Index

AAE see African American agentive, 96, 107–8 aspirations, 53 English “aks,” 82, 87 asymmetrical bilingualism, 148 see aboriginals, 89, 104 Alabama, 173, 185 also multilingualism; power academic language, 2, 93 Alatis, James E., 214 Atlantic Canada, 204 Acadian French, 161 Albanian, 162 attention to speech, 121–2 see also accents, 16, 28, 35, 174, 176 see Al‐Wer, E., 107, 211 style also dialect Alzheimer’s disease, 77 attitudes and ideologies, 171–87 Disney films, 181 amelioration (semantics), 66 see also language diversity accommodation, 94 see also American Civil War, 42 investigations of attitudes, interlocutors American Midwest, 73–4 172–6 acrolect, 165, 166 see also mesolect American Revolution (1776–83), language beliefs (myths, actuation problem, 67 30, 38 ideologies), 177–80 Adams, Michael, 91 American Speech, 50 maps, 172–3 address forms see forms of address Amsterdam, 107 reading and responding, 180–1 adjacency pair, 136 Angles, 28 audience design, 122–4 see also adolescence, 76–7, 80, 204 Anglicans, 39 style shift African American English (AAE), Annual Review of Anthropology, auditors, degrees of closeness, 18, 38, 42, 44, 72, 82, 83, 186 122–3 86–9, 91–3, 117, 139, 173, anthropology, 176 see also Austin, J.L., 135 174, 176, 177, 179, 181, 182, ethnography Australia, 31, 34, 181 206 see also ethnicity anti‐languages, 183 Austria, 153 derogatory names, 88,COPYRIGHTED 91 Apache, 137 MATERIALauthenticity, 160 African slaves, 82, 86, 88 Appalachia, 28, 42 autism, 58 after perfect, 36 apparent time hypothesis, 64–5, age, 75–7 see also schools; time 192 baby boomers, 75 age grading, 69, 192 applied linguistics, 4, 5 Bahasa Indonesia, 197 apparent time hypothesis, 65 Arabic, 107, 149, 175 Bailey, Benjamin H., 139 lifespan changes, 69–70, 75–7 argot, 129 see also slang Bailey, Guy, 69 style, 75, 76 Arvanitika, 172 Bajan, 164 see also Barbados

What Is Sociolinguistics?, Second Edition. Gerard Van Herk. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/vanherk2e

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Bakhtin, Mikhail, 127–8, 131 Bulgarian, 162 Cheshire, Jenny, 107 Bakht, Maryam, 138 “burnouts,” schools, 20, 126, 204 , 152 Ballymacarrett, 68 Bush, George W., 126 Chicago, 175 Bangladesh, 31 Butler, Judith, 108 Chicano English, 85, 106, 173 see Barbados, 41, 83, 163–4 see also also Latino English Bajan Cajun, 32, 68, 78, 172 see also childbirth, 140–1 basilect, 61, 165, 166 see also Louisiana children, 75–6 see also schools creoles; mesolect California, 44, 106, 173, 176 Childs, Becky, 32, 83, 125 Basque, 197, 198 Cameron, David, 43 China, 15, 31, 102 BATH, 34, 76 Cameron, Deborah, 109–11, Chinatown enclaves, 20, 83 Bauer, Laurie, 177 116, 125 Chinese immigrants, 20, 83 Baugh, John, 86, 95, 176 Cameron, Samantha, 43 Chinook Jargon, 163 BBC regional newsreaders, 16 Canada, 17, 27, 33, 82, 148, 162, CHOICE, 34 Beattie, James, 4 167, 174, 208, 210 see also Chomsky, Noam, 12 Beauvoir, Simone de, 97 individual regions, provinces, Choy, Wayson, 83 Belfast, 68 and cities churches, 195 Belgium, 82, 148 Canadian Raising, 33 civil rights movements, United Bell, Allan, 122–4, 133 Canadian Vowel Shift (CVS), States, 86 Bengali, 107 66, 67 Clarke, Sandra, 37, 211 Beothuk, 201 Cane Walk, , 60 class, 51–63 see also middle Bernstein, Basil, 60, 204–5 Cantonese, 15 see also China classes; status; working Biber, Douglas, 133 Cape Breton Island, 32 classes Bilingual Education Acts, 208–10 Cardiff, 124, 179 determination, 52–4 Bilingualism see multilingualism careful‐casual style continuum, gender, 106–7 “bitch,” 115 121–2 see also attention to region pyramid, 59 Black American English see speech; style Clinton, Hillary, 126 African American English Caribbean creoles, 33, 163 Clonard, 68 Boas, Franz, 177 caste, 55 see also class; social closings, 137 see also openings; “bogans,” 60 mobility; status turn‐taking Bokmal, 150 casual style, attention to speech, CLOTH, 34, 82 Bolivia, 140 121–2 Clyne, Michael, 152, 191 Bonfiglio, Thomas Paul, 44, 59, Catalan, 197 Coates, Jennifer, 116 185 Catholics, 82 Cobarrubias, Juan, 196–7 borrowed prestige, 53, 62 see also Caxton, William, 56 Cockney, 31, 40, 59 see also prestige CBC, 16 Estuary English borrowings, 37, 153, 158–62 CDA see critical discourse analysis code‐mixing see code‐switching Bosnian, 15 Cedergren, Henrietta, 69–71 codes, 136 Bourdieu, Pierre, 180 census data, 192 code‐switching, 146, 151–4, 158, Bourhis, Richard, 179 center of gravity, 110 162, 209 see also embedded Brazil, 111 Chamber of Commerce, language language; free morpheme Brenston, Jackie, 4 planning, 195 constraint; matrix language; Britain, David, 39 Chambers, Jack, 10, 49, 53, 76, 105 metaphorical code‐switching; British Columbia, 148 changes from above, 67 nonce borrowings; situational broadening (semantics), 66 changes from below, 67 code‐switching brokers, 20 see also community of Charity, Anne, 207–8 contact, 162 practice; social networks Charney, Switzerland, 3 CofP see community of practice Brown, Roger, 138 Charter of the , coining, 198 Bucholtz, Mary, 125, 138, 145, 199 colonization, 28, 81, 189, 193 204, 213 “chavs,” 60 Columbus, Ohio, 14

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communicative competence, 135, Cummins, Jim, 208, 210 Discourse (capital D), 179 136, 212 see also interactions; CURE, 34 discourse analysis, 134–8 see also performance; sociolinguistic Cutler, Cecilia, 92–3 interactions competence discourse markers, 137 see also communities of choice, 25 “Daffy Duck,” 68 interactions community of practice (CofP), 17, Damon, Matt, 48 discrete, 22 see also gradient 20–1, 86 Danish, 43 “discussion” questions in the book, 7, competence, 12 see also communi- D’Arcy, Alexandra, 80, 105 9, 25, 48–9, 63, 80, 94, 115, 119, cative competence; sociolin- de Beauvoir, Simone, 97 132–3, 144–5, 156, 169–70, guistic competence decision trees, 155 184–5, 202, 214–15, 219 consonants, vowels, 65 decreolization, 165–6 see also Disney films, 181 constitutions, 196 creoles distinctions within communities, consultant, 21 deep interruptions, gender, 99 51–63 see also age; class; contact, 158–70 see also creoles; demography, EV factors, 188 ethnicity; gender; status pidgin Demotiki, 150 divergence, 122–3 see also continuum, 165 Denmark, 43 interlocutors contrastive analysis, 208 dense, 19 see also multiplex; social domain‐based code‐switching see convergence, 122–3 see also networks situational code‐switching interlocutors department store study by Labov, domains, 149, 191 see also conversation analysis, 136 see also 61–2 language shift interactions; turn‐taking derogatory names, 84, 88, 91 dominance model, 100–1 see also co‐occurrence restrictions, 142 descriptive, 13 see also prescriptive difference model copula deletion, 86, 89 “despicable,” language change, 68 Dominican Republic, 38 Cornish, 190 Detroit, 20, 39, 86, 174, 185, 204 dragging, 125 see also gender corpus (plural corpora), 131 Devonish, Hubert, 168–9 Drake, 42 corpus linguistics, 131 see also dialect, 14–16, 27–38, 41 see also DRESS, 34, 71, 131 speaker agency accents; non‐standard forms; dual‐language programs, 209 corpus planning, 197–8 see also variety Dublin, 106 language planning dialect atlas, 45–6 Dubois, Sylvie, 68, 78 Coulmas, Florian, 10, 76, 193, 196 dialect gaps, 88 “dude,” 113 Coupland, Nikolas, 10, 77, 123, 124 dialect geography, 45–6 Dumbo, 181 covert prestige, 43, 58–9, 173 see dialect leveling, 28, 30, 158 see also Dutch, 159, 161, 188 also prestige; street credibility contact creak, 106 dialectology, 45–6, 117 see also East Anglia, 28 Cree, 162–3 sociolinguistics eastern Europeans, 83, 137 creole continuum, 165 see also dictionary makers, 56–7, 178, 195 eavesdroppers, degrees of acrolect; basilect; mesolect; difference model, 100–1 see also closeness, 122–4 pidgin dominance model “ebonics,” 88 creoles, 6, 86–7, 150, 163–6 see diglossia, 149–51 see also Eckert, Penelope, 20, 26, 76, also contact; pidgin multilingualism 104–5, 115, 126, 127, 133, critical discourse analysis (CDA), direct indexing, 102 see also 138, 204, 215 180 indirect indexing education see also schools Croatian, 15 directive function, 136 see also language planning, 195–7 crossing, 91–2, 95 see also expressive function; phatic languages of education, 208–10 ethnicity; style function; referential function; status, 56–7 crossover effect, 53 see also speech act university education, 56–7, hypercorrection; linguistic discourse, 134 see also ethnogra- 107, 211 insecurity phy of communication; Edwards, John, 20, 86, 157 Crystal, David, 189 interactions Eight Mile Road, Detroit, 39

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elaborated code, 60, 205–6 see also Europe, 28, 37, 206, 208 see “Franglais,” 152 restricted code; standard individual countries/languages free morpheme constraint, 153 see language EV see ethnolinguistic vitality also code‐switching elaboration (language planning), “exercises” in the book, 7–9, 23–4, free variation, 3–4 see also 198 46–8, 62, 79, 93, 113–14, structured variation elderly, 77 118–19, 132, 143–4, 155, French, 69–70, 72, 139–41, 151, Elizabeth II, queen of England, 71 168–9, 184, 201, 213–4, 219 159, 160, 162, 167, 181, 182, Elizabeth I, queen of England, 57 exoagamy, 149 188, 192, 194, 198, 208, Ellegard, Alvar, 72 expanding circle, 31 see also inner 211–12 emails, 132, 142 circle; outer circle frequent flyers, jargon, 129 embedding problem, 67 expressive function, 136 see also empiricist, definition, 12 directive function; phatic Gaelic, 28 enclaves, 83 see also ethnicity function; referential function; Gal, Susan, 153 encoding issues, gender, 101 speech act Garcia, Ofelia, 210 Engelmann, Seigfried, 206 eye dialect, 182 Gauchat, Louis, 3, 105 English, 28–37 “g‐dropping,” 51–2 historical background, 28, FACE, 33, 34 Geertz, Clifford, 142 30–1, 38 face, 138–9 see also negative face; gender, 58–9, 96–119 see also place, 30–7 politeness theory; positive difference model; dominance worldwide linguistic features, face model; dragging; 32–4 face threatening acts, 138–9 performative enregisterment, 41–2 see also face wants (needs), 138–9 class, 58–9, 106–7 register; reified Farr, Marcia, 215 difference and dominance, equivalence constraint, 153 Fasold, Ralph, 98, 105, 134 100–1 Estuary English, 43 see also Federal Communications encoding issues, 101–5 Cockney Commission (USA), 177 grammatical gender, 97, 101 ethnic hypercorrection, 82 see also femininity, 110, 125 importance, 101 hypercorrection feminist research, 97 indexing, 102–3 ethnicity, 81–95, 173 see also Fens, eastern England, 39 interactions, 97–100 crossing; enclaves; Ferguson, Charles A., 149–51 Japan, 102–4 ­immigrants; passing Ferguson, Gibson, 216 language change, 104–6 “hallucinated” accents, 90 Finegan, Edward, 133 performance, 107–9 language varieties, 83–8 Finnish, 144 pitch differences, 96 naming and depictions, 88–90 Fischer, John L., 3, 51 policing, 110 noticing, 90 Fishman, Joshua, 4, 193–4, 202 practice, 107–9 ethnography, 17, 112, 127, 137–8 FLEECE, 34 sex issues, 110 see also participant observa- Flemish, 82 sexuality, 110–2 tion; qualitative analysis Flight of the Conchords speaker agency, 96 ethnography of communication, (TV show), 131 Gender and Language, 116 135–8 see also discourse; “Flintstones trap,” 66 gender binary, 102 interactions folk etymology, 161 gender paradox, 105 ethnolect, 81–2, 85 see also FOOT, 33, 34 Gender Trouble, 108 ethnicity FORCE, 34 genre, 129, 130 see also register; ethnolinguistic vitality (EV), “foreigner talk,” 132, 165 style 188–91, 193–4 see also Formality see style geographic location see place language shift forms of address, 139–42 see also German, 149–51, 153, 189 ethnonym, 88–9 see also honorific “ghetto,” 60 ethnicity Fought, Carmen, 82, 84–5, 90, GIDS see Graded Intergenerational euphemism, 176 91, 95 Dislocation Scale

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Gilbert and Sullivan, 16 heteroglossia, 127 immigrants, 81–5 see also Giles, Howard, 179 heterosexual marketplace, 125, ethnicity Gilman, Albert, 140–1 204 see also gender implicational scale, 165 Glasgow, 182 heuristics, 21 index, 103 see also direct indexing; GOAT, 33, 34 hexis, 126 indirect indexing Google, 24 Hickey, Raymond, 170 India, 15, 31, 55, 111, 152, 191, GOOSE, 34 high involvement style, 137 208 see also Hindi/Hindu; Graded Intergenerational hijras, 111 Urdu Dislocation Scale (GIDS), Hill, Jane, 90, 91, 138 indicators, 54, 122, 127 see also 193–4 Hilton, Paris, 68 marker; stereotypes gradient, 22 see also discrete Hindi/Hindu, 15, 111, 147, 191, indirect indexing, 103, 104 see also grammar books, 56, 62 208 see also India direct indexing grammatical gender, 97, 101–4 see hip‐hop, 91–3, 154–5 indirectness, gender, 98, 101 also gender Hispanic English, 176 see also Indonesia, 197 graphization, 198 Latino English Informant see consultant Gray, John, 100 H language, 149–51 see also inherited wealth, 56 Great Eskimo Vocabulary diglossia inner circle, 31 see also expanding Hoax, 177 Hoffman, Micol, 20, 83 circle; outer circle Great Vowel Shift (GVS), 65, 66 Holmes, Janet, 10, 76, 152, 206 inside jokes, 11 Greece, 42, 43, 172 Holm, John, 170 institutional support, EV factors, Greek, 160 homosexuals, 110–11 188, 191 Greenfield, Patricia, 191 homosocial, 108–9 interactions, 134–45 see also “grimace,” language change, 68 Hong Kong, 88 conversational analysis; Gros Ventre, 104 honorific, 76 see also forms of ethnography of communica- Guaraní, 149, 150 address tion; politeness theory; Gullah, 86–7, 105 Hornberger, Nancy, 215 scripts; speech events Gumperz, John, 24 Horvath, Barbara, 68, 78 face, 138–9 Guyana, 60, 61 Hudson valley, 30 gender, 97–100 GVS see Great Vowel Shift Hungarian, 153 power, 139–43 Hungary, 57 solidarity, 139–43 habitus, 180 Hurricane Katrina, 14 SPEAKING acronym, Haeri, Niloofar, 107 Hymes, Dell, 24, 135–6, 145, 135–6, 142 “haitch,” 82 149, 212 interlocutors, 14, 122–4 see also Haiti, 149, 155 hypercorrection, 53 see also accommodation; social Hale, Kenneth, 201 crossover effect; ethnic distance; style Hall, Kira, 134–5, 145 hypercorrection; linguistic interlocutors, degrees of closeness, “hallucinated” accents, ethnicity, insecurity; social 122–3 90, 174 hypercorrection International Journal of Bilingual HAPPY, 34 hyperstyle variables, 123 see also Education and Bilingualism, Haskins, Sarah, 180 style 216 Haugen, Einar, 195, 198 International Journal of Hausa, 198 “I am Canadian” commercials, 42 Bilingualism, 157 Hazen, Kirk, 138 identities, 124–8 see also gender International Journal of the Head Start program (USA), 206 ideologies see language attitudes Sociology of Language, Heath, Shirley, 207, 215 and ideologies 202 Hebrew, 197, 199 Ignatiev, Noel, 84 interruptions, gender, 98–9 hedges, 97 imaginary dialects, 41 intersectionality, 117 “Henry Higgins,” 32 “I’m loving it,” 64 interviews see sociolinguistic heritage language, 208 immersion, 208–10, 211–12 interviews

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intra‐speaker variation, 120 see kogyaru kotoba, 76 see also slang ideologies, 196–7 also style Kontra, Miklos, 57 methods, 197–9 Inuit, 177, 207 Korea, 177 neo‐colonialism, 200 Inuktitut, 177 Kortmann, B., 49 stakeholders, 195–7 “invisible” languages, 15 Kouwenberg, Silvia, 170 Language Policy, 202 Ireland, 28, 34, 42, 82 Kroch, Anthony, 72, 105 language policy, 196–200 see also Irish, 28 Kulick, Don, 110, 111, 116, 125 language planning isogloss bundles, 46 Kuna, 137 neo‐colonialism, 200 isoglosses, 45 Kurdish, 197 Language Problems and Language isolation, 35–8 see also linguistic Kurux, 104 Planning, 202 isolation; physical isolation; language revitalization, 190, 199 social isolation Labov, William, 3, 17–18, 21, 26, see also language planning Israel, 153, 199 31, 52–4, 63, 67, 68, 76, 80, language shift, 188–94 see also Italian, 160 82, 104, 105, 121, 173, 206 domains; ethnolinguistic Italian immigrants, 82, 83 LaGuardia, Fiorello, 126 vitality; language death I‐talk, 183 Lakoff, Robin, 97–8 data problems, 192 Lambert, Wallace E., 174, 207 language, sociolinguistics’ Jackson Heights (NY), 84 Lanehart, Sonja L., 86, 95 definition, 11 Jamaican(s), 137, 165, 170 Language and Woman’s Place language subordination process, Japan, 103, 104, 160 (LWP), 97–8 178–9 jargon, 129 see also register; style language as a social entity, 12–13 Language Variation and frequent flyers, 129 language banning, 196–7 Change, 10 Javanese, 142–3 language bioprogram hypothesis, Laosa, Luis M., 191 Jaworski, Adam, 10 164 Latin, 159, 160 Jews, 38, 82, 189 language change, 65–78 see also Latino English, 82, 84–5 “jocks,” schools, 20, 126, 204 time Lau vs. Nichols, 209 Johnstone, Barbara, 41 lifespan changes, 75–8 Lave, J., 20 Journal of Language and real time studies, 69–72 Lenneberg, Erik H., 76 Politics, 186 semantic change, 66 Leonard, Tom, 182 Journal of Language Contact, 170 S‐shaped curve, 72–3 Letzebuergesch, 151 Journal of Linguistic vowel shifts, 73–4 Levinson, Stephen C., 138 Anthropology, 145 language contact see contact lexical gap, 152 see also contact Journal of Pidgin and death, 189–91 see also lexicalization, 198 Languages, 95, 170 language shift lexical sets, 32, 34 see also vowels Journal of Sociolinguistics, 10 language determination see status lexicon, 16 junk mail, 41 planning language, 163 Jutes, 28 language development see corpus Liberia, 87 planning Lieberson, Stanley, 191 Kachru, Braj, 31, 49 language diversity, 194, 197 see lifespan changes, language change, Keenan, Elinor, 101 also attitudes and ideologies, 75–8 Kentucky, 160 language planning Ligon, Richard, 163–4 Kenya, 31, 107, 147 Language in Society, 10 Likert scale, 175 Key and Peele, 151, 157 language maintenance, 188–94 Lindenfeld, Jacqueline, 138 Kiesling, Scott F., 108–9, 113, 127 language myth, 177–80, 184–5, 186 lingua franca, 163 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 16 language planning, 194–200 see linguistic anthropology, 19 King’s Lynn, 39 also language policy; status linguistic assimilation, 196–7 KIT, 34, 71, 131 planning Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States Kleins, 53, 62 effectiveness assessment, (LAGS), 69 Koasati, 104 199–200 linguistic constraints, 76

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linguistic insecurity, 54 see also Mendoza‐Denton, Norma, 85, Murphy, Rex, 16 crossover effect; 106, 127, 204 mutual intelligibility, 14 hypercorrection Mennonite communities, 38 Myers‐Scotton, Carol, 153, 157 linguistic isolation, 37–8 mentalist, 12 linguistic market, 54, 58, 77 see mesolect, 165, 166 see also Naipaul, V.S., 141 also standard language acrolect; basilect; creole narrowing (semantics), 66 linguistic pluralism, 197 continuum nativization, 161, 168 see also Lippi‐Green, Rosina, 178–9, Mesthrie, Raj, 49, 183, 192 borrowings; contact 181, 185 “meta” perspectives, 6 NCS see Northern Cities Shift Li Wei, 20, 157 metaphorical code‐switching, 152 NEAR, 34 L language, 149–51 see also see also code‐switching “neds,” 60 diglossia Mexican American, 175 negative face, 138–9 see also face; loanword, 168 Mexico, 68, 84–5 politeness theory local‐ness identities, 5, 14–15, 32, Meyerhoff, Miriam, 10, 58, 108, negative politeness, 138–9 see also 41–3, 83–4, 86 118, 155 politeness theory London dialects, 32, 59 see also , 162–3 Nelly, 87 Cockney Michigan, 74, 172–4, 185, 204 neo‐colonialism, 193, 200 “Long John Silver,” 43 Michnowitz, James, 68 “nerds,” schools, 125, 126, Los Angeles, 59, 167 middle classes, 106 see also class; 204, 213 LOT, 34 elaborated code; status Netherlands, 43, 71 Louisiana, 32, 38, 68, 78 see also Midland dialect of Newcastle, 59 see also Tyneside Cajun Pennsylvania, 30 New England, 28, 51 Lou Lou, 159 Milroy, James, 19 Newfoundland, 28, 32, 35–7, 68, LWP see Language and Woman’s Milroy, Lesley, 10, 19, 26 72–3, 82, 84, 87, 105, 125, Place Milwaukee, 73 141, 179–80, 211 minimal pairs, attention to physical isolation, 35–7 MacAulay, Ronald, 182 speech, 122 social mobility, 55 Madagascar, 101 Mitford, Nancy, 56 t‐shirts, 36 Malaysian, 183 mixed languages, 162–3 New York English, 17–18, 44, 52, Mandarin, 15 see also China Molson breweries, 42 54, 59, 82, 160, 173 Maori, 82, 124, 208 Mombasa, 107 New York’s neighbourhoods, maps, 29, 45, 172–3 monophthong, 85 see also vowels 17–18, 84 Maritime provinces, Canada, 161 Montreal, 39, 69–70, 154–5, New Zealand, 31, 34, 41, 82, marked, 89 see also unmarked 194, 196 174, 208 marker, 54, 122, 127 see also Morocco, 150–1 Niedzielski Nancy, 174, 177 indicators; stereotypes morphology, 16 Nigeria, 31 Martha’s Vineyard, 68, 71, 105 Morrison, Toni, 182 No Child Left Behind Act, 209 Marx, Karl, 52 MOUTH, 33, 34, 71, 107 noise, 12 Maryland, 87 Mugglestone, Lynda, 63 no‐naming, 142 masculinity, 108–9, 110, 113 multiculturalism, 5 nonce borrowings, 153 see also matched guise test, 174–5 multilingualism, 146–57, 210 see code‐switching; contact matrix language, 153 see also also societal multilingualism; non‐standard forms, 13, 206 see code‐switching unstable multilingualism also dialect; restricted code McConnell‐Ginet, Sally, 20, 115 code‐switching, 151–3 non‐standard ideologies, 182–3 McDonald’s, 68 diglossia, 149–51 non‐U words, 56, 63 McIntyre, Joseph, 198 society, 147–9 normal people, sociolinguistics, McKay, Sandra, 215 multiplex, 19, 205–6 see also 13, 16 media influences, 68–9 dense; restricted code; social Norman influences, English, 28 Memphis, 41 networks NORMs, 45

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Norse influences, English, 28, Pakistan, 31, 160 pitch differences, gender, 96 65–6, 161 Pale, Ireland, 28 Pitt, Brad, 48 NORTH, 34 PALM, 33, 34 Pittsburgh, 35, 41 North America see also Canada; Panama, 69–70 place, 27–50 see also isolation; United States; individual panel studies, 69–71 see also real regional differences; space cities and states time studies; trend studies Placentia, Newfoundland, 74 North Britain, 4, 11, 59 Papua New Guinea, 165 Podesva, Robert, 110 North Carolina, 41, 83 Paraguay, 149, 150 Polish, 188 Northern Cities Shift (NCS), 39, paralinguistic channel cues, 121 politeness theory, 138–9 see also 73–4, 204 Parasher, S.V., 191 face; interactions; negative Northern Ireland, 68 parody, 125, 131 politeness; positive politeness Norwegian, 150, 199 Parr, Marcia, 214 political correctness, 183 Norwich, 58–9, 68 participant observation, 137–8 politics, 28, 41, 49, 126, 128, noticing, ethnicity, 90 see also ethnography 147–50, 183, 187, Nova Scotia, 38 passing, 125 see also ethnicity 189–90, 200 NURSE, 34, 87 Paston, Margaret, 57, 87 Poplack, Shana, 85, 95, 153, 157, Patrick, Peter, 170 162, 167 Oakley, Ann, 178 Paulston, Christina Bratt, 10 Portuguese, 163, 193, 202 Obama, Barack, 126, 183 Payne, Arvilla, 76 positive face, 138–9 see also face; occupational prestige ratings, 53, 62 Pegge, Joshua, 40 politeness theory Ocracoke Island, 107, 123 “peglegs,” 43 positive politeness, 138–9 see also office de la langue française, 199 Pennsylvania, 30 politeness theory official language, 197 see also Pennycook, Alastair, 49 power, 97–8, 100–1, 104, 139–43 status planning Pentreath, Dorothy, 189 see also asymmetrical Ogbu, John, 189 performance, 12, 107–9 see also bilingualism; status Ontario, 180, 211–12 communicative competence; EV factors, 188 openings, 137 see also closings; noise Power, Colleen, 106 turn‐taking performative, 108 see also gender prescriptive, 13, 56 see also Oreskaband, 103–4 personalizing aspects of descriptive other linguists, sociolinguistics, ­sociolinguistics, 5–6 Presley, Elvis, 41 12, 13 Peru, 197 prestige, 52, 58–9, 106 see also other people’s stuff, style, 124–6 Petty Harbour, Newfoundland, 39 borrowed prestige; covert “other resources” sections in the phatic function, 136 see also prestige; overt prestige; status book, 7, 10, 26, 49–50, 63, 80, directive function; expressive Preston, Dennis, 172–3, 177, 182 95, 115–16, 133, 145, 157, function; rapport style; Preston, Nova Scotia, 38 170, 185–6, 202, 215–16 referential function; PRICE, 33, 34, 71, 107 Ottawa, 123 ­solidarity; speech act Principles of Language Change, 67 outer circle, 31 see also expanding Philadelphia, 68 printers, publishers, and editors, circle; inner circle Philippines, 31 language planning, 195 overhearers, degrees of closeness, Phillips, Dewey, 41 probabilistic, 51 122–4 Phillipson, Robert, 200, 202 pronouns, 111 overt prestige, 58–9 see also covert phonetics, 16 Protestants, 82 prestige; prestige phonology, 16 proto‐pidgin, 164 see also creole; overview of the book, 1–8, 217–19 physical isolation, 35–7 pidgin Oxford‐Cambridge‐London pidgin, 163–5 see also contact; Puerto Rican, 84, 152 triangle, 56 creole continuum; puffins, 97 proto‐pidgin; relixification Pullum, Geoffrey, 177, 186 Paar, Jack, 177 hypothesis pundits, language planning, Pakeha English, 174 pirates, 43 178, 195

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Punjabi British English, 91 religion, 15, 39, 55, 57, 195, 199, 202 failures, 205, 207 Purnell, Thomas, 173, 176 report style, 100 languages of education, 208–11 research methods, 3–5, 21–3, restricted code, 205–6 qualitative analyses, 23 see also 45–6, 61–2, 69, 92, 113, Schwyzerdütsch, 149 ethnography 122–3, 135–8, 157, 173–5, what students bring to school, Québec, 1, 2, 5, 37–8, 102, 140–1, 202 see also qualitative 205–8 154–5, 159, 162, 192, 198 analyses; quantitative what students take from Quechua, 197 analyses school, 211 Queneau, Raymond, 132 restricted code, 60, 205–6 see also Scottish, 28, 33 elaborated code; multiplex; scripts, 136 see also interactions race, 84 see also ethnicity non‐standard forms; social second languages racial segregation, 38, 87 networks communicative competence, radio, 71 rhotic, 31 see also “r‐lessness”/” 118 Raleigh, Walter, 57 r‐fullness”; vowels constrastive analysis, 208 Ramirez, J. David, 95 Ricento, Thomas, 200 schools, 208–10 Rampton, Ben, 76, 91, 95, 124 Rickford, John, 95, 127, 133, 205, Secwepemc, 148 Ranamal, 150 207, 215 Sedlak, P., 147 rank see status “r‐lessness”/”r‐fullness,” 30–1, self‐fulfilling prophecies, 207 rap, 154 54, 173 semantic drift, 66 rapport style, 100 see also phatic Rochester (NY), 73 Senegal, 126 function Romaine, Suzanne, 10, 76, Serbian, 15 Rastafarian, 183 114, 205 Sesame Street, 206 reading and responding, attitudes Romanian, 162 sexualities, 110–11 and ideologies, 180–4 Rose, Mary, 77 Shakespeare, William, 41 reading passages, attention to Rosen, Nicole, 163 Shanawdithit, 201 speech, 122 Ross, Alan, 56 Shaw, George Bernard, 32 real time studies, 69–72 see also Russia, 153 shibboleths, 35 see also stereotypes panel studies; speech Ryan, Meg, 125 “sideways crossing,” 91–2 community; time; trend Siegel, Jeff, 170 studies Saks, 53 Sierra Leone, 38 rebels, schools, 204–5 salient/salience, 54 silence and interruptions, gender, reborrowings, 159 Samaná, 38 96–7 reciprocal naming, 141 see also Samoan, 152 Silva‐Corvalan, Carmen, 167 solidarity Sankoff, David, 37, 69–70 Simmons‐McDonald, Hazel, 170 recording equipment, 73 Santa Ana, Otto, 216 Singler, John Victor, 170 “redlegs,” 43 Sapir‐Whorf hypothesis, 194 situational code‐switching, 151 referees, degrees of closeness, 122–4 Sarkar, Mela, 154–5 see also code‐switching referential function, 136 see also Saudi Arabia, 107 “skeets,” 179–80 directive function; expressive Saville‐Troike, Muriel, 136 Skutnabb‐Kangas, Tove, 200, function; phatic function; Saxons, 28 202, 215 speech act Schieffelin, Bambi, 186 slang, 15–16, 79 see also argot; regional differences, 27–31, 87 see Schilling, Natalie, 10, 49, 107, 123, kogyaru kotoba also place 124, 127 Smith Island, 123 class pyramid, 59 Schleef, Eric, 10 social activism, 4 register, 128–30 see also enregis- Schneider, Edgar, 49, 86 social categories, 3 see also class; terment; genre; jargon; style school‐home mismatch, 205–7 ethnicity; gender; sexuality; reified, 41 see also enregisterment schools, 203–16 see also education status relexification hypothesis, 164 see code‐switching, 209 social constraints, 51 see also also pidgin elaborated code, 205–6 variants

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social distance, 14 see also Southern dialect of the USA, 28, stereotypes, 35, 54 see also interlocutors 33, 42 indicators; marker; social hypercorrection, 53 see also southwestern England, 28 shibboleths hypercorrection space see place Stevenson, Robert Louis, 43 dress styles, 54 “Spanglish,” 152 stigma, 52 see also status social isolation, 38 Spanish, 84–5, 89, 149, 160, 167, St. Louis, 87 social learning, 20 175, 188, 191 “straight cred,” 109 social mobility, 55–7 see also caste; Spanish Inquisition, 38 street credibility, 43, 58 see also status speaker agency, 96 see also corpus covert prestige social networks, 17, 19–20, 86 see linguistics structured immersion programs, also dense; multiplex; speaker design, 124 see also style 209 restricted code SPEAKING acronym, speech structured variation, 3–4 see also diagrams, 19 events, 135–6, 149, 151 free variation social relationships, 3 Spears, Arthur, 91 STRUT, 33, 34 social status see status speech act, 135–8 see also style, 58, 120–33 see also accom- societal multilingualism, 149 see directive function; expressive modation; argot; crossing; also mulilingualism function; interactions; phatic genre; intra‐speaker; jargon society, 16–21 see also community function age, 75 of practice; social networks; speech community, 17–19, 86 see authenticity, 126 speech community also real time studies; Bakhtin, 127–8 sociolect, 57 see also class; status sociolinguistic norms degrees of closeness, 122–4 sociolinguistic autobiographies, speech events, 135–6 see also other people’s stuff, 125 5–6, 9 interactions politics, 126 sociolinguistic competence, 75–6 speech situations, 135 style axiom, 123 see also communicative Spolsky, Bernard, 202 style shift, 75, 104, 121–8 see also competence; performance sports, 129–30 audience design; style sociolinguistic interviews, sprachbund, 162 politics, 126 21–2, 122 SQUARE, 34, 87 subjunctive, 167, 169 sociolinguistic norms, 18 see also Sridhar, Kamal, 146, 208 substrate, 165 see also superstrate speech community S‐shaped curves, language change, summing up the book, 217–19 sociolinguistics see also 72–3 superstrate, 165 see also substrate dialectology; variationist stable variation, 74 see also supralocal, 43 sociolinguistics variation Sussman, Steve, 204 historical background, 3–5 standard, 13, 57, 60, 178 Swedish, 14 introduction, 1–5 Standard English, 57, 59, 176, 214 Switzerland, 147, 149 normal people, 13–14 standard language, 13, 104–5, syntax, 16 other linguists, 12–3 178–80 see also elaborated overview of the book, 1–8 code; linguistic market taboo, 176, 177 personalizing aspects, 5–6 standard language myth, 178–80 Tagalog, 197 summing up the book, 217–18 START, 34 Tagliamonte, Sali, 10, 80, 95, 105 types, 3–5 status, 51–63, 139–41, 174–5 see tag questions, 97, 98 sociology of language, 4–5, also class; power; prestige; Tajfel, Henri, 90, 173 187–202 social mobility; solidarity; Takahara, Kumiko, 103 solidarity, 100, 139–43, 187–202 stigma Tamils, 152 see also phatic function; determination, 52–3 Tannen, Deborah, 101 reciprocal naming; status interactions, 139–142 Tanzania, 31 Somali, 198 status planning, 197 see also Tehran, 123 South Africa, 31, 34, 89 language planning; official Texan English, 69, 85 South Carolina, 87 language Texas, 69, 85

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textbooks, 2, 8–9, 59, 63 unmarked, 57, 89 see also marked Wenger, Etienne, 20 text messages, 130 unstable multilingualism, 51 see West Country, the, 28 T form, 139–41 see also status; V also multilingualism West Indies, 168 form uptalk, 97 West Virginia, 27 third sex, 111 Urcuioli, Bonnie, 84, 91 When Harry Met Sally (film), Thomas, Erik, 85, 95 Urdu, 15, 160 see also India 125 Thorpe, 11 U words, 56 “where to next?” boxes, overview THOUGHT, 33, 34 of the book, 7 time, 64–80 see also age; language Vancouver, 83 which/witch distinction, 64, 73, 85 change; real time studies variables, 17, 22, 52–5, 62, 122, White, Barry, 96 apparent time hypothesis, 64–5 123 see also hyperstyle Whiteness, 89–90, 213 see also Tok Pisin, 163, 165, 197 variables ethnicity Tollefson, James, 200, 202 variants, 20–2, 52–3 see also “white trash,” 60, 62 Toronto, 5, 83, 152–3 linguistic constraints; social “wigga,” 92–3 trans speech, 110–11 constraints Winer, Lise, 154–5 TRAP, 34, 71, 82, 131 variation, 3 see also stable Winford, Donald, 170 “trash,” 60 variation; style Wisbech, 39 travestis, 111 variationist sociolinguistics, 4–5, Wodak, Ruth, 97 Tremblay, Michel, 182 21–2 see also sociolinguistics Wolfram, Walt, 86, 95, 123 trend studies, 69–72 see also panel variety, 16 see also dialect Wolof, 126 studies; real time studies vernacular, 4, 195, 206, 212 Woolard, Kathryn A., 186 trilingualism, 209 vernacularization, 197 Wordle, 8 Trinidad, 75 vernissage, 32 word lists, attention to speech, Trudgill, Peter, 10, 43, 49, 52, V form, 139–41 see also status; 122 58–9, 63, 106, 123, 173, 177 T form working classes, 56, 205–6 see also True Jesus Church, 20 vowels, 34, 73–4 see also lexical class; restricted code; status Trump, Donald, 133 sets; monophthong; rhotic World War I, 189, 208 t‐shirts, 36 vowel shifts, 73–4, 105 see also World War II, 74 Tucker, G. Richard, 10, 207 Canadian Vowel Shift, Great worldwide linguistic features, Turkey, 38, 197, 199 Vowel Shift, Northern Cities English, 32–4 Turner, Lorenzo Dow, 87 Shift writers, 195 turn‐taking, 137 see also closings; conversation analysis; Walker, James A., 10, 83 Yanyuwa, 104 openings Walloon, 82 Yiddish, 160, 189 Tyneside, 20 see also Newcastle Wardhaugh, Ronald, 102, 142, YouTube, 42 types of sociolinguistics, 1–3 177, 194 Yucatán Spanish, 68 Tzavaras, George, 192 Washington, D.C., 86 Yugoslavia, former, 15 watasi, 103 uniformitarian principle, 66 Webster’s Third New International Zambia, 209 United States see individual Dictionary, 195 Zentella, Ana Cecilia, 84 cities/states Weinstein, Brian, 194 Zimman, Lal, 110–11 university education, 25, 203, Wells, John, 34, 49 “zombie language feature,” 79 205, 211 Welsh, 123, 124, 208 Zuni, 176

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