Pathology Syllabus

Pathology more widely. Imaging journal articles often cover the pathology relevant to topic of the article.

Introduction For example, neuronal tumours in the brain, fibrocystic changes in the breast and bone tumours are inadequately Knowledge of pathology is essential to the interpretation covered in the relevant chapters. Hydatid disease, an of radiological imaging. Accordingly, the Pathology important infection, needs more detailed knowledge than Examinations are given equal emphasis with the found in Robbins. Radiodiagnosis Examinations. The standard of knowledge expected from candidates is intended to approach that Conversely, much of the new information on the finer required for an honours standard medical student. The points of the genetic basis of disease is not a high priority syllabus includes general and systemic pathology with for Radiology Registrars to learn. special emphasis on structural and functional pathology PATHOLOGY that may be demonstrated by standard imaging • Levison DA. Muir’s Textbook of Pathology, 14th Edition. modalities. Hodder Arnold

Although emphasis is placed on the pathology of systems, • Flinders Medical Centre Medical Imaging© 2009 an understanding of general pathology is required, as RANZCR. Pathology Course Notes – Curriculum it forms the foundation on which the former can be expanded. Knowledge about the aetiology, pathogenesis, structural changes and implications important for clinical GENERAL PATHOLOGY management are necessary for systemic pathology. CELLULAR PATHOLOGY A detailed knowledge of histopathology is not required. Candidates are encouraged to attend any regular Cellular Adaptations of Growth and multidisciplinary review meetings and tumour board Differentiation meetings held in their institution. In the larger centres, • Hyperplasia formal pathology lectures and tutorials could be sought • Hypertrophy by the candidates. • Atrophy • Metaplasia Pathology Recommended Reading List Cell Injury and Cell Death • Necrosis General Pathology • Apoptosis

Limited reference to the following texts is encouraged to Intracellular Accumulations enable the candidate to more clearly understand the basic • Lipids concepts of general pathology. • Proteins • Glycogen • WaIter JB. Walter and Israel General Pathology, 7th • Pigments Edition. Churchill Livingston, Pathologic Calcification Special/Systemic Pathology Acute and Chronic Inflammation • Kumar V. Robbins and Cotran, Pathological Basis of • Acute Inflammation Disease, 8th Edition. Saunders Morphologic patterns e.g. abscess • Chronic Inflammation Most of the required knowledge is based on this textbook. Morphologic patterns e.g. granulomata However, it should be noted that not all chapters are comprehensive for Category 1 and 2 diseases relevant to Medical Imaging and candidates are expected to read

© 2014 RANZCR. Radiodiagnosis Training Program – Curriculum Version 2.2 Page 141 Tissue Regeneration and Repair • Grading and Staging of Tumours • Regeneration o Laboratory Diagnosis of Cancer • Repair: scar formation Histologic Methods: • Fibrosis Excision biopsy, Incisional biopsy, • Healing in Specialised Tissue e.g. healing of fracture Core biopsy o Cytologic Methods: Haemodynamic Disorders, Thrombosis Fine needle aspiration, Body cavity fluids and Shock o Flow Cytometry • Oedema o Biochemical Tumour Markers • Hyperaemia and Congestion • Haemorrhage Infectious Diseases • Haemostasis and Thrombosis • Embolism Categories of Infectious Agents (knowledge about specific • Infarction agents should be acquired as per organ system) • Shock • Viruses Diseases of the Immune System • Bacteria • Hypersensitivity Reactions • Fungi • Autoimmune Diseases • Protozoa o Systemic lupus erythematosus • Helminths o Sjogren syndrome o Systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) Environmental and Nutritional Diseases • Immunodeficiency Syndromes o Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome • Industrial and Agricultural Exposures • Amyloidosis • Effects of Tobacco • Effects of Alcohol Neoplasia • Adverse Drug Reactions • Nomenclature • Drug Abuse o Benign tumours • Poisoning o Malignant tumours • Radiation Injury • Nutritional Deficiencies: Vitamins, Minerals • Characteristics of benign and malignant tumours • Obesity o Differentiation o Local Invasion o Metastasis Pathways of Spread

• Epidemiology o Cancer Incidence o Geographic and Environmental Factors o Carcinogenic Agents o Age o Genetic predisposition o Acquired predisposing conditions

• Clinical Aspects of Neoplasia o Local and Hormonal Effects o Cancer Cachexia o Paraneoplastic Syndromes

Hypertensive Vascular Disease

• Arteriolosclerosis • Congenital Anomalies • Vasculitides • Atherosclerosis ¡ Arteriovenous fistula ¡ Large vessel vasculitis e.g. • Aneurysms and Dissection • Veins and Lymphatics giant cell (temporal) arteritis ¡ Abdominal aortic aneurysm ¡ Superior vena caval syndrome ¡ Medium-sized vessel vasculitis ¡ Thoracic aortic aneurysm ¡ Inferior vena caval syndrome e.g. polyarteritis nodosa ¡ Aortic dissection ¡ Small vessel vasculitis e.g.

• Veins and Lymphatics microscopic polyangiitis PATHOLOGY ¡ Varicose veins • Tumours ¡ Thrombophlebitis and venous ¡ Haemangioendothelioma thrombosis ¡ Kaposi sarcoma ¡ Lymphangitis and ¡ Haemangiopericytoma lymphoedema ¡ Angiosarcoma • Tumours ¡ Haemangioma ¡ Lymphangioma

The Heart Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

Heart Failure

• Ischaemic Heart Disease • Congenital heart disease • Primary cardiac tumours ¡ Myocardial Infarction ¡ Left to right shunts e.g. atrial ¡ Myxoma • Hypertensive Heart Disease septal defect, ventricular ¡ Lipoma ¡ Systemic hypertensive heart septal defect ¡ Papillary fibroelastoma disease ¡ Right to left shunts • Valvular Heart Disease e.g. Tetralogy of Fallot, ¡ Valvular degeneration caused transposition of great arteries by calcification e.g. calcific ¡ Obstructive congenital aortic stenosis anomalies e.g. coarctation of ¡ Valvular myxomatous aorta, pulmonary stenosis degeneration e.g. mitral valve • Hypertensive Heart Disease prolapse ¡ Pulmonary hypertensive heart ¡ Infective endocarditis disease ¡ Noninfected vegetations • Myocardial Disease ¡ Dilated cardiomyopathy ¡ Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy ¡ Restrictive cardiomyopathy • Pericardial Disease ¡ Pericardial effusion ¡ Pericarditis

• Haemorrhagic diatheses • Anaemia (overview) • Lymphoproliferative disorders (overview) ¡ Anaemias of blood loss ¡ Acute lymphoblastic ¡ Disorders of primary ¡ Haemolytic anaemias leukaemia haemostasis (platelet e.g. sickle cell disease, ¡ Lymphoplasmacytic disorders) e.g. thalassaemia syndromes lymphoma (Waldenstrom thrombocytopenia • Lymphoproliferative disorders macroglobulinaemia) ¡ Disorders of secondary ¡ Chronic lymphocytic ¡ Mantle cell lymphoma haemostasis (coagulation leukaemia/small lymphocytic ¡ Hairy cell leukaemia factor disorders) e.g. lymphoma • Myeloid neoplasms haemophilia ¡ Follicular lymphoma ¡ Acute myeloid leukaemia • Lymphadenopathy ¡ Marginal zone lymphoma ¡ Chronic myelogeneous ¡ Reactive proliferations e.g. (MALToma) leukaemia lymphadenitis ¡ Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma • Histiocytic neoplasms ¡ Lymphoma (overview) ¡ Burkitt lymphoma ¡ Langerhans cell histiocytosis ¡ Metastatic tumour ¡ Plasma cell (multiple) • Thymus • Spleen myeloma ¡ Developmental diorders e.g. ¡ Splenomegaly ¡ Hodgkin lymphoma hypoplasia, cysts ¡ Congenital anomalies e.g. • Myeloid neoplasms ¡ Thymoma accessory spleen ¡ Polycythaemia vera Noninvasive thymoma ¡ Rupture ¡ Primary myelofibrosis ¡ Invasive thymoma ¡ Thymic carcinoma

• Atelectasis • Congenital anomalies • Pleura • Pulmonary Congestion and ¡ Cysts ¡ Solitary fibrous tumour Oedema ¡ Bronchopulmonary • Acute Lung Injury and Adult sequestration Respiratory Distress Syndrome • Chronic Diffuse Interstitial • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary (Restrictive) Diseases Disease ¡ Pulmonary eosinophilia ¡ Emphysema ¡ Smoking-related interstitial ¡ Chronic bronchitis lung disease ¡ Asthma ¡ Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis

¡ Bronchiectasis • Diseases of Vascular Origin PATHOLOGY • Chronic Diffuse Interstitial ¡ Pulmonary hypertension (Restrictive) Diseases ¡ Diffuse pulmonary ¡ Fibrosing diseases e.g. haemorrhage syndromes e.g. idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, Goodpasture’s syndrome pneumoconioses • Tumours ¡ Granulomatous pulmonary ¡ Pulmonary hamartoma diseases e.g. sarcoidosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis • Diseases of Vascular Origin ¡ Pulmonary embolism, haemorrhage and infarction • Pulmonary Infections ¡ Community acquired acute pneumonia e.g. Streptococcus pneumoniae ¡ Community acquired atypical (viral and mycoplasmal) pneumonia ¡ Hospital acquired pneumonia ¡ Aspiration pneumonia ¡ Chronic pneumonia ¡ Pulmonary abscess ¡ Pulmonary tuberculosis ¡ Pneumonia in immunocompromised • Tumours ¡ Adenocarcinoma ¡ Squamous cell carcinoma ¡ Small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma ¡ Large cell carcinoma ¡ Well differentiated neuroendocrine neoplasm (carcinoid) ¡ Metastatic tumours • Pleura ¡ Pleural effusions ¡ Pneumothorax ¡ Pleural plaque ¡ Mesothelioma

• Oral Cavity and Oropharynx • Upper Airways • Oral Cavity and Oropharynx ¡ Inflammatory lesions e.g. ¡ Necrotizing lesions e.g. ¡ Tumour tonsillitis, abscess microscopic polyangiitis ¡ Odontogenic ¡ Squamous cell carcinoma (Wegener’s granulomatosis) ¡ Periapical cyst • Upper Airways ¡ Antrochoanal polyp ¡ Odontogenic ¡ Inflammatory lesions e.g. ¡ Tumours keratocyst abscess ¡ Sinonasal papilloma ¡ Dentigerous cyst ¡ Inflammatory nasal polyps • Neck ¡ Ameloblastoma ¡ Tumours ¡ Congenital ¡ Odontoma ¡ Nasopharyngeal ¡ Other branchial cleft cysts • Upper Airways carcinoma • Salivary glands ¡ Tumours ¡ Squamous cell carcinoma ¡ Inflammatory lesions e.g. ¡ Esthesioneuroblastoma of the larynx sialadenitis ¡ (Juvenile) nasopharyngeal • Ears ¡ Tumours angiofibroma ¡ Tumour-like lesion e.g. ¡ Pleomorphic adenoma • Salivary glands cholesteatoma ¡ Papillary cystadenoma ¡ Tumours • Neck lymphomatosum (Warthin ¡ Acinic cell carcinoma ¡ Congenital anomalies tumour) • Ears ¡ Second branchial cleft ¡ Adenoid cystic carcinoma ¡ Congenital e.g.otospongiosis, cyst ¡ Mucoepidermoid malformation ¡ Thyroglossal duct cyst carcinoma ¡ Lymphadenopathy ¡ Inflammatory / infectious e.g. tuberculosis ¡ Tumour ¡ Lymphoma (overview) ¡ Metastatic tumour ¡ Tumours ¡ Paraganglioma

• Oesophagus ª Oesophagus • Oesophagus ¡ Achalasia ¡ Atresia, fistulae ¡ Tumours ¡ Oesophagitis ¡ Varices ¡ Leiomyoma ¡ Barrett oesophagus • Stomach ¡ Tumours ¡ Tumours ¡ Adenocarcinoma ¡ Lymphoma e.g. MALToma ¡ Squamous cell carcinoma ¡ Well differentiated • Stomach neuroendocrine neoplasm ¡ Pyloric stenosis (carcinoid)

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Gastritis Gastrointestinal stromal PATHOLOGY ¡ Peptic ulcer disease tumour (GIST) ¡ Polyps • Small and Large Intestine ¡ Tumours ¡ Hirschsprung disease ¡ Adenocarcinoma • Anus • Small and Large Intestine ¡ Tumours ¡ Meckel diverticulum ¡ Squamous cell carcinoma ¡ Intestinal obstruction e.g. volvulus, intussusception ¡ Angiodysplasia ¡ Infectious enterocolitis ¡ Ischaemic bowel disease ¡ Crohn disease ¡ Ulcerative colitis ¡ Diverticular disease ¡ Acute appendicitis ¡ Diverticular disease ¡ Polyps ¡ Familial syndromes e.g. familial adenomatous polyposis ¡ Tumours ¡ Adenocarcinoma

• Liver and biliary tract • Liver and biliary tract • Liver and biliary tract ¡ Hepatic failure ¡ Intrahepatic biliary tract ¡ Biliary atresia ¡ Cirrhosis disease e.g. primary biliary ¡ Circulatory disorders e.g. ¡ Infectious disorders e.g. viral cirrhosis veno-occlusive disease hepatitis, Echinococcosis ¡ Tumours ¡ Hepatic disease associated ¡ Alcoholic liver disease ¡ Carcinoma of gallbladder with pregnancy ¡ Metabolic liver disease e.g. • Pancreas • Pancreas steatosis, haemochromatosis, ¡ Congenital anomalies e.g. ¡ IgG4 disease antitrypsin deficiency pancreas divisum ¡ Tumours ¡ Anomalies of biliary tree and ¡ Cystic fibrosis ¡ Acinar cell carcinoma liver cysts ¡ Pancreatoblastoma ¡ Cholelithiasis, cholecystitis ¡ Choledocholithiasis, choledochal cysts ¡ Nodules and tumours ¡ Nodular hyperplasia ¡ Hepatic adenoma ¡ Hepatocellular carcinoma ¡ Cholangiocarcinoma ¡ Metastatic tumours Pancreas Acute pancreatitis Chronic pancreatitis Non-neoplastic cysts e.g. pseudocyst Cystic neoplasms e.g. serous cystadenoma Tumours Ductal adenocarcinoma

• Kidney • Kidney • Kidney ¡ Tubular and Interstitial ¡ Vascular Diseases ¡ Tubulointerstitial Diseases Diseases ¡ Benign nephrosclerosis ¡ Analgesic nephropathy ¡ Tubulointerstitial ¡ Malignant hypertension ¡ Vascular Diseases nephritis e.g. and accelerated ¡ Thrombotic pyelonephritis hypertension microangiopathies e.g. ¡ Vascular Diseases • Lower Urinary Tract haemolytic uraemic ¡ Renal artery stenosis ¡ Obstructive Lesions syndrome ¡ Cystic Diseases ¡ Fibroepithelial polyp of

Autosomal dominant ureter PATHOLOGY (adult) polycystic kidney ¡ Sclerosing retroperitoneal disease fibrosis ¡ Autosomal recessive (childhood polycystic kidney disease ¡ Cystic diseases of renal medulla e.g. medullary sponge kidney ¡ Acquired (dialysis- associated) cystic disease ¡ Urolithiasis ¡ Tumours ¡ Angiomyolipoma ¡ Oncocytoma ¡ Renal cell carcinoma e.g. clear cell, papillary ¡ Nephroblastoma (Wilm’s tumour) ¡ Urothelial carcinoma • Lower Urinary Tract ¡ Congenital anomalies of ureter and bladder e.g. diverticulum, duplication ¡ Tumours and Tumour-like lesions ¡ Papilloma ¡ Papillary urothelial carcinoma, non-invasive and invasive

• Testis and Epididymis • Testis and Epididymis ¡ Epididymitis and orchitis ¡ Cryptorchidism ¡ Torsion ¡ Germ cell tumour ¡ Seminoma ¡ Teratoma ¡ Spermatocytic seminoma ¡ Embryonal carcinoma ¡ Yolk sac tumour (endodermal sinus tumour) ¡ Choriocarcinoma ¡ Mixed tumours ¡ Non-germ cell tumour ¡ Sex cord stromal tumours ¡ Lymphoma • Prostate ¡ Benign prostatic hyperplasia ¡ Adenocarcinoma

• Uterine Cervix • Uterine Corpus and Endometrium • Vulva, Vagina ¡ Cervical polyps ¡ Leiomyosarcoma ¡ Squamous cell carcinoma ¡ Carcinoma of cervix • Fallopian Tubes ¡ Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma • Uterine Corpus and Endometrium ¡ Paratubal cysts • Uterine Corpus and Endometrium ¡ Menstrual cycle, dysfunctional • Gestational and Placental ¡ Carcinosarcoma (malignant uterine bleeding, menopause Disorders mixed Mullerian tumour) ¡ Endometriosis and ¡ Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia ¡ Endometrial stromal sarcoma adenomyosis • Gestational and Placental ¡ Endometrial polyps Disorders

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Endometrial hyperplasia Placental-site trophoblastic PATHOLOGY ¡ Carcinoma of endometrium tumour ¡ Leiomyoma • Fallopian Tubes ¡ Pelvic inflammatory disease • Ovaries ¡ Non-neoplastic and functional cysts ¡ Polycystic ovaries and stromal hyperthecosis ¡ Tumours ¡ Surface (Mullerian) epithelial ¡ Serous ¡ Mucinous ¡ Endometrioid ¡ Clear cell ¡ Brenner ¡ Germ cell ¡ Teratoma ¡ Dysgerminoma ¡ Yolk sac tumour (endodermal sinus tumour) ¡ Choriocarcinoma ¡ Sex cord-stromal ¡ Granulosa-theca cell tumour ¡ Fibroma, thecoma and fibrothecoma ¡ Metastatic tumours • Gestational and Placental Disorders ¡ Spontaneous abortion ¡ Ectopic pregnancy ¡ Twin gestation ¡ Twin placentas ¡ Abnormalities of placental implantation ¡ Hydatidiform mole ¡ Choriocarcinoma

• Inflammatory Disorders • Benign stromal lesions/tumours • Disorders of development e.g. ¡ Acute mastitis e.g. pseudoangiomatous stromal milkline remnants, accessory ¡ Periductal mastitis hyperplasia, diabetic mastopathy, axillary breast tissue ¡ Mammary duct ectasia • Male breast • Benign stromal lesions/tumours ¡ Fat necrosis ¡ Gynaecomastia e.g. hamartoma ¡ Lymphocytic mastopathy ¡ Carcinoma • Rare malignancies • Fibrocystic change ¡ Invasive papillary carcinoma, • Proliferative breast disease ¡ Metaplastic carcinoma ¡ Usual ductal hyperplasia ¡ Post-radiation angiosarcoma ¡ Sclerosing adenosis ¡ Complex sclerosing lesion ¡ Papilloma ¡ Atypical ductal hypeplasia ¡ Atypical lobular hyperplasia • Carcinoma ¡ Ductal carcinoma-in-situ ¡ Lobular carcinoma-in-situ ¡ Invasive ductal carcinoma, no special type ¡ Invasive lobular carcinoma ¡ Medullary carcinoma ¡ Mucinous (colloid) carcinoma ¡ Tubular carcinoma • Stromal tumour ¡ Fibroadenoma ¡ Phyllodes tumour • Lymphoma

• Pituitary Gland • Pituitary Gland • Parathyroid Glands ¡ Tumours ¡ Posterior pituitary syndromes ¡ Pseudohyperparathyroidism ¡ Pituitary adenoma e.g. ¡ Hypophysitis • Endocrine Pancreas prolactinoma, benign ¡ Lymphocytic hypophysitis ¡ Pancreatic endocrine invasive adenoma ¡ Granulomatous neoplasms (islet cell tumours) ¡ Hypopituitarism hypophysitis ¡ Glucagonoma ¡ Pituitary apoplexy • Parathyroid Glands ¡ Somatostatinoma ¡ Sheehan syndrome ¡ Tertiary hyperparathyroidism ¡ VIPoma ¡ Empty sella syndrome ¡ Parathyroid hyperplasia • Adrenal Glands ¡ Hypothalamic ¡ Hypoparathyroidism ¡ Adrenogenital syndromes PATHOLOGY suprasellar tumours e.g. • Adrenal Glands craniopharyngioma ¡ Neuroblastoma • Thyroid Gland ¡ Adrenocortical carcinoma ¡ Hyperthyroidism ¡ Hypothyroidism ¡ Thyroiditis ¡ Hashimoto’s thyroiditis ¡ Grave’s disease ¡ Follicular adenoma ¡ Carcinoma ¡ Papillary carcinoma ¡ Follicular carcinoma ¡ Medullary carcinoma ¡ Anaplastic carcinoma • Parathyroid Glands ¡ Primary hyperparathyroidism ¡ Secondary hyperparathyroidism ¡ Parathyroid adenoma • Endocrine Pancreas ¡ Diabetes mellitus ¡ Pancreatic endocrine neoplasms (islet cell tumours) ¡ Insulinoma ¡ Gastrinoma • Adrenal Glands ¡ Hypercortisolism (Cushing syndrome) ¡ Primary hyperaldosteronism ¡ Adrenocortical insufficiency ¡ Adrenocortical adenoma ¡ Adrenal myelolipoma ¡ Phaeochromocytoma ¡ Metastatic tumours • Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndromes

• Common skin malignancies and • Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma e.g. patterns of spread mycosis fungoides ¡ Squamous cell carcinoma, • Systemic mastocytosis melanoma

• Osteoporosis • Developmental abnormalities • Other developmental • Paget Disease (Osteitis deformans) ¡ Achondroplasia, abnormalities • Rickets/osteomalacia, hypochondroplasia hyperparathyroidism, renal ¡ Type 1 collagen disorders osteodystrophy (osteogenesis imperfecta) • Fractures ¡ Osteopetrosis • Osteonecrosis (Avascular necrosis) • Osteomyelitis • Tumours, bone-forming ¡ Osteoma PATHOLOGY ¡ Osteoid osteoma, osteoblastoma ¡ Osteosarcoma • Tumours, cartilage-forming ¡ Osteochondroma ¡ Chondroma ¡ Chondroblastoma ¡ Chondromyxoid fibroma ¡ Chondrosarcoma • Tumours, fibrous and fibro-osseus ¡ Fibrous cortical defect, non- ssifying fibroma ¡ Fibrous dysplasia ¡ Fibrosarcoma • Tumours, miscellaneous ¡ Ewing sarcoma, primitive neuroectodermal tumour ¡ Giant cell tumour ¡ Aneurysmal bone cyst •Metastatic tumours, including haematolymphoid neoplasms

• Osteoarthritis • Other arthritides • Rheumatoid arthritis ¡ Hydroxyapatite deposition • Juvenile idiopathic arthritis disease • Seronegative ¡ Haemophilia spondyloarthropathies ¡ Acromegalic arthritis ¡ Ankylosing spondyloarthritis ¡ Reiter syndrome ¡ Enteritis-associated arthritis ¡ Psoriatic arthritis • Infectious arthritis ¡ Bacterial arthritis ¡ Tuberculous arthritis • Crystal-induced arthritis ¡ Gout ¡ Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition disease • Osteochondral loose bodies • Ganglion, synovial cyst • Tenosynovial giant cell tumour

• Overview of Diseases of Skeletal • Fibrous tumour-like lesions Muscle ¡ Nodular fasciitis ¡ Denervation ¡ Myositis ossificans ¡ Muscular dystrophy ¡ Fibromatosis ¡ Myopathies • Fatty tumours ¡ Lipoma ¡ Liposarcoma • Fibrous tumours

Fibrosarcoma PATHOLOGY • Skeletal muscle tumours ¡ Rhabdomyosarcoma • Smooth muscle tumours ¡ Leiomyoma ¡ Leiomyosarcoma • Miscellaneous tumours ¡ Pleomorphic sarcoma (formerly malignant fibrous histiocytoma) ¡ Synovial sarcoma

• Cerebral oedema • Leukodystrophies e.g. CADASIL • Transmissible Spongiform • Hydrocephalus syndrome, adrenoleukodystrophy Encephalopathies (prion diseases) • Raised Intracranial Pressure and • Metabolic diseases e.g. thiamine Herniation deficiency, vitamin B12 deficiency • Trauma • Toxic disorders e.g. combined ¡ Skull fractures methotrexate and radiation- ¡ Parenchymal injuries induced injury, carbon monoxide ¡ Traumatic vascular injury • Pineal Tumours ¡ Sequelae of brain trauma ¡ Germ Cell Tumours ¡ Spinal cord trauma ¡ Pineocytoma/Pineoblastoma • Cerebrovascular Diseases ¡ Gliomas ¡ Hypoxa, ischaemia and infarction ¡ Hypertensive cerebrovascular disease ¡ Intracranial haemorrhage • Infections ¡ Acute meningitis ¡ Acute focal suppurative meningitis ¡ Chronic bacterial meningoencephalitis ¡ Viral meningoencephalitis ¡ Fungal meningoencephalitis • Demyelinating diseases ¡ Multiple sclerosis ¡ Neuromyelitis optica ¡ Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis • Degenerative diseases ¡ Alzheimer disease ¡ Frontotemporal dementia ¡ Vascular dementia ¡ Parkinson disease ¡ Huntingdon disease • Tumours ¡ Gliomas ¡ Astrocytoma ¡ Pilocytic astrocytoma ¡ Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma ¡ Oligodendroglioma ¡ Ependymoma ¡ Neuronal tumours e.g. ganglioglioma ¡ Medulloblastoma ¡ Primary CNS lymphoma ¡ Meningioma ¡ Cerebellar haemangioblastoma

¡ Metastatic tumours ¡ Paraneoplastic syndromes ¡ Peripheral nerve sheath tumours ¡ Schwannoma ¡ Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumour ¡ Familial tumour syndromes ¡ Neurofibromatosis type 1

¡ Neurofibromatosis type 2 PATHOLOGY ¡ Tuberous sclerosis complex ¡ Von Hippel-Lindau disease

• Thyroid Ophthalmopathy • Retinal detachment • Idiopathic Orbital Inflammation • Orbital Neoplasms (orbital pseudotumour) • Encapsulated venous • Orbital Cellulitis haemangioma • Carotico-cavernous fistula • Ocular melanoma e.g. choroidal • Optic Nerve Glioma melanoma • Retinoblastoma • Optic Nerve Sheath Meningioma • End-stage Eye: Phthisis Bulbi