

196 Hickman J. The Occupier’s Dilemma: Problem Collaborators // Comparative Strategy, Vol. 36, No. 3, 2017. PP. 228–240. 197 Pons S., Service R. A Dictionary of 20th century Communism. Princeton University Press, 2010. 921 p. 198 McLeod S. What is Conformity? / Simply Psychology. URL: https://www.simplypsychology.org/conformity.html. 76 the most widespread in kleptocracies, oligarchies, narco- and mafia states. Corruption can occur on different scales. It ranges from small favors between a small number of people (petty corruption), to corruption that affects the government on a large scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of the society, including as one of the symptoms of organized crime.199

Creole language (креольский язык) is a stable natural language that develops from simplifying and mixing of different languages at a fairly sudden point in time: often, a pidgin transitioned into a full-fledged language. It has European, Arabic, Chinese, and Malay languages as its base. The creole with the largest number of speakers is Haitian Creole, with almost ten million native speakers, followed by Tok Pisin with about 4 million, most of whom are second-language speakers.200

Creole people (креол) are ethnic groups which originated during the colonial-era from racial mixing between Europeans and non-European peoples, known as creolization. Creole people vary widely in their ethnic background and mixture, and many have since developed distinct ethnic identities.201

Crisis (кризис) is any event that is going (or is expected) to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, a group, a community, or the whole society. Crises are deemed to be negative changes in security, economic, political, societal, or environmental affairs, especially when they occur abruptly, with little or no warning at all. More loosely, it is a term meaning “a testing time” or an “emergency event”.202

199 Butscher A. Corruption // University Bielefeld – Center for InterAmerican Studies, 2012. URL: http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/cias/wiki/c_Corruption.html. 200 Arends J., Muysken P., Smith N. Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1995. 412 p. 201 Arends J., Muysken P., Smith N. Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1995. 412 p. 202 Bundy J., Pfarrer M. D., Short C. E., Coombs W. T. Crises and crisis management: Integration, interpretation, and research development // Journal of Management. No. 43 (6), 2017. PP. 1661– 1692. 77

Curiosity (любопытство) is a quality related to inquisitive thinking, such as exploration, investigation, and learning, evident by observation in humans and other animals. It is heavily associated with all aspects of human development, where derives the process of learning and a desire to acquire knowledge and skill.203

Cyrillic script (кириллица) is a writing system used for various alphabets across Eurasia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic alphabet developed during the 10th–11th centuries in the First Bulgarian Empire and named after St. Cyril. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, especially those of the Slavic origin, and non- Slavic languages influenced by Russian. Around 252 million people in Eurasia use it now as the official alphabet for their national languages. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet, including some ligatures.204

De jure / de facto (де-юре / де-факто). In law and government, de jure (“in law”) describes practices that are legally recognized, regardless whether the practice exists in reality or not. In contrast, de facto (“in fact”) describes situations that exist in reality, even if not legally recognized.205

Democracy (демократия) is a form of government when people have authority to choose their governing legislature. Who people are and how authority is shared among them are core issues for democratic development and constitution. Some cornerstones of these issues are freedom of assembly and speech, inclusiveness and equality, membership, voting, the right to life and minority rights.206

203 Manguel A. Curiosity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015. 392 p. 204 Iliev I. G. Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet. Plovdiv, 2012. URL: http://ivanilievlogosmaster.blogspot.ru/2012/07/scriptura-mundi-cyrillic-alphabet.html. 205 Legal English: “De Facto/De Jure” / Washington University in St. Louis. School of Law. URL: https://onlinelaw.wustl.edu/blog/legal-english-de-factode-jure/. 206 Bittar E. C. B. Democracy, Justice and Human Rights: Studies of Critical Theory and Social Philosophy of Law. Saarbrücken: LAP, 2016. 308 p. 78

Demographic transition (демографический переход) is a historical shift in demographics from high birth rates and high infant death rates in societies with minimal technology, education (especially of women) and economic development, to demographics of low birth rates and low death rates in societies with advanced technology, education and economic development, as well as the stages between these two scenarios.207

Demography (демография) is a statistical study of populations, especially human beings. It encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of their populations, and spatial or temporal changes in them in response to birth, migration, aging, and death. Demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups defined by criteria, such as education, nationality, religion, ethnicity, etc.208

Devaluation (девальвация) is an official lowering of the value of a country’s currency within a fixed exchange rate system, by which the monetary authority formally sets a new fixed rate with respect to a foreign reference currency or currency basket.209

Dialect (диалект) is a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of its speakers. Dialects are closely related and, despite their differences, are most often largely mutually intelligible, especially if close to one another on the dialect continuum.210

Discrimination (дискриминация) is treatment or consideration of, or making a distinction towards, a person based on the group, class, or category to which the

207 Chesnais J.-C. The Demographic Transition: Stages, Patterns, and Economic Implications: A Longitudinal Study of Sixty-Seven Countries Covering the Period 1720–1984. Clarendon Press, 1992. 633 p. 208 Preston S., Heuveline P., Guillot M. Demography: Measuring and Modeling Population Processes. Wiley, 2000. 308 p. 209 Abel A., Bernanke B. Macroeconomics (5th ed.). Pearson, 2016. 672 p. 210 Fodde Melis L. Race, Ethnicity and Dialects: Language Policy and Ethnic Minorities in the United States. FrancoAngeli, 2002. 120 p. 79 person is thought to belong. These include age, color of the skin, convictions for which a pardon has been granted or a record suspended, disability, ethnicity, family status, gender identity, genetic characteristics, marital status, nationality, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation. It involves a group initial reaction or interaction going on to influence the individual’s actual behavior towards the group leader or the group, restricting members of one group from opportunities or privileges that are available to another group, leading to exclusion of the individual or entities based on illogical or irrational decision making. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions.211

Dualism (дуализм) is a property of a theory or a concept, according to which two principles are inextricably coexisting in it, irreducible or even opposite to each other (harmony and conflict, good and evil, etc.).212

Economics (экономика) is a social science that studies production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. It focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. It analyzes basic elements, such as individual agents (households, firms, buyers, and sellers) and markets, their interactions, and outcomes of interactions; unemployment of resources (labor, capital, and land), inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues (monetary, fiscal, and other policies).213

Egalitarianism (эгалитаризм) is a school of thought that prioritizes equality for all people. Egalitarian doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or a social status. The term has two distinct definitions: either as a political doctrine that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political, economic,

211 Discrimination / Cambridge Dictionaries Online. URL: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/discrimination. 212 Searle J. R. Seeing Things as They Are: A Theory of Perception. Oxford University Press, 2015. 240 p. 213 Anderson D. A Loose-leaf Version for Survey of Economics. Worth Publishers, 2018. 650 p. 80 social and civil rights; or as a social philosophy advocating removal of economic inequalities among people.214

Emotion (эмоция) is a mental state associated with the nervous system brought on by chemical changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. It is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation.215

Ethnic group (этническая группа), or ethnicity, is a category of people who identify themselves with each other, usually on the basis of a presumed common genealogy, or ancestry, or similarities, such as a common language, history, society, culture or nation. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language or dialect, symbolic systems, such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art or physical appearance. By a language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is sometimes possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group and become part of another. Ethnology studies different ethnic groups comparing cultural, social, or sociocultural features.216

Ethnocentrism (этноцентризм) is an act of judging another culture based on preconceptions that are found in values and standards of one’s own culture – especially regarding the language, behavior, customs, and religion. It is a technical name for the view of things when one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.217

214 Equalitarianism / The Free Dictionary. URL: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/equalitarianism. 215 Emotional Expression: The Brain and The Face / Freitas-Magalhães A., ed. Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press, 2009. 216 Understanding ‘race’ and ethnicity: theory, history, policy, practice / Craig G. et al., eds. Policy Press, 2012. 312 p. 217 The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism: Evolutionary Dimensions of Xenophobia, Discrimination, Racism, and Nationalism / Reynolds V., Falger V., Vine I., eds. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1987. 327 p. 81

Evolution (эволюция) is any kind of accumulation of change, or a gradual directional change. While the term primarily refers to biological evolution, there are various types of chemical evolution, and it is also found in economics, historical linguistics, and many other technical fields where systems develop or change gradually over time, e.g. stellar evolution, cultural evolution, evolution of an idea, metaphysical evolution, spiritual evolution, etc. It carries a connotation of a gradual improvement or directionality from the beginning to the end point.218

Fascism (фашизм) is a form of radical authoritarian ultra-nationalism, characterized with a dictatorial power, forcible suppression of the opposition and control of industry and commerce, which came to prominence in early twentieth-century Italy and Europe. Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete and they regard complete mobilization of the society under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for an armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficulties. Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative by nature and views political violence, war and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the principal goal of achieving an autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies.219

Genocide (геноцид) is an intentional action to destroy people of some nation (usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group) in whole or in part. The word is a combination of the Greek word génos (“race, people”) and the Latin suffix -cide (“the act of killing”). The United Nations Genocide Convention was established in 1948. Examples include the Holocaust, the genocide of native peoples in the Americas, the Armenian Genocide, the Cambodian genocide, the Bosnian genocide, the Kurdish genocide, the Darfur genocide, the Rwandan genocide, etc. In

218 Bowler P. J. Evolution: The History of an Idea. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2003. 464 p. 219 Blamires C. World Fascism: a Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC- CLIO, Inc., 2006. PP. 140–141, 670. 82

1956–2016, a total of 43 genocides took place, causing the death of about 50 million people.220

Hierarchy (иерархия) is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) where they are represented as being “above”, “below”, or “at the same level as” in relation to one another. It can link entities either directly or indirectly, vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, as far as they are hierarchical, are to one’s immediate superior or to one of the subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies.221

Holocaust (Холокост), or the Shoah, was a genocide action during World War II when Nazi Germany, aided by its collaborators, systematically murdered some 6 million European Jews, around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe, between 1941 and 1945. The Jews were targeted for extermination as part of a larger event involving persecution and murder of other groups, including in particular the Gypsies and “incurably sick”, as well as ethnic Poles, Soviet citizens, Soviet prisoners of war, political opponents, homosexuals and Jehovah’s Witnesses, resulting in up to 17 million deaths overall. Over 42,000 camps, ghettos, and other detention sites were established for segregated Jews starting from 1939 due to the policy of “the Final Solution to the Jewish Question”. By mid-1942, victims were being deported from the ghettos in sealed freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, they were killed in gas chambers.222

Homo sapiens (Человек разумный) is the only extant human species. It is a Latin name for “a wise man” which was introduced in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus. Extinct

220 Stanton G. H. What is genocide? / Genocide Watch. URL: http://genocidewatch.net/genocide- 2/what-is-genocide/. 221 Ahl V., Allen T. F. H. Hierarchy Theory : A Vision, Vocabulary, and Epistemology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. 206 p. 222 Holocaust Resource Center. Yad Vashem. URL: http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%206419.pdf. 83 species of the genus Homo include Homo erectus, extant during roughly 1.9 to 0.4 million years ago, and a number of other species. The age of speciation of Homo sapiens out of the ancestral Homo erectus (or some intermediate species, such as Homo antecessor) is estimated to have been roughly 350,000 years ago. Sustained archaic admixture is known to have taken place both in Africa and (following the recent Out-Of-Africa expansion) in Eurasia, between about 100,000 and 30,000 years ago.223

Horticulture (садоводство, огородничество) is culture of plants, mainly for food, materials, comfort and beauty. It includes cultivation, processing, and sale of fruits, nuts, vegetables, and ornamental plants, as well as many additional services. It also extends to plant conservation, landscape restoration, soil management, landscape and garden design, construction and maintenance, and arboriculture. In contrast to agriculture, horticulture does not include large-scale crop production or animal husbandry.224

Human (человек) is the only extant member of the subtribe Hominina. Together with chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans, humans are part of the family Hominidae (the great apes, or hominids). A terrestrial animal, humans are characterized by their erect posture and bipedal locomotion; high manual dexterity and heavy tool use compared to other animals; open-ended and complex language use compared to other animal communications; larger, more complex brains than those of other animals; and highly advanced and organized societies. The spread of a large and increasing population of humans has profoundly affected much of the biosphere and millions of species worldwide. The global human population was estimated to be near 7.7 billion in 2019.225

223 Reich D. Who We Are And How We Got Here – Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2018. 368 p. 224 Adams C. R. Principles of Horticulture. Routledge, 2004. 240 p. 225 Freeman S. Herron J. C. Evolutionary Analysis. Pearson, 2015. 864 p. 84

Human rights (права человека) are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected as natural and legal rights in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights “to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being”, and which are “inherent in all human beings”, regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic origin, or any other status. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of a due process based on specific circumstances; for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture, and execution.226

Hunter-gatherers (охотники и собиратели) are humans living in a society where most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and pursuing wild animals). Hunter-gatherer societies stand in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was humanity’s first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 % of human history. Following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change were either displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world.227

Idealism (идеализм) is a group of metaphysical philosophies that assert that reality, or reality as humans can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. It generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over certain realities. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is.228

226 Chauhan O. P., Dadwal L. Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 2004. 356 p. 227 Hunter-gatherers in history, archaeology and anthropology / Barnard A. J., ed. Berg, 2004. 278 p. 228 Robinson D. R. Idealism / Encyclopædia Britannica. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/idealism. 85

Industrialization (индустриализация) is a period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial society, involving extensive re-organization of the economy for the purpose of manufacturing. As industrial workers’ incomes rise, markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth.229

Inflation (инфляция) is a sustained increase in the price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation reflects reduction in the purchasing power per unit of money – a loss of real value in the medium of exchange and a unit of account within the economy.230

Innovation (инновация) is a new idea, creative thoughts, new imaginations in the form of some device or method, an application of better solutions that meet new requirements, unarticulated needs, or existing market needs.231

Instinct (инстинкт), or innate behavior, is an inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behavior. The simplest example of an instinctive behavior is a fixed action pattern (FAP), where a very short to medium length sequence of actions, without variation, is carried out in response to the corresponding clearly defined stimulus. Any behavior is instinctive if it is performed without being based upon prior experience (that is, in the absence of learning), and is therefore an expression of innate biological factors. Sea turtles, newly hatched on the beach, will automatically move toward the ocean. A marsupial climbs into its mother’s pouch upon being born. Honeybees communicate by dancing in the

229 O’Sullivan A., Sheffrin S. M. Economics: Principles in Action. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. P. 472. 230 Abel A., Bernanke B. Macroeconomics (5th ed.). Pearson, 2016. PP. 266–269. 231 Green E. Innovation: The History of a Buzzword / The Atlantic. URL: https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/06/innovation-the-history-of-a- buzzword/277067/. 86 direction of a food source without formal instruction. Other examples include animal fighting, animal courtship behavior, internal escape functions, and building of nests. Though an instinct is defined by its invariant innate characteristics, details of its performance can be changed by experience, e.g. a dog can improve its fighting skills by practice. Instincts are inborn complex patterns of behavior that exist in most members of the species.232

Intelligence (интеллект) is a capacity for logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. It is an ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or a context. Intelligence is most often studied in humans but has also been observed in both non-human animals and in plants. Intelligence in machines is called artificial intelligence, which is commonly implemented in computer systems using programs and, sometimes, appropriate hardware.233

Language (язык) is a system that consists of development, acquisition, maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly a human ability to do so. A language is any specific example of such a system. Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. However, any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or written, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, in whistling, signed, or braille. This is because a human language is modality-independent. It may also refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules.234

232 Lorenz K. Behind the Mirror: A Search for a Natural History of Human Knowledge. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978. 261 p. 233 Blakeslee S., Hawkins J. On intelligence: How a New Understanding of the Brain Will Lead to the Creation of Truly Intelligent Machines. Macmillan, 2007. 272 p. 234 Anderson S. Languages: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. 135 p. 87

Language family (языковая семья) is a group of languages that descend from a common ancestor. The Indo-European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages as diverse as English, Russian and Hindi. The Sino-Tibetan family includes Mandarin and the other Chinese languages, Bodo and Tibetan. The Afro- Asiatic family includes Arabic, Somali, and Hebrew. The Bantu languages include Swahili, and Zulu, and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa. And, finally, the Malayo-Polynesian languages include Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific. The languages of the Dravidian family, spoken mostly in Southern India, include Tamil, Telugu and Kannada. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100.235

Legitimacy (легитимность) is a right and acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a regime. An authority viewed as legitimate often has a right and justification to exercise power. Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock(s) and collapse. In political systems where this is not the case, unpopular regimes survive because they are considered legitimate by a small, influential elite.236

Liberalism (либерализм) is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed, and equality before the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but they generally support limited government, individual rights (including civil rights and human rights), capitalism (free markets), democracy, secularism, gender equality, racial equality, internationalism, freedom of speech, freedom of the press and freedom of religion.237

235 Ethnologue: Languages of the world / Gordon R. G. Jr., ed. Dallas, TX: SIL International, 2005. 1272 p. 236 O’Neil P. H. Essentials of Comparative Politics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2015. 456 p. 237 Fawcett E. Liberalism: The Life of an Idea. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018. 536 p. 88

Liberty (свобода) is an ability to do as one pleases. It is a state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one’s way of life, behavior, or views. It involves a free will. Freedom is a synonym to liberty, thus one’s liberty is limited by some other’s liberty, while freedom is not.238

Lingua franca (лингва франка) is a language or a dialect systematically used to make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a native language or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers’ native languages. Lingua francas have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (trade languages), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and other scholars of different nationalities. Classical lingua francas are Latin and Greek; modern ones include English, French, Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Hindi, etc.239

Linguistics (лингвистика) is a scientific study of the language. It involves analyzing the language form, the language meaning, and the language in context. Linguists traditionally analyze the human language by observing the interplay between the sound and the meaning.240

Logistics (логистика) is detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation, management of the flow of things between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet requirements of customers or corporations.241

238 Baldissone R. Farewell to Freedom: A Western Genealogy of Liberty. University of Westminster Press, 2018. 218 p. 239 Arends J., Muysken P., Smith N. Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1995. 412 p. 240 Halliday M. A. K., Webster J. On Language and Linguistics. A&C Black, 2006. 476 p. 241 Ballou R. H., Srivastava S. K. Business Logistics/supply Chain Management: Planning, Organizing, and Controlling the Supply Chain. Dorling Kindersley Pvt., 2007. 800 p. 89

Marginalization (маргинализация), or social exclusion, is the process when individuals or people are systematically blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights, opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration and observance of human rights within that particular group. Alienation or disenfranchisement resulting from social exclusion can be connected to a person’s social class, race, skin color, gender, age, religious affiliation, ethnic origin, educational status, childhood relationships, living standards, or appearance.242

Market (рынок) is one of the many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties are engaged in exchange. While parties may exchange goods and services by barter, most markets rely on sellers offering their goods or services (including labor) in exchange for money from buyers. Markets facilitate trade and enable distribution and resource allocation in a society. Markets allow any trade-able item to be evaluated and priced. A market emerges more or less spontaneously or may be constructed deliberately by human interaction in order to enable the exchange of rights of services and goods. Markets generally supplant gift economies and are often held in place through rules and customs, such as a booth fee, competitive pricing, and a source of goods for sale (local produce or stock registration).243

Marxism (марксизм) is a method of socioeconomic analysis that views class relations and social conflicts using a materialist interpretation of historical development and takes a dialectical view of social transformation. It originates from the works of the 19th century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism uses a methodology, now known as historical materialism, to analyze and critique development of capitalism and the role of class struggles in systemic

242 Peace R. Social exclusion: A concept in need of definition? // Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, 2001. PP. 17–36. 243 Aspers P. Markets. Polity, 2011. 202 p. 90 economic changes. According to the Marxian theory, a class conflict arises in capitalist societies due to contradictions between material interests of the oppressed proletariat (the class of wage laborers employed by the bourgeoisie to produce goods and services) and the bourgeoisie (the ruling class that owns means of production and extract their wealth through appropriation of the surplus product (profit) produced by the proletariat).244

Mind (ум) is a set of cognitive faculties including consciousness, imagination, perception, thinking, judgment, language and memory, which is housed in the brain (sometimes including the central nervous system). It is usually defined as a faculty of an entity’s thoughts and consciousness. It holds the power of imagination, recognition, and appreciation, and is responsible for processing feelings and emotions, resulting in attitudes and actions.245

Motivation (мотивация) is a reason for people’s actions, willingness and goals. It is derived from the word “motive” which is defined as a need that requires satisfaction. These needs could be wants or desires that are acquired through influence of culture, society, lifestyle, etc., or generally innate. Motivation is one’s direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior, a set of force that acts behind the motives. Motivation has been considered as one of the most important reasons that inspire a person to move forward in life.246

Multiethnic state (полиэтническое государство) is a sovereign state that comprises two or more ethnic groups. As for ethnicity, the language, and political identity, it might also be multicultural or multilingual. The present-day examples include Afghanistan, Canada, China, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Pakistan,

244 Agar J. Rethinking Marxism: From Kant and Hegel to Marx and Engels. London and New York: Routledge, 2014. 240 p. 245 LeDoux J. Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. New York: Viking Penguin, 2002. 416 p. 246 Ryan R. M. The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation. Oxford University Press, 2013. 608 p. 91

Russia, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Historical multiethnic states that have since split into multiple sovereign states include Austria- Hungary, British India, Empire of Japan, the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia.247

Nation (нация) is a stable community of people, formed on the basis of the common language, territory, history, ethnicity, or a psychological make-up manifested in the common culture. A nation is more overtly political than an ethnic group. Some nations are ethnic groups and some are not (civic nations, multiculturalism). It is a cultural-political community that has become conscious of its autonomy, unity, and particular interests.248

Nazism (нацизм), or National Socialism, is the ideology and practices associated with the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany. It is a form of fascism demonstrating the ideology disregard for liberal democracy and the parliamentary system, also incorporating fervent anti-Semitism, scientific racism, and eugenics into its creed. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy, identifying the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as the Aryan or Nordic master race. It aimed to overcome social divisions and create a German homogeneous society based on racial purity which represented a people’s community. The Nazis aimed to exclude those whom they believed to be either community aliens or “inferior” races. Following Germany’s defeat in World War II, the Nazi ideology became universally disgraced. It is widely regarded as immoral and evil.249

Occupation (оккупация), as a military term, is an effective provisional control by a certain ruling power over a territory, which is not under formal sovereignty of that entity, without violation of the actual sovereign. The territory is then known as the occupied territory and the ruling power – as the occupant. Occupation is

247 Peleg I. Democratizing the Hegemonic State. Cambridge University Press, 2007. PP. 78–80. 248 Gellner E. Nations and Nationalism. Cornell University Press, 2008. 152 p. 249 Baum B. D. The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity. New York City/London: New York University Press, 2006. P. 156 92 distinguished from annexation by its intended temporary nature (i.e. without claim for permanent sovereignty), by its military nature, and by citizenship rights of the controlling power not being conferred upon the subjugated population.250

Oligarchy (олигархия) is a form of the power structure where the power rests with a small number of people. These people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, family ties, education or corporate, religious or military control. Throughout history, oligarchies have often been tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression.251

Person (личность) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes, such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations, such as kinship, property ownership, or legal responsibility.252

Personality (индивидуальность) is defined as characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. Most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with one’s environment while defining it.253

Pidgin (пиджин) is a grammatically simplified means of communication that develops between two or more groups that do not have a language in common: typically, its vocabulary and grammar are limited and often drawn from several languages. It is most commonly employed in situations, such as trade, or where both groups speak languages different from the language of the country where they reside in case there is no common language between the groups. A pidgin differs from a

250 David M. E. Occupational Hazards: Why Military Occupations Succeed or Fail // Journal of Peace Research, 2010. PP. 47, 59. 251 Tabachnick D., Koivukoski T. On Oligarchy: Ancient Lessons for Global Politics. University of Toronto Press, 2012. 232 p. 252 Stephens W. O. The Person: Readings in Human Nature. Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. 415 p. 253 Corr P. J., Matthews G. The Cambridge handbook of personality psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. 850 p. 93 creole, which is the first language of a speech community of native speakers that at one point arose from a pidgin. Unlike pidgins, creoles have fully developed vocabulary and patterned grammar, e.g. Haflong Hindi, Kyakhta, Wolof, Russenorsk, etc.254

Pluralism (плюрализм) as a political philosophy is recognition and affirmation of diversity within a political body, which permits peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions, and lifestyles.255

Political repression (политические репрессии) is persecution of an individual or a group within a society for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing their ability to take part in the political life of a society, thereby reducing their standing among their fellow citizens. It is often manifested through discriminatory policies, such as human rights violations, surveillance abuse, police brutality, imprisonment, involuntary settlement, stripping of citizen’s rights, lustration and violent actions or terror, such as murders, summary executions, tortures, forced disappearance and other extrajudicial punishments of political activists, dissidents, or general population. When political repression is sanctioned and organized by the state, it may constitute state terrorism, genocide, politicide or crimes against humanity. Acts of political repression may be carried out by secret police forces, army, paramilitary groups or death squads.256

Pollution (загрязнение) is introduction of contaminants into the natural environment, causing adverse change to it. Pollution can take a form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring

254 Arends J., Muysken P., Smith N. Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1995. 412 p. 255 Flatham R. E. Pluralism and Liberal Democracy. JHU Press, 2005. 218 p. 256 Davenport C., Johnston H., Mueller C. Repression and Mobilization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004. 258 p. 94 contaminants. The major forms of pollution include: air pollution, light pollution, littering, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, visual pollution, water pollution.257

Population (популяция / население) in biology is all the organisms of the same group or species, which live in a particular geographical area, and have a capability of interbreeding. In sociology it refers to a collection of humans. Population in simpler terms is the number of people in a city or a town, a region, a country or the world.258

Race (раса) is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by a society. Modern scholarship regards a race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on the rules made by a society. While partially based on physical similarities within groups, a race is not an inherent physical or biological quality. There are Caucasian (Europid), Negroid (Congoid), Mongoloid and some other minor human races.259

Racism (расизм) is a belief in superiority of one race over another, which often results in discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. The ideology underlying racist practices often includes the idea that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different due to their social behavior and their innate capacities, as well as the idea that they can be ranked as inferior and superior. Historical examples of institutional racism include the Holocaust, the apartheid regime in South Africa, slavery and segregation in the United States, and slavery in Latin America. Racism was also an aspect of the social organization of many colonial states and empires. The UN convention on racial discrimination concludes that superiority based on racial or ethnic differentiation is

257 Kolstad C. D. Environmental economics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. 480 p. 258 Hartl D., Clark A. G. Principles of Population Genetics. Sinauer Associates, 2007. 545 p. 259 Anemone R. L. Race and Human Diversity: A Biocultural Approach. Routledge, 2019. 228 p. 95 scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, and related social phenomena.260

Reason (разум) is a capacity of consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and adapting or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. The process of reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition, and intellect.261

Reflex (рефлекс) is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex is made possible by neural pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an impulse before that impulse reaches the brain. The reflex is then an automatic response to a stimulus that does not receive or need conscious thought.262

Relativism (релятивизм) is an idea that views are relative to differences in perception and consideration. There is no universal, objective truth according to relativism; rather each point of view has its own truth. It is a concept that a cultural system can be viewed only in terms of the principles, background, frame of reference, and history that characterize it. Cultural relativism is an idea that a person’s beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of some other’s.263

Revolution (революция), in political science, is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political power and political organization which occurs when the

260 Garner S. Racisms: An Introduction. Sage, 2009. P. 328. 261 Gilovich T. How We Know What Isn’t So. Simon and Schuster, 2008. 224 p. 262 Purves D. Neuroscience. Oxford University Press, 2012. 759 p. 263 Baghramian M. Relativism. London: Routledge, 2004. 384 p. 96 population revolt against the government, typically due to perceived oppression (political, social, and economic). Aristotle described two types of political revolution: a complete change from one constitution to another and modification of the existing constitution. Revolutions have occurred through human history and vary widely in terms of methods, duration and motivating ideology. Their results include major changes in culture, economy and socio-political institutions, usually in response to perceived overwhelming autocracy or plutocracy.264

Slavery (рабство) is any system where principles of property law are applied to people, allowing individuals to own, buy and sell other individuals, as a de jure form of property. A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Slavery existed in many cultures since the time before written history. A person could become enslaved from the time of his birth, capture, or purchase. Slavery was legal in most societies at some time in the past, but is now outlawed in all recognized countries. Nevertheless, there are an estimated 40.3 million people worldwide subject to some form of modern slavery. The most common form of modern slave trade is commonly referred to as human trafficking. In other areas, slavery (or unfree labor) continues through practices, such as debt bondage, the most widespread form of slavery today, serfdom, domestic servants kept in captivity, certain adoptions where children are forced to work as slaves, child soldiers, and forced marriage.265

Socialism (социализм) is a range of economic and social systems characterized with social ownership and workers’ self-management of the production means, as well as the political theories and movements associated with them. Social ownership is the common element shared by its various forms. Socialist economic systems can be divided into the non-market and market forms. By the 1920s, social democracy and

264 The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought / Bullock A., Trombley S., eds. HarperCollins, 2000. 933 p. 265 Drescher S. Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery. Cambridge University Press, 2009. 484 p. 97 communism had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement.266

Social mobility (социальная мобильность) is a movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to one’s current social location within the given society. It is an ability of people to change their social position within the society. The movement can develop in the downward or upward directions.267

Social pressure (социальное давление), or peer pressure, is direct influence on people by peers, or an effect on an individual who gets encouraged to follow his peers by changing his attitudes, values or behaviors to conform to those of the influencing group or individual. The social groups affected include both membership groups, where individuals are “formal” members (such as political parties and trade unions), and cliques, where membership is not clearly defined. However, a person does not need to be a member or be seeking membership of a group to be affected by peer pressure. It is a means of social control when people who venture over the boundaries of the society rules are brought back into line.268

Social role (социальная роль) is a set of connected behaviors, rights, obligations, beliefs, and norms as conceptualized by people in a social situation. It is an expected or free or continuously changing behavior that may have a given individual social status or a social position.269

Social status (социальный статус) is a relative level of respect, honor, assumed competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a

266 Harrington M. Socialism: Past and Future. Arcade Publishing, 2011. 336 p. 267 Matthys M. Cultural Capital, Identity, and Social Mobility. Routledge, 2012. 274 p. 268 The Power of Prime / Psychology Today. URL: https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the- power-prime. 269 Macionis J. J., Benoit C., Jansson M. Society – The Basics. Pearson Education Canada, 2012. 576 p. 98 society. It is based on beliefs about who members of a society believe holds comparatively more or less social value. People use status hierarchies to allocate resources, leadership positions, and other forms of power supporting systems of social stratification. It may be achieved (a person’s ability to acquire an established position in a society as a result of individual accomplishments) or ascribed (a social standing or prestige being a result of inheritance or hereditary factors).270

Socialization (социализация) is a process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of the society. It encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus the means by which social and cultural continuity can be attained. It essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children. the process by which a person acquires technical skills of his or her society, knowledge of the kinds of behavior that are understood and acceptable in that society, and attitudes and values that make conformity with social rules personally meaningful, even gratifying. It is also termed as enculturation.271

Thought (мышление) encompasses an aim-oriented flow of ideas and associations that can lead to a reality-oriented conclusion. The process of thinking allows humans to make sense of, interpret, represent or model the world they experience, and to make predictions about that world. It is therefore helpful to an organism with needs, objectives, and desires as it makes plans or otherwise attempts to accomplish those goals.272

Totalitarianism (тоталитаризм) is a political concept of a government mode that prohibits opposition parties, restricts individual opposition to the state and its claims,

270 Marmot M. The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity. Macmillan, 2007. 336 p. 271 White G. Socialisation. London: Longman, 1974. 147 p. 272 Rajvanshi A. K. Nature of Human Thought. Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute, 2010. 180 p. 99 and exercises an extremely high degree of control over public and private life. It is regarded as the most extreme and complete form of authoritarianism. Totalitarian regimes are often characterized with political repression, a total lack of democracy, personality cultism, control over the economy, restriction of speech, mass surveillance, and a widespread use of state terrorism.273

Trade (торговля) involves the transfer of goods or services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Trade exists due to specialization and labor division, a predominant form of economic activity when individuals and groups concentrate on a small aspect of production, but use their output in trades for other products and needs.274

Value (ценность) denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining what actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions. Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes. As such, values reflect a person’s sense of right and wrong or what “ought” to be. “Equal rights for all”, “Excellence deserves admiration”, and “People should be treated with respect and dignity” are representatives of values. Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior. Their types include ethical / moral values, doctrinal / ideological (religious, political) values, social values, and aesthetic values.275

War (война) is a state of armed conflict between states, governments, societies and informal paramilitary groups, such as mercenaries, insurgents and militias. It is generally characterized with extreme violence, aggression, destruction, and mortality, and the use of regular or irregular military forces. Total war is warfare that is not

273 Murray E. Shut Up: Tale of Totalitarianism. 2005. 274 Bernstein W. A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008. 467 p. 275 Rokeach M. The Nature of Human Values. New York: The Free Press, 1973. 438 p. 100 restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties.276

Writing system (письменность) is a method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable form of information storage and transfer. Writing systems require shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script. Writing systems can be placed into broad categories, such as alphabets, syllabaries, logographies, etc. In the alphabetic category, a standard set of letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or a mora. In a logography, each character represents a semantic unit, such as a word or a morpheme. Examples of writing systems are: Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Armenian, Georgian, Hangul (alphabetical), Hanzi, Kana / Kanji, Hanja (logographic and syllabic), Arabic, Hebrew (abjad), North Indic, South Indic, Ethiopic, Thaana, Canadian syllabic (abugida).277

Presentation skill development focus Prepare a 10-minute presentation on a particular topic below. Read Appendix “How to make a good presentation” before you start. 1. Human as a result of socio-economic development. 2. Human as a result of spiritual development. 3. Cultural anthropology. 4. Anthropogenesis. 5. Races. 6. The problem of racism in the modern world. 7. Ethnos and ethnogenesis. 8. Concept of the worldview.

276 Fry D. Beyond War: The Human Potential for Peace. Oxford University Press, 2007. 352 p. 277 Coulmas F. Writing systems. An introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2013. 180 p. 101

9. Ancient cosmology. 10. Medieval worldview (creationism). 11. Modern worldview. 12. Global problems of humanity. 13. Idea of progress in the European culture of the new time. 14. Humanism: the essence and importance for culture. 15. Problem of cultural unity and diversity of cultures. 16. Evolution of views on the role and importance of nature. Nature and humanity. 17. Problem of communication in the modern world. Culture and means of communication (language, computer, etc.). 18. World community: the problem of tolerance, continuity of cultures. 19. Totalitarian ideology and cultural propaganda (radio, TV, theater, cinema, etc.). 20. Culture and society. Culture and personality. 21. Culture and global problems. 22. Values and norms of culture.

Writing skill development focus A. Problem questions Choose a problem question and write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay, answer the given question and express your own opinion. Supply your essay with some facts and examples. 1. Does culture create an individual, or is it an individual who creates culture? 2. Do norms and values of culture influence an individual, or is it an individual who influences them? 3. How can one fight discrimination?

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B. Video tasks Video task 1. How social privileges work: about different start positions for realization of different people because of their social background. Watch these two videos. Write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay discuss what influences life opportunities people have, what ground social inequality has (economic, political, ethnic, etc.), if the problem risen in this video is important and what can be done for eliminating it. Give your opinion. URL 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwx5IvypC5Q URL 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F2hvibGdg4w

Video task 2. Race and DNA test results: about the results of the DNA experiment taken by different people for finding out their true racial and ethnic heritage. Watch this video. Write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay discuss if the problem risen in this video is important, why people pay so much attention to such unchangeable characteristics as the race, skin color, ethnicity, etc., how such an experiment, if distributed worldwide, may change the perception of racial and ethnic heritage of people, and would you like to try making this test. Give your opinion. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fw7FhU-G1_Q

C. Problem tasks Problem task 1. Analyze evolution of the society’s attitude to nature from antiquity to modernity. Problem task 2. Make a comprehensive review of global problems. Suggest some solutions.

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Test tasks Tick only one correct variant. 1. Ethnocentrism is … . 1) the internal state of the culture 2) ethnic issues of public life 3) evaluation of other cultures through the prism of one’s national culture 4) sustainable and changeable processes of cultural life

2. Cultural relativism … . 1) assesses cultures through the prism of its national culture 2) recognizes the identity of any culture 3) analyzes the issues of cultural diversity and variability 4) considers the place of a human in the natural and created world

3. Society and culture are interrelated because … . 1) society stimulates culture development 2) there is a constant contradiction in public life 3) social changes activate social institutions 4) all of the above is true

4. Socialization is … . 1) the process of assimilation of an individual’s social experience 2) production of new knowledge, norms, values 3) a process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of the society 4) selected cultural directions of human activity

5. Artificial languages are … . 1) specially designed languages of interethnic communication 2) programming languages and machine languages 3) special information languages (of science and technology) 4) all of the above

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6. A movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society is called … . 1) a conventional sign 2) generalization 3) the principle of further development 4) social mobility

7. A large community of people living in one territory, mostly within one state, and connected linguistically and culturally is called a … . 1) tribal union 2) nationality 3) people 4) nation

8. Passive acceptance of the existing order of things, present opinions, official culture, etc., is called … . 1) populism 2) conformity 3) traditionalism 4) dogmatism

9. The caste system is a common feature of many ancient Eastern civilizations, but there is one country where it manifested itself with the greatest force. This state of Ancient East is … . 1) China 2) India 3) Babylon 4) Egypt

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10. The aim of the empirical level of scientific cognition is … . 1) creation of theories and formulation of laws 2) accumulation of facts, initial systematization of knowledge 3) fulfillment of methodological and world outlook tasks 4) analysis of the nature and significance of processes

11. The cognitive function of culture includes ... . 1) transmission of spiritual experience of humanity from generation to generation 2) comprehension of one’s own soul and the external world 3) compliance with humanistic requirements and principles 4) assimilation of culture in the course of the life process

12. An important element of culture, a criterion by which significance assessment of actions, ideas, opinions takes place is called … . 1) traditions 2) rituals 3) values 4) meanings

13. Human values are formed … . 1) on the basis of the laws of good and justice 2) in the process of socialization 3) with mother’s milk 4) due to scientific knowledge

14. Spiritual values include … . 1) the microscope 2) the computer 3) scientific discovery 4) television

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15. The foundation for the spiritual life of the society is … . 1) cognition 2) art 3) science 4) culture

16. Culture of people connected to each other by origin and joint economic activity is called … . 1) national culture 2) local culture 3) ethnic culture 4) mass culture

17. A study of human activity through recovery and analysis of material culture is called … . 1) archaeology 2) archaeography 3) anthropology 4) anthroposophy

18. The position of environment defenders is reflected in the phrase: “…”. 1) modern culture has become a source of global changes in nature, threatening all of us 2) natural changes in climate should be monitored, and humanity has to be prepared to respond to them, otherwise humanity may die 3) machines and technology have made humanity vulnerable to nature 4) there are no changes in the natural environment, just the instruments have become more perfect, and it seems that there is a warming

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19. Local cultures are differentiated from others by … . 1) uniting people not related to each other by kinship relations 2) values that lie primarily in the spiritual sphere 3) little integration with neighboring cultures 4) culture creators who are an educated minority

20. The process when a minority group or culture comes to resemble the dominant group or assume the values, behaviors, and beliefs of another group is called … . 1) acculturation 2) assimilation 3) adaptation 4) amalgamation

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Section 4. ART AS A PART OF CULTURE

Advertising (реклама) is a marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, non-personal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are typically businesses wishing to promote their products or services. It is communicated through various mass media, including traditional media, such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor advertising or direct mail; and new media, such as search results, blogs, social media, websites or text messages. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through “branding”, which associates a product name or image with certain qualities in minds of consumers. Non-commercial entities that advertise more than consumer products or services include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies.278

Aesthetics (эстетика) is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of art, beauty and taste and with creation or appreciation of beauty. It is a study of subjective and sensory-emotional values, or sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. It studies how artists imagine, create and perform works of art; how people use, enjoy, and criticize art; and what happens in their minds when they look at paintings, listen to music, or read poetry, and understand what they see and hear. It also studies how they feel about art – why they like some works and not others, and how art can affect their moods, beliefs, and attitudes toward life.279

278 Arens W., Weigold M. Contemporary Advertising: And Integrated Marketing Communications. McGraw-Hill Education, 2016. 714 p. 279 Adorno T. W. Aesthetic Theory. A&C Black, 2013. 489 p. 109

Altruism (альтруизм) is a principle and a moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings and/or animals, resulting in a quality of life both material and spiritual. It is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.280

Architecture (архитектура) is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or any other structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.281

Art (искусство) is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), expressing the author’s imaginative, conceptual ideas, or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power. The three classical branches of art are painting, sculpture and architecture. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature and other media, are included in a broader definition of arts.282

Art therapy (арт-терапия) is a creative method of expression used as a therapeutic technique. It originated in the fields of art and psychotherapy. It may focus on the creative art-making process itself, as therapy, or on the analysis of expression gained through an exchange of patient and therapist interaction. Current art therapy includes a vast number of other approaches, such as person-centered, cognitive, behavior, Gestalt, narrative, Adlerian, and family. The tenets of art therapy involve humanism, creativity, reconciling emotional conflicts, fostering self-awareness, and personal growth.283

280 Oord T. The Altruism Reader: Selections from Writings on Love, Religion, and Science. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2007. 320 p. 281 Le Corbusier J.-L. C. Towards a New Architecture. Butterworth Architecture, 1970. 289 p. 282 Art and Thought / Arnold D., Iverson M., eds. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. 240 p. 283 Edwards D. Art therapy. London: SAGE, 2004. 163 p. 110

Artifact (артефакт) is something made or given shape by humans, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest; or anything created by humans which gives information about the culture of its creator and users.284

Artist (деятель искусств) is a person engaged in an activity related to creating, practicing or demonstrating an art. The common usage both in everyday speech and in the academic discourse is a practitioner in visual arts only. The term is often used in entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (less often, for actors).285

Avant-garde (авангард) are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox with respect to art, culture, or society. It may be characterized with nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, and may offer a critique of the relationship between the producer and the consumer. The avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm.286

Ballet (балет) is a type of performance dance that originated during the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread, highly technical form of dance. It has been globally influential and has defined the foundational techniques used in many other dance genres and cultures. Traditional classical ballets are usually performed with classical music accompaniment and use elaborate costumes and staging.287

284 Hodder I., Shanks M., Alexandri A., Buchili V., Carman J., Last J., Lucas G. Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past. Routledge, 2013. 288 p. 285 Getlein M. Living with Art. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2001. 581 p. 286 Roberts J. Revolutionary Time and the Avant-Garde. London and New York: Verso, 2015. 336 p. 287 Au S. Ballet & Modern Dance. London: Thames & Hudson world of art, 2002. 224 p. 111

Beauty (красота) is ascription of a property or characteristic to an animal, an idea, an object, a person or a place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. The “ideal beauty” is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for perfection. Ugliness is the opposite of beauty.288

Calligraphy (каллиграфия) is a visual art related to writing. It is a design and execution of lettering with a broad tip instrument, a brush, or other writing instruments. A contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as “the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner”.289

Censorship (цензура) is suppression of speech, public communication, or other information, on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or “inconvenient” as determined by the government or a private institution. It occurs in different media, including speech, books, music, films, and other arts, press, radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of claimed reasons, including national security, to control obscenity, child pornography, and hate speech, to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and defamation.290

Comedy (комедия) refers to any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in the theatre, on television, in a film, in a stand-up comedy, or in any other medium of entertainment. The origins of the term are found in Ancient Greece. In the Athenian democracy, the public opinion

288 Konstan D. Beauty – The Fortunes of an Ancient Greek Idea. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. 262 p. 289 Mediaville C. Calligraphy: From Calligraphy to Abstract Painting. Belgium: Scirpus- Publications, 1996. 335 p. 290 Ringmar E. A Blogger’s Manifesto: Free Speech and Censorship in the Age of the Internet. London: Anthem Press, 2007. URL: https://ia800204.us.archive.org/11/items/ABloggersManifestoFreeSpeechAndCensorshipInTheAge OfTheInternet/ErikRingmarABloggersManifesto.pdf. 112 of voters was influenced with political satire performed by comic poets in the theater.291

Commercialism (коммерциализация) is application of both manufacturing and consumption towards personal usage, or practices, methods, aims, and a spirit of free enterprise geared toward generating profit. Commercialism can also be used with the negative connotation to refer to the possibility within open-market capitalism to exploit objects, people, or the environment for private gain with the purpose of generating profit. Commercialism can also refer, positively or negatively, to corporate domination. Commercialism is often closely associated with the corporate world and advertising, and often makes use of advancements in technology.292

Communication (общение) is an act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules.293

Craft (ремесло), or trade, is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. In a historical sense, particularly in the Middle Ages and earlier, the term is usually applied to people occupied in small-scale production of goods, or their maintenance.294

Criticism (критика) is a practice of judging merits and faults of something. The ways people go about criticizing can vary a great deal. In specific areas of human endeavor, a form of criticism can be highly specialized and technical. It often requires professional knowledge to appreciate criticism. To criticize does not necessarily imply “to find fault”, but the word is often taken to mean a simple expression of an

291 Tragedy, Comedy and the Polis / Sommerstein A. H., Halliwell S., Henderson J., Zimmerman B., eds. Bari: Levante Editori, 1993. 617 p. 292 Jobber D. Principles & Practice of Marketing. London: McGraw-Hill, 2010. 946 p. 293 Trenholm S., Jensen A. Interpersonal Communication. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 442 p. 294 Ingold T. Redrawing Anthropology: Materials, Movements, Lines. Routledge, 2016. 216 p. 113 object against prejudice, no matter positive or negative. Constructive criticism will often involve exploration of different sides of an issue. Criticism is also study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature, artwork, films, and social trends. The goal is to understand possible meanings of cultural phenomena, and the context in which they take shape. In doing so, it is often evaluated how cultural productions relate to other cultural productions, and what their place is within a particular genre, or a particular cultural tradition.295

Dance (танец) is a performing art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has an aesthetic and symbolic value. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, repertoire of movements, a historical period, or a place of origin.296

Drama (драма) is a specific mode of fiction represented in performance as a play, opera, mime, ballet, etc., performed in the theatre, on the radio or on television. In general it is considered as a genre of poetry. The term “drama” comes from Greek, meaning “action”.297

Egoism (эгоизм) is an ethical theory that treats self-interest as the foundation of morality; the doctrine that holds that individuals ought to do what is in their self- interest; an excessive or exaggerated sense of self-importance.298 It is a synonym of selfishness, which means being concerned excessively or exclusively, for oneself or one's own advantage, pleasure, or welfare, regardless of others.299

295 Module: Critical thinking / Philosophy.hku.hk. URL: https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/critical/. 296 Daly A. Critical Gestures: Writings on Dance and Culture. Wesleyan University Press, 2002. 378 p. 297 The Cambridge Guide to Theatre / Banham M., Brandon J. R., ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 1233 p. 298 Egoism / Lexico. URL: https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/egoism. 299 Is Human Nature Fundamentally Selfish or Altruistic? / Time. URL: http://healthland.time.com/2012/10/08/is-human-nature-fundamentally-selfish-or-altruistic/. 114

Entertainment (развлечение) is a form of activity that holds attention and interest of the audience, or gives pleasure and delight. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures. It has been accelerated in modern times by the entertainment industry that records and sells entertainment products.300

Epos (эпос), or an epic poem / epic / epopee, is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily involving a time beyond living memory when occurred extraordinary doings of extraordinary men and women who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the moral universe that their descendants, the poet and his audience, must understand to perceive themselves as a people or a nation.301

Experience (опыт) is knowledge or mastery of an event or a subject gained through being involved or being exposed to. In philosophy such terms as “empirical knowledge” or “a posteriori knowledge” are used to refer to knowledge based on experience. A person with considerable experience in a specific field can gain a reputation as an expert. The concept of experience generally refers to know-how or procedural knowledge, rather than to propositional knowledge: on-the-job training rather than book-learning.302

Fashion (мода) is a popular aesthetic expression in a certain time and context, especially in clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle and body proportions. Whereas a trend often connotes a very specific aesthetic expression, and often lasting shorter than a season, fashion is a distinctive and industry-supported expression traditionally tied to the fashion season and collections. Style is an expression that lasts over many seasons, and is often connected to cultural movements and social markers, symbols, class and culture (Baroque, Rococo, etc).

300 Sayre S., King C. Entertainment and Society: Influences, Impacts, and Innovations. Oxon; New York: Routledge, 2010. 574 p. 301 Epic Adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents / Jansen J., Maier M. J., eds. LIT Verlag Münster, 2004. 197 p. 302 Nowotny H., Plaice N. Time: The Modern and Postmodern Experience. Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. 192 p. 115

Fashion describes the social and temporal system that “activates” dress as a social signifier in a certain time and context.303

Film (фильм) is a medium used to simulate experiences that communicate ideas, stories, perceptions, feelings, beauty or atmosphere by the means of recorded or programmed moving images along with other sensory stimulations. The word “cinema”, short for cinematography, is often used to refer to filmmaking and film industry, and to the art form that is the result of it.304

Fine art (изящные искусства) is a visual art considered to have been created primarily for aesthetic and intellectual purposes and judged for its beauty and meaningfulness, specifically, painting, sculpture, drawing, watercolor, graphics, and architecture. In the aesthetic theories developed in the Italian Renaissance, the highest art was that one allowing full expression and display of the artist’s imagination, unrestricted by any of the practical considerations involved in, for example, making and decorating a teapot.305

Genre (жанр) is a category of literature, music, or other forms of art or entertainment, whether written or spoken, sound or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria. Genres can be aesthetic, rhetorical, communicative, or functional. Genres are formed by conventions that change over time, as cultures invent new genres and discontinue the use of the old ones.306

Graffiti (граффити) are writings or drawings made on the wall or on another surface, usually as a form of artistic expression, without permission and within public view. Graffiti range from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and have

303 Kawamura Y. Fashion-ology: an introduction to fashion studies. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018. 168 p. 304 Cook P. The Cinema Book. London: British Film Institute, 2007. 610 p. 305 Hegel G. W. F. Aesthetics: lectures on fine art. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. 1289 p. 306 The Rhetoric and Ideology of Genre: Strategies for Stability and Change / Coe R. M., Lingard L., Teslenko T. Creskill, N.J.: Hampton Press, 2002. 116 existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire. In modern times, spray paint and marker pens have become commonly used graffiti materials, and there are many different types and graffiti styles, since it is a rapidly developing art form. Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark the territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities.307

Haute couture (высокая мода), or a high fashion, is creation of exclusive custom- fitted clothing. It is a high-end fashion that is constructed by hand from start to finish, made from high-quality, expensive, often unusual, fabric and sewn with extreme attention to detail and finished by the most experienced and capable sewers – often using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques. A haute couture garment is always made for an individual client, tailored specifically for the wearer’s measurements and body stance. Considering the amount of time, money, and skill allotted to each completed piece, haute couture garments are also described as having no price tag: the budget is not relevant.308

Iconography (иконография) studies identification, description, and interpretation of the content of images: the subjects depicted, the particular compositions and details used to do so, and other elements that are distinct from the artistic style. A secondary meaning (based on a non-standard translation of the Greek and Russian equivalent terms) is production or study of religious images, called “icons”, in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition, and is generally interpreted as “icon painting”.309

307 Ancient Graffiti in Context / Baird J. A., Taylor C., eds. Taylor & Francis, 2010. 244 p. 308 Kawamura Y. Fashion-ology: an introduction to fashion studies. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018. 168 p. 309 Alunno M. Iconography and Gesamtkunstwerk in Parsifal’s Two Cinematic Settings // ESM Mediamusic. No. 2, 2013. URL: http://mediamusic-journal.com/Issues/2_2.html. 117

Idea (идея) is mental representational images of some object. Ideas can also be abstract concepts that are not presented as mental images. The capacity to create and understand the meaning of ideas is considered to be an essential and defining feature of human beings. In a popular sense, an idea arises in a reflexive, spontaneous manner, even without thinking or serious reflection, for example, when we talk about the idea of a person or a place. A new or original idea can often lead to innovation.310

Imagination (воображение) is an ability to produce and simulate novel objects, people and ideas in the mind without any immediate input of the senses. It is also described as forming of experiences in the mind, which can be re-creations of past experiences, such as vivid memories with imagined changes or that they are completely invented. Imagination helps make knowledge applicable to solving problems and is fundamental to integrating experience and the learning process. Imagination is a cognitive process used in mental functioning and sometimes in conjunction with psychological imagery.311

Intelligentsia (интеллигенция) is a status class of educated people engaged in the complex mental labors that critique, guide, and lead in shaping the culture and politics of their society. As a status class, it includes artists, teachers, academics, writers, journalists. Historically, its political role (production of culture and ideology) varies between being either a progressive or a regressive influence upon the development of their societies.312

Lie (ложь) is an assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of deceiving someone. The practice of communicating lies is called lying, and a person who communicates a lie may be termed a liar. Lies may serve a variety of

310 Hight M. A. Idea and Ontology. An Essay in Early Modern Metaphysics of Ideas. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2008. 278 p. 311 Byrne R. M. J. The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007 268 p. 312 Ory P., Sirinelli J. Les Intellectuels en France. De l’affaire Dreyfus à nos jours. Paris: Armand Colin, 2004. P. 10. 118 instrumental, interpersonal, or psychological functions for individuals who use them. Generally, the term “lie” carries a negative connotation, and depending on the context a person who communicates a lie may be subject to social, legal, religious, or criminal sanctions.313

Literature (литература), most generically, is any body of written works. More restrictively, literature refers to writing considered to be an art form or any single writing considered to have an artistic or intellectual value, often due to language deploying in ways that differ from the ordinary use. Literature is classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction, and whether it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms, such as a novel, a short story or a drama. Literary works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genres).314

Logic (логика) is a systematic study of the form of valid inference, and the most general laws of truth. A valid inference is one where there is a specific relation of logical support between the assumptions of the inference and its conclusion. It has traditionally included the classification of arguments, a systematic exposition of the ‘logical form’ common to all valid arguments, the study of proof and inference, including paradoxes and fallacies, and the study of syntax and semantics.315

Lyric poetry (лирика) is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person. The term derives from the form of Ancient Greek literature, the lyric, which was defined by its musical accompaniment, usually on a stringed instrument known as a lyre.316

313 Carson T. L. Lying and deception: theory and practice. Oxford University Press, 2010. 304 p. 314 Eagleton T. Literary theory: an introduction. U of Minnesota Press, 2008. 234 p. 315 Hodges W. Logic. Penguin Books, 1991. 331 p. 316 Eagleton T. Literary theory: an introduction. U of Minnesota Press, 2008. 234 p. 119

Management (менеджмент) is an administration of an organization, whether it is a business, a nonprofit organization, or a government body. It includes the activities on setting the strategy of an organization and coordinating efforts of its employees (or volunteers) to accomplish its objectives through application of available resources, such as financial, natural, technological, and human ones.317

Manipulation (манипуляция) is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through indirect, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at some other’s expense, such methods could be considered exploitative and devious. Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, people, such as friends, a family and doctors, can try to persuade a person to change clearly unhelpful habits and behaviors. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive.318

Marketing (маркетинг) is study and management of exchange relationships. It is a business process of creating relationships with customers and satisfying them. With its focus on the customer, marketing is one of the primary components of business management.319

Media (медиа) are the collective communication outlets or tools used to store and deliver information or data. It is either associated with communication media or the specialized mass media communication businesses, such as print media and the press, photography, advertising, cinema, broadcasting (radio and television), publishing and points of sale.320

317 Gomez-Mejia L. R., Balkin D. B., Cardy R. L. Management: People, Performance, Change. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2008. 773 p. 318 McCoy D. The Manipulative Man: Identify His Behavior, Counter the Abuse, Regain Control. Simon and Schuster, 2006. 256 p. 319 Handbook of Marketing / Weitz B. A., Wensley R., eds. SAGE, 2002. 582 p. 320 What is media? Definition and meaning / BusinessDictionary.com. URL: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/media.html. 120

Music (музыка) is an art form and a cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. General definitions of music include common elements, such as pitch (which governs the melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics (loudness and softness), and sonic qualities of the timbre and texture (which are sometimes termed the “color” of a musical sound). Different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to rapping. There are solely instrumental pieces, solely vocal pieces (such as songs without instrumental accompaniment) and pieces that combine singing and instruments.321

Olympic Games (Олимпийские игры) are leading international sporting events featuring summer and winter sports competitions where participate thousands of athletes from different world countries. The Olympic Games are considered the world’s foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BCE to the 4th century CE. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896.322

Opera (опера) is a theatre form where music has a leading role and the parts are taken by singers, but is distinct from the musical theatre. It is typically collaboration between a composer and a librettist, and incorporates a number of performing arts, such as acting, scenery, costume, and sometimes dance or ballet. The performance is typically given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or a smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition. It originated in Italy at the end of the 16th century with Jacopo Peri’s mostly lost Dafne, produced in Florence in 1598, and soon spread through the rest of Europe.323

321 Nidel R. O. World Music: The Basics. Routledge, 2005. 404 p. 322 Buchanan I. Historical dictionary of the Olympic movement. Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. 906 p. 323 Orrey L., Milnes R. Opera: A Concise History. Thames & Hudson, 1987. 252 p. 121

Painting (живопись) is a practice of applying paint, pigment, color or another medium to a solid surface called the “matrix” or “support”. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. The final work is also called a painting. Painting is an important form in the visual arts, bringing in such elements as drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction. Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political by nature. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action. The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and painting may incorporate multiple other materials, including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, as well as objects.324

Petroglyph (петроглиф), also carving or engraving, is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art.325

Plastic arts (пластическое искусство) are art forms which involve physical manipulation of the plastic medium by molding or modeling such as sculpture, ceramics, carving, pottery, weaving. Materials for use in the plastic arts, in the narrower definition, include those that can be carved or shaped, such as stone or wood, concrete, glass, or metal.326

Poetry (поэзия) is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of the language, such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and meter, to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic ostensible meaning. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, or to evoke

324 Taft W. S. Jr., Mayer J. M. The Science of Paintings. Springer, 2006. 236 p. 325 Of Rocks and Water: An Archaeology of Place / Harmanşah Ö., ed. Oxbow Books, 2014. 270 p. 326 Fazenda M. J. Between the pictorial and the expression of ideas: the plastic arts and literature in the dance of Paula Massano // Movimentos presents. PP. 23–28. 122 emotive responses. Such devices as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, figures of speech, such as metaphor, simile and metonymy, create a resonance between otherwise disparate images – a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Similar forms of resonance may exist between individual verses in their rhyme or rhythmic patterns. Some poetry types are specific to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. In today’s increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages.327

Product (продукт) is a work of labor, the finished result of some activity; a good or a service that can be offered to the market, and which will satisfy the needs of consumers.328

Propaganda (пропаганда) is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using a loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. It is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, companies, religious organizations and the media can also produce propaganda. A wide range of materials and media are used for conveying propaganda messages, which are changing as new technologies are invented, including paintings, cartoons, posters, pamphlets, films, radio shows, TV shows, and websites. More recently, the digital age has given rise to new ways of disseminating propaganda, for

327 Finch A. A Poet’s Ear: A Handbook of Meter and Form. University of Michigan Press, 2013. 411 p. 328 Stark J. Product Lifecycle Management (Volume 1) 21st Century Paradigm for Product Realisation. Springer, 2015. 356 p. 123 example, through the use of bots and algorithms to create computational propaganda and spread fake or biased news using social media.329

Prose (проза) is a form or a technique of the language that exhibits a natural flow of speech and a grammatical structure. Novels, textbooks and newspaper articles are all examples of prose. The word “prose” is frequently used in opposition to traditional poetry, which exposes a language with a regular structure with a common unit of verse based on meter and / or rhyme.330

Public relations (связи с общественностью), or PR, is a practice of deliberately managing spread of information between an individual or an organization (such as a business, a government agency, or a nonprofit organization) and the public. It may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment. The aim of PR is to inform the public, prospective customers, investors, partners, employees, and other stakeholders and ultimately persuade them to maintain a positive or favorable view about an organization, its leadership, products, or political decisions.331

Realism (реализм), or naturalism, in the arts is generally an attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, or implausible, exotic, and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and can be in large part a matter of technique and training, and avoidance of stylization.332

Sculpture (скульптура) is a branch of the visual arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the addition of

329 Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present / Cull N. J., Culbert D. H., Welch D., eds. ABC-CLIO, 2003. 479 p. 330 Kuiper K. Prose: Literary Terms and Concepts. The Rosen Publishing Group, 2011. 244 p. 331 Breakenridge D. Social media and public relations: Eight new practices for the PR professional. New Jersey: FT Press, 2012. 176 p. 332 Morris P. Realism. London: Routledge, 2004. 208 p. 124 material, as clay) in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal, such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art in perishable materials, and often represents the majority of the surviving works (other than pottery) from ancient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture in wood may have vanished almost entirely. Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many cultures, and until recent centuries large sculptures, too expensive for private individuals to create, were usually an expression of religion or politics.333

Style (стиль) is a manner of doing or presenting things; a form of life and activity that characterizes features of communication, behavior and mentality, a manner of behaving, dressing, methods and techniques of work; a set of features that characterize the art of a certain time, direction or individual style of the artist (i.e. an artistic style, trends and groups, an architectural style, a musical style, a design style, etc.).334

Symbol (символ) is a mark, a sign or a word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, an object, or a relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences. All communication (and data processing) is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images, and are used to convey other ideas and beliefs. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for “stop”. On a map, a blue line might represent a river. Numerals are symbols for numbers. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds. Personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion. The variable ‘x’ in a mathematical equation may symbolize the position of a particle in space.335

333 Scholten F. European sculpture and metalwork. NY: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011. 274 p. 334 Siefkes M., Arielli E. The Aesthetics and Multimodality of Style: Experimental Research on the Edge of Theory. Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2018. 259 p. 335 Womack M. Symbols and Meaning: A Concise Introduction. CA.: AltaMira Press, 2005. 159 p. 125

Theatre (театр) is a collaborative form of fine arts that uses live performers, typically actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience at a specific place, often on the stage. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gestures, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft, for example, lighting, are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience. The specific place of the performance is also named by the word “theatre”. Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows the technical terminology, the classification into genres, and many of its themes, stock characters, and plot elements. The art forms of ballet and opera are also theatre and use many conventions, such as acting, costumes and staging.336

Tolerance (толерантность) in sociology denotes respect for a different worldview, lifestyle, behavior and customs. Tolerance is not equivalent to indifference. It also does not mean adopting a different worldview or lifestyle; it is to give others the right to live according to their own worldview. Tolerance means respect, acceptance and correct understanding of other cultures, ways of self-expression and manifestation of human individuality. Tolerance does not mean a concession, condescension or indulgence. Manifestation of tolerance also does not mean tolerance for social injustice, renouncing one’s convictions or giving in to another’s convictions, as well as imposing one’s convictions on other people.337

Tragedy (трагедия) is a form of drama based on human suffering that invokes accompanying catharsis or pleasure in audiences. While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, the term tragedy often refers

336 The Cambridge Guide to Theatre / Banham M., Brandon J. R., ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 1233 p. 337 Oberdiek H. Tolerance: between forbearance and acceptance. Rowman and Littlefield, 2001. 182 p. 126 to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in self-definition of the Western civilization.338

Truth (истина) is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to the original or standard. Truth is usually held to be opposite to falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also suggest a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy, art, theology, and science. Most human activities depend upon the concept, where its nature as a concept is assumed rather than being a subject of discussion. These include most of the sciences, law, journalism, and everyday life. Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. The method used to determine whether something is a truth is termed the criterion of truth. There are varying stances on such questions as what constitutes truth: what things are truthbearers capable of being true or false; how to define, identify, and distinguish truth; what roles faith and empirical knowledge play; and whether truth can be subjective or it is objective: relative truth versus absolute truth.339

United Nations (Организация Объединённых Наций) is an intergovernmental organization found in 1945 with 51 member states; there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN are in New York City. Its objectives include maintaining world peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disasters, and armed conflicts. The UN is the largest, most familiar, most internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental organization in the world. It has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for making decisions on certain resolutions for peace and security with five permanent members: Russia, the USA, the UK, France

338 Rethinking Tragedy / Felski R., ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2008. 368 p. 339 Field H. Truth and the Absence of Fact. Clarendon Press, 2001. 401 p. 127 and China, and 10 elected ones every 2 years); the Economic and Social Council (for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the UN Trusteeship Council. The UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Program, the UNESCO, and the UNICEF. The United Nations are headed by the Secretary General.340

Vandalism (вандализм) is an action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property. The term includes property damage, such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner. The term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people.341

Verse (стих) is formally a single metrical line in a poetic composition. It represents any division or grouping of words in a poetic composition, with groupings traditionally having been referred to as stanzas.342

Visual arts (изобразительное искусство) are art forms, such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines (performing arts, conceptual art, textile arts) involve aspects of the visual arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the visual arts are the applied arts, such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design and decorative art.343

340 Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements / Osmańczyk E. J., Mango A., ed., Vol. 4. Taylor & Francis, 2004. 341 Goldstein A. P. The Psychology of Vandalism. Springer Science & Business Media, 2013. 296 p. 342 Verse / Poetic terminology. URL: http://www.poeticterminology.net/45-verse.htm. 343 Art and Thought / Arnold D., Iverson M., eds. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. 240 p. 128

Presentation skill development focus Prepare a 10-minute presentation on a particular topic below. Read Appendix “How to make a good presentation” before you start. 1. Art as a part of culture. 2. Primitive art. 3. Ancient art. 4. Medieval art. 5. Renaissance in European Art. 6. Baroque, Classicism, Realism. 7. Impressionism. Expressionism. Cubism. Surrealism. 8. Contemporary art. Postmodernism. 9. Youth subcultures (image, language, symbols, patterns of reference). 10. Culture of the healthy lifestyle. 11. Legends of Ancient East. 12. Worldview of the ancient Greeks. Way of life of the ancient Greeks. 13. Leisure and entertainment of the ancient Romans. 14. Features of ancient Indian culture. 15. Features of ancient Chinese culture. 16. Science and mysticism in the art of the Renaissance. 17. Enlightenment. Creativity of the great French enlighteners. 18. Pagan culture of the Eastern Slavs. 19. Russian art. 20. Culture in modern society. 21. Traditional culture and cultural industry: kitsch, popularization and fake in modern art.

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Writing skill development focus A. Problem questions Choose a problem question and write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay, answer the given question and express your own opinion. Supply your essay with some facts and examples. 1. Do you consider contemporary art as an art? Why? 2. What are the criteria of beauty? 3. How does modern culture influence traditional culture?

B. Video tasks Video task 1. Common and different in people: about differences in social groups. We all belong to particular groups of people. Some people we feel comfortable with, and some of them we try to avoid. Experiences we have may also have people we try to avoid, as well as experience of others may motivate us for doing something. Watch this video. Write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay discuss why people prefer to group on different grounds, think what you may have in common with those whom you would not like to cooperate, and what you have different with those whom you like to cooperate, describe why people prefer to unite. Give your opinion. URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jD8tjhVO1Tc

Video task 2. 100 years of female beauty: a number of videos about changes in ideals of female beauty in different countries and regions during the last 100 years. Watch these videos. Write an essay of up to 250 words. In your essay describe the similarities and differences, common tendencies found out, tell how fashion changes in time, how politics affects fashion, and discuss if fashion is still important for people. Give your opinion. Argentina: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NcvhLVbwkkA Brazil: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_67R0IWgSQY

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China: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTsX05bsKDA Egypt: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b_x_mhNgbt0 Ethiopia: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lJGZHviS6wo France: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tl_qzwvW4U8 Germany: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEdEVJ_HQFU Haiti: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tnKhEw0WO78 Hawaii (USA): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIfwa1YV_Uo India: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ih7bldj2nJE Iran: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G7XmJUtcsak Ireland: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D36r_lJBkQI Israel: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0L6JgyxpeCE Italy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWX5793xu58 Japan: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-LobfkvONqs Kenya: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bti0FF_TcXE Korea: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SWHjWtykns Mexico: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JmCLLTjI6dw Navajo (USA): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRCN1qW-1rM Palestine: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMaZqf_Zo2s Philippines: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NIsAeFYZFXE Puerto Rico (USA): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-c-70GOoL2E Russia: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3oxCXlGKTlk Sweden: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DixJDVT17Ks Syria: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7lnfraNVXY Taiwan, RC: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEmgBiQQJqo USA 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LOyVvpXRX6w USA 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LTp9c9bsY_Q 1980s in the world: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTQuVW4ZH7M

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C. Problem tasks Problem task 1. Make a list of reasons of culture transformation in time and space. Problem task 2. Make a list of consequences of plagiarism.

Test tasks Tick only one correct variant. 1. The material reality created by human creative work is called … . 1) classification 2) artifacts 3) symbols of culture 4) semiotics

2. A re-written, published (released) version of a well-known work of contemporary mass culture is called … . 1) copyright infringement 2) plagiarism 3) remake 4) forgery

3. A branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of art, beauty and taste, and with creation or beauty appreciation is called … . 1) ethics 2) logic 3) ontology 4) aesthetics

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4. A diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), expressing the author’s imaginative, conceptual ideas, or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power is called … . 1) art 2) media 3) information 4) games

5. Any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in the theatre, on television, in a film, in a stand-up comedy, or in any other medium of entertainment is called … . 1) a tragedy 2) a comedy 3) a drama 4) literature

6. A popular aesthetic expression in a certain time and context, especially in clothing, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle and body proportions is called … . 1) ugliness 2) beauty 3) the norm 4) fashion

7. Writings or drawings made on the wall or on another surface, usually as a form of artistic expression, without permission and within public view is called … . 1) graffiti 2) a picture 3) a movie 4) a photo 133

8. An assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of deceiving someone is called … . 1) truth 2) a lie 3) imagination 4) anticipation

9. Information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and advance an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage particular synthesis or perception, or using a loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented is called … . 1) propaganda 2) media 3) TV 4) broadcasting

10. A mark, a sign or a word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, an object, or a relationship is called … . 1) a subject 2) reflection 3) a symbol 4) a text

11. A collaborative form of fine arts that uses live performers, typically actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience at a specific place, often on the stage is called … . 1) ballet 2) opera 3) cinema 4) theatre 134

12. A principle and a moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings and/or animals, resulting in a quality of life, both material and spiritual, is called … . 1) altruism 2) egoism 3) egalitarianism 4) selfishness

13. Ascription of a property or a feature to an animal, an idea, an object, a person or a place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction is called … 1) ugliness 2) beauty 3) the norm 4) fashion

14. Application of both manufacturing and consumption towards personal usage, or practices, methods, aims, and a spirit of free enterprise geared toward generating profit is called … . 1) communism 2) generalization 3) commercialization 4) the market

15. An art form and a cultural activity whose medium is the sound organized in time is called … . 1) music 2) art 3) drama 4) aesthetics

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16. A work of labor, the finished result of some activity; a good or a service that can be offered to the market, and which will satisfy the needs of consumers is … . 1) propaganda 2) a film 3) an art 4) a product

17. An action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property is called … . 1) production 2) graffiti 3) vandalism 4) help

18. The famous Code of the Hammurabi laws is originated from … . 1) Babylon 2) Sumer 3) Egypt 4) Assyria

19. The “Book of the Dead” is a unique literature genre of … . 1) Ancient Greece 2) Ancient Egypt 3) Ancient Rome 4) Babylon

20. The first university was founded in … . 1) Cambridge 2) Oxford 3) Bologna 4) Sorbonne

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KEYS TO THE TEST TASKS

Section 1. CULTURAL STUDIES AS A SCIENCE. CONCEPT OF CULTURE. CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION. CHANGE OF WORLDVIEWS 1 – 4 5 – 2 9 – 3 13 – 2 17 – 1 2 – 1 6 – 2 10 – 2 14 – 4 18 – 3 3 – 1 7 – 1 11 – 4 15 – 1 19 – 1 4 – 3 8 – 4 12 – 3 16 – 2 20 – 3

Section 2. CULTURE IN THE SYSTEM OF RELIGIONS 1 – 4 5 – 1 9 – 1 13 – 2 17 – 3 2 – 2 6 – 4 10 – 1 14 – 2 18 – 4 3 – 1 7 – 4 11 – 4 15 – 1 19 – 3 4 – 3 8 – 1 12 – 2 16 – 2 20 – 3

Section 3. CULTURE IN THE SYSTEM OF HUMAN IMAGES 1 – 3 5 – 4 9 – 2 13 – 2 17 – 1 2 – 2 6 – 4 10 – 2 14 – 3 18 – 1 3 – 4 7 – 3 11 – 4 15 – 4 19 – 3 4 – 3 8 – 2 12 – 3 16 – 1 20 – 2

Section 4. ART AS A PART OF CULTURE 1 – 2 5 – 2 9 – 1 13 – 2 17 – 3 2 – 3 6 – 4 10 – 3 14 – 3 18 – 1 3 – 4 7 – 1 11 – 4 15 – 1 19 – 2 4 – 1 8 – 2 12 – 1 16 – 4 20 – 3

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RECOMMENDED LITERATURE

Main literature 1. Воронкова Л. П. Культурология : учебник для вузов. / Л. П. Воронкова. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. – М. : Издательство Юрайт, 2020. – 202 с. – Текст : электронный // Образовательная платформа Юрайт. – URL: https://urait.ru/viewer/kulturologiya-452709#page/1 (дата обращения 09.09.2020) 2. Мамонтов А. С. Культурология : учебник для вузов. / А. С. Мамонтов. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. – М. : Издательство Юрайт, 2020. – 307 с. – Текст : электронный // Образовательная платформа Юрайт. – URL: https://urait.ru/viewer/kulturologiya-451134#page/1 (дата обращения 09.09.2020) 3. Солонин Ю. Н. Культурология : учебник для вузов. / Ю. Н. Солонин [и др.] ; под редакцией Ю. Н. Солонина. – 3-е изд., испр. и доп. – М. : Издательство Юрайт, 2020. – 503 с. – Текст : электронный // Образовательная платформа Юрайт. – URL: https://urait.ru/viewer/kulturologiya-449630#page/1 (дата обращения 09.09.2020)

Additional literature 1. Иванов И. А. Культурология : учебное пособие (на англ. языке) / И. А. Иванов. – СПб. : СПбГИЭУ, 2010. – 204 с. 2. Погорелый Д. Е. Культурология: кредитно-модульный курс : учебное пособие / Д. Е. Погорелый, Е. А. Подольская, В. Д. Лихвар. – [Б. м.] : Феникс, 2007. – 571 с. 3. Культурология : учебное пособие / Ю. Б. Пушкова, Н. И. Шельнова, Д. Г. Мирошникова и др., 2005. – 383 с.

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Appendix How to make a good presentation

Before you start making a presentation, please consider the following tips. They will help you prepare a substantial and effective presentation, regardless of an academic discipline. 1. The style remains the same during the whole presentation. Avoid styles that will distract the audience from the presentation itself. 2. Auxiliary information (control buttons) should not prevail over basic information (text, pictures, etc.). 3. It is recommended to use no more than three colors on one slide: one for the background, one for headings, one for the text. Use contrasting colors for the background and the text. Pay attention to the color of the hyperlinks. 4. You should not use animation effects too much. They should not distract the audience from the content of the information on the slide. 5. Conciseness and brevity of the presentation is achieved with short abstracts, dates, names, and terms. Do not overload the slide with textual information. Do not use solid text blocks. 6. Each slide should have a title. Headlines should attract the attention of the audience. 7. If there is a drawing on the slide, the inscription should be placed under it. 8. Fonts: for headers – 40 and more, for basic information – 24 and more. The text should be clearly visible. Use one of the following fonts: Arial, Verdana, Tahoma, Comic Sans MS. You cannot mix different types of fonts in the same presentation. 9. Bold, italicized or underlined words should be used to highlight the information on the slide. 10. The presentation volume should not be less than 8–10 slides. 11. The presentation structure is recommended to be the following: the 1st slide: title page – subject, author, logo; 139

the 2nd slide: contents; subsequent slides – information related to the topic; the penultimate slide: general conclusions; the last slide – a list of references and the sources used. 12. To ensure clarity, you can use illustrations, tables, charts, etc. Distortion of illustration proportions is unacceptable. When you give a presentation, remember that you speak to the audience. The presenter should make his / her information interesting and useful for the audience. After you have prepared a presentation, it is recommended that you reviewed the tips again to make sure that you have made a good use of all of them.

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Educational edition

Zavialov Andrei Vladimirovich Antipina Olga Vladimirovna

CULTURAL STUDIES

Study guide

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