Unifying Undergraduate Artificial Intelligence

AI Magazine Volume 27 Number 1 (2006) (© AAAI) Articles Unifying Undergraduate Artiﬁcial Intelligence Robotics Layers of Abstraction over Two Channels

Frederick L. Crabbe

■ From a computer science and artificial intelligence This fragmentation of fields likely derives perspective, robotics often appears as a collection from the sometimes fractious relations between of disjoint, sometimes antagonistic subfields. The the fields as they competed for primacy. “The lack of a coherent and unified presentation of the whole idea of plan execution and the run-time field negatively affects teaching, especially to un- maintenance of something called a ‘plan’ is dergraduates. This article presents an alternative synthesis of the various subfields of AI robotics misguided” (Brooks 1986). “This development and shows how these traditional subfields fit into follows a much broader trend in mobile robot- the whole. Finally, it presents a curriculum based ics, where probabilistic techniques are com- on these ideas. monly the method of choice over more ad hoc approaches, such as behavior-based techniques” (Thrun 2002). Although such competi- odern artificial intelligence robotics tion is natural in a research setting, it makes it education treats the field as a collec- difficult to present these multiple fields coher- Mtion of overlapping subfields. An ex- ently to an undergraduate. Exacerbating the amination of the current robotics textbooks situation, many robotics instructors present (McKerrow 1991; Arkin 1998; Dudek and topics chronologically according to historical Jenkin 2000; Murphy 2000; Niku 2001; Sieg- development. This approach, while interesting wart and Nourbakhsh 2004; Craig 2005; to practitioners, fails to put the areas in their Choset et al. 2005) indicates that these sub- technical context. fields are traditional planning-based robotics, This article argues for a perspective that uni- behavior-based robotics, probabilistic robotics, fies all the competing robotics subfields into a mobile robotics, and engineering robotics. single framework for instruction. By using the Reading these texts gives the impression that organizing principle that robotic systems are each of these fields is overlapping, yet distinct, best understood as layers of abstractions over except for engineering robotics, which many input and output channels, it results in a more computer science/AI instructors consider to be natural order of topics and emphasizes their re- an entirely separate field. lations rather than differences. I will begin by

development, or descriptively to make sense of complicated processes and ease comparison of Application apparently conflicting ideas. The classic example of the former is the OSI network layer sys- Presentation tem (International Organization for Standard- ization 1994), which specifies an organization Session for computer networking (figure 1, left). On the other hand, layers of abstraction are used as a Transport general guideline for the understanding of complicated systems throughout computer sci- Network ence and engineering, such as the organization of computer hardware, operating systems, or Datalink large pieces of software (figure 1, right). The claim made here is that the technique of apply- A Physical ing layers of abstraction as a descriptive tool is useful for understanding robotics systems. Layers of abstraction are a natural way to characterize intelligent robotics, in which low- Program level perceptions are converted to high-level decisions and actions and then converted back System Utilities down to low-level motor movements. Every Command Shell system does this by processing multiple sensor inputs, combining the input into increasingly System Services higher levels of abstraction until an action decision can be made, and breaking down the de- User Interface cision into increasingly more specific informa-

cs Hardware tion until it can be executed as motor

hi commands. Intelligent robotics as a ﬁeld is best Abstraction seen as two information channels (input and ap r output) crossing multiple layers of abstraction

G Physical Hardware from physical signals to sophisticated symbols B (such as multiple-term logical representations). All of the major paradigms ﬁt into and can be interrelated by this paradigm. Figure 2 shows the framework presented here with two chan- Figure 1. Two Standard Layered Models of Abstraction. nels and the layers of abstraction through On the top (A) is the ISO/OSI network standard, an example of a prescriptive which information is processed. The top row is model describing how a system should be designed. On the bottom (B) is a gen- the input channel, starting with physical sig- eral layered operating system model as a layered architecture (drawn from Tanen- nals on the left, and passing through multiple baum [1992] and Solomon [1998]). It is an example of a layered model describing abstractions as it moves to the right. The bot- how systems are currently designed. tom row is the output channel, moving from high-level symbols on the right to motor signals on the left. Each input channel can be made up presenting the layered framework, followed by of multiple pathways along which individual pieces of information can travel. For instance, an example AI robotics curriculum that empha- input from multiple sensors would all travel in sizes the similarities and encourages a cohesive the input channel, but until that information is big-picture understanding of the field. I will fused, it would travel along multiple pathways. then compare the curricular themes presented All of the common robot architectures can be in other robotics textbooks. Finally I will dis- seen in this view as variations on how many cuss the sometimes surprising implications of layers of abstraction are passed through and at this view in how the various robotics subﬁelds which layer (or layers) information crosses over relate to each other. from the input channel to the output channel.

Layers of Abstraction The Layers Figure 2 describes six distinct layers. Because The application of layers of abstraction in com- this model is descriptive there is considerable puter science is a well-known technique used room for adjustment in both the numbers of either prescriptively to coordinate standards layers and where they are divided. These partic-

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Simple Abstract Signal Information Attribute Model Model Lifetime

Input Channel Sensor Binary Detection Maps Logic Agent Modeling

Action Path Task Goal Output Channel Motor Kinematics Selection Planning Planning Selection

Figure 2. The Layers of Abstraction Framework. Input flows from left to right in the figure; output flows from right to left. Higher levels of abstraction are to the right.

ular layers were identified because they corre- to motor movements, such as a camera direct- spond to major robotic architectures in the lit- ing an articulated arm to grasp an object.1 erature and have proved useful in teaching. In the attribute layer the input channel gen- They are the signal, information, attribute, sim- eralizes the information input by recognizing ple model, abstract model, and lifetime layers. simple environmental states such as landmark- The lowest layer is the signal layer. Informa- detected or goal-detected. These differ from the tion at this layer takes the form of electrical im- treatment of the raw data in the layer below in pulses from sensors and to motors. While all that there is some processing required, often electronic robots have activity at this layer integrating sensor information over short peri- (otherwise they would never move), few per- ods of time from multiple sensors. In the out- form any crossover from input to output at this put channel collections of possible actions (by layer. The classic exceptions to this are the action I mean “desired position in the environ- Braitenberg vehicles (Braitenberg 1984), which ment”) are weighed, and an action is selected, directly connect sensors to motors. Figure 3 resulting in a suitable specification to pass shows the information flow in the framework down to the information layer. The attribute of a Braitenberg vehicle. layer is where most of the interesting computa- The next layer up is the information layer, tion takes place in behavior-based architectures where analog input and output signals are han- (figure 3). Collections of independent modules dled digitally; this layer is the interface fuse input to recognize simple environment between the world of physics and the world of properties and make action recommendations, information. In the input channel, the electri- which are then selected from to result in a new cal signals are converted to bits in memory, desired robot position. typically with an analog to digital converter. In In the simple model layer, the input channel the output channel, the information layer per- begins to build concrete and explicit models of forms kinematic analyses to convert positions the external world. For mobile robots, these in robot geometry into motor positions and take the form of maps of the navigable space, thus motor current outputs. Input to the out- while for manipulators, these models take the put channel of this layer is a desired position in form of a configuration space. For example, space. The process of inverse kinematics is to probabilistic occupancy grid maps (Moravec take that position and convert it into a set of and Elfes 1985; Moravec 1988) are low-level, motor positions that would place the robot in simple abstractions, as they make no serious at- that location. From there, these motor posi- tempt to cluster the occupied cells into objects. tions are converted directly to electrical signals The construction of the simple models is per- to the motors themselves. formed by collecting the detected input in the It is at this layer where much of what might attribute layer into obstacles and free space. be called engineering robotics takes place (fig- These can be further processed into more ab- ure 3). Sensor inputs are used to generate the stract map models, such as generalized Voronoi desired robot positions that are then converted diagrams (Aurenhammer 1991, Choset and

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Simple Abstract Signal Information Attribute Model Model Lifetime

Input Channel Sensor Binary Detection Maps Logic Agent Modeling

Action Path Task Goal Output Channel Motor Kinematics Selection Planning Planning Selection

Braitenberg Engineering Behavior-Based Reactive-Model Path-Plan-Model

Task-Planning

Figure 3. Information Flow in Different Robotics Architectures.

Burdick 2000). Note that occupancy grids and just navigation. Steps in the plan, such as “go Voronoi diagrams both apply to mobile robots to the door,” can be converted into lower level navigating through real space and to manipu- actions by the path-planning systems of the lator arms navigating through configuration lower layer. Traditional planning-based systems space. With the transition to the output chan- also perform most of their computation at the nel at the simple model layer comes path plan- model layer (figure 3). ning, in which a path is found through free In all of the paradigms presented up to this space to get the robot from one position to an- point, input information is abstracted up to other (I refer to this as a path-plan-model archi- some layer where it crosses over to the output tecture). Again, the techniques are the same in channel and converted to motor commands. real space and configuration space. Once a path There is no reason that information cannot is determined, the commands can be passed cross from input channel to output channel at down to the action selection mechanism in the multiple layers. This is precisely what happens attribute layer. The simple model layer ac- in the planning/behavior hybrid systems (Pell counts for the rest of engineering robotics and et al. 1998, for example). In these systems, most of mobile robotics (figure 3). longer-term information is modeled and From the map models, path planning typi- planned over, which is used to direct the reac- cally occurs, but sometimes, instead of path tive decisions being made in the attribute layer planning, the robot behaves reactively toward (figure 4). that model, skipping the planning part alto- In the top lifetime layer, decisions are made gether (Yamauchi, Schultz, and Adams 1998). I about the longer-term behavior of the robot. It call this the reactive-model architecture. is here that other agents are modeled in order The abstract model layer takes the representa- to coordinate collective behavior, and the ro- tion of space from the simple model layer, and bots are able to consider what tasks they will generates more sophisticated models, such as pursue over their lifetimes. Actual robot sys- propositions of relations about the world state. tems that operate at this level are rare, especial- These are usually described with a logic, such as ly those that perform true goal selection. predicate logic, or an AI planning system (Mc- Activity in multiple robot coordination has re- Dermott 1992). These logic sentences are built sulted in some modeling of other agents, but out of the information in the lower layers by most multirobot systems encode assumptions grouping together data from the maps and oth- about other robot behavior rather than per- er detected information from the layers below. form true modeling (Mataric 1992, 1997). In the output channel, a full-fledged task-plan- There are two observations to be made in ex- ning system can use these representations to amining the layers from left to right. First, generate good old-fashioned AI-style plans for both the amount of state required and the achieving goals that may involve more than time window over which that state integrates

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Simple Abstract Signal Information Attribute Model Model Lifetime

Input Channel Sensor Binary Detection Maps Logic Agent Modeling

Action Path Task Goal Output Channel Motor Kinematics Selection Planning Planning Selection

Figure 4: Information Flow in Hybrid Systems.

sensor input increases. For instance, when to present an AI robotics perspective while em- comparing the input processing at the at- phasizing how each robot architecture relates to tribute and the model layers, processing at the the others in the context of the layered model. attribute layer is both less intense than at the For the signal layer, I present the basic oper- model layer and it requires fewer input sam- ation of the sensors and electric motors found ples in order to generate output. The model on most robots. As an example robot architec- layer needs to integrate many input samples ture, I present Braitenberg’s architecture as de- before it can build a model suitable for use in scribed in Vehicles, chapters one through five decision making. The second observation is, (Braitenberg 1984). The students can experi- moving from left to right, the number of path- ment directly with these ideas using simple ways used in the input channel decreases as in- commercial robots such as the Byo-bot2 or formation is consolidated into the abstrac- some of the BEAM robotics kits (Hrynkiw and tions. For example, input from multiple Tilden 2002). These robots provide some of the sensors is typically combined in order to recog- standard functions of the Braitenberg vehicles nize properties and smooth out errors at the at- but are not programmed by the student direct- tribute layer. These detections are further com- ly connecting sensors and motors with wires, bined into maps at the simple model layer. and they are limited in the number of ways This process reverses as information travels they can be programmed. To remedy this, I de- from right to left down the output channel, signed a similar low-cost robot that the stu- where an action is broken into the multiple dents can program by connecting wires. The motor commands necessary for completion. sensors and motors have pluggable connectors into which the students can insert wires to at- tach the sensors to the motors so that they re- The Curriculum semble the diagrams in the Vehicles book. My The two-channel layered model described initial design was developed out of a laboratory above suggests a particular curriculum based on assignment in a robot engineering class (Bish- alternately presenting the workings of each lay- op and Wick 2005) (figures 5 and 6), but de- er, followed by one or two example architec- signs in development now also include poten- tures that focus on that layer. This enables the tiometer knobs to adjust connection strength. students to implement an example of that ar- For the information layer, I present the chitecture on a robot suited to that layer, thus mathematical models of engineering robotics, experiencing the power of architectures at that with emphasis on kinematics in the Denavit- layer while simultaneously seeing the connec- Hartenberg system (Denavit and Hartenberg tions to the layers below. I have developed this 1955) for rigid arms and extend it to the inte- curriculum in a four hour per week robotics gral-based system for mobile robots used in course taken primarily by 12 to 16 senior com- Dudek and Jenkin (Dudek and Jenkin 2000). In puter science majors who have not necessarily keeping with emphasis on similarities and co- taken artiﬁcial intelligence. In this course I try hesion, I derive the results for mobile robots us-

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Figure 5. Photograph of a Student-Designed Braitenberg Robot Prototype.

ing both systems to show their equivalence. tions but not requiring more sophisticated re- The students perform both forward and inverse flection and planning to solve the task. De- kinematics on both a rigid arm and a mobile pending on the nature of the task, I use Rug robot. For the rigid arm I use the Robix Rascal Warrior or Khepera (K-Team S.A.)5 robots. (Advanced Design Inc.),3 a rugged kit suitable At the simple model layer, I present the ba- when high accuracy is not required (figure 7). sics of occupancy grid maps and how they can For the mobile robot I use the aging but still vi- be used as a representation of the configuration able Rug Warrior (A. K. Peters, Ltd.)4 (figure 8). space of either a manipulator or a mobile In presenting the attribute layer, I discuss ba- robot.6 This is followed by topographical maps, sic techniques for identifying properties in in- and how they could be built out of occupancy put streams, sensor fusion, and action selection grids by identifying objects, and constructing mechanisms. For example, I discuss the combi- Voronoi diagrams or other roadmaps. As we nation of multiple sensors such as infrared and shift over to the output channel, I present first vision to determine the distance and bearing to how reactive modules in the attribute layer can obstacles. I also discuss the combination of use maps such as occupancy grids, by treating multiple sensor readings over time as a separate the input from the map as if it came directly form of sensor fusion. From this I present be- from the environment (a technique some au- havior-based architectures, how behaviors are thors refer to as “virtual sensors” [Asada 1990]). designed and actions are selected, emphasizing Then I show how paths can be found by search- how this leads to robust behavior in chaotic en- ing either the gridlike spaces of occupancy grid vironments. The corresponding student assign- maps or the graphs of the Voronoi diagrams. ment is to implement a behavior-based system Once paths are calculated, they can be passed for a chaotic multirobot task, such as playing a down to the attribute layer, where the first step game of capture the flag. These sorts of tasks in the path is determined (and weighed against emphasize the benefits of more reactive sys- other possible courses of action). tems in the face of real-time unexpected situa- In the abstract model layer, I discuss logical

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Figure 6. Photograph of an Alternative Braitenberg Robot Prototype.

representations of the world and how they can these issues are headed. We typically concen- be gathered both from properties in the identi- trate on multiagent systems, the coordination fication layer and from the maps built in the of robots to perform a task, and how fully au- simple model layer. For the output channel, I tonomous robots might select which goals they discuss task planning and how that can use log- want to pursue and which they do not. Al- ical descriptions to solve hard problems in the though these issues apply throughout the lay- world. Because many of the students have not ers, this is a good place to discuss the ethics of yet taken AI, I present the AI problems solely as fully autonomous robotics, in terms of worker finding paths in abstract graphs of plan space displacement, liability, and of course, indepen- and leave the algorithmic details to the AI dence (the “Terminator” issue). I also point out course. In my model, steps in the task plan are that the logical conclusion of the layers and the actions that require path planning to solve, hybrids is a model where information crosses such as “go-to-red-door.” Each step in the plan over all the layers (figure 10). While there may is passed down to the simple model layer, not be any examples of such an artificial system where a path for the action is calculated. The today, it does echo some current psychological action for manipulator plans, such as “grasp- models of animals and humans (Gallistel 1980, hammer,” are passed down to the path-plan- 1990). Reflex reaction corresponds to the signal ning system in the same manner. The student’s layer, while brain-stem and cerebellum behav- final project assignment is to use a Khepera ro- ior correspond to the information and attribute bot equipped with a gripper to move blocks layers. Although the physiological mechanisms (figure 9). are less well understood at higher layers, psy- The balance of the class discussions focus on chological evidence indicates that there is the lifetime layer, where the highest level oper- pathway crossover at all layers in human be- ations take place. It is at this layer that much of havior. the cutting edge research is performed and thus At the conclusion of the class I can reempha- it is difficult to give a clear picture of where size that all of the styles of robotics share the

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Figure 7. Photograph of a Robix Rascal Arm.

same general architecture and vary only on er layers are essentially presented twice. By us- how many levels of abstraction are applied and ing a bottom-up approach in the layered model at what levels information crosses from the in- I advocate here, this duplication is avoided be- put to the output channel. I also reemphasize cause the explanation of the behavior-based that, just as with good software engineering layers is the foundation for the task-planning practices, high levels of abstraction reuse im- layers. plementations of lower levels. Even given the efficiency of this approach, courses move at different speeds from semester Getting It All to Fit to semester, depending on both the students A curriculum as presented here has more mate- and the instructor. Fortunately, the approach rial than might be covered in other robotics makes it easy to leave out a module without courses. I feel that to give an accurate assess- further repercussions. Any particular module ment of the whole of AI robotics, it is impor- can be treated as a black box, and all that needs tant to look at the whole of robotics and how to be presented is the specification and inter- these pieces ﬁt together. Fortunately, due to the face, what it does rather than how it works. In nature of the formalism, the material need not this manner, any particular section can be jet- be overwhelming. The modular layered ap- tisoned when it comes time. proach means that there is less repetition of Finally, the projects presented here seem to similar material in different architectures. For add up to a great deal of programming, imple- instance, when presenting behavior-based and menting two inverse kinematics systems, a be- task-planning architectures separately, the low- havior-based system, and a task-planning sys-

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Figure 8. Photograph of a Rug Warrior Performing Dead Reckoning.

tem. My approach to alleviating this is to pro- works presented in current textbooks. When vide as many of the program modules as possi- comparing the approach described here to that ble, especially from the lower layers. For exam- described (or at least adhered to) in the avail- ple, in the planning project, the students are able textbooks, it is important to note the dif- given all the tools at the lower layers to perform ferences in purpose. The motivation of this ap- the sensory processing and take the actions pro- proach is to present a principled perspective of posed by their planning system. The develop- the entirety of robotics, suitable for an ment of this library of tools was done over sever- undergraduate survey course with an AI bent. al years by the students themselves. As the class Most of the existing books explicitly narrow was being built, assignments were made with the their focus to a particular area in robotics, as intent that they would contribute to the suite of would be appropriate for a graduate course. libraries for later assignments. This process is not Even so, most of these texts do have perspec- complete, and for each assignment, one group is tives and themes that can be discussed. given a different assignment from the others for addition to the library. Artiﬁcial Intelligence: A Modern Approach Other Approaches Russell and Norvig’s influential Artificial Intel- ligence: A Modern Approach (Russell and Norvig This section attempts to compare my frame- 2003) is of course not actually a robotics text- work and themes for teaching AI robotics to book but the second edition does have a chap- undergraduates to those themes and frame- ter on robotics written mostly by Sebastian

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Figure 9. A Khepera Robot Maneuvering to Lift a Block.

Thrun. The overall theme of the Russell- abilistic approaches. The section on software Norvig text is that of agents sensing and act- architectures briefly discusses layered architec- ing in an environment. That theme is essen- tures as a combination of deliberative and re- tially redundant when it comes to robotics, as active processes and mentions that most mod- all robots are agents by definition and applica- ern software systems contain a variant of the tion of the theme is not helpful in differenti- architecture, hinting at the formalism we have ating between the various architectures. If presented here. there could be said to be a secondary theme, it Interestingly, what a lay person might con- could be that “[t]he literature on robotics re- sider intelligent behavior in a robot is never ac- search can be divided roughly into two parts: tually mentioned. As far as speciﬁc robot capa- mobile robots and stationary manipulators” bilities are concerned, the chapter ends after (p. 940). Although accurate, the ontological path planning. Of course, high-level issues position that it takes (there are manipulators, such as task planning and natural language are mobile robots, and hybrids of the two) ap- covered at great length in others areas of the pears to emphasize the differences rather than book, but all these techniques have special con- the similarities between these two types of ro- cerns when applied to robots and are missing bots. Within the chapter, the sequence of the from this chapter. This disconnect is present in sections is hardware, perception, motion plan- most of the intelligent robotics books and ap- ning, motion planning under uncertainty, pears to reflect the AI robotics community’s moving, software architectures, and applica- current research emphasis on effective spatial tions. There is a particular emphasis on prob- reasoning over higher-level task composition.

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Simple Abstract Signal Information Attribute Model Model Lifetime

Input Channel Sensor Binary Detection Maps Logic Agent Modeling

Action Path Task Goal Output Channel Motor Kinematics Selection Planning Planning Selection

Figure 10: The Logical Conclusion.

Introduction to AI Robotics botics class. I have examined the text, and in most cases incorporated some material into the Introduction to AI Robotics by Robin Murphy course. (Murphy 2000) is, by topic area, the most ap- Siegwart and Nourbakhsh’s Introduction to propriate text for an intelligent robotics course. Autonomous Mobile Robots† (Siegwart and Nour- The book itself is organized into two (overlap- bakhsh 2004) and Dudek and Jenkin’s Compu- ping) minibooks, the first on software architec- tational Principles of Mobile Robotics (Dudek and tures and the second on navigation. Manipula- Jenkin 2000) are both solely about mobile ro- tors are not discussed to any depth. Murphy bots, and, as such, buy in to the Russell-Norvig comes from the behavior-based robotics tradi- partition. By the authors’ admissions, both tion, and follows the party line from that per- books focus on the problem of getting a robot spective. “Shakey-style” robotics are presented to move through space in support of some oth- and then criticized, leaving behavior-based ro- er task. This slice of the larger robot problem botics as the only sane solution (or perhaps if calls for a less encompassing framework than the problem is especially complex, a hybrid of presented in this paper, and so makes direct the two is what is called for). Notably missing comparison difficult. Dudek and Jenkin, how- is a discussion of where high-level representa- ever, do set out a broad-ranging theme that tions might come from. How does a robot take “[w]hat sets mobile robotics apart from other a mass of noisy sensor data, integrate it over research areas such as conventional manipula- space and time, and generalize to logical style tor robotics, artificial intelligence, and comput- descriptions such as those in a planning lan- er vision is the emphasis on problems related to guage. This would go a long way toward truly the understanding of large-scale space” (p. 1). reconciling the approaches. Much like Russell This position appears to be the antithesis to the and Norvig’s mobile versus manipulator para- view presented here, though Dudek and Jenkin digm, planning versus behaviors emphasizes, may maintain that they are highlighting the to my mind, too many of the differences, and differences in order to differentiate their nar- too few of the similarities. Further, it doesn’t row topic from the rest of robotics. leave much room for other sorts of robotics Siegwart and Nourbakhsh make fewer broad (such as engineering) that don’t fit neatly into thematic claims but appear to be in fairly the dichotomy. The second minibook on navi- strong agreement with Dudek and Jenkin on gation is almost entirely stand-alone, making the scope, breadth, depth, and even order of little direct reference back to the software archi- topics in a mobile robotics textbook. They do tectures. Aside from the lost opportunity to talk place more of an emphasis on the layered na- deeply about configuration space, the split has ture of robotics, even going so far as to present the effect of leaving the student perplexed a diagram (p. 10) nearly identical to figure 11. about where the navigation portion fits into They do however, restrict information flow to the various architectures explained in book just one particular kind of architecture. one. Because of the emphasis in these books on the mobile over the manipulator nature of ro- Mobile Robot Texts bots, their robots rarely do anything besides In this section, texts marked with a dagger (†) navigate, forgoing traditional AI-style tasks are ones that I have not used as texts in my ro- (when they say “planning,” they mean almost

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on robot motion. From this perspective, all robot movement problems are mapped to config- Knowledge, Mission uration space, where path planning can be per- Data Base Commands formed. In mobile robots, configuration space is close (if not identical) to real space, whereas in fixed-base manipulators, configuration space is the set of positions (configurations) in which Localization Position Cognition the manipulator can reside. A collision-free Map Building Global Map Path Planning path in a mobile robot’s configuration space takes the mobile robot from one location to another, whereas a collision-free path in a manip- Environment Model Path Local Map ulator’s configuration space takes the robot from one position to another. Either way, the main problem for robot motion is finding Information paths through the appropriate configuration Extraction and Path space. In this view, outside of differences in Execution Interpretation hardware and the associated kinematic differences, the primary difference between manipu- Raw Data Actuator Commands lator robots and mobile robots is the latter’s additional problems of localization and mapping. Perception Thus it is not that surprising that mobile robot Motion Control texts and robot motion texts might share many Sensing Acting properties. Jean-Claude Latombe’s classic Robot Motion Planning† (Latombe 1991) is still a definitive reference when it comes to moving either a mobile robot or a manipulator. The material is Real World dense, light on motivation, heavy on the ana- Environment lytic geometry, thus is unlikely to be appropriate as an undergraduate text. The format is an introduction of configuration space and how it is constructed followed by an in-depth survey Figure 11. Reference Control Scheme of how paths can be found in such spaces. The later chapters look at complications on the (Reproduced with permission from Siegwart and problem, such as multiple moving obstacles. Nourbakhsh [2004]; courtesy, The MIT Press.) The book shows its age in the chapter on “uncertainty in action,” which approaches the exclusively “path planning”). Much like Russell problem as something to be engineered around and Norvig, they address intelligent robotics as opposed to embraced with probabilistic only in the sense that navigation can be con- techniques. As with the mobile robot textbooks sidered a task requiring intelligence. Without above, “planning” means “path planning.” coverage elsewhere of higher-level topics such Unlike the mobile robot texts, it considers the as task planning, the mobile robots texts im- problem almost entirely in an abstract mathe- plicitly endorse the idea that traditional AI matical space, only occasionally referring to plays no role in current mobile robotics. idealized robots and not at all to real-world As an aside, Dudek and Jenkin discuss con- platforms. figuration space with respect to mobile robot The recent Principles of Robot Motion† (Choset pose without recourse to the manipulator mod- et al. 2005), team written by seven authors, el. I wish they wouldn’t; this has caused confu- could easily be viewed as an update of sion with students who end up believing that Latombe’s text. Like Robot Motion Planning, it configuration space is merely a direct represen- focuses on the idea of configuration space as a tation of real space, degrading the term and representation for mobile robots and articulat- causing confusion among not just students, ed arms alike. It presents many of the same top- but also some other textbook authors. Siegwart ics as Latombe, such as potential fields, and Nourbakhsh get this right. roadmaps, and cell decompositions. Of course, each of these areas has been updated with the Robot Motion new results from the intervening fifteen years. A different view on some of the same problems There is also new material based on some more faced in mobile robotics is offered by the texts recently developed approaches, especially with

34 AI MAGAZINE Articles respect to probability. Most of this material, neither unrelated nor antithetical to planning such as sampling approaches to roadmaps for systems; they are a difference of opinion on path planning, fits smoothly into the text. On how much abstraction is necessary to perform the other hand, some of the new material, such various tasks. Furthermore, the framework as approaches to simultaneous localization and highlights that hybrids of behavior-based and mapping (SLAM), is not directly about motion planning architectures are a natural combina- at all but rather about the problems of sensation of crossing information from the input to tion specific to mobile robots. the output channel at multiple layers, thus tak- Due to the mathematical difficulty and lim- ing advantage of the time differences at the ited scope of both these texts, neither is a good various layers. choice for the course under discussion here, Mobile robotics is commonly presented as its but the unifying philosophy is aligned with the own subfield, with its own kinematics and own spirit of my approach, and the material they high-level issues, primarily navigation. Some contain is an important piece of the larger pic- authors explicitly present them as orthogonal ture. to manipulators, as if mobility and manipula- tion is thought of like oil and water: they can Introduction to Robotics be mixed with vigorous shaking, but on the lo- Two books with similar names, Introduction to cal level, they are distinct. By examining mo- Robotics: Mechanics and Control† (Craig 2005) bile robotics in terms of the layer framework and Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Systems, one can see that the system organizational is- Applications† (Niku 2001) present the standard sues for mobile robotics are identical to those view of engineering robotics. In fact, the first of other robotics systems. They can been few chapters differ only in explanation style, viewed as requiring slight modifications of de- covering the same material in pretty much the tails, such as using a variant on the kinematic same order. Both focus almost exclusively on formulations, but otherwise are the same as sta- manipulator arms, covering kinematics, veloc- tionary articulated arms. In fact, two of the ities, dynamics, manipulator design, and con- more elegant and interesting results come from trol. Saeed Niku presents fuzzy logic control this fact: the equivalence of the integral kine- while John Craig focuses on more traditional matic method for mobile robots with the De- linear and nonlinear differential equation- navit and Hartenberg methods, and the equiv- based control. Neither author pays any atten- alence of path planning in manipulator tion to the higher-level issues that would char- configuration space with path planning in mo- acterize an AI style course, but the books are bile robot physical space. good references for instructors who wish to in- “Probabilistic robotics” is an imprecise clude coverage of these topics. phrase, at its root meaning that there are some probabilities in the system somewhere. In practice, it typically is used to mean probabilities Discussion exist in either sensation in the simple model The idea of abstraction in computing is not layer for localization and mapping or to ac- new, nor is the bottom-up approach to teach- count for uncertain movements in the path- ing. However, by examining the texts currently planning problem through the use of partially available in robotics, it appears that undergrad- observable Markov decision processes (Thrun uate robotics is rarely taught in that manner. 2000). If architectures are defined by the num- Textbooks that focus on one robotics subfield ber of layers through which information is usually ignore all of the other subfields. Even passed and where information crosses chan- books that have broad coverage often fail to re- nels, then probabilistic robotics are not a par- late the subfields to each other. For each major ticular architecture at all. The use of probability subfield in robotics, examining it from the per- is a specific approach to solving the problem of spective of the layers of abstraction framework a particular layer and channel. For instance, provides additional insight. Bayesian classifiers can be used in the detection At the signal layer, Braitenberg architectures module for behavior-based systems. Further, a are often presented as an interesting but unre- probabilistic robot might use any combination lated thought experiment in robotics. Instead, of probabilistic modules with nonprobabilistic they fit naturally into the framework and make mechanisms in other areas, such as probabilis- an excellent place to introduce robots. tic localization with a deterministic path plan- Behavior-based robots have been traditional- ner. From the perspective of the layers of ab- ly presented as an antidote to and a radical de- straction, the degree to which probabilities are parture from the traditional planning systems. involved in a system is orthogonal to the archi- According to this layered framework they are tecture of the system.

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Advocates of probabilistic robotics maintain proceed in both channels; for instance, there that it can bestow the fast reaction time and ro- can be little or no autonomy in the input chan- bustness to noise benefits of behavior-based ro- nel, with hand-build maps provided by a con- botics over logic predicate-based task-planning troller, yet the robot is fully autonomous in the robotics, while being more principled than said output channel. Similarly, the autonomy could behavior-based systems. The validity of this all be in the input channel, where the result of claim depends on what systems are being com- the processing is presented to the controller pared. For instance, when comparing a proba- who then makes decisions and prescribes the bilistic path planner to a task-planning robot, robot’s actions directly. By describing the level some of the robustness of the path planner is of autonomy in this manner, by showing due to abstracting only up to the simple model where autonomy is added, it provides a more layer. When path planning is performed in specific concept than just that of a simple spec- these systems, it is not the same sort of prob- trum. lem being solved as would be by a task-plan- Finally, it is interesting to note that because ning robot. Similarly, a system that uses proba- this frame of reference encompasses the stan- bilities in the input channel for map making dard robotics subfields it can act as an evalua- but uses modules that are reactive towards the tion tool of the claims of novel architectures. maps built (what I’ve called reactive-model ar- By examining new proposals from the perspec- chitectures) would owe some of its robustness tive of this framework, a researcher can deter- to behavior-based architectures. Yet, the proba- mine relations to existing systems and evaluate bilistic path-planning system that has no reac- uniqueness claims. For example, the layers of tive component is just as vulnerable to surprise abstraction model points out that there appears occurrences as other planning systems. to be a disconnect between artificial intelli- Because probability is not an architecture, gence and mobile robotics as it is currently but a technique to be used within many archi- practiced by the AI community. AI texts place tectures, comparison to individual architec- the field of AI in the upper layers of this taxon- tures is not immediately elucidating. On the omy, abstract models, task planning, with other hand, the success of probability does sug- some path planning. In contrast, most mobile gest a general principle. While more abstrac- robotics efforts spend their time building sim- tion reduces robustness through the discard of ple models; there is almost no consideration of information, the introduction of probabilistic what the robot does when it gets to its destina- techniques at a particular layer can ameliorate tion. This is not a criticism—after all a robot the brittleness of abstraction while maintain- has to be at the job site before it can perform a ing its advantages. It will be interesting to see job—but rather to point where the connection whether researchers will succeed in applying can be made. probabilistic techniques to the higher layers of the abstract model and whether this principle will continue to hold true. Conclusion It is common to find discussion of AI plan- This article presents and argues in favor of a ning robotics without any explanation of perspective for teaching AI robotics that looks where the logic representation comes from or at the problem as a two-channel set of layers of of how actions output by the planner end up as abstraction. This perspective is useful for teach- motor movements. It is similarly common to ing an undergraduate course that focuses on find discussions of the use of topographical the broad spectrum of subfields in robotics. It maps without discussion of their origin. In the covers all of the major issues while providing a layered model, these connections are empha- unifying context for what sometimes seem dis- sized at each stage, providing the student with parate approaches to robotic problems. In addi- the context to understand these topics. tion, the technical focus of these layers of ab- Many authors like to describe the level of au- straction adds perspective to some of the tonomy in a robot system as a spectrum, from historical developments that have led AI and fully autonomous to teleoperated. While strict- robotics to the stature that they enjoy today. ly speaking the level of autonomy is orthogo- When AI robotics is only a small portion of a nal to the architecture, it is interesting to note much larger AI course, this framework effec- that as autonomy increases, it is nearly always tively and efficiently connects the topics to the introduced at the lowest layers of the system much broader fields on which it depends. first. As systems become progressively more autonomous, the designers add autonomy layer Acknowledgments by layer from the lower layers on the left to the I would like to thank Lynn Stein, who by pro- higher layers on the right. But this need not viding a venue for these ideas, first forced me to

36 AI MAGAZINE Articles coalesce them into a coherent system. in Synthetic Psychology. Cambridge, MA: The In Proceedings, 1985 IEEE International Con- This article owes a great debt to edi- MIT Press. ference on Robotics and Automation, tors, especially Zach Dodds and Lloyd Brooks, R. 1986. A Robust Layered Control 116–121. Piscataway, NJ: Institute of Elec- Greenwald, for providing guidance, System for a Mobile Robot. IEEE Journal of trical and Electronics Engineers. insight, and well-turned phrases. I Robotics and Automation RA-2: 14–23. Murphy, R. R. 2000. Introduction to AI Ro- would also like to thank the anony- Choset, H., and Burdick, J. 2000. Sensor- botics. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. mous reviewers who also made many Based Motion Planning: The Hierarchical Niku, S. 2001. Introduction to Robotics: good suggestions. Rebecca Hwa and Generalized Voronoi Graph. International Analysis, Systems, Applications. Upper Sad- dle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Chris Brown were helpful in reading Journal of Robotics Research 19(2): 96–125. drafts and providing sounding boards. Choset, H.; Lynch, K. M.; Hutchinson, S.; Pell, B.; Bernard, D. E.; Chien, S. A.; Gat, E.; Muscettola, N.; Nayak, P. P.; Wagner, M. D.; This work was supported in part by a Kantor, G.; Burgard, W.; Kavraki, L. E.; and Thrun, S. 2005. Principles of Robot Motion: and Williams, B. C. 1998. An Autonomous grant from the Office of Naval Re- Theory, Algorithms, and Implementations. Spacecraft Agent Prototype. Autonomous search, N0001403WR20241. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Robots 5(1): 29–52. Notes Craig, J. 2005. Introduction to Robotics: Me- Russell, S., and Norvig, P. 2003. Artificial In- chanics and Control. Upper Saddle River, NJ: telligence: A Modern Approach, 2nd ed. Cam- 1. This characterization is not exactly accu- Pearson Prentice Hall. bridge, MA: The MIT Press. rate, as what many researchers might con- Sheth, P. N., and Uicker, J. J. 1971. A Gen- sider “engineering robotics” extends well Denavit, J., and Hartenberg, R. S. 1955. A eralized Symbolic Notation for Mecha- into the model layer (Latombe 1991; McK- Kinematic Notation for Lower-Pair Mecha- nisms. Journal of Engineering for Industry 93 errow 1991). There are, however, perspec- nisms Based on Matrices. Journal of Applied (70-Mech-19). tives that do primarily limit engineering ro- Mechanics 22: 215–221. botics to these lower layers (Craig 2005). Dudek, G., and Jenkin, M. 2000. Computa- Siegwart, R., and Nourbakhsh, I. 2004. In- This will be discussed in greater depth later tional Principles of Mobile Robotics. Cam- troduction to Autonomous Mobile Robots. on. bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 2. Byo-bot, www. kipr.org/robots/byobot. Gallistel, C. R. 1980. The Organization of Ac- Solomon, D. A. 1998. Inside Windows NT, html. tion: A New Synthesis. Hillsdale NJ: 2nd ed. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press. 3. Robix Rascal, www.robix.com/. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Tanenbaum, A. S. 1992. Modern Operating Systems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice 4. Rug Warrior Pro., www.akpeters.com/ Gallistel, C. R. 1990. The Organization of Be- Hall. book.asp?bID=39. havior. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Thrun, S. 2000. Probabilistic Algorithms in 5. Khepera II Robot, www.kteam.com/ro- Hrynkiw, D., and Tilden, M. 2002. JunkBots, Robotics. AI Magazine 21(4): 93–109. bots/khepera. Bugbots, and Bots on Wheels: Building Simple Robots With BEAM Technology. New York: Thrun, S. 2002. Robotic Mapping: A Survey. 6. Technically, the configuration space of a McGraw-Hill. In Exploring Artificial Intelligence in the New mobile robot would include both its pose Millennium, ed. G. Lakemeyer and B. Nebel. (x, y position plus orientation) and the an- International Organization for Standardiza- San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann. gular position of the wheels or legs. Since tion Information Technology Task Force. most often, only the pose is interesting, the 1994. Information Technology—Open Sys- Yamauchi, B.; Schultz, A.; and Adams, W. configuration space is defined ignoring the tems Interconnection—Basic Reference 1998. Mobile Robot Exploration and Map- configuration of the locomotors. This re- Model: The Basic Model. Standard 7498-1. Building with Continuous Localization. In sults in the configuration space being a Geneva, Switzerland: International Organi- Proceedings, 1998 IEEE International Confer- nearly direct representation of the physical zation for Standardization. ence on Robotics and Automation, space of the surrounding area. Latombe, J. 1991. Robot Motion Planning. 3715–3720. Piscataway, NJ: Institute of Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Electrical and Electronics Engineers. References Mataric, M. J. 1992. Minimizing Complex- ity in Controlling a Mobile Robot Popula- Frederick Crabbe is an associate professor at the Arkin, R. 1998. Behavior-Based Robotics. tion. In Proceedings, 1992 IEEE International United States Naval Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Conference on Robotics and Automation, 830–835. Piscataway, NJ: Institute of Elec- Academy in Annapolis, Asada, M. 1990. Map Building for a Mobile trical and Electronics Engineers. Maryland. He received Robot from Sensory Data. IEEE Transactions his A.B. from Dartmouth Mataric, M. J. 1997. Using Communication on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 37(6): College in 1992 and his to Reduce Locality in Multi-Robot Learn- 61–70. Ph.D. from UCLA in ing. In Proceedings of the Fourteenth National Aurenhammer, F. 1991. Voronoi Dia- 2000. His dissertation Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 643–648. grams—A Survey of a Fundamental Geo- was on social learning in agent communi- Menlo Park, CA: AAAI Press. metric Data Structure. ACM Computing Sur- ties. His current research interests include veys 23(3): 345–405. McDermott, D. 1992. Robot Planning. AI formal analysis of behavior-based systems Magazine 13(2): 55–79. Bishop, B., and Wick, C. 2005. Analog and programming robots by demonstra- Computation for Mobile Robotics Educa- McKerrow, P. J. 1991. Introduction to Robot- tion. He is the principle investigator of an tion. In Proceedings of the 2005 American So- ics. Sydney: Addison Wesley. O.N.R. funded program to enable robots to ciety for Engineering Education Annual Con- Moravec, H. P. 1988. Sensor Fusion in Evi- learn planning operators through observa- ference and Exposition. Washington, D.C.: dence Grids for Mobile Robots. AI Magazine tion and imitation. American Society for Engineering Educa- 9(2): 61–74. tion. Moravec, H. P., and Elfes, A. 1985. High Braitenberg, V. 1984. Vehicles: Experiments Resolution Maps from Wide Angle Sonar.

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Call for Proposals 2007 AAAI Spring Symposium Series

March 26–28, 2007 Sponsored by the American Association for Artiﬁcial Intelligence

AAAI invites proposals for the 2007 Spring Symposium Series, to be Appropriate number of potential participants. Although the series sup- held March 26-28, 2007 at Stanford University, California. ports a range of symposium sizes, the target size is around 40–60 par- The Spring Symposium Series is an annual set of meetings run in ticipants. parallel at a common site. It is designed to bring colleagues together in Lack of a long-term ongoing series of activities on the topic. The Spring an intimate forum while at the same time providing a significant gath- Symposium Series is intended to nurture emerging communities and ering point for the AI community. The two and one half day format of topics, so topics that already have yearly conferences or workshops the series allows participants to devote considerably more time to feed- are inappropriate. back and discussion than typical one-day workshops. It is an ideal An appropriate organizing committee. The organizing committee venue for bringing together new communities in emerging fields. should have (1) good technical knowledge of the topic, (2) good or- The symposia are intended to encourage presentation of specula- ganizational skills, and (3) connections to the various communities tive work and work in progress, as well as completed work. Ample from which they intend to draw participants. Committees for cross- time should be scheduled for discussion. Novel programming, in- disciplinary symposia must adequately represent all the disciplines to cluding the use of target problems, open-format panels, working be covered by the symposium. groups, or breakout sessions, is encouraged. Working notes will be Accepted proposals will be distributed as widely as possible over prepared, and distributed to the participants. At the discretion of the the subfields of AI, and balanced between theoretical and applied individual symposium chairs, these working notes may also be made topics. Symposia bridging theory and practice and those combining available as AAAI technical reports following the meeting. Most par- AI and related fields are particularly solicited. ticipants of the symposia will be selected on the basis of statements Symposium proposals should be submitted as soon as possible, of interest or abstracts submitted to the symposia chairs; some open but no later than April 21, 2006. Proposals that are submitted signif- registration will be allowed. All symposia are limited in size, and par- icantly before this deadline can be in draft form. Comments on how ticipants will be expected to attend a single symposium. to improve and complete the proposal will be returned to the submit- Proposals for symposia should be between two and five pages in ter in time for revisions to be made before the deadline. Notifications length, and should contain: of acceptance or rejection will be sent to submitters around May 5, ■ A title for the symposium. 2006. The submitters of accepted proposals will become the chair of ■ A description of the symposium, identifying specific areas of inter- the symposium, unless alternative arrangements are made. The sym- est, and general symposium format. posium organizing committees will be responsible for: ■ The names and addresses (physical and electronic) of the organiz- ■ Producing, in conjunction with the general chair, a call for partic- ing committee: preferably three or more people at different sites, ipation and registration brochure for the symposium, which will all of whom have agreed to serve on the committee. be distributed to the AAAI membership ■ A list of potential participants that have been contacted and that ■ Additional publicity of the symposium, especially to potential au- have expressed interest in participating. A common way of gather- diences from outside the AAAI community ing potential participants is to send email messages to email lists ■ Reviewing requests to participate in the symposium and determin- related to the topic(s) of the symposium. Note that potential par- ing symposium participants ticipants need not commit to participating, only state that they are ■ Preparing working notes for the symposium interested. ■ Scheduling the activities of the symposium Ideally, the entire organizing committee should collaborate in pro- ■ Preparing a short review of the symposium, to be printed in AI ducing the proposal. If possible, a draft proposal should be sent out Magazine to a few of the potential participants and their comments solicited. AAAI will provide logistical support, will take care of all local Approximately eight symposia on a broad range of topics within arrangements, and will arrange for reproducing and distributing the and around AI will be selected for the 2007 Spring Symposium Series. working notes. Please submit your symposium proposals by electronic All proposals will be reviewed by the AAAI Symposium Committee: mail (no postal submissions), and inquiries concerning symposia, to: Alan Schultz (Naval Research Lab), chair; Marjorie Skubic (University of Missouri-Columbia), cochair; and Karen Myers, associate chair. Alan C. Schultz The criteria for acceptance of proposals include: Director, Navy Center for Applied Research in Perceived interest to the AAAI community. Although AAAI encourages Artificial Intelligence symposia that cross disciplinary boundaries, a symposium must be of Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC interest to some subcommunity of the AAAI membership. Symposia (202) 767-2684 that are of interest to a broad range of AAAI members are also pre- (202) 767-3172 (fax) ferred. [email protected]

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