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MOBILE ROBOTICS

INDEX

Sr Topic Page No No 1 Introduction 2 Classification 3 Mobile Navigation 4

5 Ant Robot 6 Autonomous under water vehicle 7 DARPA LAGR Robot 8

9 10 Robotics 11 12 Mobile Industrial Robot

13 Justin Robot 14 Mobile 15 Mobile Wireless Sensor Network 16

17 Robot 18 and Robot Arm 19 20

21 Robot Jacobian 22 Rover(Space Exploratioin) 23 24 25 Wi-Fi

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Mobile robotics

Introduction:

"Mobot" redirects here. For the victory pose of distance runner Mo Farah, see Mo Farah § Trademark. A is a robot that is capable of locomotion. Mobile robotics is usually considered to be a subfield of robotics and information engineering.

A spying robot is an example of a mobile robot capable of movement in a given environment. Mobile have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one physical location. Mobile robots can be "autonomous" (AMR - autonomous mobile robot) which means they are capable of navigating an uncontrolled environment without the need for physical or electro-mechanical guidance devices. Alternatively, mobile robots can rely on guidance devices that allow them to travel a pre-defined navigation route in relatively controlled space (AGV -

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MOBILE ROBOTICS autonomous guided vehicle). By contrast, industrial robots are usually more-or-less stationary, consisting of a jointed arm(multi-linked manipulator) and gripperassembly (or end effector), attached to a fixed surface. Mobile robots have become more commonplace in commercial and industrial settings. Hospitals have been using autonomous mobile robots to move materials for many years. Warehouses have installed mobile robotic systems to efficiently move materials from stocking shelves to order fulfillment zones. Mobile robots are also a major focus of current research and almost every major university has one or more labs that focus on mobile robot research. Mobile robots are also found in industrial, militaryand security settings. Domestic robots are consumer products, including entertainment robots and those that perform certain household tasks such as vacuuming or gardening. The components of a mobile robot are a controller, control software, sensors and actuators. The controller is generally a microprocessor, embedded or a personal (PC). Mobile control software can be either assembly level language or high-level languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Fortran or special real-time software. The sensors used are dependent upon the requirements of the robot. The requirements could be dead reckoning, tactileand proximity sensing, triangulation ranging, collision avoidance, position location and other specific applications.

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Classification Mobile robots may be classified by:

. The environment in which they travel:

 Land or home robots are usually referred to as Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs). They are most commonly wheeled or tracked, but also include legged robots with two or more legs (humanoid, or resembling animals or insects).  Delivery & Transportation robots can move materials and supplies through a work environment

 Aerial robots are usually referred to as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)  Underwater robots are usually called autonomous underwater vehicles(AUVs)  Polar robots, designed to navigate icy, crevasse filled environments . The device they use to move, mainly:  : human-like legs (i.e. an ) or animal- like legs.  Wheeled robot.  Tracks.

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Mobile There are many types of mobile robot navigation: Manual remote or tele-op A manually teleoperated robot is totally under control of a driver with a joystick or other control device. The device may be plugged directly into the robot, may be a wireless joystick, or may be an accessory to a wireless computer or other controller. A tele-op'd robot is typically used to keep the operator out of harm's way. Examples of manual remote robots include Robotics Design'sANATROLLER ARI-100 and ARI- 50, Foster-Miller's Talon, iRobot's PackBot, and KumoTek's MK-705 Roosterbot. Guarded tele-op A guarded tele-op robot has the ability to sense and avoid obstacles but will otherwise navigate as driven, like a robot under manual tele-op. Few if any mobile robots offer only guarded tele-op. Line-following Car Some of the earliest Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) were line following mobile robots. They might follow a visual line painted or embedded in the floor or ceiling or an electrical wire in the floor. Most of these robots operated a simple "keep the line in the center sensor" algorithm. They could not circumnavigate obstacles; they just stopped and waited when something blocked their path. Many examples of such vehicles are still sold, by Transbotics, FMC, Egemin, HK Systems and many other companies. These types of robots are still widely popular in well known Robotic societies as a first step towards learning nooks and corners of robotics.

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Autonomously randomized robot Autonomous robots with random motion basically bounce off walls, whether those walls are sensed Autonomously guided robot

Robot developers use ready-made autonomous bases and software to design robot applications quickly. Shells shaped like people or cartoon characters may cover the base to disguise it. An autonomously guided robot knows at least some information about where it is and how to reach various goals and or waypoints along the way. "Localization" or knowledge of its current location, is calculated by one or more means, using sensors such motor encoders, vision, Stereopsis, lasers and global positioning systems. Positioning systems often use triangulation, relative position and/or Monte-Carlo/Markov localization to determine the location and orientation of the platform, from which it can plan a path to its next waypoint or goal. It can gather sensor readings that are time- and location- stamped. Such robots are often part of the wireless enterprise network, interfaced with other sensing and control systems in the building. For instance, the PatrolBot security robot responds to alarms, operates elevators and notifies the command center

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MOBILE ROBOTICS when an incident arises. Other autonomously guided robots include the SpeciMinder and the TUG delivery robots for the hospital. In 2013, autonomous robots capable of finding sunlight and water for potted plants were created by artist Elizabeth Demaray in collaboration with engineer Dr. Qingze Zou, biologist Dr. Simeon Kotchomi, and computer scientist Dr. Ahmed Elgammal.

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Autonomous robot: More capable robots combine multiple levels of navigation under a system called sliding autonomy. Most autonomously guided robots, such as the HelpMate hospital robot, also offer a manual mode. The Motivity autonomous robot , which is used in the ADAM, PatrolBot, SpeciMinder, MapperBot and a number of other robots, offers full sliding autonomy, from manual to guarded to autonomous modes. An autonomous robot, or automatic robot, is a robot that performs behaviors or tasks with a high degree of autonomy. Autonomous robotics is usually considered to be a subfield of , robotics, and information engineering. Early versions were proposed and demonstrated by author/inventor David L. Heiserman. Autonomous robots are particularly desirable in fields such as spaceflight, household maintenance (such as cleaning), waste water treatment, and delivering goods and services. Some modern factory robots are "autonomous" within the strict confines of their direct environment. It may not be that every degree of freedom exists in their surrounding environment, but the factory robot's workplace is challenging and can often contain chaotic, unpredicted variables. The exact orientation and position of the next object of work and (in the more advanced factories) even the type of object and the required task must be determined. This can vary unpredictably (at least from the robot's point of view). One important area of robotics research is to enable the robot to cope with its environment whether this be on land, underwater, in the air, underground, or in space. A fully autonomous robot can[citation needed]:

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. Gain information about the environment

. Work for an extended period without human intervention

. Move either all or part of itself throughout its operating environment without human assistance

. Avoid situations that are harmful to people, property, or itself unless those are part of its design specifications An autonomous robot may also learn or gain new knowledge like adjusting for new methods of accomplishing its tasks or adapting to changing surroundings. Like other machines, autonomous robots still require regular maintenance.

History

Date Developments

During World War II the first mobile robots emerged as a result of technical advances on a number of relatively new research fields like computer science and cybernetics. They were mostly flying bombs. 1939– Examples are smart bombs that only detonate within a 1945 certain range of the target, the use of guiding systems and radar control. The V1 and V2rockets had a crude 'autopilot' and automatic detonation systems. They were the predecessors of modern cruise missiles. 1948– W. Grey Walter builds Elmer and Elsie, two autonomous

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1949 robots called MachinaSpeculatrix because these robots liked to explore their environment. Elmer and Elsie were each equipped with a light sensor. If they found a light source they would move towards it, avoiding or moving obstacles on their way. These robotsdemonstrated that complex behaviour could arise from a simple design. Elmer and Elsie only had the equivalent of two nerve cells. The Johns Hopkins University develops 'Beast'. Beast 1961– used a sonar to move around. When its batteries ran low 1963 it would find a power socket and plug itself in. Mowbot was the very first robot that would automatically 1969 mow the lawn. The Stanford Cart line follower was a mobile robot that was able to follow a white line, using a camera to see. It was radio linked to a large mainframe that made the calculations. At about the same time (1966–1972) the Stanford Research Institute is building and doing research 1970 on Shakey the Robot, a robot named after its jerky motion. Shakey had a camera, a rangefinder, bump sensorsand a radio link. Shakey was the first robot that could reason about its actions. This means that Shakeycould be given very general commands, and that the robot would figure out the necessary steps to accomplish the given task.

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The Soviet Union explores the surface of the Moon with Lunokhod 1, a lunar rover. In its Viking program the NASAsends two unmanned 1976 spacecraft to Mars. The interest of the public in robots rises, resulting in robots that could be purchased for home use. These robots served entertainment or educational purposes. 1980 Examples include the RB5X, which still exists today and the HERO series. The Stanford Cart is now able to navigate its way through obstacle courses and make maps of its environment. The team of Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr University Early Munich builds the first robot cars, driving up to 55 mph 1980s on empty streets. StevoBozinovski and MihailSestakov control a mobile 1983 robot by parallel programming, using multitasking system of IBM Series/1 computer. StevoBozinovski and GjorgiGruevski control a wheeled 1986 robot using speech commands.[12] Hughes Research Laboratoriesdemonstrates the first 1987 cross-country map and sensor-based autonomous operation of a robotic vehicle.[13]

1988 StevoBozinovski, MihailSestakov, and LiljanaBozinovska control a mobile robot using EEG

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signals.[14][15] StevoBozinovski and his team control a mobile robot 1989 using EOG signals.[15] 1989 invents BEAM robotics. Joseph Engelberger, father of the industrial , works with colleagues to design the first commercially available autonomous mobile hospital robots, sold by 1990s Helpmate. The US Department of Defense funds the MDARS-I project, based on the Cybermotion indoor security robot. Edo. Franzi, André Guignard andFrancescoMondada developed Khepera, an 1991 autonomous small mobile robot intended for research activities. The project was supported by the LAMI-EPFL lab. Dante I [16] and Dante II [17] were developed by 1993– Carnegie Mellon University. Both were walking robots 1994 used to explore live volcanoes. With guests on board, the twin robot vehicles VaMP and VITA-2 of Daimler-Benz and Ernst DickmannsofUniBwM drive more than one thousand 1994 kilometers on a Paris three-lane highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 130 km/h. They demonstrate autonomous driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes left and right with autonomous passing of

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other cars. Semi-autonomous ALVINN steered a car coast-to-coast under computer control for all but about 50 of the 2850 1995 miles. Throttle and brakes, however, were controlled by a human driver. In the same year, one of Ernst Dickmanns' robot cars (with robot-controlled throttle and brakes) drove more than 1000 miles from Munichto Copenhagen and back, in 1995 traffic, at up to 120 mph, occasionally executing maneuvers to pass other cars (only in a few critical situations a safety driver took over). Active vision was used to deal with rapidly changing street scenes. The Pioneer programmable mobile robot becomes commercially available at an affordable price, enabling a 1995 widespread increase in robotics research and university study over the next decade as mobile robotics becomes a standard part of the university curriculum. Cyberclean Systems develops the first fully autonomous vacuum cleaning robot that self-charged, operated 1996 elevators and vacuumed hallways with no human intervention. NASA sends the Mars Pathfinderwith its 1996– rover Sojourner to Mars. The rover explores the surface, 1997 commanded from earth. Sojourner was equipped with a hazard avoidance system. This enabled Sojourner to

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autonomously find its way through unknown martian terrain. Sony introduces Aibo, a robotic dog capable of seeing, walking and interacting with its environment. 1999 The PackBot remote-controlled military mobile robot is introduced. Start of the Swarm-bots project. Swarm bots resemble insect colonies. Typically they consist of a large number 2001 of individual simple robots, that can interact with each other and together perform complex tasks. appears, a domesticautonomous mobile 2002 robot that cleans the floor. Axxon Robotics purchases Intellibot, manufacturer of a line of commercial robots that scrub, vacuum, and sweep floors in hospitals, office buildings and other commercial 2003 buildings. Floor care robots from Intellibot Robotics LLC operate completely autonomously, mapping their environment and using an array of sensors for navigation and obstacle avoidance. Robosapien, a biomorphic toy robot designed by Mark Tilden is commercially available. 2004 In 'The Centibots Project' 100 autonomous robots work together to make a map of an unknown environment and search for objects within the environment.[18] In the first DARPA Grand Challengecompetition, fully

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autonomous vehicles compete against each other on a desert course. Boston Dynamics creates a quadruped robot intended to 2005 carry heavy loads across terrain too rough for vehicles. Sony stops making Aibo and HelpMate halts production, but a lower-cost PatrolBot customizable autonomous system becomes available as mobile robots continue the struggle to become commercially viable. The US Department of Defense 2006 drops the MDARS-I project, but funds MDARS-E, an autonomous field robot. TALON-Sword, the first commercially available robot with grenade launcher and other integrated weapons options, is released.[19] Honda's Asimo learns to run and climb stairs. In the DARPA Urban Grand Challenge, six vehicles autonomously complete a complex course involving manned vehicles and obstacles.[20] Kiva Systems robots proliferate in distribution operations; these automated shelving units sort themselves according to the popularity 2007 of their contents. The Tug becomes a popular means for hospitals to move large cabinets of stock from place to place, while the Speci-Minder with Motivity begins carrying blood and other patient samples from nurses' stations to various labs. Seekur, the first widely available, non-military outdoor service robot, pulls a 3-ton vehicle

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across a parking lot,[21] drives autonomously indoors and begins learning how to navigate itself outside. Meanwhile, PatrolBot learns to follow people and detect doors that are ajar. Boston Dynamics released video footage of a new 2008 generation BigDogable to walk on icy terrain and recover its balance when kicked from the side. The Multi Autonomous Ground-robotic International Challenge has teams of autonomous vehicles map a large 2010 dynamic urban environment, identify and track humans and avoid hostile objects. The Multi-Function Agile Remote-Controlled Robot (MARCbot) is for the first time used by US police to kill a sniper who killed 5 police officers[22] in Dallas, Texas, which raises ethical questions regarding the use of drones 2016 and robots by police as instruments of lethal force against a perpetrator. During the NASA Sample Return Robot Centennial Challenge, a rover, named Cataglyphis, successfully demonstrated autonomous navigation, decision-making, and sample detection, retrieval, and return capabilities. Within the ARGOS Challenge robots are developed to 2017 work under extreme conditions on offshore oil and gas installations.

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Ant robotics is a special case of . Swarm robots are simple (and hopefully, therefore cheap) robots with limited sensing and computational capabilities. This makes it feasible to deploy teams of swarm robots and take advantage of the resulting fault tolerance and parallelism. Swarm robots cannot use conventional planning methods due to their limited sensing and computational capabilities. Thus, their behavior is often driven by local interactions. Ant robots are swarm robots that can communicate via markings, similar to antsthat lay and follow pheromone trails. Some ant robots use long-lasting trails (either regular trails of a chemical substance or smart trails of transceivers). Others use short- lasting trails including heat and alcohol. Others even use virtual trails.

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Autonomous underwater vehicle

Picture taken of the Battlespace Preparation Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (BPAUV) by an employee of Bluefin Robotics Corporation during a US Navy exercise.

The Blackghost AUV is designed to undertake an underwater assault course autonomously with no outside control.

Pluto Plus AUV for underwater mine identification and destruction. From Norwegian minehunter KNM Hinnøy

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An autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is a robot that travels underwater without requiring input from an operator. AUVs constitute part of a larger group of undersea systems known as unmanned underwater vehicles, a classification that includes non-autonomous remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) – controlled and powered from the surface by an operator/pilot via an umbilical or using remote control. In military applications an AUV is more often referred to as an unmanned undersea vehicle (UUV).Underwater gliders are a subclass of AUVs.

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DARPA LAGR Program

The Learning Applied to Ground Vehicles (LAGR) program, which ran from 2004 until 2008, had the goal of accelerating progress in autonomous, perception-based, off-road navigation in robotic unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs). LAGR was funded by DARPA, a research agency of the United States Department of Defense.

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Domestic robot

First generation Roomba vacuums the carpets in a domestic environment A domestic robot is a type of service robot, an autonomous robot that is primarily used for household chores, but may also be used for education, entertainment or therapy. Thus far, there are only a few limited models, though speculators, such as Bill Gates, have suggested that they could become more common in the future. While most domestic robots are simplistic, some are connected to WiFi home networks or smart environmentsand are autonomous to a high degree. There were an estimated 3,540,000 service robots in use in 2006 compared with an estimated 950,000 industrial robots.

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Humanoid robot

RoboThespian, from Engineered Arts 2016 A humanoid robot is a robot with its body shape built to resemble the human body. The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of bipedal locomotion, or for other purposes. In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example, from the waist up. Some humanoid robots also have heads designed to replicate human facial features such as eyes and mouths. Androids are humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble humans.

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Hexapod (robotics)

A six-legged walking robot should not be confused with a Stewart platform, a kind of used in robotics applications.

Beetle hexapod A hexapod robot is a mechanical vehicle that walks on six legs. Since a robot can be statically stable on three or more legs, a hexapod robot has a great deal of flexibility in how it can move. If legs become disabled, the robot may still be able to walk. Furthermore, not all of the robot's legs are needed for stability; other legs are free to reach new foot placements or manipulate a payload. Many hexapod robots are biologically inspired by Hexapoda locomotion. Hexapods may be used to test biological theories about insect locomotion, motor control, and neurobiology.

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Industrial robot

Articulated industrial robot operating in a foundry. An industrial robot is a robot system used for manufacturing. Industrial robots are automated, programmable and capable of movement on three or more axis. Typical applications of robots include welding, painting, assembly, pick and place for printed circuit boards, packaging and labeling, palletizing, product inspection, and testing; all accomplished with high endurance, speed, and precision. They can assist in material handling. In the year 2015, an estimated 1.64 million industrial robots were in operation worldwide according to International Federation of Robotics (IFR).

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Justin (robot)

Justin (also known as Rollin' Justin) is an autonomous and programmable humanoid robot with two arms, developed by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, located in Wessling, Germany. Introduced in 2009, this wireless robot is controllable through , a type of technology that allows a person to feel as if he or she were present from a location other than his or her true location. Justin is intended to be mounted on its own satellite, maneuver in orbit, and repair other satellites. However, it can also be used on Earth to perform simple tasks. The European Space Agency (ESA) plans to have astronauts aboard the International Space Station teleoperating Justin by 2014. Rollin' Justin has some variations depending on its intended purpose. For example, some versions of Justin may not have wheels. DLR also created Agile Justin—an upgraded version of Rollin’ Justin, and in 2013 TORO—which is similar to Rollin' Justin, except with legs instead of wheels.

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Mobile industrial robots

Mobile industrial robots are pieces of machinery that are able to be programmed to perform tasks in an industrial setting. Typically these have been used in stationary and workbench applications; however, mobile industrial robots introduce a new method for lean manufacturing. With advances in controls and robotics, current technology has been improved allowing for mobile tasks such as product delivery. This additional flexibility in manufacturing can save a company time and money during the manufacturing process, and therefore results in a cheaper end product. Mobile robot technology has potential to revolutionize many sectors of industry; however, it carries with it some disadvantages. The logistics of manufacturing will be streamlined by allowing robots to autonomously navigate to different areas for their work. The labor demands for employees will be lessened as robots will be able to work alongside humans, and robots will assist with medicine and surgery more and more. However, there are drawbacks to this technology. Coordinating the movement of robots around facilities and calibrating their position at their destination is tedious and far from perfect. A robot malfunctioning in a manufacturing setting will hold up production - and this robot could malfunction anywhere in a facility. Human safety must also be considered. Robots must prioritize the safety of human operators over their programmed task - which may complicate the coordination of multiple autonomous robots. Especially in a surgical setting, there is no room for error on the robot's part. Even though some

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Mobile manipulator is nowadays a widespread term to refer to robot systems built from a robotic manipulator arm mounted on a mobile platform. Such systems combine the advantages of mobile platforms and robotic manipulator arms and reduce their drawbacks. For instance, the mobile platform extends the workspace of the arm, whereas an arm offers several operational functionalities.

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Mobile wireless sensor network A mobile wireless sensor network (MWSN)can simply be defined as a wireless sensor network (WSN) in which the sensor nodes are mobile. MWSNs are a smaller, emerging field of research in contrast to their well-established predecessor. MWSNs are much more versatile than static sensor networks as they can be deployed in any scenario and cope with rapid topology changes. However, many of their applications are similar, such as environment monitoring or surveillance. Commonly, the nodes consist of a radiotransceiver and a microcontroller powered by a battery, as well as some kind of sensor for detecting light, heat, humidity, temperature,

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Personal robot

Pictogram showing a personal robot (PR) A personal robot is one whose human interface and design make it useful for individuals. This is by contrast to industrial robots which are generally configured and operated by robotics specialists. A personal robot is one that enables an individual to automate the repetitive or menial part of home or work life making them more productive. Similar to the way that the transition from mainframe to the personal computers revolutionized personal productivity, the transition from industrial robotics to personal robotics is changing productivity in home and work settings. Turning a robot like ASIMO or Atlas into a universally applicable personal robot or artificial servant is mainly a programming task. As of today vast improvements in motion planning, computer vision (esp. scene recognition), natural language processing, and automated reasoning are indispensable to make this a possibility.

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Robot

Atlas (2016), a bipedal humanoid robot

ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005

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Articulated welding robots used in a factory are a type of industrial robot The quadrupedal military robotCheetah, an evolution of BigDog(pictured), was clocked as the world's fastest legged robot in 2012, beating the record set by an MIT bipedal robot in 1989. A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer— capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. Robots can be guided by an external control device or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be constructed on the lines of human form, but most robots are machines designed to perform a task with no regard to how they look. Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from humanoids such as Honda's Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility (ASIMO) and TOSY's TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot (TOPIO) to industrial robots, medical operating robots, patient assist robots, dog therapy robots, collectively programmed swarm robots, UAV drones such as General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, and even microscopic nano robots. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or thought of its own. Autonomous things are expected to proliferate in the

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MOBILE ROBOTICS coming decade, with home robotics and the autonomous car as some of the main drivers. The branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing is robotics. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. These robots have also created a newer branch of robotics: . From the time of ancient civilization there have been many accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even automata resembling animals and humans, designed primarily as entertainment. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age, there appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote-control and wireless remote-control. The term comes from a Czech word, robota, meaning "forced labor"; the word 'robot' was first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 play R.U.R. (RossumoviUniverzálníRoboti - Rossum's Universal Robots) by the Czech writer, Karel Čapek but it was Karel's brother Josef Čapek who was the word's true inventor. evolved into the driving force of development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by in Bristol, England in 1948, as well as Computer (CNC) machine tools in the late 1940s by John T. Parsons and Frank L. Stulen. The first commercial, digital and programmable robot was built by George Devol in

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1954 and was named the Unimate. It was sold to General Motors in 1961 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die casting machines at the Inland Fisher Guide Plant in the West Trenton section of Ewing Township, New Jersey. Robots have replaced humans in performing repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea. There are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising technological unemployment as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions.[12] The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future.

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Robot kit

A robot built using the Mindstorms NXT set. A robot kit is a special construction kit for building robots, especially autonomous mobile robots. Toy robot kits are also supplied by several companies. They are mostly made of plastics elements like , rero Reconfigurable Robot kit, the RobotisBioloid, Robobuilder, the ROBO-BOX-3.0 (produced by Inex), and the lesser-known KAI Robot (produced by Kaimax), or aluminium elements like Lynxmotion's Servo Erector Set and the qfix kit. The kits can consist of: structural elements, mechanical elements, motors (or other actuators), sensors and a controller board to control the inputs and outputs of the robot. In some cases, the kits can be available without electronics as well, to provide the user the opportunity to use his or her own

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Robotic arm

The SRMS while deploying a payload from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle A robotic arm is a type of mechanical arm, usually programmable, with similar functions to a human arm; the arm may be the sum total of the mechanism or may be part of a more complex robot. The links of such a manipulator are connected by joints allowing either rotational motion (such as in an ) or translational (linear) displacement. The links of the manipulator can be considered to form a kinematic chain. The terminus of the kinematic chain of the manipulator is called the end effector and it is analogous to the human hand.

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Robotic mapping Robotic mapping is a discipline related to computer vision and cartography. The goal for an autonomous robot is to be able to construct (or use) a map (outdoor use) or floor plan (indoor use) and to localize itself and its recharging bases or beacons in it. Robotic mapping is that branch which deals with the study and application of ability to localize itself in a map / plan and sometimes to construct the map or floor plan by the autonomous robot. Evolutionarily shaped blind action may suffice to keep some animals alive. For some insectsfor example, the environment is not interpreted as a map, and they survive only with a triggered response. A slightly more elaborated navigation strategy dramatically enhances the capabilities of the robot. Cognitive maps enable planning capacities and use of current perceptions, memorized events, and expected consequences.

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Robot kinematics 

Inverse kinematics of SCARA robot done with MeKin2D. Robot kinematics applies geometry to the study of the movement of multi-degree of freedom kinematic chains that form the structure of robotic systems. The emphasis on geometry means that the links of the robot are modeled as rigid bodies and its joints are assumed to provide pure rotation or translation. Robot kinematics studies the relationship between the dimensions and connectivity of kinematic chains and the position, velocityand acceleration of each of the links in the robotic system, in order to plan and control movement and to compute actuator forces and torques. The relationship between massand inertia properties, motion, and the associated forces and torques is studied as part of robot dynamics.

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Kinematic equations A fundamental tool in robot kinematics is the kinematics equations of the kinematic chains that form the robot. These non-linear equations are used to map the joint parameters to the configuration of the robot system. Kinematics equations are also used in biomechanics of the skeleton and computer animation of articulated characters. Forward kinematics uses the kinematic equations of a robot to compute the position of the end-effector from specified values for the joint parameters. The reverse process that computes the joint parameters that achieve a specified position of the end- effector is known as inverse kinematics. The dimensions of the robot and its kinematics equations define the volume of space reachable by the robot, known as its workspace. There are two broad classes of robots and associated kinematics equations: serial manipulators and parallel manipulators. Other types of systems with specialized kinematics equations are air, land, and submersible mobile robots, hyper-redundant, or snake, robots and humanoid robots. Forward kinematics

Forward kinematics of an over-actuated planar parallel manipulator done with MeKin2D.

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Forward kinematics Forward kinematics specifies the joint parameters and computes the configuration of the chain. For serial manipulators this is achieved by direct substitution of the joint parameters into the forward kinematics equations for the serial chain. For parallel manipulators substitution of the joint parameters into the kinematics equations requires solution of the a set of polynomialconstraints to determine the set of possible end- effector locations.

Inverse kinematics Inverse kinematics specifies the end-effector location and computes the associated joint angles. For serial manipulators this requires solution of a set of polynomials obtained from the kinematics equations and yields multiple configurations for the chain. The case of a general 6R (a serial chain with six revolute joints) yields sixteen different inverse kinematics solutions, which are solutions of a sixteenth degree polynomial. For parallel manipulators, the specification of the end-effector location simplifies the kinematics equations, which yields formulas for the joint parameters.

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Robot Jacobian The time derivative of the kinematics equations yields the Jacobian of the robot, which relates the joint rates to the linear and angular velocity of the end-effector. The principle of virtual work shows that the Jacobian also provides a relationship between joint torques and the resultant force and torque applied by the end-effector. Singular configurations of the robot are identified by studying its Jacobian. Velocity kinematics The robot Jacobian results in a set of linear equations that relate the joint rates to the six-vector formed from the angular and linear velocity of the end-effector, known as a twist. Specifying the joint rates yields the end-effector twist directly. The inverse velocity problem seeks the joint rates that provide a specified end-effector twist. This is solved by inverting the Jacobian matrix. It can happen that the robot is in a configuration where the Jacobian does not have an inverse. These are termed singular configurations of the robot. Static force analysis The principle of virtual work yields a set of linear equations that relate the resultant force-torque six vector, called a wrench, that acts on the end-effector to the joint torques of the robot. If the end-effector wrench is known, then a direct calculation yields the joint torques. The inverse statics problem seeks the end-effector wrench associated with a given set of joint torques, and requires the inverse of the Jacobian matrix. As in the case of inverse velocity analysis, at singular configurations this problem cannot be solved. However, near singularities small actuator torques result

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MOBILE ROBOTICS in a large end-effector wrench. Thus near singularity configurations robots have large mechanical advantage.

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Rover (space exploration) Lunar rover and Mars rover

Three different Mars rover designs; Sojourner, MER and Curiosity.

Curiosity's wheels on Mars, 2017 A rover (or sometimes planetary rover) is a space exploration vehicle designed to move across the surface of a planet or other celestial body. Some rovers have been designed to transport members of a human spaceflight crew; others have been partially or fully autonomous robots. Rovers usually arrive at the planetary surface on a lander-style spacecraft. Rovers are created to land on another planet, besides Earth, to find out information and to take samples. They can collect dust, rocks, and even take pictures. They are very useful for exploring the universe.

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Ubiquitous robot Ubiquitous robot is a term used in an analogous way to . Software useful for "integrating robotic technologies with technologies from the fields of ubiquitous and pervasive computing, sensor networks, and ambient intelligence". The of mobile phone, wearable computers and ubiquitous computing makes it likely that human beings will live in a ubiquitous world in which all devices are fully networked. The existence of ubiquitous space resulting from developments in computer and network technology will provide motivations to offer desired services by any IT device at any place and time through user interactions and seamless applications. This shift has hastened the ubiquitous revolution, which has further manifested itself in the new multidisciplinary research area, ubiquitous robotics. It initiates the third generation of robotics following the first generation of the industrial robot and the second generation of the personal robot. Ubiquitous robot (Ubibot) is a robot incorporating three components including virtual software robot or avatar, real- world mobile robot and embedded sensor system in surroundings. Software robot within a virtual world can control a real-world robot as a brain and interact with human beings. Researchers of KAIST, Korea describe these three components as a Sobot (Software robot), Mobot (Mobile robot), and Embot (Embedded robot).

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Unmanned aerial vehicle

"UAV" redirects here. For other uses, see UAV (disambiguation).

A General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper, a hunter-killer surveillance UAV

A DJI Phantom quadcopter UAV for commercial and recreational aerial photography

A DeltaQuad VTOL fixed wing surveillance UAV

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UAV launch from an air-powered catapult

Swift020/021 (スウィフト020/021) in Kobe An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot onboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS); which include a UAV, a ground-based controller, and a system of communications between the two. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy: either under remote control by a human operator or autonomously by onboard computers. Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs were originally used for missions too "dull, dirty or dangerous" for humans. While they originated mostly in military applications, their use is rapidly expanding to commercial, scientific, recreational, agricultural, and other applications, such as policing, peacekeeping, and surveillance, product deliveries, aerial photography, smuggling,and drone racing. Civilian UAVs now vastly INNOVATIVE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT 47

MOBILE ROBOTICS outnumber military UAVs, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015.

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Wi-Fi

"WIFI" redirects here. For the radio station, see WIFI (AM). Wi-Fi (/ˈwaɪfaɪ/) is a family of radio technologies that is commonly used for the wireless local area networking (WLAN) of devices which is based around the IEEE 802.11 family of standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Wi- Fi uses multiple parts of the IEEE 802 protocolfamily and is designed to seamlessly interwork with its wired sister protocol Ethernet.

Wi-Fi

The old Wi-Fi Alliance logo

Introduced September 1998; 20 years ago

Compatible Personal computers, gaming hardware consoles, , printers, mobile phones

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Devices that can use Wi-Fi technologies include desktops and , smartphonesand tablets, smart TVs, printers, digital audio players, digital cameras, cars and drones. Compatible devices can connect to each other over Wi-Fi through a wireless access point as well as to connected Ethernet devices and may use it to access the Internet. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20 meters (66 feet) indoors and a greater range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points.

Depiction of a device sending information wirelessly to another device, both connected to the local network, in order to print a document The different versions of Wi-Fi are specified by various IEEE 802.11 protocol standards, with the different radio technologies determining the ranges, radio bands, and speeds that may be achieved. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz (12 cm) UHF and 5 gigahertz (6 cm) SHF ISM radio bands; these bands are subdivided into multiple channels. Each channel can be time-shared by multiple networks. These wavelengths work best for line-of-sight. Many common materials absorb or reflect them, which further restricts range, but can tend to help minimise interference between different INNOVATIVE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT 50

MOBILE ROBOTICS networks in crowded environments. At close range, some versions of Wi-Fi, running on suitable hardware, can achieve speeds of over 1 Gbit/s. Wi-Fi is potentially more vulnerable to attack than wired networks because anyone within range of a network with a wireless network interface controller can attempt access. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) is a family of technologies created to protect information moving across Wi-Fi networks and includes solutions for personal and enterprise networks. Security features of WPA have included stronger protections and new security practices as the security landscape has changed over time.

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