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Issues in Indian Philosophy and Its History

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Issues in Indian Philosophy and Its History 4 ISSUESININDIAN PHILOSOPHY AND ITS HISTORY 4.1 DOXOGRAPHY AND CATEGORIZATION Gerdi Gerschheimer Les Six doctrines de spéculation (ṣaṭtarkī) Sur la catégorisation variable des systèmes philosophiques dans lInde classique* ayam eva tarkasyālaņkāro yad apratişţhitatvaņ nāma (Śaģkaraad Brahmasūtra II.1.11, cité par W. Halbfass, India and Europe, p. 280) Les sixaines de darśana During the last centuries, the six-fold group of Vaiśeşika, Nyāya, Sāņkhya, Yoga, Mīmāņ- sā, and Vedānta ( ) hasgained increasing recognition in presentations of Indian philosophy, and this scheme of the systems is generally accepted today.1 Cest en effet cette liste de sys- tèmes philosophiques (darśana) quévoque le plus souvent, pour lindianiste, le terme şađ- darśana. Il est cependant bien connu, également, que le regroupement sous cette étiquette de ces six systèmes brahmaniques orthodoxes est relativement récent, sans doute postérieur au XIIe siècle;2 un survol de la littérature doxographique sanskrite fait apparaître quil nest du reste pas le plus fréquent parmi les configurations censées comprendre lensemble des sys- tèmes.3 La plupart des doxographies incluent en effet des descriptions des trois grands sys- tèmes non brahmaniques, cest-à-dire le matérialisme,4 le bouddhisme et le jaïnisme. Le Yoga en tant que tel et le Vedānta,par contre, sont souvent absents de la liste des systèmes, en particulier avant les XIIIe-XIVe siècles. Il nen reste pas moins que les darśana sont souvent considérés comme étant au nombre de six, quelle quen soit la liste. La prégnance de cette association, qui apparaît dès la première doxographie, le fameux Şađdarśanasamuccaya (Compendium des six systèmes) du jaina Haribhadra (VIIIe s. ?), est bien illustrée parla classification des darśana que propose Mādha- vaSarasvatī au début de sa Sarvadarśanakaumudī (début du XVIe s.): ils sont divisés dabord en védiques et non védiques, la seconde catégorie comprenant le bouddhisme, le maté- rialisme et le jaïnisme, la première étant subdivisée en tarka (= Nyāya et Vaiśeşika), tantra (= mīmāņsā)etsāņkhya. À ce premier niveaudecardinal six sen ajoutent deux autres, par * Cet article reprend et développe une communication donnée le 18 mai 2001 à lInstitut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde de luniversité de Vienne, communication elle-même fondée sur des conférences de lÉcole pratique des hautes études (dont un résumé est disponible dans lAnnuaire de lEPHE, Section des sciences religieuses, 109 [2000-2001], pp. 173-189). Quil me soit permis dexprimer ma gratitude à Mme Karin Preisendanz pour son invitation, et aux collègues qui ont bien voulu, par leurs critiques et leurs suggestions, me pousser à affiner certaines affirmations; je souhaite remercier tout particulièrement, pour son aide précieuse, Mme Pascale Haag. 1 Wilhelm Halbfass, India and Europe: An Essay in Understanding, Albany 1988, p. 353. Mon rapide survol des sixaines de darśana doit beaucoup au19e chapitre de cet ouvrage, The Sanskrit Doxographies and the Structure of Hindu Traditionalism (pp. 349-368), ainsi quaux travaux sur les doxographies jaina contenus dans louvrage posthume de Kendall W. Folkert édité par John E. Cort (Scripture and Community: Collected Essays on the Jains, Atlanta 1993). 2 Cf. GanganathaJha, Pūrva-Mīmāņsā in its Sources,2e éd., Varanasi 1964, pp. 1-2 (dont certaines don- nées manquent cependant de précision, cf. par exemple infra n. 39). 3 Voir le tableau donné dans lAnnuaire de lEPHE, art. cité (voir n. *), pp. 180-181. 4 Je men tiendrai aux termes matérialisme et matérialiste pour rendre les termes sanskrits lokāyata, cārvāka,etc. Karin Preisendanz (ed.), Expanding and Merging Horizons: Contributions to South Asian and Cross-Cultural Studies in Commemoration of Wilhelm Halbfass, Wien: VerlagderÖsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2007, pp. 239-258. 240 GERDI GERSCHHEIMER la division traditionnelle du bouddhisme en quatre écoles dune part, parla dérivation des six darśana brahmaniques dans la première catégorie dautre part.5 Enréalité, les premières doxographies (toutes jaina, incidemment) ne décrivent pas six sys- tèmes, mais sept: matérialisme, bouddhisme et jaïnisme, Vaiśeşika, Nyāya, Sāņkhya et Mī- māņsā. À laube même de lhistoire de la doxographie indienne, une alternative est exposée par Haribhadra:6 ayant énuméré, dans la 3e stance de son opuscule, les six systèmes consti- tuant pour lui les darśana (bouddhisme, Nyāya, Sāņkhya,jaïnisme, Vaiśeşika, Mīmāņsā), il en expose, dans cet ordre, les principales doctrines; ceci fait, il note (st. 78-79) que certains penseurs traitent comme un seul darśana les systèmes du Nyāya et du Vaiśeşika,etparvien- nent au nombre de six darśana en ajoutant la doctrine des matérialistes, quil expose ensuite. Le nombre 6 peut ainsi être obtenu de deux façons. Soit lon exclut le matérialisme, appelé dordinaire nāstika par les doxographes jaina. Cette configuration se rencontre dans le Şađ- darśananirňaya de Merutuģga (XIVe s.), mais aussi dans le Şađdarśanasamuccaya de Rājaśe- khara (XIVe s.), qui refuse aumatérialisme la dignité de darśana. Ou alors, configuration ap- paremment plus courante, lon regroupe le Nyāya et le Vaiśeşika sous une même étiquette parfois tarka,ouśaiva.7 Le but du présent article est de proposer une explication à cette instabilité, cest-à-dire une explication aufait quil y a,àla fin du 1er millénaire et au début du second, sept darśana. Lhypothèse avancée ici est quun autre groupement de six systèmes philosophiques était courant avant les deux attestés par Haribhadra, un groupement que jappellerai les six tar- ka8 ou la sixaine des tarka(şaţtarkī), comprenant les écoles décrites par Haribhadra à lexception non pasdumatérialisme, mais de laMīmāņsā: 5 Voir le schéma dans lAnnuaire de lEPHE, art. cité (voir n. *), p. 182; voir aussi ibid., p. 176, et W. Halbfass, India and Europe (voir n. 1), pp. 352-353. Un exemple extrême de lassociation darśana 6 est don- né par une institution dont Catherine Clémentin-Ojhaadépouillé le registre: à Udaipur, au XIXe s., une sorte de ministère des Affaires religieuses est appelé le département des Six Systèmes (şađdarśana, prononcé loca- lement khađdarśana), lequel est au royaume du Mewar ce que le département des Mérites est à Jaipur (Le Tri- dent sur le palais: une cabale anti-vishnouite dans un royaume hindou à lépoque coloniale, Paris 1999, p. 140); le terme darśana dénote ici les affaires religieuses de façon générale (y compris celles des jaïns), sans référence particulière à une liste fixe. 6 Cf. lédition et la traduction du Şađdarśanasamuccaya par Olle Qvarnström, Haribhadraand the Be- ginnings of Doxography in India, dans N.K. Wagle et O. Qvarnström (éd.) Approaches to Jaina Studies: Phi- losophy, Logic, Rituals and Symbols, Toronto 1999, pp. 169-210 (je remercie Mme Nalini Balbir de mavoir fait connaître ce travail); voir aussi Annuaire de lEPHE, art. cité (voir n. *), pp. 176-179. 7 Des informations sur les configurations de systèmes philosophiques, à diverses époques et dans diver- ses régions de lInde, pourraient être obtenues de sources épigraphiques. À titre dexemple, voir la st. 36 de linscription du Xe-XIe s. éditée par F. Kielhorn, A Stone Inscription from Ranod (Narod), Epigraphia Indica 1 (1892), pp. 351-361, où le śivaïte Vyomaśiva est comparé à Maheśa pour les siddhānta, puis aux fondateurs des sept systèmes décrits par Haribhadra; voir aussi la st. 15 de linscription du XIIe s. éditée par F. Kielhorn, Malhar Stone Inscription of Jajalladeva,ofthe(Chedi) Year 919, Epigraphia Indica 1 (1892), pp. 39-45. Une recherche systématique mériterait dêtre entreprise. 8 Dénotant la spéculation, le raisonnement, la réflexion, le terme tarka a des emplois divers (cf. Annuaire de lEPHE, art. cité [voir n. *], p. 183), dont un emploi technique en Nyāya qui, on le verra plus loin, interfére- raavec lacception système philosophique fondé sur le raisonnement pur (N. Stchoupak, L. Nitti et L. Renou, Dictionnaire sanskrit-français, Paris 1980). LES SIX DOCTRINES DE SPÉCULATION 241 six tarka Haribhadra-IHaribhadra-II matérialisme bouddhisme matérialisme bouddhisme jaïnisme bouddhisme jaïnisme Vaiśeşika jaïnisme VaiśeşikaNyāyaNyāyaVaiśeşika NyāyaSāņkhyaSāņkhya SāņkhyaMīmāņsā Mīmāņsā La Mīmāṃsā et les six tarka ▪ Les six tarka de linscription C.38E de Po Nagar Linscription sanskrite C.38E de Po NagardeNhaTrang, au Campā (actuel Vietnam), a pour objet lérection par le roi Indravarman dune statue de la déesse Bhagavatī,enśaka 840, soit 918 de n. è.9 Des quatre strophes qui la composent, la troisième vise à montrer létendue des connaissances du roi: mīmāņsaşaţtarkajinendrasūrmmis sakāśikāvyākaraňodakaughaų | ākhyānaśaivottarakalpamīnaų paţişţha eteşv iti satkavīnām ||.10 La strophe présente un certain nombre de difficultés, et je ne me hasarderaipas à en proposer une nouvelle traduction après celles de Bergaigne et de Majumdar.11 Je men tiendraiàla chaîne mīmāņsaşaţtarka. Bergaigne aussi bien que Majumdar linterprètent en suppléant un ādi, le premier en remarquant quil manque en outre un mot tel que ādi:car les Mīmāņsās sont les deux premiers des six systèmes philosophiques: shaţtarka.12 Bien évidemment, Ber- gaigne (et à sa suite Majumdar) a icientêtela liste des six darśana brahmaniques (Mī- māņsā et Vedānta, Sāņkhya et Yoga, Nyāya et Vaiśeşika); mīmāņsa-şaţtarka de linscrip- tion référerait donc à ces six systèmes philosophiques, en tout cas à une liste comportant la Mīmāņsā. Mais cette interprétation, qui, prétextant de la piètre qualité du sanskrit de nombre dinscriptions du Campā,va
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