Traditional Dietary Culture of Southeast Asia

Foodways can reveal the strongest and deepest traces of human history and culture, and this pioneering volume is a detailed study of the development of the traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia from Laos and Vietnam to the Philippines and New Guinea from earliest times to the present. Being blessed with abundant natural resources, dietary culture in Southeast Asia flourished during the pre- European period on the basis of close relationships between the cultural spheres of India and China, only to undergo significant change during the rise of Islam and the age of European colonialism. What we think of as the Southeast Asian cuisine today is the result of the complex interplay of many factors over centuries. The work is supported by full geological, archaeological, biological and chemical data, and is based largely upon Southeast Asian sources which have not been available up until now. This is essential reading for anyone interested in culinary history, the anthropology of food, and in the complex history of Southeast Asia.

Professor Akira Matsuyama graduated from the University of Tokyo. He later obtained a doctorate in Agriculture from that university, later becoming Director of Radiobiology at the Institute of Physical and Chemical research. After working in Indonesia he returned to Tokyo's University of Agriculture as Visiting Professor. He is currently Honorary Scientist at the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, Tokyo. This page intentionally left blank Traditional Dietary Culture of Southeast Asia

Its Formation and Pedigree

Akira Matsuyama

Translated by Atsunobu Tomomatsu

Routledge RTaylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First published by Kegan Paul in 2003

This edition first published in 2009 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2003 Kegan Paul

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 10: 0710307292

ISBN 13: 9780710307293 ISBN 978-1-136-88794-9 (ebk) Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. The publisher has made every effort to contact original copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace. >*'»-' To tire memory of my wife

Preface viii Explanatory notes xiv Whole map of Southeast Asia xv

Introduction 1 Geographical characteristics of Southeast Asia 1 2 Traditional dietary culture and traditional foods 3

Chapter 1 Formation of the Southeast Asian world 1 Period of crustal movement 7 2 The glacial period of the Quaternary 16 3 Appearance of humans in Southeast Asia and their genealogy 24 4 Distribution and migration of human populations 28 5 Natural environments of Southeast Asia 43

Chapter 2 Dietary culture in the prehistoric times 1 Paleolithic age 51 2 Transition from the Paleolithic age to the Neolithic age 68 3 Neolithic age of food-production economy 87

Chapter 3 Dietary culture in the pre-European age 1 At the beginning of the historical age 111

v Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia

2 Dietary culture during the early stage of the pre-European age 115 3 Dietary culture during the early stage of the pre-European age found in inscriptions 121 4 Stone reliefs of the Borobudur Buddhism site 142 5 Dietary culture during the late pre-European age 160 6 Temple reliefs of the late stage of the preEuropean age 175 7 Dietary culture of the pre-European age found in old Chinese historical records 185 8 Development of alcoholic-drink making in the preEuropean age 203

Chapter 4 The European colonial age 1 The dietary culture of Southeast Asia at the beginning of the 16th century as found in navigation records during the age of geographical discoveries 211 2 Navigation records by Europeans in the 16th century 215 3 Javanese dietary culture in the modern age described in The History of Java by T.S. Raffles 236 4 Dietary culture in Dutch colonial days described in Dagh-Register Casteel Batavia and Nederlmidsch4tulisc)i Plakaatboek 246 5 Commercial crops: The increase in production of sugar, coffee and tea (A case study on Java) 252 6 Characteristics of Javanese traditional dietary culture in the Dutch colonial age 275

vi Contents

Chapter 5 Present dietary culture of Southeast Asia 1 Comparison of traditional dietary culture of the prehistoric age with that of the present day 281 2 Agriculture, stock raising and dietary life in mainland region 282 3 Agriculture, stock raising and dietary life in archipelagic region 294 4 The dietary life in West New Guinea 300 5 Hunters and gatherers existing in Southeast Asia 302 6 Changes in agricultural practice and the tradition of staple food culture 305

Chapter 6 Traditional foods surviving to the present day 1 Sugary sap from the flower stalks of palm trees and palm wine 310 2 Black sugar and sago 319 3 Traditional fermented foods 327 4 Soybean products 341 5 Fishery salt-preserved foods and fish sauce 354 6 Starters used for food fermentation 362

Concluding Remarks 382 Notes 386 References 415 A list of quotations of tables, figures and photographs 431 Acknowledgements 434 Appendix table (Traditional foods in Southeast Asian countries) 43 5 Index 448

v ii Preface (for Japanese edition)

In Southeast Asia, as clearly understood from the excavation of fossil bone of Java Man, humans have lived for several hundred thousand years. Southeast Asia could be regarded, so to speak, as the homeland of Asians. Dietary culture is always created in the places where humans are living. What kind of dietary tradition has been produced? In the Neolithic age Mongoloids came into Southeast Asia in several waves, bringing a grain cultivation culture to the regions where Australoid hunters and gatherers were. Being blessed with the abundant natural resources of Southeast Asia, dietary culture flourished during the pre-European age on the basis of close relationships made between the two ancient advanced cultural spheres of India and China. Soon, through the ages of the rise of Islam and of geographical discovery, inhabitants in Southeast Asia entered into an age of suffering exploitation and repression under a European colonialism backed by arms. However, looking at such an age of suffering from the viewpoint of dietary culture, many crops native to the American continents were brought by Europeans and these have become important foods for people dwelling in Southeast Asia at present. Also during this age Europeans introduced modern technology developed in Europe to Southeast Asia and an increase in food production and an improvement of food quality were achieved to some extent, although they were not always aimed at the welfare of indigenous inhabitants. Considering that the kinds of useful crops are limited even now in Southeast Asia, it should be realised that the introduction of novel crops from the American continents has greatly contributed in diversifying the dietary culture of Southeast Asia. Through such stormy and checkered historical ages, the Southeast Asian nations attained their political independence after World War II and are now in a remarkable phase of economical development. Recently, Japan as well as other countries has undertaken preface

international cooperation in economical, technical and cultural fields intended for Southeast Asian countries. In addition, it has become obvious very recently by anthropological and animal husbandry studies that the same pedigrees as those of Paleo-Man and hunting dogs of ancient Southeast Asia existed also in ancient Japan and are also surviving even now. Southeast Asia is not in a distant and remote world at all for us. To understand different cultures is important for promoting international cooperation and it makes us proficient in understanding well our own culture. As described in Chapter 6, we will see an example in the comparison of traditional technology and related microbes for wine fermentation from rice between Southeast Asia and Japan. In this book, I have intended to make clear the pedigree of traditional dietary culture concerning its formation and development based on historical records and scientific evidence as much as possible, and yet I could present only some hypotheses in the face of enormous historical records due to my shallow learning and knowledge. I heartily hope that problems associated with these hypotheses will be elucidated by the future development of related research fields. At the same time I am also anxious about probable errors induced by lack of my own ability, because the objects of this book are a compound domain of sciences over many specialised research fields. I would be deeply grateful for notification of errors and omissions. There are several problems which have been ever present in my mind throughout writing this book. In the first place, is there any pattern which can be called the traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia? As for this subject, I realised that there exists a pattern common to the whole of Southeast Asia but nevertheless some differences exist dependent on the districts, for example on my final visit to a Cambodian market for a survey of starters used for traditional preparations of rice wine and am azake (rice-fermented sweet product, Ttoh pai kmaw in Cambodian) and as well on my opportunities to visit

IX Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia

Indonesian islands for field work. Such views will be made more distinct by comparative studies with the dietary culture of other areas in the world, although not discussed in this book. Another problem is the future of traditional dietary culture or traditional food. With the lapse of time, the social lifestyle may change and technological aspects of food manufacturing and processing will develop. There is a possibility that these factors will have some effect on traditional dietary culture. The aboriginality of traditional foods discussed in the Introduction would be most important among the characteristics of traditional dietary food. The traditional food will survive as long as it does not lose its aboriginality. Conversely, if the aboriginality decays by the loss of the characteristic feature of the traditional food due to careless technological improvement, it can not be called a traditional food any longer, even if the new product is widely circulated in the world. A case of this kind can be seen in the transition of the Javanese sugar industry, which involves two products, black sugar with a special flavour produced by old preparation procedure and white sugar manufactured by modern factories. This would be an aspect to be considered on designing technological improvements of traditional dietary culture or traditional food. Although this subject could not be discussed sufficiently in this book, it will hopefully be considered on another future occasion. I am greatly indebted to many people on the publication of this book. I wish to express my thanks to Dr. F. Suhadi of the Pasar Jumat Research Centre, Indonesia, who induced my interest in Southeast Asia and afterward promoted our collaborative studies on food storage, both Indonesian and Japanese researchers relating to agricultural product processing who worked on the cooperation project on education and research at the Bogor Agricultural University of Indonesia and collaborated in scientific surveys and investigations during the project implemented from 1978 to 1984 by Japan International Cooperation Agency, and Prof. M. Kozaki of Tokyo University of Agriculture who preface recommended the author publication of this book and provided many reference materials. After coming back from Bogor, Indonesia, I received kind instructions and support from Prof. H. Kano of the Institute of Oriental Culture, the University of Tokyo, and the library staff of the Institute, to whom I wish to express my hearty thanks. Some of the experimental data could be contained in this book by the courtesy of Prof. Y. Nakasone of Ryukyu University, Prof. A. Tomomatsu of Utsunomiya University and Prof. M. Tajima of Jissen Women’s University in Japan. The names of people, to whom I am grateful for their kind help and cooperation, are listed in a page of acknowledgements at the end of the book. In addition, with respect to the publication of this book, I express my deep appreciation to the chief editor Ms. M. Kashima and the editorial staff, especially to Ms. K. Natsume of the Publisher Domesu, in Tokyo for their kind and earnest cooperation. As for the publication I am also indebted to Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan for its assistance with the Grant'in-Aid for Publication of Scientific Research Results in the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research.

November 1995 Akira Matsuyama Tokyo

Author’s preface for the English version

The author is very glad to publish an English version of his book on the traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia. His sincere hope is that the English version will provide a reference tool for readers in European and American countries as well as in Southeast Asia. In this version, 12 notes [E1~E12] and 6 references [323—328)] have been added to facilitate the understanding of readers in these areas. I wish to express my appreciation to Prof. S. Einoo of the Institute of Oriental Culture, The University of Tokyo for Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia his kind advice. Special thanks are due Prof. P. Bellwood of Australian National University for his providing further information about the Tasaday in the Philippines and also Emeritus Prof. K. Sasaki of the National Musium of Ethnology Japan for his discussion on terminology I am also grateful to the Directors and staff of the publisher, Kegan Paul International, especially to the Chairman and Managing Director P. Hopkins and the Editorial Director K. O'Connor. In addition, I offer my hearty thanks to Ms. N. Toya for her help with computerized editorial work in Tokyo. The author is indebted to the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture in Japan, which provide a Grant-in-Aid for the Publication of Scientific Research Results (for translation and revision works).

November 2002 A. Matsuyama

Translator’s Note

Southeast Asia is one region where the economy is expected to develop in the 21st century and many researchers in various fields are actively studing Southeast Asia. However, there has been no systematic study of food and/or food culture which are the basis of human activity in this region. Food culture in Southeast Asia originated through the influence of Indian and Chinese food cultures and then diversified through the introduction of new crops and food manufacturing technology brought by Europeans. This book is the first work to outline the food history of Southeast Asia from pre-historic times to the present day based on a wide knowledge not only of food science, such as food microbiology and food chemistry, but also of anthropology, linguistics, history, and geophysics. preface

This book is written from an exhaustive investigation of primary historical sources such as archaeological excavation reports, inscriptions travel literature, icons, chemical analysis and other scientific investigations of traditional food in Southeast Asia. Many Sanskrit words and the original ancient Chinese text are cited, and numerous references in Japanese, English, Chinese, Sanscrit, ancient Javanese, and Dutch are covered. These refrect the history of food culture in Southeast Asia which developed under the influence of Indian, Chinese, and European food cultures.

The author, Dr. Akira Matsuyama was an active researcher in radiation biology at the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research in Japan from 1963 to 1980 after he graduated from the Tokyo Imperial University with a major in agricultural chemistry He carried out research on food storage in cooperation with the Pasar Jumat Research Centre in Jakarta, Indonesia from 1976 to 1979 and then vigorously promoted joint research on traditional foods with many Indonesian counterparts at Bogor Agricultural University from 1980 to 1984 in a technical cooperation project in food processing between the Japanese and Indonesian governments. After his stay in Indonesia, he widened his investigation of traditional food to other countries in Southeast Asia. Dr. Matsuyama published this book in Japanese in 1996 as a lifework since 1976 based on experiments, field surveys, and an investigation of the literature.

The translator translated this book as faithfully to the original Japanese text as possible. The translator would like to thank Prof. Bevan E. B. Moseley, OBE for reviewing the manuscript, and Miss Mild Hayashi, Mr. Katsuhiro Hirata and Mr. Hiromasa Nagase for typing the manuscript.

October 2002 Atsunobu Tomomatsu Explanatory notes

1)Words in languages other than English are written in italics except the names of persons and well-known places. Some Sanskrit and Pãri words found in scriptures of Northern and Southern Buddhism respectively, are both headed by a symbol s-' e.g. s-' sütra. 2)ln Indonesian and Malaysian, the old spelling ltj (Indonesian) and ech’ (Malayan) have become V in the modern unified spelling. The ‘c’ in ‘kecap/ ‘kicap’ (tauco/ kacang;' etc. is pronounced as ‘cli in the English word 'church/ 3) Chinese words are romanised according to Pinyin spelling of the People’s Republic of China. 4)The names of places in Formosa (Taiwan) are transliterated by the method of Wade- Giles romanisation, headed by a symbol w- together with the Chinese phonetic system of Pinyin spelling, headed by c: , e.g., W‘‘ Taipei On it, c- Taibei). 5)The date of publication of Chinese books quoted is not always indicated. 6)A person’s name is inscribed in the order of the initial of the given name and then the family name regardless of the order of description of names in his (her) mother language. 7)Dates in the historic age are indicated only, by the year without the Symbol A.D. 8)B.P., an abbreviation in chronology, stands for 'before present' and represents years before 1950 which is the accepted radiocarbon dating reference year. 9)Several notes with the heading ‘E’ are supplements in the English edition, for example E-l or E-10. 10)Symbols are used to describe the following matters- ( ), Explanatory comments for the preceding word (( )), Meaning in English of the quoted Sentence xiv ■rt‘: , \ } ' k /Cambodia.

1%?(India) •$/!\ Pt»»»i,v V7>-1| Ms oj n't* *,■'_. jSfeiÇ ■i

V Borneo^ ‘‘ ((Kaliaantan) Ia-v BOTjar»wiii Indonesia ’tofaoa West Jtew GiUnaa^ Java Sea Tbtaa Barria Sea ^ ___ \ f j Surabaja -pV* : Suoda Isis. Austyali

XV This page intentionally left blank Introduction

1 Geographical characteristics of Southeast Asia

Sphere and locality ofSoutheast Asia

The geographical map of the southeast comer of the Eurasian Continent shows Indochina jutting out to the east and the Ma­ lay Peninsula running sharply to the south. Surrounding these outgrowths of land is the sea, scattered with many islands called 'the Asian Archipelago'. This sea area with some 20,000 islands has been used for maritime transport and trading since ancient times, and has played an important role in the formation and development of the Southeast Asian world. This area is now collectively called Southeast Asia, and it con­ sists of the two regions of the mainland continent and the archi­ pelago. The area was named Nanhai (SiS) in old Chinese lit­ erature, and ancient Indian people referred to this area long­ ingly as the land of gold or golden peninsula.12)(Note 1)rfhe descrip­ tive name of 'Southeast Asia' is of rather recent origin. The words 'Southeast Asia' or a similar description has been used previously, e.g., 'South-Eastern Asia’ appeared in a book written by H. Malcom (1839)3), Siidostasieri in a book by R. Heine-Geldern (1923)4) and ‘Southeast Asia' by the same author (1942).5) However, the first official use of the term 'South East (or Southeast) Asia' is said to have been at the time when the South East Asia Command of the Allied Forces was set up in Canada in 1943 during World War II.6-7) Although the sphere of the area referred to as Southeast Asia is not always defined, in the content of this book it means the area occupied by Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Burma (the mainland), Indonesia including the western part of New Guinea, the Philippines, Brunei, Singapore (the Archipelago re­ gion), and Malaysia (both regions). Some authors exclude the western half of New Guinea from Southeast Asia, but for the

1 Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia

purpose of describing the dietary culture of Southeast Asia it is important to include West New Guinea for the following reasons- (l) During the period from the Neohthic age to the early historical age, there was a close relationship between New Guinea of the Melanesian area and the Asian Archipelago, especially Celebes and the Moluccas, (2) Trading has been conducted for a long time between New Guinea and the Moluccas, (3) Dietary habits such as taro and sago eating are common in these two regions, and (4) West New Guinea is now a part of Indonesia and is strongly in­ fluenced by Javanese culture under the current political situation. In Chinese historical materials, which have left many relevant records, the area of Southeast Asia and India, was divided into the East, the West and an intermediate region after Dao-yfzhflue (ê written at the end of the Yuan (7 6 ) era.8~13)(Note2) Such di­ visions were dependent on the negotiations and trading activities of the Chinese in each era, the above two or three divisions changing in different eras.9) In Japan, this area was called Nanyoh ([##) or Nanpoh (littf), the name of which included Micronesia and vaguely meant the wider area. If we examine the natural environment of Southeast Asia in detail, we find districts of different topography and climate, such as mountainous districts with a temperate climate on the mainland, big rivers running to the south through these districts and lowland areas of tropical climate spreading from the rivers downstream and many tropical islands being widely distributed over the waters of the Archipelago. In response to such a variety of natural environments, dietary habits of the resident populations are diverse. The western half of Southeast Asia is developed the areas being cultivated with rice in a monsoon climate, whilst the equatorial zone contains areas where the staple food is sago starch obtained from wild sago palms; inhabitants of New Guinea have used root crops as a staple food since prehistoric times. Thus, variation in dietary habits can be seen in different districts. In these regions, many tribes speaking 500 or so languages live at present. The distribution of aboriginal Australoids and of the two groups who performed continual migration and settlement since prehistoric times, i.e., Austronesians of the archipelago region and Austro-Asians of the continental region, have been comphcated. The inhabitants developed their own traditional society, religion and culture, resulting in the diversity of this area. As a conse­

2 References

6 Chapter 6 Traditional foods surviving to the present day

Aren-1 88.85 10.52 0.03 0.23 264)

Aren-2 87.66 12.4 0.21 0.36 264)

Palmyra 87.78 10.96 0.10 0.28 • 264)

Coconut-1 86.20 12.40 0.20 0.02 265)

Coconut-2 84.50 11.80 0.20 0.02 265)

Coconut-3 84.20 13.40 0.10 0.02 265)

Coconut-4 87.78 10.88 0.32 0.21 264)

Coconut-5 88.40 10.37 0.38 0.41 264)

Coconut-6 84.40 15.10 0.30 0.10 0.1 266)

Nipa 86.30 13.28 0.43 0.21 264) In an analysis of organic acids in palm sugary sap by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), pyroglutamic, malic, citric, succinic, fumaric, and lactic acids were detected while lactic acid increased remarkably during storage. This increase may be due to the action of lactic-acid producing microbes as fermentation proceeds in sap. These organic acids in sap appears to influence the characteristic flavour and sour taste of palm sugary sap. On analysis of component sugars in palm sugary sap as a function of time by HPLG, a change in the sugar composition is observed whereby the main sugar component, sucrose, decreases, while glucose and fructose increases equally with time. Thus, a determination of such changes can be applied to estimate the age of the sap.267) On standing the sap at ambient temperature for about 3~4 days, sucrose completely disappears. Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Palm wine making According to a study by M. Kozaki et al.,191-261-265) the alcohol concentration (v/v) in fermented sugary sap collected from palm inflorescences is as much as 4~5% (Table 12). In the Philippines, the inhabitants used to transfer the fermented sap in bamboo tubes into a large Chinese-type pot (about 201itre capacity), add sugar and allow it to stand for a further 4~5 days to complete the main alcohol fermentation. This procedure of adding sugar is considered to be employed from olden times in order to increase the alcohol concentration in palm wine, since there is an old Chinese record, describing that 'the sap from palm inflorescences Fig. 21 Example of a gaschromatogram of extracts of flavour components of palm sugar [After Y. Nakasone (Ryukyu Univ., Japan)238)] Traditional foods surving tation mangrove (%) (%) % cid % (v/v)

Coconut 4 not added 10.2 0.3 0.02 0.2 0.2 palm added 8.0 0.3 0.02 0.1 2.5 8 not added 6.2 0.5 4.0 added 5.6 0.2 4.8

Nipa 4 not added 6.5 0.2 2.8 palm 8 not added 5.0 0.16 0.4 4.2

[After M. Kozaki et aL (1994)265)]

Photo. 18 Arak making by distillation of tuak, palm wine (Bali, Indonesia)

[Photographed by Prof. M. Kozaki] is added with honey sugar to ferment the wine'in the Sects, of Nan-pi-guo (1% lit BL: presently Malabar; South India) and Gu-lin-guo (iKlffiS; presently Quilon) of Zhwfan-zhi (!liliS\, a Chinese historical record). Palm wine is stored for ageing for a period of 1 month up to 1 or 2 years after the main alcohol fermentation and is then filtered for consumption. At this time, the palm wine becomes similar to red wine in colour and thick in flavour. Sometimes, palm wine is distilled using an old-type simple device to increase the alcohol concentration to 35~45%. Such distilled liquor is called lambanog in the Philippines and arrack (or aralò in Indonesia. In the European colony age, it was famous as Batavian arrack (see p.239).122) In the Moluccas, the liquor obtained by distillation of fermented sugary sap (the local name, saguer) collected from inflorescences of aren and coconut palms is called sopi The inhabitants habitually drink sopi on their boats in order to bear the coldness during night fishing or to enjoy the quiet and relaxed atmosphere of a circle of friends at a public house in the evening after the work of the daytime. During the fermentation of palm wine in the Philippines and West New Guinea, there is a habit of adding bark and sprouts of mangrove. According to a study by M. Kozaki, which examined the effects of the mangrove bark powder added to palm wine,191265) the yeast numbers in the palm wine of a group to which bark was added increased about five times 4-hour after addition as compared with a control group, while the numbers of acid-producing bacteria showed a remarkable decrease. This means that the addition of mangrove material is inhibitory for the growth of acid-producing bacteria which are inhibitory to yeast growth, while it is not harmful for the growth of yeasts, which are a principal part of alcohol fermentation microbes, and accordingly it promotes alcohol fermentation. It appears that yeasts found in palm wine are derived from those gathered as part of sap collection or those sticking to ants and honey bees getting mixed in the sugary sap. Among the yeasts in palm wine to which mangrove bark was not added, Saccharomyces chevalieri (62~80%), Kloeckera apiculata (20~ 30%) and S. cerevisiae (0~25%) were found, while from palm wine with added mangrove material, only S. chevalieri (80 ~ 100%) and S. bailii var. bailii (0~20%) were isolated. Thus, a change in the yeast flora of palm wine by the addition of mangrove was observed. These yeasts are associated with the Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving fermentation of palm wine and S. chevalieri is a principal fermentation strain, especially in a case of mangrove addition. Mangrove bark inhibit the growth of acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria, but not the growth of those yeasts isolated.

Consequently it is understood that the addition of mangrove material inhibits the growth of other microbes like acid-producing bacteria. On the other hand, the addition of mangrove bark is helpful for accomplishing alcohol fermentation by yeasts and thus palm wine making becomes easy. The effective components in mangrove barks are considered to be polyphenols.191)

2 Black sugar and sago

Manufacturing methods and properties o f black sugar

(non ~cen trifugal sugar)

Two materials are used to make black sugar as a traditional food, i.e., sugary sap collected from palm inflorescences and sugar cane

Photo. 19 Palm sugar making (West Java)

Concentrating the sugary sap of the aren palm using a large flat pan (in upper-right of the picture), portioning out into bamboo vessels and standing to cool for solidification. A small pan (in the centre of the picture ) is used for portioning of concentrates into each vessel in two runs. Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Photo.20 Selling of palm sugar at a local market (.Bukittinggi, Mid Sumatra). juice. Sugar made from the former is the so-called palm sugar, which has an old history from the pre-European age, perhaps introduced from ancient South India. This palm sugar has been called jagra or jaggery in old India172) and black sugar was prepared from the sugary sap collected from inflorescences of coconut palms. Black sugar making from sugarcane juice is a relatively new technique. As refined white sugar (cured or centrifugal sugar) came to be produced on a large scale in modem-equipped plants from the end of the 18th century to the 19th century, the Chinese old-fashioned technique of refining cane sugar by claying was abandoned. However, black sugar making by the old conventional method using peasant-cultivated (not estate-cultivated) sugarcane and palm sugary sap as raw materials has been developed in Central and East Java and many other places, as local industries at small-scale factories. Black sugars made from both palm sap and sugarcane juice are non-centrifugal sugar made without a process of molasses separation. They are black or brownish in colour and endowed with a characteristic flavour. Demands for them are larger in agricultural districts as a sweetener. They are used for candy making at home and palm sugar is consumed in fairly large amounts as a secondary raw material at local industrial plants in Java and Malaysia, which are manufacturing soybean seasonings. Fructose, invert sugar and other impurities contained in molasses Traditional foods surving Table 13 Chemical components of conmiereial palnrflower sugary sap and solid palm sugar (% in solids) Items Sucrose Glucose Fructose Others

Palm-flower sugary sap 1 57.7 21.1 19.1 2.2 2 58.6 19.2 18.4 3.8

Solid palm sugar from- aren palm 1 57.4 21.5 19.1 1.9 2 67.2 15.6 14.4 1.8 coconut palm 1 57.1 20.4 19.3.1 3.2 2 62.2 18.0 17.1 2.7 palmyra palm 55.8 2.1.2 20.8 2.2

[After T. Itoh et al.(l985)264)] and honey as well as black sugar cause an increase in hygroscopicity. The increased content of these sugars provokes problems for the storage quality of black sugar and hard_candy making, while it is suitable for soft candy making.269) Sucrose inversion, which is a degradation into fructose and glucose, does not influence on the relative sweetness. Black sugar232-270) is made from sugarcane using a procedure similar to that described in Tian-gong-kafwu KlF?f1ft),229) a

Chinese historical record. At small-scale home industry factories of cane juice is first produced from stems of sugar cane by pressing, using a roller juicer driven by cattle. This cane juice with more than 10% sugar is added to milk of lime and heated in a iron pan.

Eliminating the impurities and precipitates that come up after boiling, the clarified solution is transferred to another pan. After boiling to a sufficiently concentrated state, the contents are poured into vessels shaped like a cup, e.g., a half-sphere of the coconut shell with a hole for germination, on which a leaf has been placed in advance. The contents are stood to cool. After solidifying, a strong blow through the germination hole at the bottom of the shell allows a mass of black sugar to be removed easily This is called gula mangkok (It means sugar in the shape of a cup) and is widely sold at local markets. The vessel used on solidifying are devised by various means, e.g., different shapes and sizes of bamboo baskets and bamboo tubes cut in round slices. Palm sugar is also prepared from sugary sap (sugar contend 10~

15%) collected from palm inflorescences. Since the component sugars sugars in sugary sap are easily decomposed by microbial enzymes in the sugary sap, it needs to be processed soon after collection, Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Table 14 Mean composition of cane sugar Item s Sucrose (%) In v e rt sugera (%) A sh %) M oisture (%) Black sugar 75-86 2.0-7.0 1.3-1.6 5.0-8.0 Granulated 99.95 0.01 0.01 0.02 sugar 95.70 1.90 0.10 1.60 Soft white sugar (medium grade)b 99.80 0.06 0.01 0.06 Crystal sugar______[After T. Kokubu (1986)268)] a- Sucrose is hydrolysed by acid or enzyme into glucose and fructose and the angle of optical rotation is changed to levorotation. The equimolecular mixture of glucose and fructose produced is called invert sugar, b* A kind of centrifugal sugar in light brownish color. Table 15 Similarity of üa vourpa ttern of black sugar sampled Sampleb N o . l N o .2 N o.3 N o .4 N o .5 N o .6 N o .7 N O . l 0 . 6 5 0 . 6 9 0 .6 2 0 .6 5 0 .6 8 0 .4 4 N O .2 0 .9 2 0 .8 9 0 .9 5 0 .9 0 0 .7 0 N 0 .3 0 .8 9 0 .93 0 .9 2 0 .6 7 N O .4 0 .9 0 0 .8 0 0 .6 1 N O .5 0 .8 7 0 .7 7 N O .6 0 .6 8 N O .7 [After Y. Nakasone (Ryukyu Univ., Japan)238)] a- Sample (name of material) No.l palmyra palm, No.2 coconut palm, No. 3 areflpalm, No.4 coconut palm, No.5 coconut palm, No.6 sugarcane, No. 7 sugarcane. b- Pattern similarity among each 142-peaks on the gaschromatogram of flavour extracts from seven black-sugar samples. otherwise the palm sugar product would not yielded a good Traditional foods surving quality product. Since the palm sugary sap collected is contaminated with dust, insects, etc., it is filtered through a cloth, and then boiled to concentrate it in a manner similar to that of sugar cane juice. At the beginning, heat is applied with a high flame and then, after starting to boil, cooked with a low flame. Impurities and bubbles floating up to the surface are removed by scooping up. In order to prevent foaming, various means are contrived, for example, the use of canarium fruit crushed into small pieces or half-spheres with germination holes turned upside down in the sap and which prevent boiling over due to bumping, by small bubbles coming up through the hole. When sufficiently concentrated, the sugary sap is solidified with a similar procedure to that of black sugar making from sugarcane juice. In Java, two or three pieces of peanut are put into the sap and well stirred in a manner to entangle air in the juice. After the appearance of the sap has become white, the concentrated sap is distributed to vessels. Sometimes, the pouring into each vessel is conducted in two parts. It is well known that features of black sugar are its soft feeling to the tongue due to its fine crystalline structure and a characteristic flavour not found with centrifugal white sugar. In Malaysia and Java, traditional seasonings prepared by soybean fermentation have large quantities of black sugar added to them. Some manufacturers mention that the flavour of palm sugar is most suitable for seasonings of this kind. On the other hand, according to the study of Y. Nakasone238) on the flavour components of commercial products of non-centrifugai black sugar by gas chromatography, in some cases a significantly high-similarity between two types of black sugar products prepared from palm sap and sugarcane juice were found and thus it is not always possible to identify clearly the flavour of these two-types of black sugar, although some qualitative and quantitative differences in flavour between them are observed in some other cases. Gula mangkok being sold at local markets is wrapped in a leaf of mallow or teak, which is easily available to farmers. The quality of black sugar containing greater amounts of invert sugar and impurities becomes inferior with increased hygroscopicity. Palm sugar is apt to have an increased invert sugar content, due to the preparation procedure of sap collection and processing. Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Photo. 21 Collection of starch from sago palm. © Pukul sagu (making chips from the pith of the sago palm tree) (Saparua, South Moluccas)- ® Precipitation of sago palm starch (Ambon, South Moluccaè. (3) Sago containers made of sago palm leaves (in the middle), sago is transferred from the precipitation vessel (on the left-hand side) to the containers (in the middle) (Ternate, Moluccas)Traditional foods surving

Utilisation of sago palm in the eating habits211^

Sago palm trees grow wild in tropical lowland swamps of South

Malaya, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, and New

Guinea, separately or mixed with nipa palms. Their utilisation in the dietary habits is as sago or sagu a staple food, which is starch collected from the pith of sago-palm trunks. There are varieties among the sago palms and the taste of starch collected from them are said to be variable with different varieties. ^ ote 97) The sago palm native to the Moluccas and New

Guinea is Metroxylon rumphii Mart, whose local name is sagu tuni, and starch of good quality can be obtained from this variety

In Malaya, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, South Thailand, and

Mindanao, M. sagus Rottb. grows wild, being called sagu molat.

Sago palms are monoecious and soon after the growth to develop conical inflorescences at the top and fruition, they are blighted. At this period, the starch in the trunk disappears, being consumed by flowering and fruition. Accordingly it is necessary to identify the timing suitable for starch collection before blooming. There are different traditional methods of judgement in different sago palm districts. In West New Guinea, inhabitants decide the timing based on the height of the trees and their age or the colour change of thorns on the stems from green to reddish brown. In Celebes, the time when the top of the root becomes white, particular sounds on beating the stem are heard and the leaves face to the sun just above, that is, the leaves appear to stand is interpreted to be suitable for the collection of starch. In Tkrnate, it is said that when floral buds are found on the tops of trees, sago is collected.

Although the age of a tree when it is suitable for the collection of starch varies with the place of growth, it is generally around 10 years, or in some districts 15 to 20 years as in the Moluccas. Wild sago palms are mostly used for starch collection, although sago is also cultivated for this purpose in some districts. The traditional method of sago collection is simple in principle.

The results of survey in the Moluccas such as Ambon, Ternate and

Saparua Islands are described as follows- Sago palm trees at the suitable time for starch collection are cut down and a large trunk of 0.6~1 m in diameter is divided lengthwise into two parts by driving wedges into the trunk. The soft and sponge tissue of the pith is chopped up into small pieces using a special hatchet called nani. This procedure is called pukul sagu and collected chips are named ela or oro. Any one of a fibre net covering a leaf sheath of coconut palms, jute hemp cloth of coarse mesh and a rice bag roughly woven with plastic strands is spread on the base end of a large sago palm petiole as a filter. Chips are put on this filter and water poured over them while the starch in the chips is pressed out by hand. Starch granules are washed out together with the water through the filter and run into a receiving vessel made from trunk of a sago palm hollowed out by removal of its pith on pukul sagu. This receiving vessel is called a goti, which is functioning as a precipitation vessel. Water slowly runs out, as the bottom of the goti slightly inclines to its forward end, while starch granules precipitate on the bottom. Diaphragms made of petioles of the sago palm are set up at both ends of the goti and an outlet for water is set up at the lower end, through which water runs out to the next goti and some starch also comes down together with water. After the collected raw starch has stood in water for about a week, it is put in a vessel called a tumang (about 20kg capacity of raw wet starch), which is braided with leaves of the sago palm and raw wet sago is sold at local markets without drying. Sago in the wet state is said to be tastier than dried sago. The yield of raw wet starch has been estimated to be about 200kg per trunk of sago palm. In another study including chemical analysis, the yield was estimated at 150~ 160kg of dry starch per trunk. However, a higher yield has also been reported, e.g., 300^400kg, max. 800kg raw wet starch per trunk. Such traditional procedures to collect sago are common place. The collection method in the swamps of South New Guinea, where the native inhabitants have only little contact with the outside, is very similar to that in the Moluccas. The transmission of the sago collecting technique is surprisingly extensive throughout tropical Southeast Asia. However, the traditional method of sago collection involves some technical problems for improved production, e.g., an increase in the sago yield from chips and a reduction in labour for making chips by the introduction of a power-driven rasper. These improvements have already been implemented partly at a local factory in Sunda (West Java). At present, traditional utilisation of sago as foods in the Moluccas are as follows; preparation of papeda (gruel), sago lempeng such as sago tumbuk and ongol ongol (a processed sago product), bagia (a kind of cake) and kueh serutu (ready-to-serve and storable candy). As a staple food, sago starch is consumed in Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving the form of papeda and sago lempeng These foods are eaten together with fish, vegetables, taro, and rice. Sago lempeng is prepared by baking the sago, which is kneaded with water packed in a clay mold. Similarly in New Guinea, a forna made of clay is used for baking the kneaded sago. Considering the comment that papeda made of cassava is tastier than that made from sago, it seems necessary to improve the quality of sago products through a programme of sago palm breeding. Among sago-processed foods, bagia is a baked product of sago to which has been added coconut milk, canarium fruit and salt, while kueh serutu is a candy-like food of baked sago mixed with coconut milk, palm sugar and salt.

Looking over the present status of dietary life in the districts where sago is the staple food, it is realised, as mentioned above, that sago palm breeding for improvement of sago taste, studies on cooking and processing methods of sago starch and modernisation of sago collecting procedure are desirable. Sago palms are widely distributed in the wild state and their high population density characteristics have been noticed. Since starch granules of sago are found to be of high quality and highly nutritious, it is important to maintain sago palms as a food resource in Southeast

Asia. Further more, microorganisms which can effect alcohol fermentation utilising raw sago starch are to be found around sago-collecting sites and some of them form black spores. There is a possibility that such sago collecting sites would be an effective searching spot for useful strains in a future survey of microorganisms.

3 Traditional fermented foods

The fermentation method is an exceedingly effective method for food preservation in tropical districts where foods are perishable under the hot and humid climatic conditions. This is due to the inhibitory action on putrifactive bacteria and other harmful microbes by the growth of useful microorganisms such as lactic-acid bacteria and yeasts and by the lowering of the pH by acid-producing organisms. Examining its historical aspect, food fermentation has contributed to food preparation through alcoholic drinks including palm wine and then in the later ages seasonings made from soybeans, palms and other specialities of this region. In this section, alcoholic drinks and seasonings as traditional fermented foods of Southeast Asia will be described Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Alcoholic drinks o f Southeast Asia Almost all tribes distributed over Southeast Asia have the habit of preparing traditional alcoholic beverages and of enjoying drinking them, a habit indispensable in rituals, festivals and feasts as important social events. With the advance of Islam in most parts of the archipelago region at the end of the pre-European age, the drinking habit was officially regarded as taboo. Wine making and drinking in the sphere of Islamic influence have been greatly retarded. Looking over the whole of Southeast Asia today, the preparation of various alcoholic drinks is widely conducted using traditional methods. All of them are made at local breweries on a small scale and sold commercially in addition to fermentation for home consumption in some districts. Although beer made by modem brewing factories at various places in Southeast Asia has become popular recently, traditional liquors are still consumed together with this new product. The inhabitants of mountainous districts and remote places or isolated islands continue traditional wine making as part of the important subsistence at least presently. Looking at the whole area of Southeast Asia, in the plains and coastal districts of the continental and the archipelago regions, so-called palm wine, distilled liquor from palm wine, sugarcane juice or molasses, wine brewed mainly from rice and others are being prepared according to traditional methods. On the other hand, in the mountainous districts of the continental region, there is no palm wine but cereal wine, the raw material for which is rice or miscellaneous cereals is prepared for consumption. In most cases, a starter culture is employed for fermentation. Palm wine140>192-261-264-265) At present, the palm wine called tuak, toddy, tuba or nam tai mou in Southeast Asia is the spontaneously fermented product from sugary sap collected from inflorescences or flowerstalks by the Traditional foods surving activity of wild yeasts. On the other hand, in Sect. Y e -z fm u (®^p

?ts palm tree) of L in g -w a fd a fd a and Sect. Ye~zi palm) of Z h u fa n -z h i(tíflíSO, there is a description^4*18Ê #Q3E, XMWWl^W*1k’((ln the coconut fruit, the white and beautiful sap having taste resembling milk is contained. This sap contained is very clear and fragrant during young, but it become turbid and unsuitable for drinking when old.)) and in Sect. G u -li (presently C a licu t, India), there is another description-^Mí^^õJl^^õJ®® ((The sap in young fruits can be drunk and also possible to ferment to make wine.)) These descriptions suggest that in the old days palm wine may have included a product from the fermented liquid of endosperm (The endosperm in a coconut is liquid at first and called coconut water.

The maximum sugar content is about 5% 4~6 month before the ripening of the coconut fruit.) itself or after the addition of honey.

However, such a habit has not survived to the present, (see p. 193)

A p p ea ra n c e o f r ic e b rew in g w in e

Palm wine tu a k was the principal wine among descriptions in the wine such as brern and tam p o also appeared as wines for feasts.

In the results of surveys of old Javanese literature, such rice wine seems to have appeared in Java after the 10th century.

Photo. 22 Fermentation of chium Java. (The substrate is molasses.)

[Photographed by Prof. M. Kozaki] Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Photo. 23 Distillation of chiu [Photographed by Prof. M. Kozaki] Rice wine is mentioned in Sect. Brewing of Z h e n la fe n g tu ji( f i HlEdrJfi, a record of personal experiences)17^ of the 13th century and in Sect. X ia n -lu o -g u o GISH, Siam) of Y in g -y a sh e n g -la n (Ü SS#fl)126) of the 15th century. Since those days, it is presumed that a double fermentation consisting of two processes, saccharification of rice and alcohol fermentation, came to be implemented using b in g -q u (©fH, a Chinese starter culture) and rice wine with a characteristic aroma has been made steadily and with stability In various parts of Southeast Asia at present which is a rice eating area, there are brews made from rice with an alcoholic content of 6—13%, and ch iu , distilled m o rom i (fermentation mash) which has an alcoholic content of 35~45%. Both alcoholic drinks are the products of double fermentation accomplishing saccharification and alcohol production through microbial action using b ing -qu . Usually saccharification of cereal starch is carried out by molds of A sp e rg illu s spp. and R h izo p u s spp. and alcohol fermentation is conducted by yeasts such as Sa cch a rom yces ce re v is ia e and others. However, the rice wine of Luzon Island, the Philippines, ta p u y ; has been demonstrated to be a characteristic traditional wine brewed from rice only by the activity of yeasts.195-204) The main yeasts of ta p u y fermentation are two species, i.e., S a cch a ro m y c o p s is fíb u lig e ra , which accomplishes starch saccharification by Traditional foods surving Ragi Rice (Sticky rice) Soaking one night Washing Crushing Steaming Cooling Inoculation I Incubation (for 5“8 days at room temperature in bamboo ^basket) Tape ketan one Fermentation for about one Month Pressing Extracts (Raw brem Ball) Ageing (for 2-3 months) Bottling Pasteurisation Brém bali (brém wine)

Fig. 22 Preparation of Brem Bali (brem wine)272) the excretion of amylase but is weak in alcohol fermentation activity and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which has a strong activity for alcohol fermentation. Pediococcuspentosaceus, a lactic acid bacterium, is also contained. Its mode of fermentation is named a solid-state parallel double-fermentation, in which two reactions of saccharification of starch and subsequent transformation of sugar into alcohol are performed in parallel in the same fermentation system, although two species of yeasts are contained in this double-fermentation. The product has a sweet taste and higher concentration of alcohol, about 19%, and in addition the sourness is also strong. Inserting a conical basket into the fermentation pot, liquid filtered into the basket is drawn to drink or sipped through a fine bamboo tube.204) Although at present in Java in the Islamic sphere, rice wine is not usually made, a rice-brewed wine called b rém B a li is prepared in Bali Island under the influence of Bah Hinduism even in the same Indonesian territory272) Although the traditional material is reddish-black sticky rice, at present white rice is also being used. The products are red and yellow, respectively. They have a strong taste as well as a slight sourness. As shown in Fig. 22, their traditional preparation consists of the following steps- the rice soaked in water overnight is cooked for about one hour, steamed for two hours, and powdered ra g i of b in g -q u (starter culture) added after cooling and the whole transferred into baskets to stand at room temperature for 5 ~ 8 days. Meanwhile, the solid-state fermentation proceeds to give ta p e k e ta n (K e ta n means sticky rice.) This processing is a double fermentation proceeding to alcohol fermentation in parallel. Afterward, ta p e k e ta n is expressed to get the extract and this is collected in glass bottles of a 20-litre capacity to perform further ageing at room temperature for one week to 2 months. Taken out at the time when sweetness, sourness and alcoholic concentrations reach a preferred state, the product is bottled, heated for pasteurisation to stop fermentation and then placed on the market. In the Islamic state of Indonesia, alcoholic drinks except beer are generally not wide spread, while in Bah, a Bah-Hinduism island, brewing of the traditional wine called b rem wine or b rem Bah is still being extensively conducted. Red b rém wine brewed from red sticky rice is beheved to be sacred and closely concerned with the devine service of Bah Hinduism. Bah Hinduism is a belief in T r im u r ti associated with fire, water and wind, that is, God B ra hm a of the Creator, God W ishn u of the Underground Water and the Peace and God S h iw a of the Destroyer and the Source of Vitality. The Gods are symbolised with red, black and white colours. Inhabitants of Bah Island visit the temple and to the T r im u r ti Gods arranged with God S h iw a in the centre, God W ishnu on the left and God B ra hm a on the right they present b rém wine (red), honey (black) and a ra k (white) as offerings. In the belief of Bah-Hinduism, b rém B a li is considered to represent the colour of God B ra hm ã (red) and accommodate spirits. The word b rém may be derived from b eu re um (pronounced as b rum ) in Sundanese (language of West Java), which means red. It is said that an old traditional Chinese rice wine la o ’j iu (MM ) is the origin of this word, brém . This may support a view that b rém in old Java was brewed for the first time from rice by the use of a Chinese-type starter culture b in g -q u of Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving rag i. Rice wine brew , which had been extensively made during the

M a ja p a h itT )y rm s ty disappeared in the world of Islam which had gained in influence and it appears that this fermentation product has survived as a sweet cake called brern k u e (k u e =cake) a traditional food in Mid and East Java, fermentation of which is stopped at the stage of saccharification. The life span of brern wine in Java appears to be rather short, only about 400~500 years.

P rep a ra tio n o f b rern k u& 12~21^

Traditional procedures in Java for the preparation of brern k u e

(K u e means a cake in Indonesian.) vary to some extent with different districts. In general, after crushing and steaming, white sticky rice is cooled by spreading on a flat and round bamboo basket about 50 cm in diameter, locally called tam pa . Then the powder of crushed ra g i is sprinkled over rice with a ratio of 3~

4g/kg rice and mixed well. The mixture is put in an earthen vessel and sealed up for 3 days at room temperature for saccharification.

This processing is a solid-state fermentation. After saccharifica tion, the content is transferred into a bamboo basket, pressed and the solid obtained is made into a thin piece, which is boiled until the piece increases thickness somewhat its. This piece is kneaded by a handmade stirrer for about 90 minutes, increasing degree of whiteness. Disks 4 cm in diameter and 3~4 mm in thickness, are arranged on a large bamboo mat to dry for about 4 hours under sunshine. This product of brern k u e is white in colour, having sweetness and slight sourness, and on eating it dissolves rapidly, giving a sense of delightful sweetness in the mouth. It has a sugar content of 65~68% and starch content of 4.5^14.4%.274) Similarly in Mid and East Java, there are products of brern k u e made by different procedures.272) After 2 ~ 3 days of saccharification of steamed white sticky rice with added ra g i powder, the rice is put in a copper container and heated directly.

Concentrated into a state of slurry, the content is cast into a mould to spread in a plate with a thickness of about 1cm. The plate is cut to a size of about 7x4 cm and packed for putting on the market. The product is slightly brownish and has an odour of caramel, sweetness and sourness. In an analytical examination, a water content of 16~22% and a sugar content of 72~76% (in dry weight) were determined and the sugar was found to be glucose by HPLC.276) Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia W ine m a k in g fro m su g a rca n e Sugarcane being widely cultivated in Southeast Asia is also a material for wine making. However, wine making by fermenting cane juice itself is not popular at present, although it is documented in Chinese historical records during the pre-European age. Alcohol fermentation is rather performed using of molasses as a substrate, a by-product of cane sugar manufacturing, followed by distillation. The history of such wine and liquor making appears very old and k ila n g , a distilled liquor made from molasses, is recorded in old Javanese inscriptions before the 10th century and N ã g a ra k è r tã g am a of the 14th century. In Mid Luzon Island of the Philippines, a traditional wine called basi, is made from sugarcane. At the beginning of the 17th century, it is presumed to have already been fermented in the Ilo co s district, which is famous for its terraced paddy fields. The preparation procedure for b a s i native to the Philippines will be introduced here according to a study by M. Kozaki et al.204) There are three methods which have local characteristics and the products of each method includes two types. The latter two products are babae for females which has a stronger sweetness and la la k e for males which is dry. These varieties of products are differentiated by regulation of the concentration on preparation, e.g., by such a procedure that cane juice is highly concentrated to Juice Sugarcane Addition of mangrove bark, Pouring into guava leavesanaothers ------► Chinese4ype pot r Cooling down to 40°C and then addition of ^ amazake (a sweet drink made from fermented rice for saccharification) . Ageing for 6^12 ____ Filtration using smallish _. Product of months cloth and basket basi Traditional foods surving increase sweetness for being suited to consumption by males.

Among the preparation methods for basi, the outline of the method for la union is indicated as follows- Since amazake has been fermented for one day after adding hing-qu to steamed rice, it contains highly active yeasts and lactic acid bacteria which are sufficiently active to expect it to give flavour and act as a starter culture. After one week, bing-qu is added to continue fermentation for another month. The time course of changes in the microflora during the fermentation is that true yeasts reach a maximum in number in the second or third weeks, while the filamentous yeasts endowed with starch- saccharifying capacity reach their maximum number after about one week, followed by rapid decrease after two weeks. Lactic acid bacteria which produce acid reach their maximum number also after one week and then gradually decrease. Such interesting changes were found during time course studies of microbial growth among the microflora.204)

Table 16 Microbial numbers in samac collected in North Ilocos of Luzon, the

Philippines (lg) Bacteria Sample Yeasts Lactic acid bacterium Total number Mold Leaf Fruit Bark 44.80x10s 58.4 38.8 18.28xl010 31.6 25.3 9.28X101 32.2 8xl03 37.4 54.2 4.7 xlO3 4.9 51.6 22.48x10s 26.4 28.2 21.28x10s 30.4 25.2 46 32 44 30 50 60 82 4.3 4.4 21.28X101 24.3 18.2 48.28xl02 31.4 30.6 90 60

[After P.C. Sanchez et al. (1979)277)] Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia [After P.O. Sanchez et al. (1979)277>] In addition to this, there are different procedures to prepare basi. In the Ilo co s district, starter cultures such as Chinese-type b in g -q u or a m a za k e are not employed, but fruits, leaves and the bark of citrus plants called sam a c (M acharanga ta n a r iu s L. and M g ra n d ifo lia L.), mangrove bark and roughly ground grain are used.277) Moreover, there are some differences in the method of ageing. The components of basi, a sugarcane-juice wine, are indicated in Table 17. The main yeasts of b a s i fermentation were identified as S a cch a rom yces cerev isia e , S . b a yana s, and a filamentous yeast with starch-saccharifying capacity was found to be S a cch a rom ycop sis ã b u lig e r and the lactic-acid bacteria P ed io co ccu sp e n to sa ce u s and L a c to b a c illu s c a s e i204) In Java, a distilled liquor called c h iu is made by fermentation of molasses, a by-product from the sugar-manufacturing factory, followed by distillation.275- 278) However, wine making has not spread there due to religious and legal-regulational circumstances and is practised only on a small-scale at the farmer level to produce traditional and local drinks, one of which is c h iu (alcohol content- about 40 ~ 60%), resembling rum of Jamaica. The preparation procedure is as follows: after pasteurisation of molasses (sugars- 50~60%), water is added to give a sugar concentration of about 12%, the pH is adjusted to 5.5—6.0; this diluted molasses is transferred to a drum can for mash fermentation, and then distilled immediately after mash fermentation for about one week (alcohol content- 5~6%). Photo. 24 Basi making (in the Philippines;Expression of sugarcane to Traditional foods surving

Table 17 Components of basi, a sugarcane wine I te m B a s ib a b a fi B a sila la ke f*

R e d u c in g s u g a r (%) 1 3 .0 0 1 3 .6 2 ° 8 . 2 5 1 0 .5 0

A c id ity (0 .1 N 2 . 6 2 3 .8 9 2 . 5 0 3 .6 8

N a O H /5 /n i> 1 0 .8 5 1 2 .9 6 1 2 . 7 5 1 4 .8 2

A lco h o l (% V ) 0 . 3 3 0 .3 9 0 . 3 2 0 .3 7

A s h (%) 1 4 8 2 5 2 1 8 2 2 9 1

P o ly p h e n o l (mg/100ml)

[Prepared according to M. Kozaki (I99l)204) a- For females, For males, c- Each determined value indicates the variation range among local traditional products (La Union, Ilocos and Pangasinan). Since a drum can is repeatedly used only by washing roughly this procedure is called the Tomodane method,® 10) which allows the utilisation of residual yeasts in the fermentation of the next batch so that this method does not require the inoculation of cultured yeasts. Sometimes tape ketan (a fermented product of sticky rice by microbial saccharification) is added. Distillation is performed by a simple device like an alembic type. Fission yeasts isolated from the fermentation mash of the c/z/zr making factory in

Mid Java has neither the capacity to ferment nor to utilise starch and has been identified to be Schizosaccharomycespombe.218) This

S. pombe is an alcohol-producing yeast, which is also isolated from palm wine, the fermentation broth of arak and molasses.

Sweet foods made from starchy materials by microbial saccharific- ation

Traditional foods made from starchy materials by microbial saccharification in Java include brern kue and in addition, a sweet snack called tape, similar to 'am a za k è n) Using sticky rice or cassava as a substrate, ragi (a Chinese-type starter culture, bing-qu) containing saccharifying molds and yeasts is added as an inoculum and the rice or cassava subjected to fermentation. Fermented sticky rice and cassava are called ta p e k e ta n and ta p e s in g ko n g , respectively They are traditional snacks similar to a m a za k e or y o k a n 12) Although y o k a n is not a fermented food, the am a za k e and ta p e k e ta n have a mild sweetness produced by microbial or enzymic saccharification of starch, a slight sourness and an alcoholic odour. Sometimes bananas or maize are used as a material for making them. As traditional foods made by microbial saccharification of starch similarly to tape, there are b in u b u d a n g or b in u b u ra n g in the Philippines, k h a o m a k in Thailand, ta p a i p u lu t in Malaysia and others. Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia P ed ig ree o f tr a d itio n a l a lcoho lic b eve ra g e s in S o u th e a s t A s ia 143191> 281, 282) Alcoholic beverages as traditional foods of Southeast Asia are generally prepared by small-scale and old-fashioned devices and procedures. In addition, the spheres of their circulation and consumption are limited to the locality and are not widely distributed Table 18 Traditional alcoholic beverages ofSoutheast Asia* Palm wine Rice wine Amazake (sweet product) Sugarcane wine Distilled liquor

Thailand Nam tai mou Nam khao Sato Ou Khao mak (l.2%)b Mecon (from rice wine)

The

Philippines TubdA-h%) Bahai Bahalina Tapuy (18-19%) Binubudan! Binuburan (several %) Basi (11-15%) Lambanog (30-40%)

Indonesia TualdSVo) Brem Bali (6-13%) Tapeketan (1.8-2.9%) Tape singkong (several %) Arrackh (50-60%) Sopic Chiud

Malaysia Tuak/Toddy Tapai pulut (1.1%) a: Prepared after refs. 204), 273), 275), 277), 280-283), 297). b- Made from palm wine, rice winei c^ From palm wine; d* From molasses. Figures in parentheses are concentrations (%) of alcohol. Traditional foods surving as merchandise. However, most of them have been habitually used by inhabitants everywhere for a long time, perhaps since the pre-European age. The names and alcoholic contents of traditional alcoholic beverages consumed currently in some regions of Southeast

Asia are indicated in Table 18. Comparing this list with that of the alcoholic beverages in Table 8, the pedigree of alcoholic beverages will be discussed, laying stress on Javanese products on which a plentiful literature has been found Palm wine called tu a k or tw a k appears to have been the most popular wine throughout the

Hindu-Javanese period of the pre-European age. T u a k is widely consumed on a daily basis even now in a manner similar to leg en or n ir a , non-fermented palm-flower sap. A word tu a k has been used for both non- fermented n ira and its spontaneously fermented product palm wine. A r a k which is obtained by distillation after a sufficient fermentation of palm wine is presumed to be a general name given to distilled liquor, since distilled liquor prepared from materials other than tu a k , i.e., fermented sugarcane juice or sticky rice is similarly called a ra k according to old Javanese historical records. On the other hand, k ila n g found in old Javanese historical records is a ra k made from sugarcane while s id d h u is also a strong drink made by distillation of molasses. In addition, m ã sta w a is regarded as a kind of rum. Yet, neither of distilled liquors is prepared at present and the precise meaning of the two words, k ila n g and s id d h u , is unknown because they have already become obsolete. The distillation technique developed in Arabia and India was already introduced into Java before the 10th century. By the time of the 14th century, brern wine and a sweet snack ta p e clearly made from rice appeared in old Javanese historical records.

Before that time, alcoholic drinks served at feasts were mainly tu a k and others such as k ila n g or sid d h u . These drinks were all made by fermentation of materials used as a substrate that have a principal component of sugars easily giving wine by an alcohol fermentation by yeasts. Accordingly, the appearance of brern may suggest that the starter culture b in g -q u (the Chinese-type starter culture) having saccharification capacity was introduced from

China and transmitted to the present time as rag i. Although nowadays a fermentation method which performs a two step reaction of starch saccharification and alcohol fermentation with a single strain, like the amylo process, is known, such strains were not found during the old Javanese age. Wine making from rice and other grains is a very important task also among various minorities dwelling in mountainous districts of the continental region. They conduct starch saccharification and alcohol fermentation using b in g -q u ^ oie 98) This fact may support a view that the appearance of rice wine is associated with the introduction of b in g -q u from China, together with another inference that a Javanese word brern has been derived from the colour of Chinese traditional rice wine, la o -jiu (3§S, Chinese rice wine), having a long history of about 2,400 years, as mentioned in Sect. B rern Wine of Bah Island, (see pp. 329^332) The appearance of rice-fermented beverages such as brern , ta p e and others is considered to have occurred in about the 10th century (see Table 8), but it is assumed that b in g -q u used to prepare these fermentation products was probably the product of technology transfer through the medium of trading merchants, since Chinese settlements had not yet developed at that time. The preparation method for brern at present is a solid-state fermentation with double steps running in parallel. Although it is not entirely the same as that of the Chinese rice wine la o -jiu which is made mainly by liquid fermentation, it is well resembling the preparation method in its preceding-step intermediate lin -fa n -jiu WMffi). Further improvement of brern by Javanese inhabitants in accordance with the local conditions have been devised and practised. J. Saono et al.272) reported R h izo p u s spp. as a genus of molds having the abilities of saccharification and alcohol production and genera of the molds M uco r and A m y lo m y c e s having the abilities of saccharification and liquefaction, but A sp e rg illu s o ryza e found in Japanese-type grained k o ji (iScIS, bara -ko ji) was not isolated. Among the above strains, R h izo p u s spp., are the main saccharification strains for brewing the Chinese wine lao -jiu . However, the above-mentioned view that the appearance of rice wine means the introduction of the starter culture b in g -q u still raises questions. One of them is associated with a description in Sect. Cao~qu or ^ ® ) of N a n -fa n -ca o -m u -zh u a n g a botanical book on the southern countries, written in the J in age of the late 3rd centmy) M^^kt^W i^W !({Cao-qu, a kind of traditional botanical starter culture, is abundant in southern countries where k o ji (starter culture) is not used for brewing wine. Grinding rice to make powder, mixing it with many grass leaves, Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving pouring the juice of vines onto it and mixing them up together and placing in the grass, the preparation can be used as a starter culture after a month. This is added to sticky rice to prepare wine.))182) This describes that rice wine was made using a local starter culture which was not introduced from China but produced in Southeast Asia in the pre-European age. Another problem is basi making in the Philippines. In the Hocos district, bing-qu or amazake-hke sweet rice wine saccharified by fermentation is not used, but the fruits, leaves and bark of citruses are employed to make basi'.204) However, such a technique of incorporating plant materials into the starter culture is also used in preparing the starter culture for the rice wine lao-jiu in

China. Since in addition to this there are some aspects of cao-quin common with Chinese bing-qu, e.g., which rice powder is employed as a base for preparing the starter culture in various places and is used without heating, it is not plausible that the cao~qu was entirely independent of the Chinese-origin bing-qu. The traditional alcoholic drinks mentioned above, that have been transmitted to Southeast Asia in the present day, especially wine prepared from indigenous materials native to this area such as palms and sugarcane, are being prepared and consumed on a small scale in their respective districts. Rice, which is a main agricultural product, is also essential for wine making. As indicated in Table 18, most of the various wines prepared and made habitual use of by the local inhabitants are found in records during or before the European colonial age. Thus they maybe worthy of being called traditional drinks owing to their long history of use. There is a custom in Southeast Asia that the fermented mash is immediately processed to yield distilled liquor rather than the consumption of rice wine as it is, which is perishable in Southeast Asia probably due to relatively high temperatures.

4 Soybean products

Among the traditional foods of Southeast Asia, those derived from soybeans occupy a special position. There are many traditional soybean products in various districts of Southeast Asia such as tem p e , soybean condiments corresponding to Japanese m iso , soysauce and other fermented foods as well as non-fermented food like ta&L. All of these foods are the same as or similar to the soybean products of China which is the place of origin for soybeans and where these soybean-processed foods were developed. Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia T em pe 274-275- 280~ 283) T em pe is a non-salted fermented soybean food that can be compared to Japanese n a tto . N a tto is prepared by fermentation using a bacterial strain B a c illu s n a tto , while tem p e is a traditional fermented food in Java prepared by using an inoculum of R h izo p u s spp. (mostly R o ligosporus) and allowing subsequent incubation, T em pe is considered to be an important protein source together with fish, chicken and eggs in Java. In its main characteristics tem pe, a non-salted fermented soybean-product, is similar to d a n -d o u -ch i (^IDS, a non-salted fermented soybean product) in China. The traditional preparation procedure is as follows-281) Soybean ----► boiüng(for about 30 minutes)---► hulling and washing — ► soaking in water (at room ___ re-boiling or steaming temperature for about one day) (for about 6Q minutes) — ^ draining and standing to cool ---^ inoculation of ragi (starter culture, lg/kg soybean) __ ^ wrapped with banana , ---- leaves etc ____ ► Fermentatlon (a t ------► tempe leaves, etc. w room temperature, mpe about 28°C, for 38~ 40 hours) The general chemical composition (%) of tem p e is moisture content 64, protein 18, fat 4, and carbohydrate 13. As for its nutritive value, it has been found that the protein efficiency ratio (PER) and digestibility of soybeans did not increase, while total soluble solids, vitamins, free fatty acids and free amino acids increased in the growth test in rats. A fermentation product used the strained lees (squeezed residue) of coconuts as a starting material instead of soybeans is called tem p e b o n g k r e k In contrast, the product from fermented soybeans is called tem p e k e d e la i. Since the temperature of tem p e b o n g k r e k happens to be Traditional foods surving

Table 19 Nutritional composition of traditional fermented foods of Indonesia

(/ lOOg)______Tempe Oncom Tauco

Calorie 149.0 187.0 182

Protein (g) 18.3 13.0 10.0 lipid (g) 4.0 6.0 5.0

Carbohydrate ig) 12.7 22.6 24.0

Vitamin A (IÜ) 50.0

Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.17 0.09

Vitamin B12 (ng/g) 29 ±5.0 31.0 ±7.0

[After F.G. Winamo (1982)280)] elevated to about 40 °C owing to heat produced by the fermentation, sometimes Pseudomonas cocovenenans can propagate in tempe bongkrek.21^-281) This bacterial strain produces an enzyme that hydrolyses the glycerides of coconut oil contained in the food to give glycerols and fatty acids, while a yellowish toxin called toxoflavin CN°te") occurs.

On the other hand, fatty acids also produce a colourless toxic substance bongkrekic acid. ^ote 100) These toxic substances inhibit gfycogen metabolism and are harmful to humans inducing death four hours after eating. Since the propagation of P cocovenenans is prohibited, if the pH of the substrate is lowered to about 5.5 while the growth of the mold responsible for fermentation is not inhibited, the pH regulation of the substrate is effective and important in controlling food poisoning due to P cocovenenans:281)

A traditional habit of indigenous inhabitants of adding crushed leaves of oxalis (Oxalis sepium var. picta) is considered to lower the pH of tempe bongkrek and is accordingly effective in inhibiting the growth of the toxic bacterium. Ibmpe is eaten after frying or cooking in a soup together with tauco, a traditional condiment. Originally tempe was popular among the inhabitants of Java as a traditional food and, furthermore a recent trend has been noted of a rapidly spreading consumption of tempe in Java but also in the Outer Islands of Indonesia.

Oncom 247f28°,28i)

Oncom is a traditional fermented food native to West Java, made by mold fermentation similar to that used to make tempe. The products are of two kinds. One of them cultivates Neurospora sitophila or N. intermedia on a substrate of the peanut presscake and appears red owing to the colour of their spores and is called oncom merah (Merah means red). In contrast, another product cultivates Rhizopus oligosporus and is called oncom hitam (Hitam means black), since its spores are black. The preparation procedure for oncom is as follows: Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Peanut ___ ^ Soaking in water ___ ^ Washing, draining___ presscake (for about 24 hrs.) and pressing ► R esiH naU nf n r p ^ in a ___ ^Steaming ___ ^ Wrapping with R esiduals ot pressing 4 5 _ 90 min ) ► banana leaves Incubation of Fermentation ___ ^ Fermentation at room — ► strain in the starter or previous temperature(about 28°C) batch of oncom for 24 hrs > Product of oncom In the preparation of oncom, cassava cake or soybean cake which are the residues of tapioca manufacturing and soybean curd preparation are sometimes added to washed and pressed peanut cake with a mixing ratio 10~40% to increase the yield or improve the texture of the product. Oncom is consumed by frying or by cooking together with vegetables and other foods. The two products, of merah and hitam oncom, show no significant difference in chemical composition and an example of the analytical composition in percentage is moisture 57, protein 13, fat 6, carbohydrate 22281) and some alcohols or esters produced to give specific flavour to oncom. Similarly to tempe making, oncom manufacture involves a risk of mycotoxin problems resulting from the growth of Aspergillus flavus which can produce aflatoxin. So it is necessary to pay particular attention to food sanitation aspects and the control of the manufacturing process. One of the most effective methods is considered to be to keep water content of raw materials lower than 12% which is inhibitory for the growth of flavus. Both tempe and oncom are made at small local factories or at home and so control of the sanitary conditions of the raw materials and the manufacturing process are apt to become inadequate from the viewpoint of the prevention of food poisoning. Accordingly, the safety of these traditional fermented foods is one Traditional foods surving of the future problems to be solved.

Soybean fermented condiments

Bearing a close relationship to the Chinese [At present they are called SjSA (Chinese people) and MM (Chinese descendants) scattered in various places in Southeast Asia, the technology to manufacture fermented condiments from processed soybeans which was developed in China has been modified so that they may inhabitants of Southeast Asia and thus unique local condiments are manufactured and sold in the markets. Here, kecap and tauco from Indonesia will be described, based on research by the author himself and some others.247-274’284-285) Kecap is a condiment corresponding to soysauce of Japan.

There are two kinds of kecap, i.e., kecap manis, a type with much sugar and less salt and kecap asin, a type with less sugar and much salt. The contents of sugar and salt are 26~61% and 3~6% respectively in the former (a high-sugar, low salt type) and 4~

19% and 18~21% respectively in the latter (a lowsugar, high salt type). Recently, an intermediate type between these two and kecap kental, of a highly viscous manis type has been placed on the market. The preparation procedure for kecap resembles that of tauco and is very similar to that of a Japanese condiment

1 mamemisò{a kind of miso prepared by koji made from only soybeans and a subsequent brine fermentation). Both the procedures for preparing kecap and tauco are indicated in Fig. 23, together with that for old Chinese taosi (5g£) which is assumed to be the origin for these Indonesian condiments, for reference. The fermentation process is initiated by koji making

(preparation of the starter culture) in both kecap and tauco manufacture. The powder is scattered over boiled soybeans which have been cooled and dried to an appropriate level and the soybean koji proceeds to ferment. As the starter culture, a commercial bing-qu for making tempe (called laru in West Java) or tempe itself is sometimes used. In some factories, from the same mature mash, either of kecap or tauco can be prepared depending on the needs on the market. So, using such methods of manufacturing, the microflorae of these three soybean fermented foods, kecap, tauco and tempe become similar to each other. In Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Taosi-preparation methods in anicient China Material, soybean Boiling ▼ Cooked soybean I ifo/Ypreparation (ifo/7 making by I heaping method) Bean koji ____ Winnwving Washing Draming Drying „ ■ > ■ Heaping ^ stampmg Drying I INon-salty taosi [ (Qi-min -yao -sh u, Koji from sticky rice, " NaCl, Bean extracts Mixing Mash prejjaration Fermentation, ageing Drying Mixing by kneading Steaming i I Salty taosi [ CShi-jing, Fig. 23 Present manufacturing processes of soybean condiments, kecap and tauco in Indonesia and taosrprepaation methods in ancient China247) (Note a) kering = dried to semi-solid; manis- sweet; cair = added with much water to make a form of liquid. (Note b) There are two kinds of taosi in China, salty taosi and non-salty taosi Traditional foods surving

A factory (in Cianjuè Material. Yellow Soybean 60kg T Washing, Primary boiling (3.5ii) Keeping in a cooker overnight Hulling by stamping Secondary boili ig(2.5ti), draining Cookec Starker culturesovbean A small amount of tapioca ^ 'p re p a ra tio n (on bamboo flat crate, for 2 days) Bean Koii I ___ NaCl 30Ãg(for keacapor lbkgior tauco), water(~907) sjng (1-3 months for kecap or 2 weeks for i re^ i

Resi< Rough filtration aSuc^ SyFiffe] Aged mash 80 90 1 Hydration, boiling, extraction ;rate . . I M —Palm sugar 30kg ^ (1.5kg)

Heating (1.5 B Filtration with textile (7- times repeated) J Drying in the sun I T Residue Palm sugar ^ 12.5kg Heating in wet, Stitting

Packaging 1 Filtrate (320^ Boioing palm suga] ;ar 'g i

\Tauco kering I 113j^

(superior grade) Drying in the sun Heating in wet. Stirring Concentrating up to 32° Bè Packaging \ \Taucokering 1 30kg (ordinary grade) Storage 1 bottling \Taucokerind 2201 (kental) Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia B factory (in Bogor) Material, black soybean VòOkg Waslrung Soaking ▼ Boüing DT ° " ' “ T * Cooked soybean } Koji preparation (Sometimes the starter is not used.) Drying, winnowing---Bean koji NaCl 25kg, water 907 per bean koji 25kg Mash preparation Agdng (more than 2 weeks) Aged mash Heating Extraction with brine(~20%), 5 -time^repetition Extracts Boiling, concentrating up to 400 Bè f 8 I Kecap manis | 16001 C factory (in Cianjur) Traditional foods surving Material, blacl^sovbean 100^ Huling, crushing i Washing I Boiling (67?) Half-drying in the sun Cooked soybean ^ M --- Strater culture Koji prep aration (3 days) Bean koji NaCl 0.5kg, water 77 per bean koji 3kg Mash preparation Primary ageing (14-20 days) Secondary ageing (1—2 months) Aged mash 140kg I ra lm suger 21 kg, cane sugar 8kg <4— spices a small amount, ± water ~ 1407per aged mash lOOTr^ — r " * I Tauco cair I 2007 Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Photo. 25 Tauco making (in Java; Soybean koji is sun-dried at intervals.) Photo. 26 Kecap making in Indonesia (Palm sugar is added to fermented soybean mash and boiled.) [Photographed by Dr. K. Kawashima] this case, this case, Rhizopus oligosporus is the main strain for fermentation. The strains isolated from bean koji and equipment for the preparation of kecap and tauco in the factories of West Java during our survey were molds such as Aspergillus, Eurotium, Rhizopus and other molds as well as the bacterium Bacillus Traditional foods surving subtilis, but Aspergillus oryzae and A. sojae which are the principal strains of starter culture for making miso and shõyu

(soysauce) in Japan were not found As the major strain for manufacturing soybean-fermented condiments in not only Java but also Thailand and Malaysia, A flavus strains such as A. flavus Link var. columnaris Raper et

Fennell and others with a high proteolytic activity have been isolated. Still, a view would be plausible that the major microbes in native bean\fcyY might be replaced with A. flavus var. columnaris because of its strong capacity to degrade soybean and its wide distribution in this area during the course of the long historical period of bean-koji under the natural environmental conditions of Southeast Asia, even if the technique and fermentation strains for the preparation of soybean koji were introduced by Chinese immigrants or traders to various places of

Southeast Asia from old China. Fortunately this strain was found not to have the ability to produce aflatoxin.286) Kecap is widely consumed either for cooking or table use in

Malaysia and Indonesia. Malayan inhabitants prefer a kecap manis type (Manis means sweet.) and there are many restaurants which provide only this type of kecap on the table. For Indonesian dishes such as sate (spit-roasted meat) similar to yakitori of Japan

(spit-chicken grilled with soysauce), soto and semur (meat soup), ketoprak (cooked vegetables), tumis (fried vegetables), tongseng

(cooking of goat meat and vegetables), etc., kecap manis is used.

Kecap asin (Asin means salty) is used for Chinese-style cooking such as baso (a soup dish containing meat dumplings, vegetables and noodles) and mi (noodles) and at present this condiment has become popular to some extent also among Malayan inhabitants. Tauco, which resembles Japanese mamemiso, is also called taoco. After its uncooked mature mash (tauco men tali) is sweetened with a considerable amount of sugar and stirred, the solids are sun-dried to get tauco kering, or alternatively tauco basah or tauco cair,; a liquid-state condiment product containing

Tauco\ which resembles Japanese mamemiso, is also called taoco.

After its uncooked mature mash {tauco men tali) is sweetened with a considerable amount of sugar and stirred, the solids are sun-dried to get tauco kering, or alternatively tauco basah or tauco cair, a liquid-state condiment product containing soybean particles, which is prepared without sun drying, by adding water, palm sugar, various kinds of spices, mixing well by stirring and then cooking. A product simply called tauco means tauco basah or tauco cair. Tauco kering is used after modification into tauco cair by the addition of water followed by cooking at home. Tauco is Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Fig.24 Nitrogen analysis of Indonesian kecap and Japanese soysauce [Indonesian kecap 247) (•) 5 Japanese soysauce (type): concentrated (*), pale colour (A), tamariix), white (o) ] used for the preparation of side dishes, e.g., vegetable dishes, dishes using cooked meat, tafii (soybean curd) and bean sprouts together with spices, and spicy dishes of eggs, tafu, tempe, vegetables, and spices. There is a general trend that tauco is felt to be too salty for Malayan inhabitants and its consumption appears to be limited to Chinese "line age citizens. However, soybean-fermented condiments similar to kecap and tauco are now being made in various places in Southeast Asia, not to mention in Chinese settlements. Most of them are manufactured and sold by Chinese immigrants and so it is suggested that the manufacture of these condiments may be based on Chinese-derived technology. Tahu (soybean curd)281- 287>288) There is a soybean product called tahu which is widely consumed Traditional foods surving in Southeast Asia, although it is not a fermented food The lees of soybean milk which are a by-product of tahu-makmg are utilised as a raw material for the preparation of oncom merah, a traditional fermented food (see p.344)274-281) The traditional procedure for making tahu is as followsSoybean Soaking ___ Hulling to ___^ Soaking for ___. for about 12 hrs ^ remove skin a short time

Mashing for of soybean

Expression in a cloth ___ bag oration Presscak Boiling of mashed mixture for about 30 min. ►Use for oncom fermentation or cattle feed soybean milk Coagulation Formative process to ___ ^ Soybean curd (tahu) put reaction mixture into a wooden frame lined with cloth ___ ^ Supernatant fluid (laru) As a coagulant, gypsum (CaS04) powder or dilute acetic acid is used. Sometimes, the supernatant fluid obtained after the coagulation of soybean milk in the previous manufacturing lot is added again to the bean-mashed mixture to induce coagulation.

Hardness of the tahu product appears to be related to the cooking procedure used, and Southeast Asian tahu is generally harder than the Japanese product, perhaps since fried dishes are more frequently cooked in the Southeast Asian area as compared with

Japan. Bean curd can be prepared not only from soybean but also the other beans such as pea or broad bean. In Indonesia, there is a soybean fermented food called taoji which has a red appearance.

This food item is prepared by adding small-size pieces of tahu to the mash of kecap and tauco fermentation in mash.289) Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia 5 Fisheiy salt-preserved foods and fish sauce290 291) All over Southeast Asia, especially in the coastal zone, there are traditions of salt-preserved foods made of fish and shellfish using a lot of salt and soysauce-like marine condiments. These products are traditional foods characteristic to those districts of Southeast Asia. Since putrefaction of marine products proceeds rapidly in hot equatorial districts and risks of food poisoning due to pathogenic bacteria are also considerable, such a storage method using salt, which has been conducted traditionally and widely in Southeast Asia, has contributed greatly to the utilisation of marine products and the supply of protein-rich foods to its inhabitants. Salt is used widely in the area and is available at a low price in Southeast Asia as a material for preserving marine products. Prior to introducing traditions of this kind in marine product processing throughout Southeast Asia, its principle will be explained in brief.292) It is considered possible that the preservation and antisepsis of fish and shellfish is mainly based on salt causing dehydration through osmotic pressure. Biological membranes have the property of being semipermeable in nature, but after the death of fish and shellfish, this property is destroyed and the membranes become permeable. If salt is added to a fish body, water contained in the body moves at first toward the salt or concentrated salt water outside, which causes the occurrence of dehydration in fish and shellfish flesh. Then, as the tissue membranes change and become permeable to salt, salt outside the fish body permeates into the fish and shellfish through the tissue membranes. Salt concentrations inside the fish body become higher through these processes. In the microbial cells associated with putrefaction and food poisoning, a similar dehydration takes place, followed by plasmolysis and further damage leading to denaturation of cell membranes, and eventually to inactivation of the microbial cells. In addition, there are inhibition of enzymatic activities of fish and shellfish, reduction of soluble oxygen in salt solutions and a sterilisation action of chloride ions themselves during salt-preservation, resulting in cured fish of highly storable factors. The exudation of water from fish bodies and permeation of salt into fish bodies are the most remarkable and important processes in the Traditional foods surving salt-preservation method. As to the utilisation method of fish caught, there are two principal methods, i.e., preservation- utilisation of cured fish with salt and utilisation of exudates from fish or extracts from boiling fish as a condiment. During the curing of fish with salt, fermentation and ageing in wide meaning proceed. A product called shiokara (salted and fermented viscera) is a marine food of muscles, stomach and other internal organs cured by the addition of and then subjected to ageing. Another product called fish sauce or fish paste is a filtrate or supernatant of exuded liquid from shiokara, a degradation liquid from fish produced during a long period of storage, or a liquid product obtained by extraction of fish and shellfish by boiling, with subsequent fermentation after the addition of a starter culture like koji and then filtration of the fermented broth. Changes during fermentation and ageing are complex. Fish-derived proteins are degraded to glutamic acid and other amino acids which may become delicious components, by the action of autolytic enzymes contained in the fish alimentary canal and muscles, salt-resistant lactic acid bacteria, halophilic bacteria in sun-dried salt and in addition, when starter cultures are used, their microbial action.

Next, some traditional examples of shiokara and marine condiments as salt-preserved fish products found in various places in Southeast Asia will be introduced, (see Table 20 in p.362)

Although these traditions are found mainly in rice-eating districts, it is interesting that such customs are also practised in the

Moluccas, a sago-palm starch district.

Preparation o/pra hoc being traditional in Cambodia

Lake Tonle Sap in Cambodia, the largest lake in Southeast Asia is located in the plain of the monsoon area and to prepare pra hoc; a kind of fish cured with salt, a large number of fish are caught descending the River Tonle Sap which connects the lake and the

River Mekong during the dry season. The water level of Lake

Tonle Sap rises owing to the backflow from the River Mekong swollen during the rainy season that begins at the end of May and the area of the lake reaches its maximum. In November, the dry season starts and the lake water goes down the River Tonle Sap to pour into the River Mekong. The water level of the lake in the dry season is about 10m lower than the water level in the rainy season and the lake area decreases to about one third of that during the rainy season to a minimum in March. Due to the rise and fall of the lake water level and the increase and decrease of the lake area associated with the periodical repetition of the rainy and dry seasons under such a monsoon climate, Lake Ibnle Sap is a world-famous source of an abundant fish supply. Forests surrounding the lake become flooded during the rainy season and provide a good spawning site for fish and water suitable for the growth of fry. When the dry season comes to lower the water Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Photo. 27 Tonle Sap Lake during the flooded rainy season (Cambodia). level of the main stream of the River Mekong, the lake water flows in large quantities down to the Mekong through the River Tbnle Sap. Following this stream, large numbers of fish go down the River Tbnle Sap and fishermen of the Cham dwelling in villages along the shore catch these fish using a procedure called dai fishing’The dai is a large fishing net of about 100m in length with its mouth open towards upstream and many nets of this kind are set up along the stream to collect fish in the nets.^016101) Fish caught include not only freslrwater fish such as carp, catfish, snake-head mullet and others but also marine fish such as tongue sole, swellfish, halfbeak and others. Such fish are processed immediately after catching to prepare pra hoc, fish cured with salt, because the atmospheric temperature in the dry season is high and induces rapid putrefaction of the fish caught. Small fish about 10 cm in length are suitable as a raw material for pra hoc making. At first the heads, internal organs, tails and dorsal fins of the fish are cut off Traditional foods surving by members of whole families. Then, the treated fish are put into baskets, washed with river water and the scales and viscera entirely washed off by repeated washing procedures and stamping.

After draining, the fish bodies are sprinkled with sufficient crude salt and rubbed to become covered by the salt. These fish bodies are pickled into earthen pots, sometimes with added spices. The result of making pra hoc appears to be dependent on the addition of salt for pickling. After about 3 months the fermentation proceeds to the appropriate degree. Pra hoc is taken as a side dish accompanying cooked rice as a staple food or used to prepare soup, and is an important protein source for the inhabitants of

Cambodia. Pra hoc manufacture eliminates the visceral contents of the fish to proper extent and is served as a favourable side dish for local inhabitants. Exudates from fish bodies are called tuck trai and used as a condiment, similar to soysauce in Japan. This is a kind of fish sauce. Pra hoc making is an annual event after the rice harvest, during the dry season and farmers including those from distant villages come to the riverside of the Tonle Sap putting together in a row their oxcarts for the preparation of pra hoc by the whole family. In the case of a family with 5 ~ 6 members, about 100~300 kg of fish is treated to prepare pra hoc, enough for a year's consumption.

Fish sauce making in the continental region

Although fish sauce making has declined in most parts of China, as a result of competition with taosi and bean sauce (Both are fermented condiments), there are some districts which have retained the tradition of fish sauce making in the continental region of Southeast Asia. One of native places for fish sauce making is a village Serm, located in the northeast part of

Thailand. There is a large underground rock-salt layer in this village and salt is produced by pumping up underground water or from salt-containing soil by a solar evaporation process. After the whole fish, including heads and viscera, which are caught in the rainy season in small amounts, are put into a pot, adequate amounts of salt and rice bran are added and stirred to mix them well. The storable fermented fish is called plaa'deek (dialect; plaa fish, deek eat) or plaaraa and this local product is eaten as it is or used to prepare a fish sauce called nam plaa (a kind of condiment), which is a liquid obtained by the expression of fermented fish, followed by filtration. Plaa-deek, pra hoc mentioned above and others are preserved fish foods in tropical regions where raw fish is perishable and condiments made from them. These fish products are well fitted to rice meals and have become a traditional food. The skilful preparation procedures for these products have been conveyed from parents to their children. Nam plaa, well known as a traditional fish sauce in Thailand, is a shiokararYik& condiment which is prepared by putting small fish in a pot, curing with salt and standing to ferment. Inserting a basket with a fine mesh into the pot, only liquid coming inside the basket is used as fish sauce. Also nuoc mam of Vietnam is a similar fermented fish sauce, which was pickled fish with salt in a pot, covered with a cap and stored for fermentation and ageing. It has a salty taste and characteristic odour. The enzymes and microbes concerned with the fermentation process of these kinds of fish sauce are still unknown. Phu-Quoc Island on the opposite side of Ha-tien in the territory of Vietnam near the Cambodian border is famous as a place producing nuoc mam, a kind of fish sauce. Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Marine preserved foods and condiments o f the archipelago region In Java there are some traditional durable processed foods and condiments, e.g., kerupuk udang (udang- shrimp), petis and trasi in the local language. Kerupuk udang is prepared by mixing well shrimps and the flesh of various comparatively large fish with additives of tapioca, sugar, salt, eggs and others, making dough, giving it a cylindrical shape, wrapping with banana leaves, steaming for two hours, slicing (about 2 mm in thickness) after cooling and then drying to a water content of about 12% which does not allow microbial growth. Kerupuk udang contains calcium and phosphorus beside proteins and has characteristically strong odour, which some people dislike because of its strength. This would be a common character among traditional favourite foods. Petis is a unique condiment native to East Java, which is made by water extraction of fish or shrimp. The preparation procedure for a petis is cooking of small fish or shrimps by heating for about 1 hour, filtering and boiling the filtrate after the addition of palm sugar equal to the half of the filtrate, followed by boiling down to a Traditional foods surving fixed viscosity after the addition of rice porridge and salt and then cooling to solidify Petis also contains proteins, calcium and phosphorus and is consumed over the wide area. On the other hand, the residues after filtration of the extracts are sun-dried and the dried product is called' ebi, which is consumed as a condiment or favourite food. Shrimps and small fish, Javanese-special fishery products from coastal fisheries, appear to have been extensively utilised. A product called trasi or petis at present is documented as acan in the copperplate inscription of the Majapahit Dynasty time discovered in East Java. Raffles mentions petis as a condiment at the beginning of the 19th century in his book The history o f Java and his description also includes trasi prepared from small fish.

The Malaysian name of petis is belacan. A imsrlike product is called bagoong alamang in the Philippines, prahx and mom tom made from shrimp in Cambodia and padec in Laos. Trasi is used to prepare sambalsauce made with spices, the main component of which is red pepper. Beside this, there are some durable fish foods and condiments prepared by the salting of fish in Java. In the northern coastal districts, fish products processed from marine fish from the Java

Sea and brackish- or fresh-water fish from fish farming ponds are found. Large fish after evisceration and small fish as they are piled up alternately with salt in an earthen pot with rice straws placed at the bottom and then cooked with mild heating after the addition of some water. When the fish bodies have become soft, excess water is discarded, heated to remove all the water and the fish are wrapped with large leaves of banana or other plants. This processed fish is a product called ikan pindang {ikan fish, pindang= pickle or preserve) and can be kept for 1~3 months. Ikan peda (fish pickled with salt) is prepared by including a fermentation process. Adding salt of about 25% to eviscerated fish, fermentation is conducted in a vessel for three days (primary fermentation). After washing and draining, the fish are piled in wooden boxes putting banana leaves between fish, and sprinkled with salt to about 30% of the whole. The box is covered with banana leaves, fermented again for about one week or longer

(secondary fermentation) and an aroma characteristic of ikan peda is developed through this process. Then the fish is taken out, dried to an appropriate extent by aeration and semi-dried ikan peda is produced. There is a possibility that not only enzymes in the fish body but also the halophilic bacteria in solar salt are contributing to this fermentation293) and also the production of lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria may help the durability of Ikan peda. The first grade of kecap ikan (kecap sauce, ikan = fish), a fish sauce of Java, is prepared by mixing 5 parts of small fish and 1 part of salt in a container, pressing the salted fish with a bamboo net and stone, standing to ferment for 4~12 months, collecting liquid in the bottom of the container and filtering and pasteurising it. Residual fish bodies are mixed with salt again and allowed to ferment for 4^6 months, followed by filtration to yield fish sauce of the second grade. In the Philippines, similar fishery products are prepared. As raw materials of small fish like anchovy and shrimps are mixed with salt and fermented for 4~6 months to get bagoong which is a fermentation broth containing residues of fish bodies. In addition, the liquid obtained from bagoong after fermentation by decantation, pressing and centrifugation is patis, which is used as a condiment. Bagoong contains proteinous nitrogen (about 10%), ,ash and a large amount of salt (more than20%).269) Skipjack tuna fish (Katsuwonuspelamis L.; cakalangin a local word) caught around the Moluccas are cut into two parts of right and left including heads, eviscerated and roasted on an open-air fire after being arranged in rows. Owing to smoke emitted from the fire, lightly smoked tuna can be obtained. Salt is not used in this case. This smoked fish is called ikan asar (ikan = fish, asar- smoke) in the local dialect. The eviscerated internal organs are used after frying, cooking or preparing shiokara (salted and fermented viscera) called bekasang. The preparation procedure for bekasang includes two kinds, i.e., the fresh fish is eviscerated, mixed with salt of 1/3 —1/2 fish and fermented for about one month in a container after sun-drying for 10~15 days, or without drying. No starter is used for the preparation of bekasang. In the Ternate Island, bekasang is made by collecting only stomachs of tuna. When people take sagu (starch of the sago palm), the staple food of this district, there is a local custom to take bekasang with the addition of a small lemon and cabe rawit (bird pepper, Capsicum frutescens L.), sometimes also with coconut oil, as a side dish. The taste of bekasang resembles that of shiokara in Japan. Cakalang Banda (a kind offish preserved by salting and drying; Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving cakalang- skipjack tuna in a local word) is prepared in the Banda

Islands, the native land of nutmeg, by the following procedure^ washing of tuna fillet, draining, slicing 1 cm in thickness, scattering a small amount of salt and piling it in an earthen pot for storage or pressing, elimination of exudates, and sun-drying for about 2 days. It is a delicious product and sold at market at a relatively expensive price. There is also a condiment called petis which resembles senji of Japan (concentrate of fish extract by boiling). The petis preparation procedure in the Moluccas is similar to those in Java, i.e., any kinds offish are piled alternately with salt up to eight-tenths full of a pan, at the bottom of which banana or rice-plant leaves are spread, and then boiling after the addition of water to half of the pan. Although the boiling time required is dependent upon the fish size, the fish is sufficiently boiled and the extracts are taken out from a hole in the lower part of the pan. Tb the extracts rice powder and spices are added and the mixture boiled again to a thick state to yield petis. On the other hand, fish in a pan are supplemented with water and boiled.

On heating to almost dryness, the fish cooled and stored after covering the pan. Ikan pindang (fish cured with salt) prepared in this way can be stored at room temperature for 3~7 days with 10

~20% salt and for 1~3 months with 30~40% salt. F. Noda290) has classified fish sauces in Southeast Asia, as indicated in Table 20. There are a large number of fish sauces derived from fish liquefied by the action of autolytic enzymes, while some are mushy because they contain residual broken fish bodies. Among fishery products prepared by much salting to preserve them, various kinds of traditional foods are included from condiments in paste form and shiokara (salted and fermented viscera) made from fish and shellfish like shrimp to salt-preserved fish like pindang fish, which hold the original form of a large fish body. Although the use of fermentation in the preparation is common to all these products, the flavour varies with products from different districts. Since too high a concentration of salt leads to a retardation in the actions of fermentation and degradation and too low a concentration induces putrefaction, the regulation of salt concentration is important.

With salt-preserved fish, it is intended to hold the original form of the fish as much as possible by evisceration to inhibit the proteolytic degradation due to autolysis and microbial action, while with the preparation of fish sauce the internal organs of fish are cured together with fish bodies to enable a sufficient degradation of fish flesh. Fish sauce may include in its wide meaning various salted and fermented fishery condiments as mentioned in this section, in addition to the common soy sauce. F. Yanagita et al.291) have proposed that fish sauce in the wide Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Table 20 Fish sauce and fish paste in Southeast Asia Country Liquid Solid Vietnam Nuocmam Mamtom Thailand Nampla Kapi Cambodia Nuocmam -gauca Prahoc Laos Nampla Padec Burma Nganbyaye Ngapi Malaysia Budu Balachan Indonesia Kecap ikan Trassi Philippines Patis Bagoong [After F.Noda(l993)29°)] meaning may involve the common fish sauce, shiokara and its paste, shrimp sauce and shrimp shiokara paste. 6 Starters used for food fermentation Fermented foods of Southeast Asia and bing-qu (Chinese-type starter) One of the most important processes for fermented food manufacture is the appropriate inoculation procedure of the microbial strain(s) for carrying out the fermentation. In Southeast Asia, two major methods of inoculation are practised. They are (l)to use the starter bing-qu or ffi;A character ft is a simplified form of Ü) similar to that used in China or cao-qu 0P*J# or and alternatively(2) to employ a natural inoculation method which allows the attachment or entry of microbes from the natural environment. In cases of fermentation to prepare sweet cakes and wine from starchy materials and Traditional foods surving soybean fermentation like tempe making, bing-qu or cao-qu is used. Such starter cultures of the bing-qu type in Southeast Asia are given their local name at individual places, for example, ragi in Java and Malaysia,272-282) lookpang or luek pang in Thailand294) and bubbodm the Philippines.195) Soybean koji for the preparation of condiments is not always made by using a starter culture like bing-qu, but by mixing a part of bean koji of good quality previously prepared or sprinkling its dried powder over cooked and cooled soybeans, instead of the using starter cultures. In addition, a natural inoculation method is sometimes employed, which allows the spores and mycelia present in koji rooms and on tools, which are repeatedly used, to attach to the soybeans.

Accordingly, the methods for preparation of bean koji from steamed soybeans include two inoculation procedures. In bean koji making, using a starter culture like bing-qu, Rhizopus spp. and Mucor spp. are the principal strains, while in the natural inoculation method not using a starter culture, strains of

Aspergillus spp. which have a stronger proteolytic power, are usually utilised. Such a relationship between the inoculation method and fermentation strain was found in several factories making tauco and kecap in West Java which the author surveyed together with coworkers.247) The reason for this relationship is assumed to be as follows^ Since bing-qu is prepared by the kneading of non-steamed grain material, especially polished rice with added water, microbes are mixed from the natural environments. However, on a substrate of raw starch, Aspergillus spp. grow only with difficulty, while Rhizopus spp. can germinate rapidly and grow, becoming the major fermentation strain.295) If

Aspergillus spp. stronger in proteolytic power than Rhizopus spp. are desirable, bing-qu is not used and Aspergillus spp. which are abundant in koji rooms and on kojrmskmg tools used repeatedly are allowed to attach naturally to steamed soybean according to the tomodane procedure (semi-continuous fermentation or serial fermentation using the residue of the previous culture as an inoculum for the next). In addition to these two methods of inoculation, there are some other methods. One of them is the use of cao-qu OPSO described in Nan-fan-cao-mu~zhuang(M1i^^V§, a Chinese historical record from the late 3rd century. Cao-qu is prepared by mixing rice powder with medical herbs and plant juice and kneading to give it form, followed by incubation for some time before using it for inoculation. By such cao-qu, microbes from natural environments, especially yeasts, molds and lactic acid bacteria, which are attached to plants, are incorporated and the use of cao-qu is a tradition widely found not only in Southeast Asia but also over large parts of Asia. For a jiu-yao, a starter for preparation of shao-xing-jiu (ISMS) in China, the leaves of a smartweed are used and this procedure may supply yeasts inhabiting the leaves.194) Also in the preparation of basi for sugarcane wine manufacture in the Philippines at present, the wine is fermented by addition of fruits, leaves and the bark of samac, a kind of citrus, as a source of microbes.204) In these ways, some fermentations receive a supply of microbes from natural environments, especially from plant materials. Throughout East and Southeast Asia, molds are commonly employed to prepare koji for grain wine, but the procedures for koji making and the microbial strains concerned with saccharification and alcohol fermentation show interesting variations with different districts. In Japan, bara-koji (ifcH, grained koji prepared by inoculation and growth of Aspergillus oryzae, i.e., Japanese-type koji)is made on the one hand and yeast cultures, that is, seed mash (sÃwètf/Híi) grown under lactate acidity are prepared on the other. Then steamed rice and òvxfa^brewing water are added with koji and seed mash to perform a liquid fermentation with the appropriate temperature control to yield sake (Japanese rice wine).296) In contrast, in cases of huang-jiu CStffi) in South China, e.g., shao-xing-jiu (ISMffi)194), at first using jiu-yao ('SHI, starter culture; In this case not a Japanese-type koji hut bing-qu, i.e., a Chinese-type koji), a solid fermentation of steamed sticky rice is carried out to prepare the seed mash (shubo) by a simultaneous progression of saccharification and alcohol fermentation. Expressing the mash after further fermentation, lin-fanjiu lin-fan # M = steamed and then water-cooled rice) is produced and brern Bali is also prepared through the use of a bing-qu type starter culture ragi and similar processes. On the other hand, shubo for shao-xing-jiu mentioned above is mixed with sticky rice which is steamed and cooled, jiang-shui (= rice-soaked water containing lactic acid bacteria), barley koji and water for mash preparation. The primaiy and secondary fermentations are progressed to obtain tan-fanjiu (SIMÍS tan-fan WM- steamed rice which is cooled by spreading on a bamboo hurdle for air cooling). Rice wine brewed in Southeast Asia is regarded as a solid-state fermentation Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving with two steps running in parallel from the viewpoint of the fermentation mode, in which the two reactions of saccharification of rice starch and the further step of alcohol production from sugar produced by saccharification progress in parallel within the same fermentation system. Both preparation methods for a rice wine tapuy in the Philippines204) and brém Bali 272) in Bah and Java,

Indonesia are in principle the same as that for huangjium China.

As the starter culture, bing-qu In China it is also named M

M, jiu-yao) is used in both China and Southeast Asia. Bing-qu is locally called ragi in Java and Malaysia and the preparation procedure of ragi will be introduced here, based on the studies by J. Saono and others.272-297-298) It is not too much to say that ragi has been prepared only by Chinese immigrants and their descendants. Although the preparation procedure for ragi was considered to be an hereditary secret of an art form, its contents have been introduced gradually by microbiological studies after about the end of the 19th century.299 ~ 302) The procedure for the preparation of bing-qu became clear through a description by a Dutchman, Vorderman thatTinely crushing rice grain and spices and mixing, water is added to the mixture, followed by kneading to yield dough. After making dough in a small disk, stand it in a highly humid place for finishing/272) Present preparation procedure for ragi in Java is almost the same as this description. Here, the outline of current procedures for ragi manufacturing will be introduced, based on surveys made by the author and his associates in the vicinity of Surakarta in

Mid Java and villages in West Java. Rice powder and various spices are separately and finely crushed, mixed, passed through a sieve and kneaded with cold water which has been once boiled in advance, to make a dough. The dough is given the shape of a disk

(about 2.5 cm in diameter and almost 0.5 cm in thickness) and the disks are arranged on a flat bamboo basket, on which rice straw sprinkled with existing powdered ragi are spread, and powder of existing ragi is also scattered over the disks. After covering with straw, disks are incubated at room temperature for 2 days to allow propagation of the molds on the surface of dough. Next, they are dried in the sun for 2~3 days to yield finished ragi The addition of spices is a feature which is not found with bing-qu in China, and the purpose of this addition is said to prevent the growth of contaminants and stimulate the propagation of useful strains in ragi A large number of spice varieties are used and ratios of the Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia ® Preparation of fine powder from white rice. ® Propagation of the mold. (Rice powder is given the form of a small disk by kneading, disks are arranged on rice straws put on the bamboo tray and then incubated after scattering the powder of ragi). Photo. 28 Ragi making (Mid Java) different spices to rice used vary with different manufacturers. In general garlic, laos (root of Alpinia galangá) and white pepper are used and sometimes red pepper (Capsicum annum L.), cinnamon, black pepper, adas (fennel, Foeniculum vulgare M.); sugarcane, lemon and coconut water are also added. Although the appearance of ragi is usually in white, those products with added red pepper Traditional foods surving

Photo. 29 Ragi for tempe (The Rhizopus strain is grown on the back of

Hibiscus le aves.) (Mid J ava).

Photo. 30 Ragi for tempe using banana leaves (Padang, Mid

Sumatra). look orange or light brown in colour. The rice powder of the material is sometimes supplemented with tapioca (starch of cassava). The activity of ragi is stable for 2~3 months at room temperature (approximately 28~30°C) and as it becomes old, the saccharifying, liquefying and proteolytic potencies decrease and a remarkable sourness is sometimes found in the products. The shape of ragi is mostly that of a disk, but in some cases ragi is made in a globular shape or the mycelia and spores of the mold inoculated and grown on the leaves of a particular plant are used instead of the ragi made by kneading fermentation microbes into rice powder. In Mid Java, mycelia of Rhizopus sp. are inoculated and allowed to grow and colonise the back of hibiscus leaves CHibiscus dimilis or H tiliaceus L.X In Sumatra, mold spores are similarly inoculated on to banana leaves of a particular variety and after mold growth, the leaves are dried and stored for use in making tempe. Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Microilora o f starter cultures in Southeast Asia Microorganisms contained in the bing-qui,ype starter cultures used all over Southeast Asia are not those produced by pure cultivation but the microflora of starter cultures are composed of various kinds of strains. Also in the case of soybean gramed-koji making use of spores from natural environments, strains of many species are to be found in the koji. Among these, strains responsible for the principal fermentation are after found to be members of a group which are dominant in the microflora. This fact suggests that the microflora of the starter culture may reflect its origin and the microbial characteristics developed during the course of tradition. The major microbial strains (the names of genera) which are contained in bing-qu or the starter and its fermentation products are listed below (a: saccharifying strain; b: alcohol fermentation strain; c- acid producing strain; d- aroma producing strain) (1) Lookpang for making khaomak. a sweet of Thailand^303) Rhizopus,a Mucor,a Chlamydomucor,a Penicillium, Aspergillus a (the foregoing, molds); Saccharomycopsis a (= Endomycopsiè, Hansenula,d Saccharomycesh (yeasts). (2) Ragi for making tapai a sweet of Malaysia^282-283) Chlamydomucora (mold); Hansenula anomala,d Saccharomycopsis fibuligeraa (yeasts). (3) Bubod for making basi’ sugarcane wine of the Philippines-277) Saccharomycesh Saccharomycopsis,a Candida,d Torulopsis d (yeasts)i Rhizopus,a Aspergillus (molds); Pediococcus; Lactobacillus, Acetobacter0 (bacteria). Traditional foods surving (4) Bubod for brewing tapuy, rice wine of the Philippines-204)

Saccharomycopsis fibuligera,a Saccharomyces cerevisiae^ (yeasts);

Pediococcus pentosaceus c (lactic acid bacterium); Mucor,M

Rhizopusa(b) (molds).

(5) Ragi for making tape, a sweet snack, and brern, rice wine of

Java:272- 298-3oo,8oi) Mucor,^ Rhizopus,a(b) Amylomyces a (molds);

Saccharomycopsis;a Hansenula,d Saccharomyces,b (yeasts);

Pediococcus? Bacillusa (bacteria).

(6) Comparisons for reference:

(6_l) Bing-qu (jiu-yao) for making huangjiu (ftffi, rice wine) of

China-194' 295,302,304-306)(m a j o r microbes) Rhizopus,a Mucor,a

Absidia,a (minor microbes) Aspergillus,a Penicillium, Monilia

(molds); Saccharomyces (alcohol fermentation yeast) and lactic acid bacteria.cd

(6-2) Starter koji and yeast for brewing sake of Japan-

Aspergillus oryza& (mold for koji making), Saccharomyces cerevisiaé* (alcohol fermentation yeast) and lactic acid bacteria.c d The microbes mentioned above are the principal strains associated with saccharification, alcohol fermentation and aroma production on making grain wine. Comparing the microorganisms of wine manufacture in Southeast Asia, China and Japan, the following items are worthy of notice- (l) Rhizopus spp. which are the principal saccharification strains endowed with the capacity to produce alcohol and grow rapidly, are contained in starter cultures used all over Southeast Asia, (2) There are many common strains among bing-qu (Chinese-type starter) everywhere in Southeast

Asia, such as Mucor (-Amylomyces) rouxii, Chlamydomucor oryzae, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Hansenula anomala,

Saccharomyces cerevisiae and others. Of these microbes, M. rouxii,

Saccharomycopsis fibuligera and Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been isolated from koji of China and Taiwan (=Formosa).304) A combination of two yeasts for brewing rice wine tapuy,

Saccharomycopsis fibuligera (for saccharification) and

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (for alcohol fermentation),204) were also isolated as principal yeasts from four samples of koji in South

China,304) (3) Both bing-qu (Chinese-type starter) of China and

Southeast Asia are prepared by kneading cereal powder with water or herb extracts added and in some cases, microbes from natural environments may be incorporated into the starters and propagate there. In addition, in Southeast Asia an inoculation procedure utilising cao-qu C^#), which incorporates microbes from plants, and a part of the plant body has habitually been conducted, (4) The mold of sake koji in Japan is Aspergillus oryzae , and all microbes in other koji for making chiu, a kind of distilled liquor, are also molds belonging to the genus Aspergillus, being different from the principal strains of bing-qu (Chinese-type starter) in South China. The reason for the difference in the species of molds used for saccharification in Japanese-type grained koji, is that, since rice protein as a raw material is denatured by the steaming treatment before fermentation, growth of the genus Rhizopus having the lower activity of acid carboxypeptidase is remarkably inhibited due to insufficient supply of nitrogen, while the genus Aspergillus with a higher activity of this enzyme can propagate, well being not so affected by the steaming of rice. In contrast, since bing-qu of Chinese-type koji is prepared without the steaming treatment, its substrate remains in the state of raw starch on which the genus Aspergillus finds it difficult to grow but the genus Rhizopus can grow well. It can be understood therefore why the principal molds of the microflorae are entirely different between the Japanese- type koji and Chinese-type starter, i.e., bing-qu, in South China and Southeast Asia.295-307’308) Traditional fermented foods utilising soybeans in Southeast Asia are usually prepared by koji making use of the whole soybean. As described above, there are two procedures for inoculation of the fermentation microbes, i.e., the use of the Chinese-type starter bing-qu containing Rhizopus spp.Cff oligosporus, R. oryzae and others) as a principal mold and the employment of a natural inoculation method which allow colonisation by Aspergillus spp. from natural environments, to prepare bean koji It is noted here that the Aspergillus strain being used for bean koji in Southeast Asia is not Aspergillus oryzae or A sojae but A flavus var. columnaris, which is a principal strain for the miser or soysauce-like soybean fermented food produced in Java, Thailand and Malaysia but not the Philippines.247) In the Philippines, there is a soybean fermented condiment called miso, which is a traditional food like Japanese miso.309) Based on its name and microflora (The fermentation strains are Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving

Aspergillus oryzae and A sojae just like Japanese misà, Filipino miso is presumed to be derived from the miso barrel which was imported from Japan by Luzon trade with Japan on a trading ship authorised by the Tbkugawa shogunate during the Toyotomf

Tokugawa era of Japan (the 16th~17th centuries). Furthermore, in the Philippines there is another soybean food called taosi fermented with A oryzae, which is similar to taosi fermented with salt in China. Based on the similarity of the name, microflora and preparation procedure, it is assumed that Filipino taosi was introduced from China to which it was closely related in trading.

Probably it was habitually consumed as a local food among the many Chinese settling in Manila (Their population amounted to about 20,000 during the middle of 17th century) and the circumstances in Manila might have been similar to the settlements of Chinese immigrants on the north coast of Java.

Origin ofJavanese fermen ted foods

After referring to the origin of soybean fermented foods, now let us examine the origin of the main fermented foods in Java. First, fermented foods made from rice and the Chinese-type starter bing-qu which were thought to be made will be discussed. Items worthwhile as supporting evidence for such a discussion of the origin of Javanese starters can be listed as follows:

(1) The manufacturing process of huangjiu (Jf©, yellowish wine made from cereal or rice wine) in Mid and South China which has a long history, especially the preparation procedure of the seed mash (shubo) to be used for fermenting shao-xing-jiu (ISMfi), one of the representative brands of huang-jiu or lin-fanjiu (í#Mí@) obtained by expression of the seed mash of shao-xing-jiu is very similar to that of brern Bali in Java. The main materials of these two Chinese and Javanese wines are both sticky rice and the

Chinese-type starter (bing-qu) which is used on mash preparation to perform a solid fermentation.

(2) The starter to be used for mash preparation of shao-xing-jiu is called xiao-qu (Ah®) or bai-yao (ÊÜ). It is prepared by the addition of dried powder of herb or smartweed to unsteamed rice powder, mixing it well, kneading in a manner similar to rice cake making and subsequent incubation after scattering on the powder of a previously prepared starter. The principal microbes grown on the starter are Rhizopus spp. Ragi to be used for mash preparation of brem Bali in the present Bah Island which maintains the traditions of ancient Java is also prepared by mixing the matrix of unsteamed rice powder with a small amount of spices, scattering the powder of previously prepared ragi on it, incubating and drying after the sufficient growth. Such a preparation procedure for bing-qu (Chinese-type koji) in Java resembles that in China. 194-272) Moreover, ragi generally contains rapidly growing strains of Rhizopus similar to those in the bing-qu of China. (3) The tradition of huangjiu (Hffi) making is old and the history of shao-xingjiu (ISflffi) dates away back to the Chun-qiu era (# about 2400 years ago (770~403 B.C.).194) On the other hand, as mentioned in Chapter 3, the appearance of fermented food made from rice in old Javanese literature is from the 10th century. Being different from palm wine fermentation, it was necessary to employ ragi in order to ferment with certainty brem wine of superior quality from rice through the processes of saccharification and alcohol production. Accordingly, at about the end of the 10th century when the words of the fermented foods brem and tape made from rice appeared in Javanese literature, the technique of ragi making is presumed to have already been introduced into Java. An old Javanese word lmangragi which means ragi making is found in a record of the early phase of the 10th century (AD. 929).196-310) (4) At present as well as in the past, ragi is prepared mainly by the Chinese and their descendants as a hereditary secret and using a traditional method. (5) The trading routes between Java and China developed from the early pre-European age since when trade business has been conducted. For the trading merchants from China, to introduce Chinese-type starter bing-qu and the preparation procedures necessary for making brém wine and tape preferred by the inhabitants in Java might have had a favourable effect also on their regular business. Considering these items collectively, it would be reasonable to estimate that ragi in Java was introduced from China, where these was a tradition of making rice wine, huangjiu, in about the 10th century. In the old Javanese inscriptions, it is mentioned that trade has been practised between Java and China since the early phase of the pre-European age and foreign traders were resident Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving in villages all over Java.145) In those days, since the settlements of large numbers of Chinese immigrants had not yet developed in

Java, the starter for rice wine or sweet snack preparations preferred by the Javanese was introduced not for Chinese immigrants but for Javanese inhabitants through the trading route, and thus the Javanese produced brem and tape for their own consumption. One piece of evidence for this view may be descriptions^f+A^SmSfiSffi^CAdd the starter into sugarcane juice to incubate and then wine is brewed.))

©((Crush sugarcane, add the starter and incubate to yield wine.)) in Sect. Suji-dan (M n ft ; presently, Mid Java) of Zhu~fan-zhi (i#

Ü/S), a Chinese historical record of the 13th century.186) In ancient times when transportation and communication were not well developed, trading routes are presumed to have contributed to the transfer of information and technology. However, it is not clear by which route the Chinese starter bing-qu was introduced to Java from South China, directly or indirectly through Jiao-zhou and

Ri-nanjun which were the influential areas of China. In any case, by the introduction of a wine making technique, the feasts of the

Majapahit Dynasty era appeared to have been highly enlivened with not by palm wine but also by the mellower brem and tape.143) Now, the origins of soybean fermented foods such as tauco, kecap, tempe and others will be examined.247) The manufacturing method for tauco and kecap transmitted in Java is in principle the same as that of chi (g£, a fermented soybean) described in

Qrmin-yao'shu (^E1I®t)?175) a Chinese agricultural book that appeared in the first half of the 6th century (AD. 530~550) except for the addition of palm sugar. The fermentation with added salt was performed using only soybean material processed wholly into koji, and tauco and kecap resemble guan-toujiang-you (ifSSSIift) of the Province of Fujian (liMtit) in China and tamarisoysauce

(/§? H/É) and mamemiso (SÇ^fí soybean fermented condiment made from soybean koji without the use of cereals and with a longer period for ageing). According to Chinese way, it can be said that tauco kering is eZwwith added sugar fermented with saltCfJOS

ím5í)and tauco cair and kecap the juice produced from chi.

Regarding the origin of the manufacturing technique for tauco and kecap, no direct record and reference have been found, but considering the following circumstances, this technique is presumed to have been introduced from China- (l) The

Chinese-eAz making procedure resembles the manufacturing process for tauco and kecap. (2) Most of the managers and technicians are citizens of Chinese ancestry. (3) There has been a relationship between Java and China from old, and in particular many Chinese immigrants have settled in Java since the end of the Yuan (té) era and the beginning of the Ming (H/J) era. (4) Iron pans symbolising Chinese dietary culture are found in every workshop. (5) Tauco is not so favoured by inhabitants of Malaysian ancestry but it consumed mainly by inhabitants of Chinese ancestry, and these facts are similarly observed in districts of Thailand and Malaysia where many citizens of Chinese ancestry live. It can be concluded that these soybean fermented condiments are not indigenous to Java or other places in Southeast Asia, but their origin should be pursued to ancient China. Next, from a somewhat philological viewpoint, it appears that, in Amoy; a harbour in South China, which has been one of the centres for trade with and immigration toward the South, a Chinese character S(bean) or its variant character (Chinese phonetic Roman symbol dou) is pronounced tau or to, I%(jian), chiong, chiu, and Ü (niang) jiong. Although slightly unreasonable from a viewpoint of terminology, it can be surmised that tauco in Indonesia was transformed from tau~chion^SM) corresponding to Chinese tausi CSgS) with a meaning of chiong made from the material of beans/ tau-chu in Malaysia similarly from S S tau~chiu and taujeow in Thailand from tau-chiu or S ilt tau-jiong Since none of these pronunciations concerned with soybean fermented foods can be found in the Guang-zhou pronunciation,311) it is presumed from an etymological consideration that immigrants from Amoy were deeply concerned with the transmission of soybean fermentation technology to Southeast Asia. As the origin of kecap in Java and kecap in Malaysia, ke-tsiap, Amoy dialect for fish sauce is supposed to have diverged or been misused. Fish sauce is made extensively in both the Provinces of Fujian (ígJÉiií) and Zhejiang in China, while it is called kecap ikan (ikan = fish) in Java. The time when tauco and kecap came to be prepared in Java will now be discussed. Direct evidence that addresses problem has not yet been obtained In Nãgarakértãgama (1365), a chronicle of the Majapahit Dynasty that prospered in Java during the 14th century, palm wine, brern and other fermented foods were described as foods and drink in those days but there was no Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving description on tauco and kecap. Since in the other old Javanese historical records, no document on these condiments has been found, the history of soybean fermented condiments perhaps does not go back to the 14th century or before. The time to be noted is after the 14th~15th centuries when many Chinese immigrants settled in Java to form Chinese village. In records of personal experience or reports of surveys of old China such as

Ling-wardafda ( ^ f t iHr ), Zhu-fan-zhi ( fif # ) and

Dao-yfzhflue those are no descriptions of Chinese immigrants in Java, while in Ying-yasheng-lan completed in 1415~16, at the beginning of Ming era) the lives of

Chinese immigrants in Java who came from Fujian and

Guangdong (jjfjií) are mentioned and it is understood that

Chinese immigrants gained in influence at the end of the Yuan

(jc)era and beginning of the Ming (*#}) era.246) It is clearly described that at that time, many Chinese lived in Tuban, Gresik and Surabaya on the north coast of Java and their dietary life was nice, clean and different from that of the native people there.

Furthermore, a description to worthy of notice is found in the oldest print of this book (Ying-yasheng-lan) which is included in a book of Ji-lwhufbian (feü ttS ) Vol. 62, following the depiction on the capital of the Majapahit Dynasty visited by land via

Surabaya; S S l t S S f —^ * 6 tt((Wetland rice plants get ripe twice a year, rice grains are thin and white (indica type rice?) and both sesame and yellow beans(soybean) are found, but no barley and wheat.)). A Chinese character Iel is used similarly to a character S and yellow beans U S mean so3^ beans in China. Accordingly, so^ybeans might have been cultivated in East Java at that time (the beginning of the 15th century). However, since there is another print of the book Ying-yasheng-lan describing that this bean is not yellow but green C^^)312) as well as the different view,126164) it cannot be confirmed that soybeans were cultivated at this time. There are wild species of soybean in Java, and since there is a view313) that soybeans were introduced into Java after the 17th century and a literature125) describing that soybeans were extensively cultivated in Java and Bali in the middle of the 18th century, it would be reasonable to believe that soybeans as a raw material for tauco and kecap fermentation would have been available in Java not later than the beginning of the 18th century. In addition, in a series of records, Dagh-Register gehouden int Casteel Batavia Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia prepared during the 17th~18th centuries, black beans (swarte boontzes /swarte boontjens!swarte boonen or Chinese boontjenè and others are documented as having arrived at the harbour of Batavia from the north coast of Java. According to Herbarium Amboinensd25) of that time, it is conceivable that soybeans produced in Java could be procured already in the 17th century since zwarte boontjes means soybeans. One more raw material required for preparing soybean fermented condiment is salt. It is recorded that salt was made from sea water in Ling-wai-darda (HI and other Chinese historical records and even now the north coast districts such as Tuban, Gresik and so on are the main districts producing bay salt solar evaporation process in Java. Since large amounts of black sugar were added to the fermented condiments, especially palm sugar, it is presumed that it was certainly obtainable in the 17th century. Considering the possibility that these raw materials for making soybean fermented condiments were available in the locale, Java, and the development of the settlements of Chinese immigrants, speculation as described below can be entertained. Regarding the history of the introduction of soybean fermented condiments, during the time when Chinese ships traded and fleets of the Chinese Dynasties which urged the giving of tributes and of placation visited the shores of Java one after another and when the population of immigrants coming from South China and other areas for economic and political reasons and settling down in Java gradually increased, taosi might have been brought from China as a home food to be consumed among Chinese residents. Soon after, as the number of Chinese settlers increased, these soybean- fermented condiments would be homemade or manu-factured on- the-spot and consumed by them using soybeans and salt produced in Java. An example of such an introduction of soybean-fermented condiments rich in the local colour of their homeland accompany ing by the movement of Chinese immigrants can be seen with Formosa.314) According to Ying-yasheng-lan (MMM9L) written at the beginning of the 15th century, it appears that a considerable number of Chinese immigrants from Fujian and Guang-dong lived in Java forming settlements. In Fujian, one of their native places, there is Guan-toujiang-you (ítUISfítt) which is prepared by extracting taosi with brine. This is made by almost the same method as that of the kecap factory in West Java except for the process of sugar addition. Since such a Chinese-type soybeanTraditional foods surving fermented condiment is too salty for the indigenous Malay inhabitants, the fermented product was added with palm sugar of the special local product or, alternatively, a non-salted teasrlike fermentation method was employed similary to that of tempe making so that the products might appeal to Malay people, and thus demands for soybean-fermented condiments spread among them. The relationship between the present varieties of kecap and compatible with the speculation for such a history of the introduction and development of taoco and kecap. Such circumstances that urged the manufacture of Chinese-type soybean-fermented condiments, centring around Chinese settlements, are seen not only in Java but also in Malaysia,

Thailand, the Philippines and others. According to the Chinese manager of a kecap factory at Tuban, in old trade harbour in Java, he usually prepares the taosi for consumption by his own family, but he does not place it on the market because it seems to be too salty for general consumption by the native inhabitants.

Concerning the time when such Chinese-type soybean fermentation was introduced into Java, the following two possibilities are considered- one is the time when the number of

Chinese immigrants was increasing in the late period of the 14th century soon before Yingyasheng-lan (iSSfl#®) was written and the other is the 17th century at the latest, from evidence that a record of soybean cultivation in Malay, Java and Bali is found in the mid 18th century125) and the words for black beans (swarte boontjes!swarte boonen, etc.) are contained in the list of exports and imports of Batavian harbour in the 17th century.^ote 102) The reason why no description of the Chinese-origin soybean condiments is found in Yingyasheng-lan (iláÉjSISI) may be due to the Chinese custom that Chinese historical records in those days did not contain any general description of the dietary life of the indigenous inhabitants except for rice cultivation and wine brewing, but indicate a strong interest of the Chinese in special products such as trading commodities and souvenirs everywhere.

The former view dates the introduction of Chinese fermentation technology to the late 14th century which means that it was about

600 years ago. Considering that the time of introduction of a similar Chinese soybean fermentation technology to Japan by a Buddhist monk is known to have been about 700 years ago, the bing-qu containing Rhizopus spp. is essential for making tempe which is a non-salted soybean fermentation product in Java, similar to dan-dou-chi non-salted taosi) in China. Its principal microbial species are R oligosporus and R. oryzae and both strains have been also isolated from the starter koji of South

China.319) Both the main saccharification strain Saccharo mycopsis fibuligera and the alcohol fermentation strain

Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the starter bubod of the Philippines for tapuy making are yeasts and these two yeasts are also isolated from a part of the Chinese-type starter koji and also from starters used in the other parts of Southeast Asia as main strains. These common factors of the microflorae may support the view that the technique of the starter bing-qu was introduced from China to

Southeast Asia. The principal strain for saccharification in Japan is Aspergillus oryzae, being different from strains of Southeast

Asia. This fact suggests a unique invention for sake (rice wine) brewing in Japan. Meanwhile, some differences in microbial strains used in food fermentation between China and Southeast

Asia are also observed. An example is seen especially in the case of soybean koji making in which effective strains are derived from the natural environment. From the bean koji of condiment manufacturing factories in Java, Malaysia and Bangkok in

Southeast Asia, Rhizopus and Aspergillus strains are found as principal fermentation strains and A flavus var. columnaris has been isolated. In China, however, A. flavus lineage strains are given a wide berth and A oryzae strains are used for making yellow koji319) As to the reasons for such differences in fermentation strains, some possibilities can be considered. Since control of the microbes in the Chinese-type starter bing-qu was poor, the rapidly growing species were maintained during the long period of its traditional use, while changes in strains with weaker growth properties might have occurred. The possibility that

Chinese-type koji strains have varied by adapting to the environmental conditions of hot and humid tropical Asia or substituted local strains for the original Chinese strains is presumed However, the real reason for this modification of the microflora remains to be established by future investigation. From the viewpoint of the above mentioned discussion on the fermented foods of Southeast Asia, the following items are pointed out here: (l) The historical development of food fermentation technology reveals the strong influence of Chinese culture, (2) The control of the microbes and the development of useful strains will be an important basis of further improvement, (3) It should be possible to raise the quality of the products by further improving the fermentation process and the materials of the fermentation mash. An example can be found with the improvement of fermentation conditions for kecap making.284) Here the inoculation methods which are an important process in the preparation of traditional fermented foods in Southeast Asia are summarised The inoculation methods include two procedures, i.e., a natural inoculation method which allows effective strains from the natural environment and repeatedly used tools to enter the process and a method that uses the starter culture such as Chinese-type bing-qu (®fÜ) and cao-qu Oft|S or ^ ft ) traditional all over Southeast Asia. Although for the preparation of bean koji, the natural inoculation method is also important, for the brewing of cereal wine, not only Chinese-type bing-qu, but also cao-qu of every place are important. The plant body per se such as leaves and fruits, etc., their juice, crop components such as rice straw, chaff and others, their fragments and powder are mixed with rice powder hardened by kneading to obtain a lump, resulting in the production of cao-qu which is the starter that utilises microbes contained in or attached to the mixed materials. Not only the use of such lumps of rice powder but also the leaves of hibiscus and banana, on which the strain to be used have been propagated and then stored dry, can be utilised as starters. In the old days cao-qu was clearly described in Nan-fan~cao-mu-zhuang; a book of plants grown in the South during the Jin (W) era, and known by surveys of starters in recent years of the Philippines204^, Formosa and other countries of Southeast Asia.320) As seen in Table 16, however, the starter using plant material is not always a good source of supply for molds as compared with yeasts and lactic acid bacteria. S. Yoshida mentioned that the place of origin of wine brewed by molds may have been two regions, the basin of the River Yangtze and India.320) In this book, detailed discussion cannot be made here with regret because of insufficient current information on this topic related to ancient India. Liquors prepared from palm and sugarcane are presumed to be Indian-origin drinks (see p. 205), while the technique of preparing at least rice wine in Java and Bali which is made using the Chinese-type starter bing-qu and fermented sweet foods such as tape and brern kue are considered Traditional dietary culture of Southeast Asia Traditional foods surving to have been introduced from China, as mentioned before, (see pp.329-333,337,339,371) The results of investigations concerning the time of introduction of Chinese-type starter bing-qu to Java, suggest that the time of its introduction from China and the circumstances in those days of bing-qu for rice wine brewing and for soybean fermentation seemed not to be identical. Their histories, however, are both old, going back to the pre-European age and they are the development products of Asian traditional fermentation technology. A problem to be explained in the final analysis, would be the relationship between cao-qu traditional everywhere and bing-qu introduced from China. Many of the cao-qu starters used in Southeast Asia are made in a form of a lump of uncooked rice powder similar to that of the bing-qu of China. This suggests the close relationship between them. Further investigations are expected for elucidation of this moot point. References

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