Agave Sisalana Perrine

Agave sisalana Perrine

by Karen Brown, University of Florida, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, 7922 N.W. 71st Street, Gainesville, FL 32653; [email protected]

Introduction Agaves are often associated with the alcoholic beverages tequila (produced from A. tequilana) and mescal (produced Agave sisalana from A. salmiana and other species). This somewhat startling Agave sisalana Perrine is known for picture is taken from a its fiber production, and is commonly postcard photographed at known as “sisal” or “sisal hemp”. It is Bridon Fibres, Gateshead, the primary agave cultivated for fiber in UK. It depicts fibers eastern Africa, Brazil, India, and various extracted from sisal leaves countries in Asia. In the first half of the (Agave sisalana) that are twentieth century, sisal supplied about “…combed and carded 70 percent of the world’s long hard and loosely twisted into… plant fibers (Nobel 1994). The fibers run slivers before being spun the entire length of the leaves, which into rope.” (copyright, can grow to five feet, and have been Trustees, Royal Botanic used for rope, twine, nets, upholstery Gardens, Kew. Used with padding, carpet pads, blankets, baskets, permission.) jewelry, sandals, clothing, fish string- ers, musical instruments, ceremonial objects, construction material, paper 20th century, East Africa. Later, Mexico the inflorescence and can be planted pulp, and even dart boards (Nobel prohibited the export of the plant to directly in the soil. Approximately 1994). Although sisal is native to protect its own fiber industry but, by 200 bulbils survived the trip and 62 Mexico, commercial hard fiber from then, plants were available in Florida, survived the ensuing trip to German Mexico is produced primarily from having been imported and established East Africa (now Tanzania). Within henequen (A. fourcroydes) and lechu- by Dr. Henry Perrine (Morton 1952, five years, these plants multiplied into guilla (A. lechuguilla). According to Nobel 1994, Trelease 1913). Nobel 63,000 starter plants for large planta- Nobel (1988), A. sisalana was exported reports that 1,000 bulbils were sent from tions in Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique from Mexico in the 19th century and Florida to Germany in 1893. Bulbils and Uganda. These plantations eventu- formed the basis of fiber industries in are young plantlets, usually at least ally supplied approximately half of the Indonesia, the Philippines and, in the four inches in length, that occur on world’s hard fiber (Nobel 1988, 1994). By the early 20th century, A. sisalana also was cultivated in India, Southeast Asia, many Pacific islands, and Australia Field reports (Nobel 1988). Agave sisalana Perrine, commonly known as sisal hemp, is on the FL-EPPC Category II list of invasive species. According to a FL-EPPC database search in January 2002, there were 24 field reports for this species, with the most reports coming from Dade County Origin of Agave sisalana (7), followed by Monroe County (5), Martin (4), Palm Beach (3), Lee (2), Broward (2) and The genus Agave was established Sarasota (1). Lee County leads in acreage reported at 600 acres, followed by Martin at 84, by Linnaeus in 1753 and contains Monroe at 34, and Broward at 19. However, only 7 of the 24 field reports included estimates approximately 136 species in the Aga- of acreage. Of the 15 density estimates provided, one “dense monoculture” was reported vaceae family (Nobel 1988). Agaves in Dade County, one in Sarasota County, and one in Monroe County. All other density are native to North America, with estimates were “scattered plants.” The University of South Florida’s online Atlas of Florida their center of origin in present-day Vascular Plants (www.plantatlas.usf.edu/), which is based on vouchered herbarium Mexico (Gentry 1982, Nobel 1988). specimens, lists Agave sisalana in Brevard, Manatee, Lee, Collier, Monroe, Dade and Martin counties, (i.e. it lists specimens in 3 counties not listed in FL-EPPC field reports Gentry reports that the “origin of Agave (Brevard, Manatee, and Collier), while FL-EPPC has field reports for 3 counties not listed sisalana is uncertain. Because it was in the online atlas (Palm Beach, Broward, and Sarasota.) originally exported from Mexico via the port of Sisal in Yucatan, it has long been erroneously reported as of

18 SUMMER 2002 WILDLAND WEEDS 19 Yucatan origin. However, no botanical collections of the plant have ever been made in Yucatan, and botanists who Control have worked in Yucatan have told me Agave sisalana has not been the focus of major control efforts in Florida, although it they did not find the plant there.” has been a minor component of a few projects (G. Jubinsky, personal communication, Jan. Fiber plantations in Yucatan are 30, 2002.) However, thousands of Agave understory plants covering approximately thirty acres on Loggerhead Key were destroyed after Casuarina equisetifolia was burned off in reported to be henequen, Agave four- a prescribed fire treatment. For plants not controlled by the fire, Tony Pernas reports that croydes. Residents in the neighboring good results were obtained by breaking the “heart” from the main plant and spraying with state of Chiapas grow Agave sisalana 20% Garlon 4 herbicide. Smaller plants were removed by hand. (personal communication, as fence rows and for fiber, which Feb. 11, 2002) (See Dry Tortugas National Park - Loggerhead Key Exotic Plant Management is made into rope, nets, hammocks, & Island Restoration Project, T. Pernas, et al., Wildland Weeds (2001) 4(4):13-17.) and other functional items. Gentry states that the “occupation appeared indigenous and, since this is the only of land in Dade County (Florida City) area in which A. sisalana has been were to be developed into a planta- observed and regularly employed in tion, 10,000 acres of which was to be the village complex, I regard the area devoted to sisal production. 750,000 as a likely place of origin.” plants were grown in a nursery to supply the first unit of 1,000 acres. Growth of Agave The expected market for the sisal was Gentry describes Agave sisalana as American farmers who needed “binder a sexually sterile clone, probably of twine, rope and other cordage.” The hybrid origin, due to its general inabil- brochure for this company states ity to produce seed and by its chro- that 220,000 tons were imported into mosomes. He also notes that night Sisal plantation on the Perrine Grant, ca. the U.S. in one year, primarily from temperatures of 24-25o F (-5o C) often 1920. The plantation ultimately failed. Mexico, Cuba and the Bahama Islands. cause leaf “burn” and dieback. Nobel (Used with permission from the Historical The company intended to capitalize (1994) reports that sisal grows best on Museum of Southern Florida.) on this market. The brochure goes on free-draining non-saline soils, and that to describe the introduction of sisal in regions of Kenya and Tanzania with into south Florida: 1200 millimeters of rainfall per year seven years of age (Nobel 1994). Leaves “The first sisal plants in Florida were (similar to Florida’s range of from can be harvested after two years of introduced at Indian Key in the year 1826 1000 to 1,500 millimeters per year), A. age, which will postpone the “bolting” by Dr. Henry Perrine, American Consul at sisalana has a total above-ground dry for 15-20 years. After “bolting”, the Campeche, Yucatan, who applied for and weight productivity of about 20 tons plant dies. received from the United States Government per hectare per year. Under plantation a grant of a township of land conditioned conditions, A. sisalana produces about The United States Sisal Trust upon its being planted to this product. Later 220 leaves per plant before the emer- The United States Sisal Trust was the Indians murdered him and drove his gence (referred to as “bolting”) of the a company (ca. 1919) organized to family away. A few years later Mrs. R.V.S. 5-6 meter high inflorescence at about develop and grow sisal commercially Carpenter, who lives four miles south of in south Florida. According to a bro- Miami gathered a number of these plants chure for the company, 22,400 acres from the Perrine grant and planted them at her home overlooking Biscayne Bay at Coconut Grove. From these original plants Mature sisal plant with bloom stalk, ca. 1920. others have been set out as ornaments all (Used with permission from the Historical over Dade County, and as far north as Museum of Southern Florida.) Jupiter. A large number being recently Described by Gentry (1982) as “forming planted for ornamental purposes at the rosettes 1.5-2 m tall with stems 4-10 dm entrance of the palatial home of James long, suckering with elongate rhizomes; Deering in the city of Miami, where they leaves ensiform. . . fleshy, finely fibrous, are seen to thrive on rock walls and fences smooth, the margins of mature leaves without practically any soil.” usually toothless, the young leaves with The advent of synthetic fibers a few minute teeth; spine 2-2.5 cm long, during and after World War II severely dark brown . . . panicle 5-6 m tall depressed the natural fiber industry with 10-15 lateral branches of umbellate and many plantations failed or were clusters in upper half, bulbiferous after converted to other crops. Current flowering; flowers 55-65 mm long, attempts to boost the economic returns greenish yellow, malodorous . . . .” of sisal cultivation include research

18 SUMMER 2002 WILDLAND WEEDS 19 into uses for leaf pulp by-products (1974) Vegetative patterns and water economy Grob, K., Artho, A., Biedermann, M., et al (1993) and sap. of Agave sisalana in saline soils. Zeitschrift fuer Contamination of hazelnuts and chocolate by Acker- und Pflanzenbau. 139(3):165-171. mineral oil from jute and sisal bags. Zeitschrift Ewusie, J.Y., Ghatak, J. (1972) Studies on repro- fuer Lebensmittel Untersuchung und Forschung Agave in the Literature duction and cytology of sisal (Agave sisalana 197(4):370-374. “Before spinning, jute and Following are some of the more Perrine ex Engelm.) Ghana Journal of Science sisal fibres are treated with a batching oil interesting and unusual citations found 12(1):42-50. commonly consisting of a raw material oil Githeko, A.K., Adungo, N.I., Karanja, D.M., et fraction. Such oil is transferred to foods on Agave sisalana in the scientific jour- al (1996) Some observations on the biting packed into jute or sisal bags, i.e. primarily nal literature. The wide ranging list behavior of Anopheles gambiae s.s., Anopheles cocoa beans, hazelnuts, coffee, almonds, oil covers research from Oribatid mites to arabiensis, and Anopheles funestus and their seeds, and rice.” the invasion of sandy beachfronts to implications for malaria control. Experimental Gupta, R.K., Agarwal, M.C., Joshie, P. (1997) Parasitology 82(3):306-315. “Studies were car- Phenotypic stability of Agave species on electrical behavior of fibers to perme- ried out in three villages in western Kenya on bouldery wastelands (riverbed) of Doon thrin-impregnated sisal curtains to the biting behavior of Anopheles gambiae s.s., Valley. Indian Forester 123(4):331-337. “Agave mushroom cultivation to toothbrush Anopheles arabiensis, and Anopheles funestus. . . . . sisalana was found to be the only stable Agave sticks to an Olduvai skull. Under the influence of permethrin-impregnated species and hence could be recommended sisal curtains placed under the eaves of village for mass adoption on bouldery wastelands Aoki, J.I., Wang, H.F. (1986) Two Oribatid houses, there was a marked egress of blood-fed of Doon Valley.” mites injurious to economic plants Acari- A. funestus and A. gambiae s.s.” Harkonen, M., Saarimaki, T., Mwasumbi, L. formes oribatida. Acta Zootaxo- (1993) Tanzanian mushrooms and nomica Sinica 11(4):375-377. their uses 2. An edible species of “Another species collected Coprinus section Lanatuli. Karstenia from Guandong and 33(1):51-59. “Coprinus cinereus s. lat. Guangxi Provinces formed is commonly grown in waste heaps many spots on the leaf sur- of sisal (Agave sisalana) processing face of Agave sisalana which factories in Tanzania.” were cultured in the field.” Hartemink,A.E. (1997) Input and Banerjee, A.K. (1972) Trial of output of major nutrients under Agave species in lateritic monocropping sisal in Tanzania. areas of West Bengal. Indian Land Degradation and Development Forester 98(7):432-436. 8(4):305-310. “Much more nitrogen Batianoff, G.N., Franks, A.J. was lost from the topsoil than can be (1997) Invasion of sandy explained by the nutrient balance, beachfronts by ornamental indicating significant losses.” plant species in Queensland. Idarraga,G., Ramos, J., Young, R.A., Plant Protection Quarterly et al. (2001) Biomechanical pulping 12(4):180-186. “In this study, of Agave sisalana. Holzforschung the most important factors 55(1):42-46. contributing to ornamental Izaguirre-Mayoral,M.L., Marys, E., weed invasions are human Olivares, E., et al (1995) Effect of assisted plant introductions seasonal drought and cactus X through the dumping of virus infection on the crassulacean garden plants into native Agave acid metabolism of Agave sisalana vegetation.” decipiens, plants growing in a neotropical Bos, J.J., Lensing, F.H.G. (1973) false sisal savanna. Journal of Experimental A new cultivar in sisal from NOT Targets for Control in Botany 46(287):639-646. “Healthy East Africa: Agave sisalana Photo by and cactus X virus infected Agave Perr. ex Engelm. cv. hildana. Florida: Two Endemic Agaves Sherryl Furnari sisalana plants were collected East African Agricultural and during the dry and rainy seasons in Forestry Journal 39(1):17-25. two contrasting savanna sites.” Castorena-Sanchez, I., Esc- Natural resource managers in central and south Florida may Kassu,A., Dagne, E., Abate, D., et al obedo, R.M., Quiroz, A. encounter the invasive exotic Agave sisalana, sisal hemp, in coastal (1999) Ethnomedical aspects of the (1991) New cytotaxonomical middens, thickets, or hammocks, the common habitats of two commonly used toothbrush sticks determinants recognized in in Ethiopia. East African Medical six taxa of Agave in the sec- uncommon native agaves: false sisal, Agave decipiens, and wild Journal 76(11):651-653. “Twenty tions Rigidae and Sisalanae. century plant, Agave neglecta. With only a little practice, though, the different species of plant[s] used Canadian Journal of Botany target invasive is easily distinguished from these endemics. as toothbrush[es] were collected 69(6):1257-1264. False sisal, found in the Keys and mostly the southwest peninsular and their botanical identity deter- Chand, N. (1991) Electrical mined. . . . All the extracts showed behaviour of sisal fibre. coast, has relatively narrow leaves (5-10 cm), and the leaves antibacterial activity against Staphy- Indian Journal of Fibre and are concave or cupped, with margins bearing regularly spaced, lococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus Textile Research 16(4):287-288. conspicuous recurved (hooked) prickles. The more rare wild century by agar diffusion method.” “Electrical properties such plant, known from three counties, has broad leaves (20-25 cm wide) McLaughlin,S.P., Schuck, S.M. (1991) as dielectric, constant, dis- Fiber properties of several species of sipation factor and resistiv- that are concave, with straight margins bearing numerous close, Agavaceae from the southwestern ity of sisal fibre have been minute prickles. Sisal hemp leaves are around 10 cm wide, flat, and United States and northern Mexico. determined.” usually smooth on the margin, with no prickles, or just a few tiny ones. Economic Botany 45(4):480-486. Ludlow-Wiechers,B., Ojeda, L. (1983) Ding,Y., Chen, Y.Y., Wang, D.Z., Other characters differ as well, but these are easy ones for novice et al (1989) Steroidal sapo- Pollen of the genus of Agave from nins from a cultivated form agave lovers and haters. the Yucatan peninsula Mexico. of Agave sisalana. Phytochem- – K.C. Burks, Invasive Plant Mgt., Florida DEP Boletin de la Sociedad Botanica de istry 28(10):2787-2791. Mexico 44:29-42. El-Gamassy,A.M., El-Rahman, Mukerjee, N. (1970) A preliminary A.A.A., Hassib, M., et al. report on the root-rot of Agave

20 SUMMER 2002 WILDLAND WEEDS 21 sisalana (sisal). Indian Phytopathology References: Perkins, K.D., Payne, W.W. (1978). Guide to 23(1):125-127. Gentry, H.S. (1982). Agaves of continental the poisonous and irritant plants of Florida. Nikam, T.D. (1997) High frequency shoot regen- North America. University of Arizona Press, University of Florida, IFAS, Cooperative eration in Agave sisalana. Plant Cell Tissue and Tucson. Extension Serv., Gainesville, Circular 441. Organ Culture 51(3):225-228. “The capacity Morton, J.F. (1995). Plants poisonous to people Trelease, W. (1913). Agave in the West Indies. for shoot regeneration remained constant in in Florida and other warm areas. Hallmark Memoirs of the National Academy of Sci- the callus for more than 32 months.” Press, Miami. ences, Vol. XI, Washington. Nobel, P.S., McDaniel, R.G. (1988) Low tempera- Morton, J.F., Ledin, R.B. (1952). 400 plants of United States Sisal Trust. (1919?). Sisal: the ture tolerances, nocturnal acid accumula- south Florida. Text House (Florida) Inc., coming industry of Florida. Hefty Press, tion and biomass increases for seven spe- Coral Gables. Miami. Part of Papers relating to economic cies of Agave. Journal of Arid Environments Nobel, P.S. (1988). Environmental biology of endeavors, 1917-1919 by James Franklin 15(2):147-156. agaves and cacti. Cambridge University Jaudon in the Reclaiming the Everglades Parsche, F. (1993) Peculiarities on the incisors Press. series (2000), digitized from papers at the in the mandible of the skull Olduvai I. Homo Nobel, P.S. (1994). Remarkable agaves and cacti. Historical Museum of Southern Florida, 44(1):30-36. “This can be interpreted as Oxford University Press. Miami [electronic resource]. an indication that at least this individual used his teeth as a “tool” for treating plant fibres.” Pires, M.D.F.C., Purchio, A. (1991) Mycological evaluation of filtrated juice of Agave sisalana NOTES FROM THE Perrine’s leaf. Revista de Microbiologia 22(3):272-275. “. . . the filtrated juice ofAgave sisalana’s leaf contains a compound capable DISTURBED EDGE of inhibiting Aspergillus flavisand Aspergillus parasiticus growth . . . “ Sahu, G.C., Mishra, A. (1994) Morphology, Chapter 5 characteristic and classification of soils under “Well... Once, upon a morning dreary, I walked with something on my head sisal (Agave sisalana) cultivation. Journal of the and though I sought to ignore the source, I wound up talking to the bird instead, I chatted Indian Society of Soil Science 42(1):111-114. with the fowl who fouled my head. Salgado, A.L.D.B., Deuber, R., Forster, R. (1980) Weed control and herbicide selectivity to sisal There, upon that humid morning, standing at the shallow shore Agave sisalana. Bragantia 39(1):7-14. “None Came a raven, droop-seed dropping, defecating on the forest floor of the herbicides affected the growth of sisal Seeds were dropping, seedlings popping, falling to the forest floor plants during the period of 600 days.” Sternly, I addressed the raven: Drop those seeds here nevermore! Zuskin, E., Mustajbegovic, J., Kaneljak, B., et Poop not upon this forest floor! al (1992) Follow-up study of respiratory symptoms and ventilatory capacity in sisal But lo, he looked at me and laughed – cawed, guffawed and queried me workers. Arhiv za Higijeno Rada I Toksikologiju ‘Dare you command us creatures who, led by hunger, take our succor 43(4):339-347. “The prevalence of acute of a tree that you abhor? and chronic respiratory symptoms and I must do what I must do, and so I feast and fill my crop, ventilatory capacity was studied in 50 textile and when digested, I must drop, droppings to the forest floor. workers exposed to sisal dust.” No harm intending, just a meal ending. The seeds fall to the forest floor’ But I rebuffed him – ‘Nevermore!’ ‘This tree that feeds you and the seeds you, uh, deposit on the forest floor Herbarium Specimens do not belong here, they are wrong here, The paucity of herbarium specimens they take the place of trees of yore...’

for Agave sisalana is likely due to the The Raven only laughed once more, and croaked these words: difficulty of preparing a specimen from ‘You men dishevel nature and expect me to ignore? a large succulent plant with sharp one This fruit is sweet and I must eat. I’ll eat the fruits that I adore. inch points on the tips of leaves that It’s you must yank them evermore. It’s you must plant them nevermore...’ grow up to five feet long. In addition, the inflorescence can grow to thirty feet He dropped this scat upon my hat tall and six to eight feet in diameter. and then flew off to eat some more... To learn how to prepare such a difficult So I stand here, hat in hand, a crappy-hatted soggy man, specimen, go to the web site of South- and although the raven I implored, that bird will listen never more ern Illinois University Herbarium: Botani- The answer’s clear, the seed is here, the raven spreads it ever more. cal Potpouri (www.science.siu.edu/ It’s time for man the truth to see - that only we can stop that tree...” herbarium/potpouri/prepare.htm) where “Number 46?” detailed instructions are available under “Yep, that’s me” – he stepped forward and picked up his tray, tipping his encrusted cap the heading “Suggested Techniques for to the wide-eyed boy behind the counter. Preparing Hard to Prepare Herbarium Specimens.” A section on succulent She coughed insistently, and he turned to listen. “Thank you for that very complete and xerophytes covers Agave specimens. ever-so-artistic response,” she muttered through clenched teeth. “Now, would you please Use caution when working with Agave; go outside and scrape that off your hat?” the juice or sap, which contains saponin Sheepishly, he grinned and complied. No doubt, the surrounding patrons (inching and oxalic acid, is reported to cause towards the door) would never see a carrotwood tree or a water-bound crow in the same skin irritation and eye damage (Perkins way. She stepped forward to retrieve her lunch off the counter, and thought “What a 1978; Morton 1995). wonderful fool that mortal be...” - J.A. An excerpt from “The Adventures of Hack Garlon and his buxom sidekick Squirt.”

20 SUMMER 2002 WILDLAND WEEDS 21