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India: the Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 Bc to Ad 1200

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India: the Ancient Past: a History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 Bc to Ad 1200 India: The Ancient Past ‘Burjor Avari’s balanced and well-researched book is a most reliable guide to the period of Indian history that it covers. It displays consider- able mastery of primary and secondary literature and distils it into a wonderfully lucid exposition. This book should be of interest to both lay readers and academic experts.’ Lord Bhikhu Parekh, University of Westminster A clear and systematic introduction to the rich story of the Indian past from early pre-history up until the beginning of the second millennium, this survey provides a fascinating account of the early development of Indian culture and civilisation. The study covers topics such as the Harappan Civilisation, the rise of Hindu culture, the influx of Islam from the eighth to the twelfth century, and key empires, states and dynasties. Through such topics and their histori ographies, the book engages with methodological and controversial issues. Features of this richly illustrated guide also include a range of maps to illustrate different time periods and geographical regions. Selected source extracts for review and reflection can be found at the end of every chapter, together with questions for discussion. India: The Ancient Past provides comprehensive coverage of the political, spiritual, cultural and geographical history of India in a uniquely accessible manner that will appeal both to students and to those with a general interest in Indian history. Burjor Avari was born in India in 1938, spent his childhood in Kenya and Zanzibar, graduated in history at Manchester University and was trained as a teacher at the Oxford University Institute of Education. He taught history in Kenyan and British schools for twenty-two years, from 1962 to 1984; and he gained experience as team leader for developing multicultural education in the schools of the English borough of Tameside from 1984 to 1987. He was appointed in 1988 as Principal Lecturer at the Manchester Metropolitan University, where he now coordinates multicultural education and teaches Indian history (part time). He received an MBE in 1988 in recognition of his work in multicultural education. India: The Ancient Past A history of the Indian sub-continent from c. 7000 bc to ad 1200 Burjor Avari First published 2007 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2007 Burjor Avari All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Avari, Burjor. India, the ancient past: a history of the Indian sub-continent from c. 7000 bc to ad 1200/Burjor Avari. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. India–History–To 1500. I. Title. DS451.A87 2007 934–dc22 2006030369 ISBN 0-203-08850-6 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–35615–6 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–415–35616–4 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–35615–2 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–35616–9 (pbk) Dedicated to the memory of my dear parents, teachers and good friend David Melling A vision for India Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high; Where knowledge is free; Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls; . Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit; . Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake. (From Gitanjali, by Rabindranath Tagore, Nobel Laureate, 1913) Contents List of extracts ix List of illustrations xi Preface xiii Four major eras of ancient Indian history: a summary of key themes xvii 1 Introduction 1 Three terms in context: ‘India’, ‘ancient’, ‘Hindu’ 1 Why study ancient India? 3 Time, space and people 5 Primary sources and the historians 13 2 From Africa to Mehrgarh: the early pre-history of India 22 Earliest phases of human settlement and activity 22 The Neolithic Revolution and the rise of agriculture 27 The Early Harappan phase: proto-urban settlements of the late Neolithic period 29 3 The Harappan Civilisation 38 Phases of progress in Harappan archaeology 40 Understanding the Mature Harappan phase 43 The eclipse of the Harappan Civilisation 52 4 The Indo-Aryans in the Vedic Age 60 The Aryan background 61 The Aryan expansion 66 The Vedic world 69 5 Formative centuries of the pre-Mauryan era 86 Politics and the geography of power 86 Two foreign intrusions 91 Second urbanisation and the rise of heterodoxy 93 Varieties of literature 98 viii Contents 6 The paradox of Mauryan imperialism 105 Advising and observing at the court of Chandragupta Maurya 106 The Dhamma of Ashoka 110 The Mauryan world 115 7 Diffusion and dynamism after the Mauryas 128 New dynasties and new centres of power 128 The international trade of India 133 New trends in Indian religions 138 Secular literature, sciences and the arts 143 8 Stability and change under the imperial Guptas 155 The empire and the emperors 157 Gupta society: a world in transition 162 The ‘flowering’ of Gupta Classical culture 167 9 The post-Gupta era and the rise of the south 181 North India fractured 182 Chalukyas and Pallavas: the Deccan and the deep south 185 Political and economic perspectives 187 Cross-currents of culture 194 10 Regionalism and feudalism: Rajput, Pala and Rashtrakuta kingdoms 203 Three regional kingdoms 203 Political economy in the feudal era 208 Cultural highlights of the age 215 11 Chola domination in the south and Turco-Afghan plunder in the north 227 State and society under the Cholas 228 Turco-Afghan incursions into north India 232 Fortunes of three Indic religions 238 Literature and great temples 244 Afterword: India post-AD 1200 255 Glossary of Indic terms 257 Glossary of selected ancient Indic place-names 259 Classification of ancient Indian texts by subjects 260 Bibliography 264 Index 279 Extracts 1.1 The use of hyperbole in praise of India 18 1.2 Sacred geography in the Hindu imagination 18 1.3 The Macaulay Minutes 19 1.4 An example of tampering with historical evidence 19 2.1 The African origins of human beings 33 2.2 Major crop types: native or foreign? 35 3.1 The claim of the Indus Civilisation being a Vedic Civilisation 54 3.2 Mortimer Wheeler as director general of the Archaeological Survey of India 55 3.3 The Great Bath at Mohenjo Daro 56 4.1 Pertinent Sanskrit/Avestan equivalents of some random words 79 4.2 The pre-Aryan legacy 80 4.3 Description of Ayodhya in the Ramayana 81 4.4 Verses from two well-known hymns of the Rig-Veda 82 4.5 An early example of dissent against the idea of Vedic sacrifice 83 5.1 Two accounts of Alexander’s conduct at Taxila 101 5.2 Gandhi’s comment on animal sacrifices 102 5.3 Buddhist emphasis on character rather than birth 103 6.1 The question of dating and authorship of the Arthashastra 124 6.2 European ignorance of non-European geography 125 6.3 The early history of writing in the Indian sub-continent 125 7.1 Wealth and morality as explained in the Naradasmriti 150 7.2 Four millennia of musical ancestry 150 7.3 Some simple advice regarding personal health 151 7.4 The Amaravati sculptures 151 8.1 The Mandasor inscription of the silk-weavers 176 8.2 A problem attributed to Aryabhata by Bhaskara I 177 8.3 Doubts about the extent of influence of Indian fables on European literature 178 9.1 Agricultural innovations in the Tamil country 199 9.2 An example of Shiva bhakti in Tamil religious literature 200 9.3 Harsha’s signature 200 10.1 The promotion of scholarship and scholarly exchanges 222 x Extracts 10.2 The idea of debate in the Nyaya tradition 223 10.3 The imperfections of Sanskrit 223 10.4 The status of the Mapillas 224 11.1 The guild of Ayyavole 500 249 11.2 Kalhana as a historian 250 11.3 Al-Biruni’s assessment of the Indian intellectual scene 251 Illustrations Figures 1.1 Karakoram mountains 8 1.2 The Bolan Pass 9 2.1 Early Harappan pottery fragments 31 3.1 Mohenjo Daro perspective 40 3.2 A necklace of Harappan beads 47 3.3 Harappan seals 49 3.4 Dancing girl and priest-king 50 4.1 A modern Hindu Yajna ceremony 75 4.2 A modern Zoroastrian fire ceremony 76 4.3 A falcon altar 77 5.1 A boy playing the part of Sita 100 6.1 Ashoka’s temple at Bodh Gaya 115 6.2 Farmers worshipping a sacred tree in the Buddhist tradition 116 6.3 Stupa of Sanchi 121 6.4 Chaitya hall at Karle 122 6.5 Lomas Rishi entrance 123 7.1 Relief from a Sanchi gateway 146 7.2 A hip girdle from Bharhut Stupa 147 7.3 A rider on the Bharhut Stupa 148 7.4 A yakshi 148 7.5 Buddhas in different art styles 149 7.6 Torso of King Kanishka 149 8.1 The idea of the Classical in the Indian context 168 8.2 Sultanganj bronze Buddha 170 8.3 The plan of the Ajanta caves 173 8.4 An Ajanta façade 174 8.5 Shiva and Parvati at Ajanta 175 8.6 Head of Bodhisattava at Ajanta 176 9.1 South Indian tank scene 193 9.2 The Deccani-style temple of Pattadakal 197 9.3 Shore Temple at Mamallapuram/Mahabalipuram 198 xii Illustrations 10.1 The Rajput stronghold of
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