CORE COURSE II FROM PRE – HISTORY TO CE 1206

UNIT I

Ancient India: geographical features and their influence – Sources- Indus valley Civilization – Vedic Age – Social life – Position of Women –Emergerce of & – Life History of Buddha and – their principles – invasions of Alexander - art.

UNIT I

Ancient India - Geographical features and their influence

India is a sub-continent. The vastness of its size was the main reason for the country being divided into several kingdoms. Kings like Asoka, Ala-ud-din Khilji and Aurangazeb established an extensive empire in the land.

India is a vast country. The area of independent India consists of 12,27,072 square miles. India is a geographical unit bounded on the North-East and North-West by the mighty Himalayan Mountain chain and on the other sides by the Sea i.e. the Bay of Bengal on the East, the Arabian-Sea on the West and the Indian Ocean on the South. This geographical unity has enabled the growth of cultural unity within the country.

Geographically India has been divided into the following four units:

(i) Mountainous ranges in the north (ii) Great Indo-Gangetic plain (iii) The (iv) Coastal ghats.

(i) Mountainous Ranges in the North

Physically and intellectually India has been greatly influenced by the Himalayas. These are spread over about 1500 miles in length and 200 miles in breadth. In the past the Himalayas was inaccessible; but today it requires national defense. It has many passes which gave way to invaders. Many rivers flow from here which have made our northern plains prosperous.

The Aryans, Persians, Kushans, Parthians, Huns, Turks and Mughals came to India through the North-Western passes. The Himalayas give life to the three great rivers, the Indus, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.

(ii) Great Indo-Gangetic Plain

This is a very prosperous plain and has been the centre of foreign invasions. All important empires, trade, art, architecture and cities have developed in this plain. This plain has made India rich and centre of knowledge. This plain contains alluvial soil and hence the lands are very fertile. Here the people are easily able to get almost all their requirements and enjoy leisure. Further they are able to think of the problems of life and rise high in civilization.

There are two national divisions, namely, Aryavartha or Uttarapada or North India and Dakshinapada or the Deccan or . The Vindhyas and Satpura Mountain are the dividing ranges between North India and South India.

In ancient times the culture of North India could take shelter in the South. For example when Buddhism was attaining popularity in the North, took shelter in the South and thereafter re-established its supremacy even in North India.

(iv) Coastal Ghats

On the east and the west in South India are situated large sea belts which give rise to the deltas of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. It also possesses two parts – Malabar and Konkan. On the western coast there are hill ranges about 700 miles long with Arabian Sea. These ranges are 3000 feet to 8000 feet long. The lands in the Eastern Ghats are low. The inhabitants of both these ghats maintained good relations with Eastern countries like Java, Sumatar, Burma, Siam and Indo-China.

Effects on Political History

(1) The vast Himalayan mountain and its western and eastern ranges in the north have separated India from the rest of Asia.

(2) The passes have given way to may invaders like the Aryans, the Iranians, the Greeks, the Sakas, the Huns, the Turks, the Mughals and others.

(3) Himalayas served as a great defence to the people of India. (4) It has divided the country into various territorial divisions.

(5) Many of our rivers flow from Himalayas. They have brought us prosperity.

(6) Vindhya mountain have divided India into two parts.

(7) Indo-Gangetic Plains are the most prosperous region of the world.

(8) Due to prosperity people of the plains loved peace and ease.

(9) Many empires have developed in our plains.

(10) In the field of culture, the contribution of ―North India‖ is supreme

Vedic Literature is the most valuable treasure of our country. The art and architecture under Mauryas and Guptas, the Gandhara Art under Kushans, the establishment of Nalanda and Taxila universities are considered as cultural effect of Geography on History. SOURCES

 Literary and Archaeological records are the two main categories that give evidences of Ancient Indian History.  The archaeological source includes epigraphic, numismatic, and other architectural remains.  The ancient Indian literature is mostly religious in nature.  The Vedic literature contains mainly the four i.e. Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvanaveda.  The Vedas give reliable information about the culture and civilization of the , but do not reveal the political history.  Six Vedangas are the important limbs of Vedas. They were evolved for the proper understanding of the Vedas.

 The later Vedic literature includes the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads.

 Brahmanas gives a description of Vedic rituals.

, which are 18 in numbers give mainly historical accounts.

 The and the are epics of great historical importance.

 The Jain and the Buddhist literature had been written in Prakrit and languages.

 The Buddhist books are called as Jataka stories.  Dharmashastras were compiled between 600 and 200 B.C.

 Arthashastra is a book on statecraft written by Kautilya during the Maurya period. The book is divided into 15 parts dealing with different subject matters related to polity, economy, and society.

 Mudrarakshasha is a play written by Visakha datta. It describes the society and culture of that period.

 Malavikagnimitram written by Kalidasa gives information of the reign of Pusyamitra Sunga dynasty.

 Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, throws light on many historical facts about which we could not have known otherwise.  Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana, is the best form of history writing valued by modern historians. His critical method of historical research and impartial treatment of the historical facts have earned him a great respect among the modern historians.  The Sangam literature generally describes events up to the 4th century A.D.

FOREIGN ACCOUNTS:

 In the second century A. D., Ptolemy had written a geographical treatise on India.

 Hiuen-Tsang had given valuable account about Harshavardhana and some other contemporary kings of Northern India.

 Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang traveled many parts of the country and they have given an exaggerated account of Buddhism during the period of their visit.

 Herodotus was dependent upon the Persian sources for his information about India.  The Greek kings send their ambassadors to Pataliputra. Megasthenes, Deimachus, and Dionysius were some of them.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES:

 The archaeological sources played an important role in constructing or/and reconstructing the history of a region.  Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions and Numismatic is the study of coins, medals, or paper money.

 Coins are an important numismatic source that tells us about the Indo-Greek, Saka-Parthian, and Kushana Kings.  Inscriptions of and provide valuable information about social and political status of the people of that period.

 The study of these inscriptions reveals the world about Ashoka's views on (religion) and conquests of Samudragupta.

 The temples and sculptures display an architectural and artistic history of the Indians from the Gupta period up-to recent times.

 During the Gupta period, the large caves i.e. Chaityas and Viharas were excavated in the hills of Western India.

 The Kailasa Temple of Ellora and Rathas at Mahabalipuram have been carved out of rocks from outside.

Indus Valley Civilization (Harappa Civilization) 1. Civilization is belongs to Bronze Age (Chalcolithic Age). 2. The known extent of this civilization in the west is up to Sutkagendor in Baluchistan; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) in the east; Daimabad (Maharshtra) in South; and Manda (Jammu & Kashmir) in the north. 3. Civilization was dominated by the peasants and merchants and thus also called as an agro-commercial civilization. 4. It is also called as Harappan Civilization because site was first discovered through excavation in 1921 under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni. 5. Indus Valley Civilization can dated around 2500-1750 BC on the basis of radiocarbon dating. 6.Town Planning was the most distinctive features of the civilization. Town were divided into two part- Citadel (Occupied by ruling class) & Lower Town (Inhabited by common people) 7. Dhaulavira is the only site of the civilisation where city was divided into three parts. 8. Chanhudaro was the only city without a citadel. 9. Systematic town planning was based on grid system; burnt bricks were used to construct houses; well-managed drainage system; fortified Citadel; highly urbanised; absence of iron implements. 10. Indus people were the first who produces cotton, which Greeks termed as Sindom (derived from Sindh). 11. They produced wheat and barley on large scale. The other crops grown were pulses, cereals, cotton, dates, melons, pea, seasum and mustard. 12. Animals known were oxen, sheep, buffaloes, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, cats, asses and camels. 13. Humpless bull or Unicorn was the most important animal. 14. Well-developed external and internal trade but the mode of payment was Barter System. 15. People of the civilization had developed their own kind of weighing and measurement system which was the multiple of 16. 16. Dead Bodies were buried or cremated in North-South Orientation. 17. The greatest artistic of the Harappan culture were the seals, made of steatite. Harappan script is pictographic but yet to be deciphered. The script was written from right to left in the first line and left to right in the second line. This style is called Boustrophedon. 18. Origin of the „‟ symbol can be traced to the Indus Valley Civilization. 19. There was prevalence of Mother Goddess (Matridevi or Shakti) known through figurines and also evidences of the prevalence of Yoni (Female Sex Organ) worship. 20. The Chief male deity was the „Pashupati Mahadeva‟ i.e. lord of Animals (Proto-) represented in seals as sitting in yogic posture; he is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo) and two deer appear at his feet. There was also prevalence of Phallic (Lingam) worship. 21. Occupations practiced were spinning, weaving, boat making, goldsmiths, making pottery and seal making.

VEDIC AGE

Rig Vedic Polity 1. Chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana. 2. Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana was the tribal assemblies who discharge the functions of deliberative, military and religious. 3. There was a few a non-monarchical states (ganas) which was headed by Ganapati or Jyestha.

Rig Vedic Society 1. Jana which was owned by the people to whom they offer loyalty to their tribe. 2. Family institution followed the patriarchal and birth of son was desirable. 3. Family was a large a unit indicated by a common word for son, grandson, nephew and one word for paternal and maternal grandfather.

Rig Vedic Social Divisions 1. The term „Varna‟ was used first in Indian region after advent of Aryan as per Rig Veda that refer to the only the Aryan or Dasa having respectively, fair or dark complexion but never denotes to the Brahaman or Rajayanya (). 2. The term ‗‘ was mentioned first time in the Tenth of Rig Veda. 3. The Quadruple division of the society was made after the coding of the „Purushasukta Hymn‟

Rig Vedic Gods 1. The early Vedic religion was based on the nature and natural phenomena. This is the only reason; there was evidence of idol worship and the concept of temple. 2. Sacrifice was offered for Praja, Pasu and Dhana which was not related to the spiritual upliftment.

Position of Women during Rig Vedic Age 1. Women are free to join men at the Sabha and Vidhata. 2. Women had respectable position in the society. Social evils like Child marriage and system was evident. The marriageable age for the girls was 16 to 17 years. 3. There were evident of widow remarriage and practice of Niyogi (levirate) in which childless widow would co-habit with her brother-in-law until the birth of a son. 4. There was evident of polygamy and monogamy.

BUDDHISM Gautam Buddha 1. He was born at near Kapilavastu which is now in Nepal. 2. He belongs to the Sakya clan. Suddodhana was his father and Mayadevi was a mother. 3. Prajapati Gautami was his foster mother who brought him up after his mother‘s death. 4. He married to Yasodhara at the age of 16. Rahul was his son. 5. Three incidents compelled him away from worldly life. I.e. an Old Man; a Diseased Man; a Corpse; and an Ascetic. 6. He left home in search of ‗Truth‘ at the age of twenty-nine but his seven years of wandering hadn‘t given fruitful result.

7. At the age of 35, he got enlightenment under a ‗Bodhi Tree‟ after intense penance which called ‗‘. 8. He delivered his first sermon at . 9. He died at when he was at the age of eighty. 10. Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali was the disciples of Buddha. 11. Prasenjit of , Bimbisara & Ajatasatru of accepted the Jainism. Buddhist , Hand gestures and their meaning Teaching of Buddha Buddhism was essentially a congregational religion and the reason for human misery is ignorance- a sort of cosmic ignorance which leads to the delusion of selfhood.

1. of Buddha: World is full of suffering; desire causes suffering; getting rid of desire; suffering will be removed; Eightfold path will help to win over desire. 2. Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right and right concentration. 3. Condition of Human in their life depends upon their own deeds. Hence, he advocates the law of Karma. 4. He laid great emphasis on the code of practical ethics and the principle of social equality. Spread of Buddhism 1. Monks (Bhikshus) and Lay worshipers (Upasikas) were two types of disciples of Buddha. 2. Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were important monks of Buddhism. 3. Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism after the death of Buddha. Buddhist Council 1. First Buddhist Council held at Rajgir immediately after the death of Buddha presided by Mahakasapa for the purpose to maintain the purity of the teaching of Buddha. 2. Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali.

3. Third Council was held at Patliputra under the patronage of Asoka and presided by Moggaliputta Tissa. The final version of Tripitaka's was completed in this council. 4. Fourth Council was held at Kashmir by Kanishka under the Chairmanship of Vasumitra. Buddhism came into existence in this council. After the Fourth Buddhist Council, other small Buddhist Council were held.

Reason for the decline of Buddhism 1. The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the decline of popularity. 2. Birth of Mahayana started idol worship which was not propagated by Buddha that deteriorated the moral standards of Buddhism.

3. Invasions of Huns (5th & 6th century) and Turkish (12th century) resultant the mass destructions of monasteries. Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture 1. The concept of Ahimsa which became one of the cherished values of our nation. 2. The architectural concept of , monasteries, chaityas and viharas was notable. For example- Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya. 3. Promoted education through residential universities like Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramshila. 4. Development of languages like Pali and Prakrit

JAINISM

Vardhaman Mahavira (539-467 BC)

1. He was the son of Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala and Kundagrama near Vaisali was his birth place. 2. Yasoda was his wife. 3. He attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana after thirteen years of self-abasement. Then he called Mahavir & Jina. 4. He preached the doctrine of Jainism for thirty years and died at Pava near Rajagriha when he was 72 years old.

Causes for the Rise of Jainism 1. Religious unrest during 6th century BC 2. Complex rituals and sacrifices were too expensive and not acceptable by common masses in the later Vedic period. 3. Rise of priesthood gave silent rise of superstition and lengthy rituals. 4. Rigid Cast system. 5. Growth of trade led to the improvement of Vaisyas‘s economic condition. As a result they wanted to improve their social status against Varna system. Therefore, they support newly emerged religion. Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy Teachings of Mahavira

1. Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and the objected to the Vedic rituals. 2. He advocated the ethical code of life. I.e. Even practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the Earth, Worms and animals. 3. According to the Mahavira, the doctrine of ascetism and renunciation can only accompanied by the practice of starvation, nudity and other-form of self-torture.

INVASIONS OF ALEXANDER

Macedonian/Alexander's Invasion Alexander sat on the throne of Macedonia at the age of 20 years succeeding his father. He dreamt of word-conquest and conquered many areas before attacking India in 326 BC. Ambhi (the rulers of Taxila) and Abhisara surrendered but the ruler of refused to do the same. A battle ensued between them near river Jhelum between the forces of Alexander and Porus, known as battle of Hydaspes. Although Porus was defeated, he was treated generously by Alexander. However, this victory proved to be his last major victory in India as his forces refused to go any further. They were too tired to carry on with the Alexander‘s expedition and wanted to return home. Moreover, the might of Magadhan Empire (the Nanda Rulers) also dissuaded them. Alexander marched back in 325 BC after making necessary administrative arrangement for the conquered territories. He died at the age of 33 years when he was in Babylon.

Effects of invasion • It created the need for political unity in India which saw the emergence of Chandragupta Maurya and his descendants who united the India under their rule. • As a result of Alexander‘s invasion, Indo- Bacterian and Indo-Parthian states were set in India which influenced Indian architecture, coinage and astronomy.

Gandhara art

Gandhara art, style of Buddhist visual art that developed in what is now northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan between the 1st century BCE and the 7th century CE. The style, of Greco-Roman origin, seems to have flourished largely during the Kushan dynasty and was contemporaneous with an important but dissimilar school of Kushan art at Mathura (Uttar Pradesh, India).

The Gandhara region had long been a crossroads of cultural influences. During the reign of the Indian emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE), the region became the scene of intensive Buddhist missionary activity. And in the 1st century CE, rulers of the , which included Gandhara, maintained contacts with Rome. In its interpretation of Buddhist legends, the Gandhara school incorporated many motifs and techniques from Classical Roman art, including vine scrolls, cherubs bearing garlands, tritons, and centaurs. The basic iconography, however, remained Indian.

The materials used for Gandhara sculpture were green phyllite and gray- blue mica schist which in general, belong to an earlier phase, and stucco, which was used increasingly after the 3rd century CE. The sculptures were originally painted and gilded.

Gandhara‘s role in the evolution of the Buddha image has been a point of considerable disagreement among scholars. It now seems clear that the schools of Gandhara and Mathura each independently evolved its own characteristic depiction of the Buddha about the 1st century CE. The Gandhara school drew upon the anthropomorphic traditions of Roman religion and represented the Buddha with a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in garments resembling those seen on Roman imperial statues. The Gandhara depiction of the seated Buddha was less successful. The schools of Gandhara and Mathura influenced each other, and the general trend was away from a naturalistic conception and toward a more idealized, abstract image. The Gandhara craftsmen made a lasting contribution to in their composition of the events of the Buddha‘s life into set scenes.

UNIT II

The Mauryas: – Chandragupta – Bindusara – Asoka and spread of Buddhism – Mauryan Administration – Kushanas – Kanishka – Contribution to spread of Buddhism – Mahayana-.

Mauryan Dynasty In the 4th century B.C., Nanda kings ruled Magadha dynasty and this dynasty was the most powerful kingdom of the north. A Brahman minister called Chanakya also known as Kautilya/ Vishnupgupta, trained a young man, Chandragupta from the Mauryan family. Chandragupta organized his own army and overthrew the Nanda king in 322 B.C.

Therefore, Chandragupta Maurya is supposed to be the first king and also founder of the Mauryan dynasty. His mother‘s name was Mur, so he was called Maurya in which means the son of Mur, and thus, his dynasty was called Maurya dynasty.

Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.) Scholars suggest that he was only 25 years when he captured Patliputra from the ruler of Nanda Dynasty i.e. Dhana Nanda. First of all he established his power in Indo-Gangetic plains and later marched towards northwest. Chandragupta soon conquered the whole region of Punjab. Seleucus Nicator, a Greek general of Alexander, held some of the land in the extreme north. Therefore, Chandragupta fought a long battle against him and at last defeated him around 305 B.C. and a treaty was signed. According to this treaty, Seleucus Nicator ceded the trans-Indus territories – namely Aria (Heart), Arachosia (Kandahar), (Baluchistan) and Paropanishae (Kabul) – to the Mauryan Empire and in exchange Chandragupta made a gift of 500 elephants to Seleucus. He (Seleucus) also gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince or it is supposed that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter (a Greek Macedonian princess) as a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In this way he took his control over Indus region, some part of which is now in modern Afghanistan. Later he moved towards Central India and occupied the region, north of Narmada River.

In addition to this treaty, Megasthenese was sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta and Deimakos to Bindusar‘s court as Greek ambassadors. Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son Bindusara. Later he (Chandragupta) along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabahu went to Sravana Belgola, nearby Mysore and starved himself to death in typical Jaina fashion.

Bindusara (297 – 272 B.C.) Chandragupta ruled for around 25 years and after that he left his throne for his son Bindusara. Bindusara was called by the Greeks as ―Amitraghata‖ meaning Slayer of enemies. According to some scholars Bindusara have conquered the Deccan upto Mysore. Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising ‗the land between the two seas‘ as confirmed by Taranatha, the Tibetan monk. According to Sangam Literature Maurya invaded up to far south. Therefore it can be said that during the rule of Bindusara, the Mauryan dynasty extended as far as Mysore and therefore included almost the whole India but excluded a small portion of unexplored trial and forested regions near Kalinga (Odisha) and the kingdoms of extreme south were not the part of empire.

Bindusara also had contact with the Seleucid Syrian king Antiochus I, who sent Deimachus as ambassador to his (Bindusara) court. Bindusara asked to Antiochus I asking for sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. The later sent all but not a sophist because sending a sophist was prohibited by the Greek law. Bindusara kept interest in the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain who later suppressed a revolt at Taxila.

Ashoka the Great (268 – 232 B.C.) Under Ashoka, Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole subcontinent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.

There was an interval of four years between Ashoka‘s accession to the throne (273 B.C.) and his actual coronation (269 B.C.). Therefore, it appears from the available evidence that there was a struggle for the throne after Bindusara‘s death.

However, it is clear that the succession of Asoka was a disputed one. The most important event of Asoka‘s reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C. There was no evidence about the actual cause of the war but both the side suffered heavy losses. Ashoka was saddened by the wounds and he himself described the effects of war in the Rock edict XIII. Right after the completion of war he (Ashoka) annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan Empire and decided further no more wars. Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.

While he maintained a large and powerful army to maintain peace and authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and sponsored Buddhist missions. Missionaries to the kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas and five states ruled by Greek kings were sent by Ashoka. He also sent missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarnbhumi (Burma) and also parts of South East Asia.

Mahendra, Tivara/Tivala (the only one mentioned in an inscription), Kunala and Taluka were prominent among Ashoka‘s sons. Two of his daughters Sanghamitra and Charumati were known.

Ashoka and Buddhism Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the 9th year of his reign after being inspired by Nigrodha, a boy monk. Ashoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. Ashoka has stated in his Bhabru Edict that he has full faith in Buddha, and Dhamma.

He also engraved Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts to spread the message of Buddhism among masses.

Ashoka maintained a large and powerful army to maintain peace and authority. Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and sponsored Buddhist missions. Missionaries to the kingdoms of Cholas and Pandyas and five states ruled by Greek kings were sent by Ashoka. He also sent missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarnbhumi (Burma) and also parts of South East Asia.

The Mauryan Empire: Administration The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the name of the four provincial capitals were Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). According to Megasthenese, the empire exercised a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. For the purpose of internal and external security, there was a vast espionage system was there to keep a watch on the officials and messengers went to and fro. Kings appointed officials to collect taxes from herders, farmers, traders and craftsmen etc.

The king was the centre of administrative superstructure and king used to select ministers and high officials. Administrative structure was as follows:

King assisted by Mantriparishad (council of ministers) whose members included Mantriparishad Adhyaksha and below him was as following:

Yuvaraj: The crown prince Purohita: The chief priest The Senapati: The commander in chief Amatya: Civil servants and few other ministers. Scholars suggest that Mauryan Empire was further divided into various departments with important officials:

Revenue department:- Important officials: Sannidhata: Chief treasury, Samaharta: collector general of revenue.

Military department: Megasthenese mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity of these, one looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, and the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.

Espionage Department: Mahamatyapasarpa controlled Gudhapurushas (secret agents)

Police department: The jail was known as Bandhangara and it was different from lock-up called Charaka. There were police head quarters in all principal centres.

Provinicial and Local Administration: important officials: Pradeshika: modern district magistrates, Sthanika: tax collecting officer under Pradeshika, Durgapala: governor of fort, Antapala: Governor of frontier, Akshapatala: Accountant general, Lipikaras: Scribes, Gopas: responsible for accountants etc.

Municipal Administration: Important officials: Nagaraka: incharge of city administration, Sita- Adhyaksha: Supervisor of agriculture, samastha- Adhyaksha: superintendent of market, Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships, Sulkaadhyaksha: Collector of tolls, Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of Iron, Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines and Pauthavadhyaksha: Superintendent of weight and measures etc. Megasthenes referred for six committees of which five were to look after Pataliputra‘s administration. Industries, Foreigners, Registration of birth and deaths, Trade, Manufacture and sale of goods and Collection of sales tax were under the control of administration.

Kanishka: The Kushan Dynasty Kanishka was the most powerful ruler of the Kushana Empire. The capital of his empire was Purushpura (Peshawar). Under his rule, Kushana Empire extended from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to Mathura and Kashmir. Kanishka was the successor of Vima Kadphises, as demonstrated by an impressive genealogy of the Kushan kings, known as the Rabatak inscription.

Extension of His Empire: Kanishka's empire was certainly vast. It extended from southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, north of the Amu Darya (Oxus) in the north west to Pakistan and Northern India, as far as Mathura in the south east (the Rabatak inscription even claims he held Pataliputra and Sri Champa), and his territory also included Kashmir, where there was a town Kanishkapur, named after him not far from the Baramula Pass and which still contains the base of a large .

Some important facts related to Kanishka are as following: • It was during Kanishka‘s reign that Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana. • He was the founder of the Shaka Era of A.D. 78. • He had invaded Patliputra and had taken the Buddhist monk Asvaghosa to Purushpura. • Charaka and Sushruta were in the court of Kanishka. • Kanishka was a patron of Buddhism and he called the 4th Buddhist council in the Kundalvana of Kashmir in 78 AD. • The council was chaired by Vasumitra and during this council the collection of took place and the commentaries were engraved on copper sheets. • The scholars who resided in Kanishka‘s court were Vasumitra, Asvaghosa, Nagarjun, Charaka and Parsva. • Kanishka had fought against King Han Ho-ti who was the king of Han dynasty of China. Kanishka defeated the Chinese king in the second attempt.

Kanishka and Buddhism Kanishka's reputation in Buddhist tradition regarded with utmost importance as he not only believed in Buddhism but also encouraged its teachings as well. As a proof of it, he administered the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir as the head of the council. It was presided by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha. Images of the Buddha based on 32 physical signs were made during his time. He encouraged both Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura school of Hindu art (an inescapable religious syncretism pervades Kushana rule). Kanishka personally seems to have embraced both Buddhism and the Persian attributes but he favored Buddhism more as it can be proven by his devotion to the Buddhist teachings and prayer styles depicted in various books related to kushan empire. His greatest contribution to was the Kanishka stupa at Peshawar, Pakistan. Archaeologists who rediscovered the base of it in 1908–1909 ascertained that this stupa had a diameter of 286 feet (87 metres). Reports of Chinese pilgrims such as indicate that its height was 600 to 700 (Chinese) "feet" (= roughly 180–210 metres or 591– 689 ft.) and was covered with jewels.[17] Certainly this immense multi-storied building ranks among the wonders of the ancient world. Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to the Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosha, who became his religious advisor in his later years.

Hinayana and Mahayana After the death of Buddha, Buddhism was divided into two sects namely Mahayana and Hinayana. The terms Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle or Modest Vehicle) and Mahayana (Greater Vehicle or Vast Vehicle) originated in The Prajnaparamita (The Sutras on Far-Reaching Discriminating Awareness, The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras).

Hinayana Hinayana follows the original teaching of Buddha. It emphasizes individual salvation through self discipline and meditation.

Mahayana This sect of Buddhism believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in Idol Worship. Mahayan sect spread from India to several other nations such as China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan and Mangolia. Mahayana believes in . Its main principles were based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings. That‘ why, this sect is called Mahayana (The Great Vehicle). Its principles are also based on the existence of Buddhas and embodying Buddha nature. It allows salvation through having faith and committing oneself to Buddha.

UNIT III

The Age of the Guptas: Rise and consolidations of the empire- Administration – Society and Economy – Science, Architecture and – Literature - Decline of the Guptas.

The : The Gupta Empire is referred to as the Golden Age of India because of the extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that illuminated the elements of Hindu Culture.

The Gupta Empire came into power in around 275 AD. It marked the end of 500 hundred years of domination of the provincial powers and resulting disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas.

Summary of Ancient Indian Dynasties and their contributions Dynastic History of Gupta Empire Srigupta • He founded the Gupta Dynasty in the 3rd century AD. • He used the title of . Gatotkacha Gupta • He succeeded Srigupta.

• He also took the title of Maharaja. Gupta I (319-334 AD) • He assumed the title of „Maharajadhiraja‟. • He started the Gupta Era in 319 AD which marked the date of his accession. • He married Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi and started matrimonial alliance that helps him to control the portion of Bihar and Nepal. Samundra Gupta (335-380 AD) • He has been called the “Indian Napoleon” by V.A Smith because of his extensive military conquests. • Virasen was his commander-in-chief during southern campaign • was his minister who was a famous Buddhist scholar. • Eran inscription (Madhya Pradesh) is a useful source of information of his campaign. • He was devotee of though a follower of the Brahmanical religion. He granted permission to the Buddhist king Meghavarman (King of Cylon) to build monasteries to . • He assumed the titles of Vikramanka and Kaviraja. Chandra Gupta II (380-412 AD) • He is credited with the maintaining in his court nine gems (Navrantnas) - Kalidas, Amarsinh, Dhanvantiri, Varahminhira, , Ghatakarna, Kshapranak, Velabhatt and Shanku. • Fa-hein visit India during his reign. • Adopted the title of “”. • He was the first Gupta ruler who had started silver coin. • The exploits of a king called Chandra are glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar in Delhi. • Some historians put Ramagupta between Samundra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II. In the play Devichandraguptam of Visakhdatta, Rama Gupta was the elder brother of Chandra Gupta II. • He rescued Druvadevi from the saka king and later marries her. Kumara Gupta I (413-467 AD) • He was the son of Dhruvadevi who extended the Gupta Empire from North Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Narmada.

• During his reign, Hunas invaded India. • He founded Nalanda University. Gupta (455-467 AD) • He repulsed the ferocious Hunas attacks twice and his heroic feat entitled him the title of „Vikaramaditya‟ as inscribed on Bhitari Pillar inscription. • He was Vaishnava but followed the tolerant policy of his predecessors. List of the Books and Authors in Ancient India Administration of Gupta Empire • All the power was concentrated with the king. Often an element of divinity was attached to the kings. • The king adopted the titles of such as Paramveshvara, Maharajadhiraj and Parambhattaraka. Kingship was hereditary but there was no a firm of primogeniture. • The Gupta rulers has organised a huge army.

• Forced labour or Vishti was also practised in royal Army.

• The king acted as the fountainhead and decided all disputes in general, punishments were light and mild.

• A council of ministers and civil officials assisted the king

• The most important officers in the Gupta Empire were the Kumaramatyas. • The royal seal bore the imprint of Garuda. Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the practice of granting land and fiscal administrative concessions the priests and administrators became regular affairs in the Gupta times.

Gupta Empire: Administration In Gupta Empire, the king was directed in his administration by a community and group consisting of a chief minister and a Senapati. There were various names of Empire "Rajya", Rashtra", "Desha", "Mandala", "Prithvi" and "Avani". The Empire was divided into provinces called as Bhukti, Bhoga and pradesha. Provinces further divided into "Vishayas" and came under the control of persons called "Vishaya Patis"."Vishaya" further divided into "Nagaras" and "Nagares" were divided into villages. "Vithi‖ was a part of ―Vishaya". A group or collection of villages was called "Pethaka" and "Santaka". Smaller units of a village were "Agrahara" and "Patta". A Sandivigraha was the minister for foreign affairs. They were mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions. Bhuktis was the name of Provinces in the Gupta Empire. Uparikas was the name of provincial governors. The king maintained a deep contact with the provincial administration. By a group of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. The Gupta kings gathered titles like Paramabhattaraka, Parameswara, Samrat ,Chakravartin and Maharajadhiraja. Bhuktis were divided into Vishyas or districts. The villages were governed by the group of Gramikas. He was governed by a village council but due to the lack of sources of reference, it is not possible to manage whole community and tough to describe the exact duties and functions of the assembly. Bhuktis could be managed by Vishyapatis. The officers who are looking after the city administration called Nagara Sreshtis. Land revenue was only one of the primary sources of the income. It helped in increasing production and security to the cultivators. Waste lands came under cultivation. Pasture land was also made safe and increased. There were also some income taxes ―bhaga ―applied on customs, inheritances and presents. Fahiyan, the famous Chinese pilgrim came to India at the period of Chandragupta II. He also appreciated the kingdom‘s management; he openly visited the whole place without any problem. He came after crossing Punjab, khotan, khasnagar and visited so many places in spreading Buddhism and returned back by the sea route of ceylon and java.

Fahiyan said that no restrictions were applied on kingdom‘s people and they were free to go anywhere and do anything they want and they used to collect their huge amount of free and open life‘s enjoyment. The concept of punishment was not very common. Lodging a fine was a common punishment for minor offence. The roads were kept safe for travelers. No theft cases were there that time. Fahiyan also notified that people were generally prosperous. There were very less crimes in the dynasty of Gupta mainly in Chandragupta time.

• A new office of Sandhivigrhaka was created during Samundra Gupta who was responsible for the peace and war. Harisena held this title. Art and Architecture during the Gupta Empire • Most remarkable was the Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta. • Nagara and Dravidian styles of art came during this period. • There was absence of growth of Gandhara style. • But Mathura‘s one pleasant standing Buddha statue shows a little Greek style. • The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi, the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas (near Allahabad) was great source of showing effects of the Gupta art. • The unearthed statue of Buddha at Sarnath is a symbol of Gupta art. • Most of the paintings are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior which shows the greatness and preciseness of Gupta art.

• The paintings of Ajantha mostly demonstrate the life of the Buddha. • Kalidasa was a great poet and play writer during Chandragupta II. His master-piece was the Shakuntala. His other plays are Malavikagnimitra ,Vikramorvasiya and Kumarasambhava. His two lyrics are Ritusamhara and Meghaduta. • During the Gupta period Metallurgy also made a wonderful impact. The craftsmen were expert in their art of casting metal statues and pillars. • The most antique item in Sultanganj which is the huge copper statue of Buddha. This is now kept at Birmingham museum, was of seven and a half feet height and a ton weight. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is rust free even today. • Chandragupta II and his successors also issued gold, silver and copper coins.

• Samudragupta was a great poet. Samudragupta patronized Harisena. Harisena was a one of the scholars. • Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita. • Vasavadatta was written by Subhandhu. • Visakadatta was other renowned author of this period. He was the author of two drams: Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam. • The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period. • Sudraka was a renowned poet. He wrote his book Mrichchakatika. • Bharavi‟s Kritarjuniya is the story of discriminations between Arjuna and Siva. • The Buddhist author Amarasimha created Amarakosa.

Gupta Empire: Trade, Art & Architecture and Literature Industry and trade were generally prosperous during Gupta period. There was a balance of foreign trade. The three important southern ports of Muziris, Arikamedu, and Kaveripattanam also lost their importance. There were two types of merchants in the Gupta period namely Sresthi and Sarthavaha. Luxury goods were the principal articles of long distance trade. The internal trade used to be carried on by roads and rivers. Foreign trade was used to be carried on by sea and land. The major change in foreign trade was the decline of the Roman trade.

In Gupta period, Indian ports always maintained relations with Sri Lanka, Persia, Arabia, Ethiopia, the Byzantine Empire, China and the islands of the Indian Ocean. Sri Lanka was an important port both in the foreign trade of the island and in the inter-oceanic commerce between the East and the West. The volume of external trade of India with China greatly increased during the Gupta period. Chinasunka a Chinese silk, had a good market in India.

Trade relations with Western Asia furnished during the later part of this period. This trade strengthened the ancient trade relations between India and the Western countries.

According to Cosmas, agricultural products, aloes, clove-wood, and sandalwood were exported, in his time, from the east coast of India to Sri Lanka. They exported it to the Western and even Persian and Ethiopian ports. Horses were imported from North-West India.

The following is the highlight during the Gupta period.  Silk Route linked India to other markets.  Indian merchants traded cashmere shawl, cotton, spices for Chinese silk.  Gupta, Tamil kingdoms in southern India traded actively most of by sea.  Indian sailors used seasonal winds for getting into foreign markets across Arabian Sea.  Trade played key role in propagating the Indian culture. Art and Architecture The Gupta period was famous for vast progress in area of art, science and literature and due to this progress it has been called ―a golden age‖. The Gupta period covers an important place in the history of Indian art and architecture. The following are the highlights of the art and culture of Gupta Empire.

 Most remarkable was the Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta.  Nagara and Dravidian styles of art came during this period.  There was absence of growth of Gandhara style.  But Mathura‘s one pleasant standing Buddha statue shows a little Greek style.  The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi, the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas (near Allahabad) were great source of showing effects of the Gupta art.  The unearthed statue of Buddha at Sarnath is a symbol of Gupta art.  Most of the paintings are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior which shows the greatness and preciseness of Gupta art.  The paintings of Ajantha mostly demonstrate the life of the Buddha.  Kalidasa was a great poet and play writer during Chandragupta II. His master-piece was the Shakuntala. His other plays are Malavikagnimitra ,Vikramorvasiya and Kumarasambhava. His two lyrics are Ritusamhara and Meghaduta.  During the Gupta period Metallurgy also made a wonderful impact. The craftsmen were expert in their art of casting metal statues and pillars.  The most antique item in Sultanganj is the huge copper statue of Buddha. This is now kept at Birmingham museum, was of seven and a half feet height and a ton weight. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is rust free even today.  Chandragupta II and his successors also issued gold, silver and copper coins.  Samudragupta was a great poet. Samudragupta patronized Harisena. Harisena was a one of the scholars.  Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita.  Vasavadatta was written by Subhandhu.  Visakadatta was other renowned author of this period. He was the author of two drams:Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.  The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period.  Sudraka was a renowned poet. He wrote his book Mrichchakatika .  Bharavi‘s Kritarjuniya is the story of discriminations between Arjuna and Siva.  The Buddhist author Amarasimha created Amarakosa.

DECLINE OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE

Political Factors Responsible for the Decline of Gupta Empire

The last great king of the Gupta was Skanda Gupta was ascended the throne about 455 A.D. Even during the later years of Kumar Gupta's reign, the empire was attacked by a tribe called Pushyamitra but it was repulsed, And immediately after the accession of Skanda Gupta, Hunas made inroads, but they too were repelled.

However, fresh waves of Invaders arrived and shattered the fabric of the Gupta Empire. Although in the beginning the Gupta king Skanda Gupta tried effectively to stem the march of the Hunas into India, his successors proved to be weak and could not cope with the Huna invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and who possibly used stirrups made of metal, Although the Huna power was soon overthrown by Yasodharman of Malwa, the Malwa prince successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas and set up Pillars of victory commorating his conquest (AD 532) of almost the whole of northern India. Indeed Yasodharman's rule was short lived, but he dealt a severe blow to the Gupta empire.

The Gupta empire was further undermined by the rise of the feudatories. The governors appointed by the Gupta kings in north Bengal and their feudatories in Samatata or south-east Bengal broke away from the Gupta control. The later Gutpas of Magadha established their power in Bihar. Besides, the Maukharis rose to power in Bihar and Uttar Pradeshand had their capital at Kanauj. Proabably by AD 550 Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and passed out of gupta hands. And the rulers of Valabhi established their authority in Guajarat and Western Malwaa. dealt a severe blow to the Gupta empire.

After the reign of Skanda Gupta (467 AD) any Gupta coin or inscription has been found in western Malwa and Saurashtra. The migration of guild of Silk weavers from Gujarata to Malwa in AD 473 and their adoption of non- productive professions show that there was not much demand for cloth produced by them. The advantages from Gujarat trade gradually disappeared. After the middle of the fifth century the Gupta kings made desperate attempts to maintain their gold currency by reducing the content of pure gold in it. The loss of western India complete by the end of the fifth century, must have deprived the Gutpas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce and crippled them economically, and the princes of Thaneswar established their power in Haryana and then gradually moved on to Kanauj.

UNIT – 4

Harshavardhana – Administration – Contribution to Buddhism – Hiuen Tsang – the contemporary Deccan powers – Chalukyas of Vadapi – the Rashtrakutas

Harshavardhana

Sources of Information Bana‟s Harshcharita. Bana, a Brahman, was a court poet of . His work Harshacharita gives the history of the reign of Harsha. It has eight chapters which provide a good idea of the religious, social, economic and political life of the period. Bana was a great Sanskrit scholar and a man of encyclopeadic learning.

Harsha‟s works. Harsha himself wrote three dramas entitled „Ratnavali‟, „Nagananda‟ and „Priyadarshika‟. The ‗Ratnavali‘ and ‗Priyadarshika‘ deal with love and court intrigues. ‗Nagananda‘ mentions works of charity and magnanimity of Harsha.

Yuan Chwang/Hieun Tsang‟s Account. He was a Chinese pilgrim and scholar. He visited India during 630 and 644 A.D. He travelled almost all over India and left to us an account of his travels in his book ‗Si-yu-ki‘ (661 A.D.) Hieun Tsang was called as, the ‗Prince of Pilgrims‘, ‗Master of the Law‘ and ‗Present Sakyamuni‘,

Harsha‟s Conquests

Harsha as a Conqueror: At the time of his accession, Harsha was surrounded by enemies from all sides and he had to wage relentless wars to defend his Kingdom and he proved equal to the occasion.

After the death of his brother as Harsha ascended the throne, he was confronted with the double task—the recovery his sister and the punishment of his brother‘s murderers.

Important Conquests of Harsha

1. Rescue of his sister. The Vardhana dynasty checked the Huns‘ invasion. Harsha was also an active prince in this struggle against the Huns.

Prabhakara Vardhana (580-605) was the first important king of this dynasty. He gave his daughter Rajyasri in marriage to the Mukhari King Grahavarman of Kannauj. After his death, his son Rajya Vardhana (elder brother of Harsha) ascended the throne.

Sasanka, the King of Gauda (Bengal) and Dev Gupta of Malwa entered into an alliance, captured Kannauj, killed the King and imprisoned his wife Rajyasri (Sister of Rajya Vardhan and Harsha). Rajyavardhan, on receipt of this news, immediately proceeded and defeated the King of Malwa. On his return, he was killed treacherously by Sasanka, the King of Bengal. In these circumstances Harsha ascended the throne in 606 A.D. Immediately after ascending the throne, he took the vow as mentioned earlier. From the above description it is very clear that his wars with the King of Malwa and the King of Bengal were wars of vengeance. Harsha lost no time and rescued his widowed sister who had escaped to the Vindhya forests from the imprisonment and was going to burn herself as a ‗sati‘.

2. Union of Thaneswar and Kannauj. At the request of her sister, Harsha united the two Kingdoms and strengthened his position. He transferred his capital from Thaneswar to Kannauj probably because it was a central place.

3. Conquest of Bengal. For taking revenge against Sasank, the king of Bengal. Harsha organised a strong army and entered into an alliance with the king of Kamrupa (Assam). Sasank was defeated but his power was not totally crushed and he remained a source of trouble for Harsha as long as he lived. After his death in 620 A.D. Harsha conquered Orissa and West Bengal.

4. Conquest of Malwa. War against the ruler of Malwa was the war of vengeance as the ruler of Malwa was also responsible for the murder of Harsha‘s brother-in-law of Kannauj. Harsha defeated him and annenxed the northern part of Malwa to his Kingdom.

Other Conquests of Harsha. Harsha conquered the following territories:

(i) Conquest of Vallabhi in Gujarat.

(ii) Conquest of East Punjab.

(iii) Conquest of Sindh.

(iv) Conquest Ganjam in the Western Coast of India.

War with Pulakesin II. A good deal of importance has been attached to the war between Harsha and Pulakesin II. Hiuen Tsang tells us that Harsha himself marched at the head of his troops to fight against Pulakesin II. Before starting the march, he gathered troops from the five Indies (Eastern Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and summoned the best leaders from all territories of his Kingdom. However, he was unable to defeat Pulakesin II. The successors of Pulakesin II regarded the victory against Harsha as an event of great importance and took special pride in it. It was claimed that Pulakesin II acquired the title of Parmeshwar ―by defeating Harsha-vardhana, the war-like lord of all the regions of the north.‖

The war with Pulakesin was fought most probably around 635 A.D.

Diplomatic Missions. Harsha maintained diplomatic relations with China and Persia.

Extent of Harsha‟s empire. The Aihole Inscription describes Harsha as the Lord of the whole of North India. Harsha‘s empire included East Punjab, U.P., Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Malwa, Kannauj and Gajaraj. Perhaps the states of Kashmir, Nepal and Sindh had accepted his suzerainty. Thus Harsha‘s empire extended upto the Himalayas in the north, to the Narmada River in the south, up to Gujarat in the west and Brahmaputra in the east.

Administration

Harsha was the pivot of administration. He firmly acted on the belief that the King must constantly exerts himself.

He used to visit various parts of his kingdom, got prepared temporary buildings for his stay, listened to the problems of the people and took appropriate action on them.

Harsha maintained the administrative set-up of his empire on the model of previous great Hindu rulers. He himself was the head of the state and all administrative, legislative and judicial powers were concentrated in his hands. He was also the first Commander-in-Chief of his army. Harsha assumed the titles of Maharajadhiraja and Param Bhattaraka. He was a benevolent ruler and supervised the administration personally. He regarded the welfare of his subjects as his foremost duty and, except the rainy season, constantly travelled over different parts of his empire to see things with his own eyes. He was in touch with his village-subjects to look after their welfare.

Council of Ministers.

The king was assisted by a council of ministers which was quite effective. It advised the king both in matters of foreign policy and internal administration. Besides the ministers there were many other important officials of the state. Among the high imperial officers were a Mahasandhivigrahadhikrita, a Mahabaladhikrita and a Mahapratihara.

Administrative divisions.

The empire was divided into bhuktis (provinces) and then further into vishayas (districts) for administrative convenience. The village was the smallest unit of administation. The principal officer of a province was Uparika, that of a district Vishayapati and that of a village Gramika. Various other officers of the local administration bearing the titles bhogpati, and ayuktaka and pratipalaka purushas are referred in Harshacharita. Thus, the administrative units of Harsha and their officers were similar to those of the Gupta rulers. Harsha also utilised the services of his feudatories for the administration of his empire who were called Mahasamanta or Maharaja. The high officers of the state were not paid in cash. They were assigned jagirs in return of their services. It led to the beginning of jagirdari-system (feudalism) during the reign of Harsha.

Revenue

The main source of revenue was tax on land. Besides realizing a sixth part of the produce, tax was imposed on pastures and mines as well. Toll-tax and sales tax were also realised. But forced labour was not taken.

According to Hiuen-Tsang, the state revenues were divided for expenditure under four heads. One part was spent on administration, a second on scholars, the third on public services etc. and the fourth on religious purposes. The public servants and officials were either paid from the first part of the state income or compensated by land grants. These were made through charters. Priests were also given large land grants. Rewards to officers besides payment for services, were also made as endowments of land.

Law and order. During Harsha‘s reign, laws had become more strict and punishment harsher than under the Guptas.

Punishment was awarded by mutilation such as cutting off the nose, hand or leg. Ordeals by fire, water, poison etc. were frequent to test innocence. Heavy fines were also imposed. But all this did not help to keep the roads free of robbers or houses from thefts.

Harsha as a great army organiser

Harsha had an astounding force of 100,000 cavalry and 60,000 war- elephants, besides a vast number of infantry.

Harsha‘s armies were well looked after by a forced of officers and superintendants assisted by stable keepers etc.

Trusted men of courage and valour were employed as royal guards.

Harsha‟s contribution to Buddhism

Prabhakaravardhana was a devotee of the sun. Rajyavardhana and Rajyasri were worshippers of Buddha. Harsha himself distributed his devotions among three deities of the family, viz., Siva, Suriya and Buddha. As a result of the influence exercised by Hiuen Tsang. Harsha showed his predilection towards Mahayana form of Buddhism. Hiuen Tsang gives a fair account of the religious policy of Harsha. He erected thousands of stupas on the banks of Ganges; established travellers rests through all his dominions and erected Buddhists monasteries at sacred places of Buddhists. The King‘s day was divided into three periods, of which one was given to affairs of government and two were devoted to religious works.

Kanauj Assembly. In 643 A.D. Harsha summoned an assembly at Kanauj. It was convened for spreading the teachings of Buddha in the country. Kings, Buddhist monks, Brahmanas and Buddhist scholars attended it. It lasted for 23 days. He started the work by giving a clear exposition of the Mahayana form of Buddhism. He erected a monastery, a shrine and a life size Buddha statue in the 100 feet high tower. He conducted a grand procession with Hiuen Tsang seated on an elephant.

Prayaga Assembly. Harsha convened another conference at Allahabad to celebrate his sixth quinquennial reign. Hiuen Tsang attended it. It was also attended by the 18 royal companions of Harsha. It was a grand occasion for feasts and festivities. The images of Buddha, Sun and Siva were honoured. Harsha lavishly showered gifts on Buddhists, , Jains and followers of other religious denominations. The conference lasted for 75 days. The royal treasury got completely depleted. He even gave away, he begged from his sister (Rajyasri) one ordinary secondhand garment, and having put it on, he paid worship to the Buddhas of the ten regions‖, and rejoiced that his treasure had been bestowed, in the field of religious .

Hieun Tsang (630 A.D. to 644 A.D.)

Hieun Tsang, a Chinese scholar and traveler spent about 14 years (630 to 644 A.D.) in India in travelling all over the country. When he went back to China, he wrote a detailed account of his travels in India during the reign of Harsha and recorded his impressions in his book ‗Si-yu-ki‘ or ‗Records of the Western Countries.‘ The description of his travels has been generally accepted as a very reliable source of knowing the administrative, cultural, economic, political, religious and social conditions of India at that time. Of course, at certain places it may be somewhat a biased description on account of his love for Buddhism.

Hieun Tsang is called the ―Prince of Pilgrims,‖ ―Master of the Law‖ and ―Present Sakyamuni.‖

Places Visited by Hiuen Tsang

The primary aim of the visit of Hiuen Tsang to India was to obtain knowledge of Buddhism and collect its religious texts.

The journey from China to India was covered by him in about a year. Then he stayed in India for nearly fourteen years. From Taxila, he went to Kashmir and then visited several places in India like Mathura, Kannauj, Sravasti, , Kapilavastu, Kusinagara, Sarnath, Vaisali, Patliputra, Rajagrha, Bodhagaya and Nalanda—all places associated with Buddhism. He remained at the University of Nalanda for about five years. He then, proceeded to Bengal and visited South India as well, as far as Kanchi.

Chalukyas of Vatapi

Chalukya rulers

From the 6th to 8th centuries A.D. and again from the 10th to 12th centuries, the Chalukyas played a dominant role in the history of the Deccan.

The Chalukyas are generally classified under three groups: (i) The Chalukyas of Vatapi (ii) The Chalukyas of Kalyani (iii) The Chalukyas of .

Pulakesin I (535 A.D.) is regarded the real founder of this dynasty. He is aid to have laid the foundation of the fort of Vatapi (). Kirtivarman I ruled for about 32 years from 566 to 597 A.D. He built several grand temples at Vatapi.

Pulakesin II. He ruled from 610 to 642 A.D. He was undoubtedly the greatest of all the Chalukya Kings. He checked the advance of Harsha and forced him to confine his kingdom in the north. According Hiuen Tsang, Pulakesin‘s end was tragic. The Pallavas stormed into Vatapi and Pulakesin II was slain and defeated.

Significance of the Chalukya Rule

1. The Chalukyas checked the power of Harsha towards the South.

2. The Chalukyas repulsed and checked the advance of the Arabs into India.

3. The Chalukyas maintained religious harmony although they followed Brahmanism.

4. The Chalukyas built several magnificent temples. The best specimens are the Aihole temples. Aihole is called the cradle of Indian temple architecture.

Religious conditions

(1) The Chalukyas were the followers of Brahmanical Hinduism. (2) The rulers followed a policy of religious toleration. (3) Buddhism began to decline. (4) Jainism prospered in the Deccan. Ravikirti, the Jain author of the Aihole inscription is said to have been given the highest favour by King Pulakesin.

Development of Culture, Art and Architecture. Superb temples of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were set up at Vatapi or Badami and Pattadakal (Bijapur district). At Aihole, there were about 70 temples. Aihole has been called ―the cradle of Indian temple architecture.‖ Temple art at Aihole is the best representative of Chalukyan architecture. Important temples at Aihole are: Ladh Khan Temple, The Durga Temple and Huchhimalligudi Temple.

A beautiful cave temple of Shiva has been found at Badami.

Both Ajanta and Ellora were situated in the dominions of Chalukyas.

The stone temple of Shiva at Meguti erected in about 634 A.D. shows the art of stone building in its perfection.

Political achievements

There were three main political achievements.

1. By defeating Harsha, Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas, checked his advancement to the South India.

2. The Chalukyas rulers checked the advance of the Arabs in India.

3. The Chalukya rulers provided stable political situation in the Deccan for sometime.

Political conditions

(1) Form of government. Monarchy was the form of government and all the administrative powers were concentrated in the hands of the king himself.

(2) King: a benevolent ruler. The King was not a despot. Hiuen Tsang the Chinese traveler who visited the court of the Chalukya King Pulakesin II found that the King devoted his personal attention to the welfare of his subjects. He toured his kingdom constantly and fixed the camp at different places to keep in touch with the affairs of the state.

(3) Division of kingdom into viable units. The kingdom was divided into suitable units. The provincial governors were mostly related to the King.

(4)Local-self government. Grama was the lowest unit of administration. It had its own popular assmblies in administration.

(5) Defence organisation. There were constant wars between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas. This necessitated the maintenance of a strong army.

Social conditions

(1) system. Hiuen Tsang noticed the existence of four major and professional castes.

(2) Position of women. Women enjoyed a place of honour in the society. Ladies of the royal household took part in administration. They were also interested in literature and fine arts.

Economic conditions (1) Rural economy. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Land was classified according to its fertility.

(2) Industries. Industries were organised on corporate basis.

(3) Weights and measures. From the inscriptions of the period we learn that there were different kinds of weights and measures. Among them mention may be made of ‗mana‘ (11.2 kg), ‗Peru‘ (17.28 kg) and ‗Visa‘ (5 seer)

(4) Trade. Inland and foreign trade flourished.

Pulakesin II 610 to 642 A.D.

Pulakesin II of the of the Deccan who ruled for about 32 years from 610 to 642 A.D. is regarded as the greatest king of this dynasty. Aihole Inscription is the chief source of information of his reign.

Pulakesin is known by various names such as ‗Vallabha‘, ‗Prithvi-Vallabha‘, ‗Sri Prithvi-vallabh‘ and ‗Parma-bhagavata‘.

Achievements of Pulakesin II

1. Victory in civil war. Pulakesin became the ruler after a civil war between him and his uncle Mangalesa.

2. Conquests of neighbouring rulers. The Aihole inscription provides the following information. Pulakesin II besieged and reduced Vanavasi, the capital of the Kadambas. The Gangas of South Mysore and the Alupas were compelled to submit. The Ganga king Durvinita Konganivriddha married one of his daughters to Pulakesin II. The Mauryas of Konkan were invaded and defeated. The Latas, Malavas and Gujaras were also forced to submit.

3. War with Harsha. The country thus conquered bought Pulakesin II into contact with King Harsha of Kannauj. In 636 A.D., Harsha invaded Kathiawad. Pulakesin II allied himself with Sasanka of Bengal and his feudatory Saiyabhitta- Madhavavarman II of Kangoda, and with the kings of Valabhai and Broach. With this combination, he was able to defeat Harsha in 637-638 A.D.

The records of his successors say that Pulakesin II got this title ―by defeating the glorious Harshavardhan, the war like lord of all the region of the North.‖ 4. Conquests in the South. According to Aihole inscription, Chalukya army followed to the coast route towards the South. The fortress of Pishtapur and another fort on the island in the Kunala were captured. The ruler of Pishtapur was desposed and Pulakesin II put his younger brother in charge of the new territory. It was under these circumstances that the dynasty of the Eastern Chalukyas was founded which continued up to 1070 A.D.

Pulakesin II defeated the Pallava king Mahendra Varman I who was forced to take shelter behind the ramparts of Kanchi, his capital. After that, Pulakesin II crossed the Kaveri river and made friends with the Cholas, Keralas and Pandayas. After this, Pulakesin II came to Vatapi.

5. Pulakesin II‟s foreign relations. According to a Muslim historian Tabari, Khusru II, King of Persia received an ambassador from Pulakesin II in 625-626 A.D. One of the paintings of the Ajanta caves shows a Persian ambassador presenting the reply of Khusru to Pulakesin.

6. Impressive accounts by Hiuen Tsang‟s visit. In 641 A.D. Hiuen Tsang who visited the court of Pulakesin II was very much impressed by the benevolent rule of Pulakesin.

7. Promotion of art and architecture. Pulakesin took a keen interest in building beautiful temples and caves. He also honoured men of letters.

Death of Pulakesin II. The Pallavas, though defeated, did not take their defeat lying down. They attacked Vatapi with a great force. The Pallava ruler savagely destroyed Vatapi, Pulakesin II was killed in the battle and after this, the Chalukya empire began to disintegrate.

Aihole Inscription

Aihole Inscription. Aihole inscription has a very valuable historical importance as it provides a good deal of information on the rule of Chalukya King Pulakesin II (610-642 A.D.). It also provides information on Harsha, ruler of north India and almost a contemporary of Pulakesin II.

The Aihole inscription was composed by a renowned Jain poet and scholar Ravikiriti. It is a long inscription engraved on the wall of a Jain temple of Aihole in about 634-635 A.D. The inscription provides a vivid account of the conquest of King Pulakesin II. It also states how the King was able to force the Jagirdars and feudal lords accept his suzerainty and sovereignty. It became clear from the details of the inscription that the ruler of Chalukya followed a policy of aggression. He surrounded Vanavasi, the capital of Kadambas and occupied it. He also gave a shattering blow to the Gangas and Alupas in the Deccan. He subdued several rulers of Malwa and Gujarat. Apart from historical value, the inscription has a high literary value.

The Rashtrakutas of Malkhand

Origin of the Rashtrakutas. Several views have been put forward by the historians regarding the origin of the Rashtrakutas.

1. According to an inscription, the rulers claim their origin to the Yadva clan or Lord Krishna.

2. Some scholars hold the view that the Rashtrakutas belonged to Maharashtra.

Significance of the Rashtrakutas. The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan ruled for about four centuries, i.e. from the beginning of 7th century A.D. to the 10th century. About the role played by the Rashtrakutas. ―No other ruling dynasty in the Deccan played such a dominant part in the history of India till the rise of the Marathas as an important power in the eighteenth century.‖

Rashtrakutas were the rulers of Central and Southern Gujarat, the whole of Madhya Pradhesh, Bihar, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

According to Dr. R.C. Majumdar, ―No other Rashtrakuta King was the overlord of the entire Deccan in so a complete sense of the term as Krishna III (940 to 968 A.D.) was in 965 A.D.‖

Achievements of the Rashtrakutas

Administration. Popular element, i.e. local self-government played an important role in the villages. The village council was also responsible for maintaining law and order in the village. There were several committees to look after different aspects of the affairs of the village. The village council was responsible for the realisation of land revenue. The King attended the court regularly and carried on the work of administration with the help of ministers. The ministers were regarded as the right hand of the king.

Promotion of Brahamanism. The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was very popular. Many Brahmanical sacrifices were performed. Temples were constructed. Shiva Temple of Ellora was constructed during this period.

Development in art and architecture. The rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta belong to the period. The rock-architecture of the Kailash Temple at Ellora is considered to be unrivalled. In the words of Percy Brown, a renowned authority on art and architecture, ―the Kailash is an illustration of one of those occasions when men‘s minds, hearts and heads, work in unison towards the consummation of a supreme soul.‖

Kailashnath Temple, Ellora

This temple was built by the Rashtrakutas during the period 757-783 A.D. It is a rock-cut temple. Here, with massi labour and gigantic skill, a hill is vertically dugged out to the depth of 12 ft in such a fashion that a temple complex with many shrines is sculpted out. The temple‘s sculptured panels of Dasavatara, Ravana shaking the Mount Kailasha, dancing Shiva and Vishnu and Lakshmi listening to music are superb.

The Nandi pavilion is an important part of this magnificent temple. Temple was hewn out of a rocky hillside by in the eighth century A.D.

In sculptured reliefs of Ardhanarisvra, and Trimurti or Maheshamurti at Elephanta, God is represented in Triple form corresponding to its three functions: the creation, the preservation and destruction of the universe. The sculptured reliefs of Nataraja are also unique.

Progress in trade and commerce. The rulers maintained trade relation with many foreign countries. In this way they enriched the country and made their subjects prosperous and happy.

Political importance of the Rashtrakutas. The South took a leading part in the political affairs of the North. They inflicted severe defeats on the powerful rulers on North India. Their success in the South was equally remarkable. UNIT – 5

The Arab conquest of Sindh – foundation of Turkish rule in Northern India – Muhammad Ghazni – Muhammad of Ghor – causes for the decline of Hindu rulers

The Arab Conquest of Sindh

Causes of Arab Invasion on Sindh A new chapter in the history of the world as well as India began with the birth and rise of Islam. Islam was founded by Prophet (Hazrat) Mohammad (570-632 A.D.). The Arabs were the first people to embrace Islam. With their zeal, the new religion spread very rapidly. Within one hundred years of the death of its founder, Islam spread very rapidly. The Arabs conquered Persia, Egypt, Central Asia, Western and Northern Africa and Spain.

The successors of Prophet Muhammad were called the ‗Khalifas‟ (Caliphs). Conquests for the spread of Islam were made by the ‗Khalifas‘ of Arab who were the heads of the Islamic faith and also that of the State. The Arabs also tried to conquer India for the spread of Islam. The Arabs, unlike the previous invaders who came from the North-West of India, tried to conquer India through Sindh-a province in the west.

Though India and Arabia had trade relations from very ancient times and had a lot of give and take but with the rise of Islam, the Arabs tried to conquer India, not for trade, loot and plunder but for the sole aim of spreading Islam.

The situation in India was very favourable for the invaders as there was no strong political power in India to oppose them successfully. India was divided into several small warring Kingdoms.

Immediate cause of the Arab Invasion. Between 636 and 643 A.D., several invasions were made by the Arabs but these were repulsed. In 708 A.D., a ship going from Sri Lanka (Ceylon) to Iran in which some Arabs were also travelling, was looted by some robbers. This incident took place near the port of Deval (Sindh). The Arabs put the blame on Raja Dahir as the port of Deval was under his territory. Raja Dahir did not accept the blame.

As such, Hajjaj bin Yusuf (694-714), the Governor of Iraq decided to annex the region from Sindh to Transoxiana. Sindh was then ruled by Raja Brahman. In 712 Muhammad bin Qasim, the nephew and son-in-law Hajjaj, marched at the head of a strong army. Deval, a commercial Karachi, was first conquered in spite of stiff resistance. Thereafter Muhammed bin-Qasim marched forward. A hotly contested battle fought by Dahir but he was defeated and killed. The general sent one of the booty to the Khalifa‘s treasury and the rest according to the practice was distributed among the army.

After conquering Sindh, Muhammad bin-Qasim captured Multan in Hajjaj‘s death in 714, followed by that of the Khalifa, his patron, the year, led to the recall of Muhammad-bin-Qasim who later died in prison in Iraq. The new Khalifa was very much against Hajjaj and consequence against Muhammad-bin-Qasim, a relative of Hajjaj.

Causes of the Success of the Arabs and Failurre of King Dahir

1. Unpopularity of Raja Dahir. The administration of Raja Dahir not responsive to the welfare of the people who wanted a change. 2. Unhappiness of the Buddhists. Raja Dahir‘s father had established his Kingdom after overthrowing a Buddhist ruler. Naturally, therefore, Buddhists were hostile to Raja Dahir. 3. Lack of military strategy. Raja Dahir was a weak military leader and did not have military strategy.. 4. Old weapons. The army of Raja Dahir did not possess arms of great quality. His army also was not well trained. 5. Spirit of ‘Jihad’. The Arab soldiers were fired with a religious spirit to spread their newly acquired religion of Islam. Thus they fought bravely. 6. Treachery. Some of the influential people of the court of Raja Dahir proved traitors and disclosed their secrets to their enemy. 7. Able leadership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim. Despite his young age of just 17 years, Muhammad-bin-Qasim was an able military commander. He personally led his army and always kept high the morale of his army Not only this, he cleverly won over several Indians to his side. 8. Psychological factors. It is said by some scholars that a superstition had gone round that there would be some foreign rule in India. This made the people inactive and they made no serious efforts to throw away foreign invaders.

Effects of Arab Invasion ―The invasions of the Arabs had a tremendous effect on the history of India and the entire North India was terrorized by it‖. ―The Arab scholars sat at the feet of Buddhist monks and Brahman pundits to learn philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, chemistry and other subjects of study. The Arabs also learnt from the a great deal in the practical art of administration.‖

―It was simply an episode in the history of India.‖

Political effect. The success of the Arabs exposed the weakness of the Indian rulers and became an open signal to adventurous invaders.

Economic effects. (1) The Arabs looted a lot of money and thus drained India. (2) Lands of the Hindus were confiscated and given over to the Arabs. (3) On account of political unrest and uncertain situation, agriculture and trade suffered in India.

Religious effects. (1) The Arab conquest opened the way for the spread of Islam in India. (2) A special tax known as ‗Jazia‟ was imposed on the Hindus and by paying this tax, the Hindus continued to worship their own gods and goddesses. (3) It appears the imposition of ‗Jazia‟ led to a new type of religious sanction which had economic consequences also. In due course, the levy of this tax became a bone of contention between the Muslim rulers and their Hindu subjects.

Cultural effects. Since Indian culture was far ahead of the Arab culture, the Arabs were greatly influenced by Indian astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, medicine and philosophy. The Arabs learnt a good deal of these subjects from the Indians. The Khalifas of Arab began to invite Indian philosophers and scholars to their courts. In the beginning two Indian books, namely ‗Brahma Siddhanta‟ and ‗Kanda Khadyaka‟ were translated into the Arabic language. Thereafter several books on different subjects were got translated into Arabic. Several elements of Indian astronomy were borrowed by the Arabs from India. Through the Arabs, the western world also learnt Indian astronomy etc.

Quran was translated into Sindhi. The Arabs employed Hindu artists and architects to construct their buildings.

Social effects. Several sections of Arabs settled in many cities of Sindh and some matrimonial alliances with the Indians also took place. Effects on administration There were three specific features of Arab administration.

1. The rulers gifted large fiefs (land called jagirs) to the Muslim nobles and preachers. The land so gifted had to be tilled by the Indian farmers whose conditions became miserable.

2. A special tax called Jazia was levied on the Hindu, as a penalty for not embracing, Islam.

3. Justice was dispensed with according to Quranic laws by the Qazis.

Muhammad Ghazni

Important Invasions of Mahmud.

Mahmud was the ruler of a Turkish kingdom with Ghazni as its capital. He is usually associated with 17 invasions in 25 years. His first invasion directed against the frontier states was in the year 1000 A.D. and his last and most important was at Somnath Temple in 1025.

First Invasion: Capture of Frontier Forts (1000 A.D.) During his first invasion, Mahmud captured a few forts and towns of Khyher. He appointed his own Governors and went back.

Second Invasion: Victory over Jaipal of Hindushahi Kingdom (1001)

A fierce battle near Peshawar was fought in which the invader became victorious. Mahmud got enormous wealth and 50 elephants.

Third invasion: attack at Bhera (1005). The ruler Bijai Raj offered stiff resistance but was defeated. Finding himself helpless, the ruler committed suicide. Mahmud looted the kingdom and killed people mercilessly.

Fourth invasion at Multan (1006). Mahmud invaded Multan which was under an Arab ruler and after seven days he conquered it.

Fifth invasion at Multan (1007 A.D.) A grandson of Jaipal who had embraced Islam had been appointed the Governor of Multan with a Muslim name. He renounced Islam and declared himself as an independent ruler. Mahmud invaded and defeated him. Sixth invasion: Defeat of Anand Pal and his allies (1008-1009 A.D.) Anand Pal was able to organize a confederacy of the rulers of Ujjain, Gwaliar, Kalinjar, Ajmere etc. According to contemporary historians, ―Hindu women sold their jewels and sent the money from distant parts to be used against the invaders.‖ Regarding the fate of the war Lane-poole states, ―Anand Pal‘s elephant took fright, the rumour ran that the ‗raja’ was flying from the field, vague suspicion and distrust spread about, and a general stampede ensued. Mahmud found himself pursuing a panic stricken crowd. For two days, invaders slew, captured and despoiled to their heart‘s content‖.

Seventh invasion: Conquest of Nagarkot-kangra (1009 A.D) After his victory, Mahmud returned to Ghazni with such a vast collection of riches and jewels which ―far exceeded the treasures of the mightiest king of the world‖.

Mahmud‟s Invasion at Mathura (1018). The city of Mathura was a beautiful city and a sacred place of the Hindus having about 1,000 temples. Mahmud wrote about this city. ―If anyone should undertake to build a fabric like this, he would spend thereon one lakh packets of a thousand ‗dinar’ and would not complete in 200 years and with the assistance of the most ingenious architects‖.

As usual, Mahmud looted and broke down all the idols and destroyed temples.

Mahmud‟s Invasion at Somnath Temple (1025). Expedition of the Sombath temple made Mahmud a great hero of Islam. According to Lanepoole, ―The attack of Somnath has made Mahmud of Ghazni, a Champion of the faith in the eyes of Muslims for nearly two centuries, and the feat, has been embellished with fantastic legends‖.

The temple‘s importance and wealth can be wealth can be gauzed from the fact that lakhs of visitors offered prayers and made huge offerings daily and also the temple had a permanent income from the revenue of ten thousand villages attached to it.

The loot of the temple was worth 20 lakh dinars’. The idol of Shiva was broken into pieces.

Effects of Muhammad‘s Invasions

1. Muhammad‘s invasion exposed the military weakness of India. 2. Muhammad carried huge wealth out of India and thereby weakened the economic condition of India.

3. Muhammad, by destroying idols, temples and beautiful places, gave a great setback to Indian art an sculpture.

4. Muhammad‘s invasions which were mainly directed upon Hindu temples cracked a feeling of ill-will among the Hindus towards the Muslim.

5. Muhammad provided a food-hold in India for the promotion of Islam in India.

Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad Ghor or Shihab-Ud-Din Ghori.

After a lapse of about 150 years of Mahumud‘s invasions, Muhammad Ghori, an another Turk invader invaded India and laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. Some historians describe Ghori as an Afghan but it is usually accepted that he was a Turk.

Muhammad Ghori was the ruler of Ghazni. He was very enterprising and he had an eye over the wealth of India. He had also a great desire to spread Islam. First of all he conquered Multan. Thereafter he invaded. Gujarat but was defeated and was lucky to escape with his beaten army. However he was determined to conquer India. He diverted his attention to Punjab. In 1179 A.D., he attacked and captured Peshawar which came under the ruler of the Punjab. Again in 1185 and 1186 A.D., he attacked the Punjab and captured it. After conquering Punjab, Multan and Sindh, he thought of penetrating into the interior of India. He advanced towards than the with his bid to carve out an empire in India. He fought two battled at Tarain., one in 1191 when he was defeated and in 1192 when he defeated Prithviraj. Thereafter he conquered Kanauj, Gujarat, Bundelkhand, Bengal and Bihar. After conquering several parts of India, he turned westward to conquer Central Asian Turks but had to suffer defeat. Encouraged by the news of his defeat, a warrior tribe Khokar in the Punjab rose in revolt. He himself marched to crush the revolt. He was successful in putting down the revolt but was killed in his own camp on March 15, 1206 by his Khokar enemies. The body of Ghori was carried to Ghazni.

Ghori‟s Encounters with Prithviraj Chauhan

Ghori and Prithviraj fought two battles at Tarain (now in Haryana) The first battle at Tarain (1191) Prithviraj was the ruler of Delhi and Ajmer when Ghori was marching, towards Delhi after conquering several parts of Punjab. Prithviraj was able to unite some Rajput states to present a united front against the common enemy. However Jai Chand, the ruler of Kanauj did not join the confederation of some Rajput states headed by Prithviraj, on account of his personal animosity. A fierce battle between Ghori and Prithviraj at Tarain. Ghori was wounded and defeated He was carried away from the battle-field by a Khalji soldier. His army fled. True to Indian traditions, the Rajputs did not follow the fleeing enemy - a blunder which India had to repent for centuries.

The Second battle of Tarain (1192). Muhammad Ghori was determined to establish his authority over India. He was not disheartened over his defeat. He wanted to avenge his humiliation. He reorganized and strengthened his army. With a large cavalry of unrivalled marks-men, he again descended the plains of Tarain in 1192. Prithviraj again formed a confederation of the north Indian Kings. Nevertheless, Jai Chand of Kanauj, net only kept himself aloof from the battle but is also said to have helped Muhammad Ghori in order to wreck his vengeance on Prithviraj. Conflicting accounts of the defeat and ultimate fate of Prithviraj as well as Muhammad Ghori are given.

The numerical strength of the Rajput forces was far greater than Ghori‘s army which however, was better organised. The fighting quality of the Turkish cavarly decided the issue. A large number iof indian soldiers lost their lives. Prithviraj was captured and slain. Chandbardai, the court poet of Prithviraj has another version to tell. According to him Prithviraj was taken to Ghori as a prisoner. In a show of exhibiting his skill as an archer, the blind Prithbiraj shot a sound- guided arrow at Muhammad Ghori killing him instantly. Prithviraj later committed suicide.

Results of the Second battle of Tarain

The crux of the defeat of Prithviraj is that the sovereignty of a considerable part of India passed into the hands of the foreigners. The sovereignty of the Rajputs ended to a great extent.

Causes for the decline of Hindu rulers

1. Lack of a powerful central authority. There was no powerful central authority in India that could have offered strong resistance to the invaders as did the Magadha empire at the time of Alexander‘s invasion.

India at that time was divided into a number of independent Rajput states.

2. There were tough mutual fights among Rajput states, particularly among the Chauhans and the Rathors, the Chandelas and the Chalukyas and the Pratiharas, Palas and the Rashtrakutas.

3. The Rajput rulers failed to evolve any frontier policy.

4. The army of a Rajput ruler was constituted by collecting the armies of the feudal chiefs.

5. Feudal system led to the weakening of the power of the king.

6. The Rajput army advanced with all the wings together-the right, the centre and the left. The Turks used a special strategy with their two units-one advanced guard and other the reserve.

7. The Rajputs mostly fought defensive battles with the foreign invaders and this was not the appropriate way of winning a battle.

8. The Rajputs did not try to find out the latest techniques and weapons used in foreign lands.

9. Lack of Military Leadership. Military leadership is quite different from bravery and chivalry. The Rajput rulers and their commanders did not have the requisite capacity to infuse zeal in their armies.

10. The very bigotry of their creed (Muslims) was an instrument of self preservation, ―For the Muslim soldiers, the fight against the Rajputs i.e. the Hindus, was a ‗Jihad‟ (Holy war)-a crusade to protect as well as to spread their religion.

11. The Rajput rulers did not set up an efficient spy system to be adequately acquainted themselves with the overall position of their adversaries.

12. The Muslim rulers had excellent recruiting grounds in lands beyond the Afghan hills. From there they could constantly bring new recruits to fight against the Hindus.