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Kenoyer Jonathan Mark, Indus Civilization. In: Encyclopedia of Archaeology, ed. by Deborah M. Pearsall. @ 2008, Academic Press, New York. Author's personal copy

ASIA, WESTnndus Civili~tion 715

Further Reading Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Allchin B (1997) The "fuse of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Great Bath The earliest public water tank in ancient South Asia Mishra S (1995) Chronology of the Indian stone age: the impact of is one of the most spectacular features of Mohenjo-daro. recent absolute and relative dating attempts. Man and Environ­lridus script (Harappan script) Refers to the undeciphered . ment XX(2): 11-16. writing system consisting of short strings of symbols found Misra VN (1989) Stone age India: An ecological perspective. Man on pottery and seals. Used between 260~1900 BC and and Environment 14: 17-64. associated with the Harappan period settlements of the Murty MLK (1979) Recent research on the Upper Palaeolithic Indus civilization. Phase in India. journal of Field Archaeology 6(3): 301-320. Murty MLK (1985) Ethnoarchaeology of the Kumool cave are~. World Prehistory 17(2): 192-205. . Paddayya K (1982) The Acheulian Culture of the Hunsgi Valley Indus Civilization (peninsular India): A Settlement System Persp~aive. Poona: . Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute. Introduction PaddayYa K (1984) India: old stone age. In: Bar-Yosef 0 (00.) Neue Forschungen zur Altsteinze;t. Sonderdruck, pp. 345-403. The Indus civilization is a general tenn that refers to Munich: Verlag C.H Beck. the first urban society that emerged in the· greater Pappu RS (2001) Acheulian Culture in Penittsular India. New Indus valley of Pakistan and northwestern India, be­ Delhi: D.K. Printworld. . tween 2600 and 1900 BC. This urban society wastirst PappuRS and Deo SG (1994) Man-Land Relationships During Palaeolithic Times in the Kaladgi Basin, Karnataka. Pune: discovered in' the 1920s and has also been called Deccan College. the Harappa culture after the type site of Harappa, Pappu S (1999) A study of natural site formation processes in the Pakistan wheteit was first discovered. Kortallaiyar Basin, Tamil Nadu, South II:ldia. Geoarchaeology, Other common names that are found in the litera­ An International journal 14(2): 127-150. ture include the Indus valley' civilization and the Pappu S (2001) BAR-International Series 1003:. A Re-examination of the Palaeolithic Archaeological Record of Northern Tamil Indus-Saraswati civilization. Nadu, South India. Oxford: BAR. . . Another common terminology that will be used in Pappu S (2001) Middle Palaeolithic stone tool technology in the . this essay uses the framework of long-term cultural KortallaiyarBasin, South India. Antiquity 75: 107-117. traditions to examipe the origin, character, and even­ Pappu S, Gunnell Y, Taieb M, Brugalj-P, and Touchard Y (2003) tual decline of a civilization. The Indus tradition (also Ongoing excavations at the Palaeolithic site of Anirampakkam, South India: Preliminary findings. Current Anthropology 44(4): called the Indus valley tradition) refers to the wide 591-597. . range of human adaptations in the greater Indus Pappu 5, Gunnell Y, Taieb M, and Kumar A (2004) Preliminary region over a long span of history; approximately report on excavations at the Palaeolithic site of Attirampakkam, 10000 to 1000 BC. The Indus tradition encompasses Tamil Nadu (1999-2004). Man and Environment XXIX(2): 1-17. all adaptive strategies that contributed to the emer­ Petraglia MD (1998) The Lower Palaeolithic of India and its bear­ ing on the Asian record. In: PetragliaMD and Korisettar R (eds.) gence' and decline of the first phase of urbanism, Early Human' Behaviour in Global Context. The Rise and including hunting-foraging the origins of agriculture Diversity of the Lower Palaeolithic. Recor.d, pp. 343-390. .and specialized crafts, the emergence of cities and London: Routledge. state-level society, and finally the transformation Petraglia MD, LaPorta P, and Paddayya K (1999) The first Acheu­ and decline of the Indus cities (Figure 1).. lian quarry in India: Stone tool manufacture, biface morphology and behavior. journal ofAnthropological Research 55: 39-70. In addition to the Indus, three other major cul­ tural traditions relating to the initial emergence of urbanism can be identified for the northwestern subcontinent: the Baluchistan, Helmand, and the Bactro-Margiana Traditions. These cultural tradi­ Indus Civilization tions. are linked in different· ways to processes of Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, University of Wisconsin, socioeconomic and political developments in the sub­ Madison, WI, USA continent, beginning as early as the Palaeolithic and © ·2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. continuing through the Early Histori<;: period. The Indus' tradition .can be subdivided into 'eras' and 'phases' that are roughly corr~lated to major Glossary adaptive strategies and regional material cultural styles (Table 1). A brief summary of each-major era Dholavira One of the largest and most prominent archaeological is provided below in order to provide a larger In~us sites in India, belonging to the civilization. It is located on context in which to discuss the urban Harappa the Khadir island in the Kutch district of Gujarat. Mehrgarh One of the most important Neolithic (7000-3200 phase, of the Integration era, which is the main BCE) sites in archaeology, lies on the Kachi plain of Baluchistan, focus of this essay.

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Chronological Framework: Origin archaeological excavations in both India and Pakistan to· Decline . have revealed the presence of numerous different types of sites that provide a more complete understanding of Earlier models for the origin of the Indus civiliza­ the origins and decline of the Iridus civilization. tion proposed that it"was the result of direct or indi­ .. While most scholars look to the Early Neolithic as rect influence from urban societies in Mesopotamia the foundation of later urban centers, it is important .or Iran to the west. Over the past several decades, to include a discussion of hunting and foragi.ng com­ new exca:ations and better radiocarbon dating have munities who have continued to coexist a:nd interaet resulte~ .In more complex models for interpreting . wi~ settled communities throughout human history. the. ongms and transformations of this early urban WIth the retreat of glaciers in the northern subconti­ socIety. The Indus region was clearly not isolated . nent around 12000-10000 years ago and changes In fro.m the events going on· in other parts of West climate, major changes in the species and distribu­ ASIa; nevertheless, the origin of Indus cities such as tions of fauna and flora in the South. Asian subconti­ Harapp~ and Mohenjo-daro· can be traced to indige­ . nent resulted in the establishment ofnew strategies of nons socIoeconomic and political processes. Continued

Arabian Sea

N

Figure 1 Major traditions in South Asia.

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Table 1 Indus Tradition ,working, and eventrially bronze working, as well as . glazed steatite and faience bead making. Distinctive Foraging era 10000-2000BeE Mesolithic and Microlithic pottery styles and painted designs, along with regional Early Food Producing era 7000-5500 BCE human and animal figurine styles can be seen in other Mehrgarh Phase regions at sites such as Rehman Dheri (Gomal Plain), Regionalization era 5500-2600 BCE Sheri Khan Tarakai and Tarakai Qila (Bannu Basin), Ear1y Harappa phases , S~ai Khola (Taxila Valley), Harappa and Jalilpur Ravi, Hakra, Sheri Khan Tarakai, (central Punjab), Siswal (Haryana), Kot Diji (Sindh), Balakot"Amri, Kot Diji, Sothi Amri and Ghazi Shah' (southern Sindh), NaVSohr Integration era Damb (southern Baluchistan), and Balakot (Makran Harappan phase 2600-t900 BCE coast). Different regional cultures of phases have been Subdivided at the site of Harappa into Period 3A ­ 2600-2450BC named after the regions or sites where they were first Period 3B ­ 2450-2200 BC discovered, such as Hakra, Ravi, Sothi, Amri, and Kot , Period 3C ­ 2200-1900 BC Diji phases. These cultures are collectively referred to Localization era as Early Harappan, because they set the foundation Late Harappan phases 1900-13OOBCE for the development of major urban centers in the core Punjab, Jhukar, Rangpur agricultural regions and at important crossroads. In addition to the developments in the core areas of the Indus and. Saraswati-Ghaggar-Hakra valleys, foraging and hunting. The 'Foraging era' represents a recent excavations in Gujarat, India reveal the estab­ relatively long period oftime and broad geographical , lishment of Early Harappan cultur~ traditions in ~utch area where mobile and semisedentary foraging and and Saurashtra. The sites of Dholavira, Loteshwar, and hunting 'communities began focusing on intensive Nagwada appear to have links to Amri and Kot Diji exploitation of specific plants and animals. In parts phase cultures inSindh, but also reflect a local tradition of Afghanistan and the edges of the Indus valley these from Gujarat, sometimes referred to as the Anarta cul­ adaptive strategies eventually contributed to the ture. Many ofthe raw materials tradedduring the Early domestication. of humped ,zebu cattle and possibly Harappan period derive from Gujarat, but the degree other species of animals and plants. to which local cultures in Gujarat contributed to the During the Neolithic or 'Early Food Producing Early Harappan and subsequent Harappan cultural era', which dates to around· 7000-5500 BCE at sites traditions is still under investigation. ' , such as Mehrgarh, Pakistan, there is evidence for the At the end of the Regionalization era, during emergence of wheat and barley agriculture and the the 'Kot Diji phase', the first urban centers began to herding of domestic cattle, along with sheep and goat. ' emerge in the Indus and Saraswati-Ghaggar-Hakra These plants and animals became the primary subsis­ plain. At the site of Harappa, which is the best­ tence base for the development of larger towns' and documented settlement, the early urban phase dates eventually cities in the Indus region. Major trade from around 2800 to 2600 BCE (Figure 2). This set­ networks were also established during this period, tlement grew to more than 25 ha in area and was connecting small agro-pastoral communities with dis­ divided into two walled sectors. Smaller villages dat- ' tant resource areas. These networks extended from the ing to the same time period have been discovered in Arabian Sea along the Makran coast to the highlands the hinterland around Harappaand reveal that the of northern Mghanistan, and from the Baluchistan site was a central place in an urban network and also hills to the deserts of Sindh and Rajasthan. had links to distant resource areas. In the subsequent Chalcolithic or 'Regionalization At Harappa there is evidence for the first use of the era', 5500-2600 BCE, distinctive regional cultures 'EarlY Indus script', standardized weights, writing, bee.ame established in the northern and southern allu­ and square stamp seals that were used to stamp clay vial plain, as well as in surrounding regions. Small sealings on bundles of goods or store rooms. Other villages became established in agriculturally rich areas small and large sites dating to this period reveal local and larger villages grew up along the major trade developments in artifact styles, stamp seal styles, graf­ routes linking each geographical region and resource fiti on pottery, and settlement planning. Standardized area. S

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50 60 70 eo + 38 USSR + 36 Key· .+ 36 • Palaeolithic/foraging era sites 34 y Early fOOd producing era. sites • Regionalization era sites 34

32 N I -O­ f

18 .

Figure 2 Major geographical regions and prehistoric sites.

throughout the greater Indus region. Together these ofchanges·in pottery, use of seals, and architecture as developments confirm the emergence of hierarchical seen at the site of Harappa and other major settle­ social, economic, and political systems associated ments. Although the precise dates may differ from with early urbanism. one· site to another, at Harappa, these subphases . Kot Diji phase sites have been found in the Gomal are referred to as period 3A(260o-2450 BeE), 3D plain (Rehman Dheri), Kacchi plain (Nausharo), (245.o-2200DCE), and 3C (220o-1900BCE). Some Taxila valley (Sarai Khola),along the bed of the scholars stilJ refer", to this long time span as the. Ghaggar:-:-Hakra river Ualiwali, Gamanwala, etc.), in (mature' Harappan period (or Mature Harappan), the southern Indus region (Mohenjo-daro; Kot Diji, but excavations and radiocarbon dating at· the site . a,nd Ghazi Shah), as well as in Kutch (Dholavira). The of Harappa .indicate that· the artifact types gener­ precise nature of regional interaction and chronology ally associated with the so-calJed (mature' Harappan of local cultural developments is stilJ unclear, but period actually only occur during the last half of this taken as a whole, these sites set the stage for the rise 700-year time span. of large urban centers.that came to dominate the During the Harappa phase, the largest urban cen­ greater Indus valley region. . ters may have directly controlled their surrounding The Integration era, Harappa phase, dates· from hinterland, but there is no evidence for hereditary mo­ around 2600 to 1900BCE, and it is during this long narchies or the establishment of centralized territorial time span that cities such as Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, states that controlled the entire Indus region~ Cities, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, and Ganweriwala grew to such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Dholavira were their largest extent (Figure 3). This 700-year period dearly ·being ruled by influential elites; probably a . c~n now be divided into three subphases on the basis combination of merchants, landowners, and religious

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50 60 70 80 + 38 +

+36

34

N I Himalayan MIs 32

22

ARABIAN Key: Integration era sitese Other important sites' • Major traete/exchange routes _ 100 0 100 200 300 400· 500 Kilometers

Figure 3 Integration era. Harappa phase sites.

leaders~ Smaller towns and villages may have been During the cLocalization era', CLate Harappan phases', run by corporate groups such as town councils or from 1900 to 1300BCE or even as late at 1000BCE, individual charismatiC leaders; but there is a conspic-· the ,major cities and their supporting settlements uous absence of central temples, palaces and elabo­ began to lose power due a number of factors. Shifting rate elite burials that are characteristic of elites in river patterns and the eventual drying up of the other early urban societies in'Mesopocamia, Egypt, Saraswati-Ghaggar-Hakra River resulted in the aban­ and China. Hierarchical social order and stratified donment of many sites and ,migration into the Indus society is re£le<:ted in architecture and settlement pat­ valley, Gujarat or to the Ganga-Yamuna valley. The terns, as well as artifact styles and the organization of disruption of agriculture and the eventual breakdown technological production. A vast network of internal of trade and political networks led to the decline of trade and exchange and a shared ideology united the urbanism and the disappearance of many distinctive greater Indus valley. There was widespread use of, features· of the Indus culture. The Indus script and similar styles of pottery, figurines, ornaments, the dis­ inscribed seals were no longer 'used, and· writing' tinctive Indus script, seals, and standardized weights. disappeared along with the use of cubical stone Massive mud-brick walls surrounded mostlarge settle­ weights and many fonns of symbolic objects. Other ments, and appear to have ftmetio~ed primarily for social and religious factors also contributed to the control of trade access into the cities. These walls also gradual reorganization of trade and technology and would have served as formidable defenses, but there is the emergence of new cultural, political and religious no evidence for major conflict or warfare at any major traditions. center. A more detailed discussion of the Harappa Although changes in materi~l culture and socio­ phase will be presented below. ritual traditions are well documented, there are also

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significant continuities. Even though cubical stone to the east and generally parallel to the Indus River. weights disappeared, the weight system used during The Sutlej (ancient Satadru), which now flows into the Early. Harappan and Harappan periods contin­ the Indus, appears to have been a tributary of the ued in use in later periods.and is still used in South Ghaggar~Hakra system. The Ghaggar-Hakra appears Asia today. Other continuities are seen in pottery to have reached the Rann of Kutch during the Region­ styles and technology, some s~bolic obje~, over­ alization era, but began drying up and eventually all site layout, the use of standardized bricks, etc. disappeared in the middle of the Cholistan desert These continuities justify the use of the term Late toward the end of the Harappa phase or during the Harappan to characterize many of these traditions. Late Harappan period. The Punjab phase, Cemetery H culture spread through­ To the east, the greater mdus valley is bordered by out the Punjab·and Ganga-Yamuna region, theJhukar the Thar I)esert and the Aravalli mountains, both of . phase and related cultures were found in Sindh and which are rich in mineral resources used by cominu­ Baluchistan, and the Rangpur phase. includes the nities of the Indus region. On the southe~st lie the . Lustrous Red Ware and associated Black-and-Red islands of Kutch, the peninsula of Saurashtra, and ware cultures that were present in Gujarat, Rajasthan, the mainland of Gujarat. The co~bined deltas of the and the Malwa Plateau. Indus and the Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers extend from In the northern Indus valley and parts of Baluchistan the Greater Rann of Kutch in the east to the rocky some sites show an overlap between Late Harappan coast of Baluchistan near modem Karachi in the west. and Baetro-Margiana material culture. In the Gangetic The coastal settlements in the Makran, Kutch, and region there is overlap with the Copper Hoards cul­ Saurashtra appear to have had connections across the ture, the Ochre Colored ~ottery, and Painted Gray Arabian Sea to the coasts of modem Oman and the Ware culture. Some of thes~ cultures may be asso­ Persian Gulf. Although no purely Harappan site has ciated ·with mdo-Aryan speaking Vedic communities been found on the Arabian Peninsula, many Indus mentioned in the sacred hymns of the Rig Veda and artifacts have been found in coastal and some inland later Brahmimical texts, but there is little consensus settlements. among scholars on this point. Considerable research still remains to be done on this transitional period, Climate of the Greater Indus Region but some answers should be forthcoming from the many new sites that have been discovered in northern The Indus valley and adjacent regions.ar~ dominated Pakistan and India. by two major weather systems, the winter cyclonic system of the western highlands and the summer monsoon system of the peninsular subcontinent. Geographical Setting The winter cyclonic system produces snowfall in The greater Indus valley refers to a vast area drained Baluchistan and rainfall in parts of .the Indus valley. by the various tributaries of the Indus River and a The .summer monsoon brings scattered rainfall to parallel (now dry) river that is variously referred Sindh and Guja,rat and heavy rainfall to the northern to as the Saraswati~Ghaggar-Hakra-Nara River. Indus plain, with rain and snow in the high moun­ The Indus tributaries emerge from the Kirthar and· tains in the north. These two systems overlap in the Suleiman mountains of Baluchistan on the west, the Indus valley and if one system fails the other usually Hindu-Kush and Karakorum to. the northwest, the provides sufficient precipitation to support large popu­ Pamir and the· Himalaya to the north and east.. All lations throughout the region. The main crop cycles of these mountainous regions have played an impor­ in the Indus valley region are aligned with the winter tant role. in providing minerals, timber, and trade rains and the summer monsoo·n rains. routes to adjacent cultural centers in Baluchistan, Recent ·models of global climate indicate that, at Afghanistan, and Central Asia. The second major 18 000-9000 B~ southern Asia would have been cool­ river has different names along its length. m the er and drier than today, with a weak summer mon­ north are· several tributaries, one of which is today soon. From 9000 to 7000BP, there appears to have . called the Saraswati. Some scholars suggest that this been a stronger summer monsoon, warmer summers, was the sacred Saraswati River mentioned in the Rig. and cooler winters. Although these models work at .Veda and other Brahmanical texts, but so far it has the maclolevel, they cannot be confirmed through not been possible to confirm this identification. In detailed analysis of specific sites or regions. Generally the midsection it is called Ghaggar or Hakra and the speaking, there is no evidence for major· changes depression where it appears to have flowed in the in climate or rainfall since at least 9.000 BP. Specific south is called the Nara. This ancient river, which regional environmental changes that directly impact­ will be referred to as the Ghaggar-Hakra,flowed ed human settlement in the greater Indus region can .

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generally be attributed to changing river-flow patterns tusks and possibly their hides. Smaller animal may and humanly induced erosion or soil degradation. also have been hunted, and numerous' terracotta .figurines suggest that some of these small animals, Subsistence Strategies such as Macaque monkeys, squirrels, and a variety of birds, were also captured for use as pets. Fishing Indus cities and villages were provisioned through a and shellfish collection was important along the combination of intensive and extensive agriculture, coasts and at the many settlements located along riv­ .combined with animal husbandry, and supplemented . ers and oxbow lakes. Marine shells were used for by fishing and hunting. During the. Harappa phase, making ornaments and some riverine shells were two major crops could have been harvested in some used as tools. At the site of Harappa, which is more regions provided there was sufficient winter rain and than 800 km from the coast, there is evidence for summer flooding or rains. Agricultural fields were the trade of dried marine catfish, even though local watered primarily by annual rainfall and seasonal riverine catfish were also being consumed. This trade flooding, but water-diversion channels, and dams in salted fish underscores the importance of pre­ for trapping soil and, moisture are common along served foods in the subsistence strategies of large the Baluchistan piedmont and in parts of Kutch. urban centers (see Asia, South: India, Deccan and. Irrigation canals have been found at the site of Central Plateau). Shortughai along the Amu Darya or Oxus River in Afghanistan, but there is no evidence for the construc­ Settlement Patterns tion of large-scale irrigation channels as Was common in Mesopotamia at the time. Smaller fields and veg­ Many" of the largest Indus cities were continuously etable plots would have been watered by wells, occupied from the Early Harappan through the which are found at most Harappa ,phase sites, and Harappan perio& Consequently, the Harappa phase reservoirs like those found at Lothal and Dholavira. buildings and city walls often rose high abov~ the The brick-lined tank at Lothal was filled with river surrounding plain, being constructed on top of earlier overflow during the monsoons, and at Dholavira a buildings and city walls. In some settlements, new series of, interconnected stone~lined reservoirs were suburbs were constructed out on the plain· or on old filled bya combination of river run-off, and rainfall city dumps, resulting in a higher older town and a collected from rooftops and the city wall by an elabo­ lower newly built areas. At sites such as Harappa and rate system of drains'within the city itself.. Kalibangan, two distinetwalled areas ormoun'ds were The main winter or rabi season crops in the core created, and at other sites such. as' Mohenjo-daro, regions of the Indus were wheat and b~rley, supple­ several different mounded areas were established. mented by pulses, sesame, peas, and vegetables. The landscape was dominated by large cities locat­ .Perennial cotton could have been grown during the ed at strategic positions along trade routes and in the winter season and harvested in the spring. The kharif core area of agricultural production. Mohenjo-daro, crops, including rice, sorghum, and various millets, Harappa, Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira are major cities, would have been sown during or at the end of the all of which are over 100 ha in area. Ganweriwala summer monsoon and harvested in the fall. Rice was may represent a fifth major 'city at around 80 ha in not common in the Indus valley itself and is found area. The actual size of a settlement would have only in Gujarat during the H.arappa phase. Cotton, changed considerably over 700 years, but based on' mustard, sesame, dates, melon, and peas were also surveys of mounded ruins it is possible to identify cultivated, possibly as kharifcrops. an hierarchy of five settlement tiers: cities (greater The most important domestic animals were cattle than 80 ha), towns (10-50 hal, villages (5-10 hal, (humped Bos indicus and nonhumped Bas taurus) and and hamlets (1-5 hal, camps «'1ha). In addition, water buffalo (Bubalt# bubalis), followed in impor­ many people may have lived in floating villages or tance by sheep and goat. Although domestic pig is along the many rivers and lakes that surrounded the found in the cities, it was not a major source of meat. major cities. . The domestic dog is well attested from animal bones , Over 1500 sites have been identified from this as well as figurines, some ofwhich depict small, house . time periOd located in many different geographi­ pets, while others show mastiffs used in hunting. cal regions, including coastal areas, alluvial plains, Many different types of wild animals were hunted and remote mountain valleys. Estimates of the total and brought to the cities. Large game, such as ele­ area of the Indus civilization range from 680 000 2 phant, rhinoceros, wild·water buffalo, and various to as much as 800000km ,'but it should be clearly types of elk, deer, antelope and wild ass were hunted understood that there. were large stretches of unin­ for food or for other products such· as horns, antlers, habited wasteland between many of the sites and

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the total area does not represent a territory. of cen­ major urban centers as well as smaller settlements. tralized political control or one that has distinct Most settlements were laid out on an irregular grid­ boundaries. oriented. nortHouth and east.;...west. The 'use of . Population estimates for the Indus period are diffi~ cardinai directions for settlement planning began in cult to detennine, because it is not possible to accu­ the Early Harappan period and continued through rately define how much of a city was occupied at any the Late Harappan period. Massive perimeter ~alls given time or which settlements were inhabited dur­ . were constructed of mud brick, sometimes faced with ing the 700-year time span of the Harappa phase. The fired brick, or stone. Gateways located near the coro: site of Harappa, which covers around.150ha, could ners or in the middle of the city walls provided con­ have held between 60000 and 80000 people at the trolled access into the settlements. The city walls and height of the urban phase, but th~ total urban popu­ gateways were regularly maintained and modified lation may have fluctuated seasonally. Nomads and over time, indicating that they had aD important func­ merchants may. have c()me to the city during trading tion throughout the life of each settlement. This seasons, and many urban dwellers may have left to function may have changed·over time, but they would help in the fields during the agricultural or herding have provided defense fr:om attacks from enemies or s~asons. bandit raids; they allowed for the control. of trade, and they protected the city from flooding. While City Planning some smaller sites have evidence for localized fire and conflagration, there is no evidence that any One of the hallmarks of Harappan or Indus culture is major settlement was attacked or destroyed by war­ the highly developed city planning that is seen in fare (Figures 4-6).

E1400 E1600 E1800 1:2000 E2200 E2400 E2600 E2800 N2000 N2000

N1800

N N1600 N1600 t N1400 N1400

N1200 N1200

? =Walls not excavated N1000 N1000

o 100

N800 N800

N1400 N1600 N1800 N2000 N2200 N2400 N2600 N2600 Figure 4 Harappa site plan.

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MohenJo-daro~ Sindh. Pakistan

N

1

Key o (UMP) Dales (University Museum, PAl DH Dikshit . HR Hargreaves L M SO Siddiqui VS Vats W Wheeler Site continues

o 100 200m Site continues Figure 5 Mohenjo-daro site plan.

Within the settlements, Streets and buildings were Fired brick-lined drains were located along the oriented on· a north-south arid east-west grid. The edges ofthe street, and some streets had large covered layout of streets and the placement of houses were drains down the center of the street. Corbelled arches often maintained for. hundreds of years, either as were used to carry drains under buildings or streets. the result of city ordinances or simply for functional The streets were not paved, but the accumulation of purposes. Major north-south and east-west streets crushed pottery and nodules compacted· by use were between 4.5 and as much as 9 m wide allowing resulted in hard surfaces similar to modem gravel fqrtwt>-way traffic using ox carts. Smaller streets roads. Large potholes and ox cart ruts were periodi­ were around 2-3 m wide, allowing only one-way cally filled with additional debris to levei the streets cart traffic. Gateways were generally only 2.5 m out. Even with periodic maintenance, the accumula­ wide that would allow only one-way cart traffic and tion of debris on the streets resulted in dogged drains more control of movement into and out of the city. that were eventuaUy filled in and new streets and Wide streets were constructed to allow ox carts car­ .drains were built at a higher level to aUow proper rying goods to access each·major neighborhood and drainage. Streets in neighborhoods where there was also to cross through the entire settlement. In Meso­ less. maintenance rose faster than the main streets, potamian cities, the main streets went from the city resulting in an uneven topography. Eventually, the gate to the temple or palace, but did not provide equal highest parts of the cities were 18-20 m above the access to aU parts of the settlement. surrounding plain.

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Dholavira, N Kutch, India

" ",. ~~ II " " Lower town I' .. " !~ ~ " ~~~ " " - It " " G.. :::== :: Middletown

::== ::=

Dam

Bailey ===:. ==::

150m,

Figure 6 Dholavira site plan.

Private Architecture settlements are also divided into separate mounded ~reas, or have a single large walled area divfded by an ln~us cities were made up of both small and large mtemal wall. The segregated habitation areas asso­ pn~a~e houses a~d larger public structures. Many ciated with a single city may indicate competing eco­ buIldmgs were bwl~ on top of earlier ruins or newly nomic or political groups, and with the exception of constructed mud-bnck platforms that raised the level Dholavira, no single area appears to have dominated of the house above the street level to protect it from the total settlement. . flooded s~eets: Over time, this construction practice Bricks used for constructing buildings and citywalls resulted In neIghborhoods that were much higher were of a standardized ratio of 1:2:4 (thickness: than the streets and as noted above, cities as a whole width:length). The absolute size of unfired mud bricks rose high above t~e plain. Ai Mohenjo-daro the high­ for city walls and large platforms was approximately est walled mound is located in the west with a series 10 cm x 20 cm x 40 cm. The size for bricks used in .of lower mounds on the east, and one or two habita­ the construction of houses was approximately 7 cm x tion ~eas to the north and south of the high mound. 14 cm x 28 cm. Over 700 years, these ratios did not· The sIte of Harappa has a high mound in the west change and there was very little variation in absolute and much larger mound that is almost as high extend­ size. Most houses in the large cities were constructed. ing to the east. Lower suburbs are located to the with smaller fired bricks, while unfired small bricks' north, .northeast, south, and east of these· two main were used for temporary walls and foundation repairs. mounds. Dholavira has a unique layout with three In regions where stone was plentiful, such as Kutch nested rectangular city· walls and.a higher citadel and Saurasthra, roughly hewn and carefully dressed located on a hill in the south. Some of the smaller

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stone blocks were also used in architecture. While may have been a wooden superstructure. Although some effort was made to maintain the 1:2:4 ratio~ it is referred to as a granary, there is no archaeological this was not rigorously imPosed in stone construction. evidence for the storage of grain in this building. Its There is no standardization in the layout of" precise function may never be known, but it was Harappan "houses, but private houses were generally dearly an impressive monumental building or public laid out with a central space surrounded by living and hall in a prominent area of the city. storage rooms. Many houses had entryways from a At Harappa a monumental building complex, also side alleyway rather than frOIP the main street, and" mistakenly called a 'granary', has been the focus of usually windows were maintained only on the second recent excavations in an attempt to determine its storey. The roof imd second floor were made with precise function. This structure was originally con.. "wooden beams and covered with reeds and plaster structed on a massive mud-brick platform with fired to create a sturdy floOl: Doors and windows were brick facing (50 m north-south and 40 m east-west). made "with wood and some windows had wood or Two rows of six long rectangular rooms were sepa­ stone latticework to allow airflow, and at the same rated by a central passageway~ These rooms had brick time a degree of privacy. foundations and narrow hollow floors," and were Although there are numerous "large building com­ thought to have been used for storage of grain. Care­ plexes in the larger cities, most appear to be the ful analysis of several unexcavated portions of this result of growth and remodeling over time. The core structure in 1997 eJid not reveal any evidence of st~r­ building may have belonged to a wealthy merchant age vessels, or grain and the precise function is still or landowner, with numerous smaller units inhabited unknown~ "When it was first excavated in the 19305, it by relatives or servants. None of these structures was thought to be associated with equally enigmatic appear to have been used as a central palace or tem-" circular working platforms interpreted" as grain­ pIe. Many smaller private buildings as well as some processing areas"and located to the north ofthe 'grana­ of the larger structures are associated with"manufac­ ry' New' excavations and radiocarbon dating have turing debris from specialized crafts, and smaIl craft shown that the circular working platforms were not workshops are often found in association with domes­ used for processing grain and that they date some tiC architecture. At sites such as Chanhudaro and 200 years after the so-called 'granary' was constructed. Lothal,some buildings and open areas may have served The precise function of these circular"platforms is still as "specialized factories for bead maldng or copper being investigated. working, but most crafts associated with kilns were Recent excavations at the site of Dholavira have located at the edges of the sites (see the section on found large buildings in the highest citadel area of the 'specializedcrafts') or in whatappear to be abandoned site, but once again there is no conclusive evidence for structures. their function during the Harappan period. The exca­ vators suggest that they may have beenadministrative or ritual structures that were eventually abandoned Monumental or Public Architecture and reused by later inhabitants. "Large buildings that do "not appear to be domestic in nature have been identified ;at "Mohenjo-daro as Wells and Latrines well as at Harappa. The famous Great Bath of Mqhenjo-daromay have been used for public rituals The construction of wells made with speciaHy designed and consists of a specially constructed water tank wedge-shaped bricks reflects the high level of techni­ (12 m "nonh-south and 7 m wide, with a maximum cal "expertise achieved by Indus architects and the depth of 2.4 m), surrounded by a colonnade with overriding need for reliable sources of water in entries at both ends. Smaller rooms, one of which large urban centers. Wedge-shaped well bricks" were contains a well, are located on the eastern side of the same lengt;h as normal rectangular bricks (28 cm) the tank, and may have been used for visitors or for but one edge was" constricted to create a tight fitting storage. Just to the north of this tank are eight small tubular construction. As wells were sWlk into the rooms with bathing platforms, where people may ground, the surrounding pressure of the soil made the have cleansed themselves"before coming to the main construction even strongeI: Wells range in size from tank for special rituals. around 1 m internal diameter to over 2 m in diameter To the southwest of the Great-Bath is the so-called and were excavated below the water table to provide Granary, which consists of a monumental brick foun­ freshwater in the heart of the cities. Many houses, dation (50 m east-west and 27 m north-s6uth) with particularly at sites such as Mohenjo-daro, hadprivate narrow passageways' and sockets for holding what wells, but in other sites a single well was used for a

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larger neighborhood. Public wells were located along the large urban centers can be traced back to earlier major streets or in public courtyard areas. village communities in distant resource areas, others Most houses in larger cities had separate bathing were the result of innovative urban craft specialists. areas with paved floors made with bricks set on edge For example, chipped stone tools, shell working, and closely fitted to make them water tight. A sepa­ stone bead making and even copper metallurgy rate latrine area was usually located next to the bath­ began long before the emergence of cities. In contrast, ing .platform. The latrines were iIi the fOnD of a complex metal casting and joining, drilling of ·hard commode made from an old storage jar, which usually stone beads with specialized drills, finely Carved stea­ . had a hole punched into the base and was buried up tite seals, the production of compact glassy faience, to the rim in the floor. These commodes would have and the manufacture of stoneware bangles, are tech­ been regularly emptied and the Waste taken outside of nologies that were invented or developed in the cities. the city. Small drains discharged wastewater from the The techtiology ofwriting.itself can also be seen as a bathing area and latrine overflow into a sump pot in specialized craft that was refined and standardized the street or into a neighborhood drain. When houses during the urban phase. Some. of theSe technologies were remodeled', a new jar would be placed on top of were exclusively developed for creating status items the old commOde and the surrounding floor was for elites, in order to communicate and reinforce raised with rubble or debris. social, ritual, and probably political hierarchy. :The. larger city drains were generally not used for Many of the crafts practiced in the cities were not . removal of human waste,. but .rather to take away directly controlled by elites, but any craft located water from bathing areas. and wells, andexcess rain­ within the city walls could have been indirectly con­ water. Major drains emptied the wastewater onto the trolled through taxation of raw materials coming into plains outside the city~ Many streets in the larger cities the city or finished goods leaving the city. Stone tool had garbage. bins for the accumulation of nonliquid making, shell working, the production of grinding waste that would have been collected and .dumped stone, and steatite and agate bead making were car­ outside the settlement. ried out in many different .parts of the citY. These Although the Indus cities were equipped with the crafts involved local as well as nonlocal materials most sophisticated drainage system qf any contem­ and relatively simple extractive or reductive technol- : poraneous ancient city, these drains and garbage col­ ogies, that involve processes such as chipping, grind­ lection areas and latrines had .to be maintained ing, carving, spinning and twisting, etc., to· process continuously to function effectively. Excavations at raw materials into finished objects. Transformative Harappa have shown that while some areas of the city technologies were generally more important for the were being maintained, streets and drains in other creation of trade and status items and involved pyro­ neighborhoods became filled with refuse, and even technological or chemical processes using either local rotting animai carcasses. Eventually, the city or more' or nonlocal materials. Copperlbronze working, some· likely neighborhood· committees. refurbished these pottery firing, and the manufacture of faience and streets and new drains. were constructed above. the steatite seals are transformative crafts and were old ones, indicating a fluctuating and. possibly often practiced in isolated or sometimes highly decentralized process of civic order and maintenance. controlled areas of the city. . . During the Harappa phase, pottery was generally Specialized Crafts made on the fast wheel, though molds and hand­ building techniques were used for some vessels. The emergence of urban centers is closely linked to Most of the pottery was either undecorated or simply .the development of specialized technologies. Due to ornamented with red slip and black bands.· Around the fact that the Indus script has not yet been deci­ 10% of the pottery was elaborately decorated with . phered, the study of specialized crafts provides one black-painted motifs on red slip or occasionally· of the most important sources of information on with polychrome decorations. Stoneware bangles the nature of Indus trade, technology, and socioeco­ were finely crafted high-fired ceramic ornaments nomic and political organization. Cities were located whose production was restricted to the largest cities at crossroads of interaction and trade that stimulated . of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and possibly Dholavira the development. of distinctive technologies. With­ (Figure 7). the increase in urban populations, many crafts were The faience produced in the Indus cities was developed to create status items to differentiate specific extremely strong and made from reground frit or . communities and meet the demands of increasingly melted silica. It was colored with copper or other complex urban needs. While many crafts practiced in minerals to create a range of colors and was used

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Figure 7 Mohenjo-daro pottery types. From Dales GF and KenQyer JM (1986). Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan: The Pottery. PhUadelphia, University Museum Press, fig. 102. to make bangles,beacls, pendants, and also seals and ornaments, figurines, and a variety of vessels. The inscribed tablets. Fired steatite or soapstone was different compositions and alloys resulted in objects used to make· beads as well as square inscribed with different colors as well as functional capabilities seals. While bead making and seal production were such as hardness or flexibilitY. Silver was used to usually undertaken in different areas, recent excava­ make ~rnamerits and vessels, while gold was used tions at Harappa found a highly restricted faience and primarily for ornaments. steatite seal workshop where beads were also being Textiles were also an important industry in the manufactured. Indus cities and though the preservation of fabrics is. Indus ornaments were made·in similar styles but rare, it is possible to identify the use of cotton and from different qualities of materials that would have different qualities of wool to make cords and weave had different relative value. For example, bangles both coarse and fine fabrics. These fibers were being were made in terracotta, faience, shell, ivory, alabas­ spun on hand-turned spinning wheels as well as drop ter and a high-fired stoneware, as well as copperI spindle whorls. The most important recent discovery bronze and gold (Figure 8). Beads and pendants were from Harappa is evidence for the earliest use of wild made out of stone, shell, ivory, terracotta, faience, silk at around 2450 BC, to manufacture threads used· and precious metals (Figure 9). The similarity in or­ in beaded ornaments. On the basis of decorated tex­ nament style is thought to reflect shared ideologies, tiles depicted on figurines, such as the famous Priest­ but the hierarchy in material quality may have been King sculpture from Mohenjo-daro (Figure ttd) and used to define different social or economic groups. one sample offabric with traces of dye, fabrics were SimHar patterns. can be seen in the manufacture probably dyed or stamped with different colors, such of identical shaped containers made of terracotta, . as red (from madder) and blue (from indigo) or copper, or silver. bleached to create contrasting white patterns. Copper metallurgy was highly developed, and in­ All of these crafts would have been important cluded the use of pure copper, tin bronze, and for both everyday existence as well as for trade and arsenical bronze to make tools, weapons, mirrors, the creation of status items to differentiate the many

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Tenacotta Faience . Gold

Figure 8 Harappan bangle styles.

Terracotta, soft and hard stone Natural stone and faience

@)~ @I 0 c::: ::::;:J .. Carnelian @)({1) dUD @O @c:J @ C ::l ~tD ®m ®CD ® c: J • Bleached and pciinted ®. 00 0c:=J 0. 0~ ~I 0_ @O @)CJ B~ ~aJ GIl· ~& @0 @o ~. ~ Get e_ ~ o0 I c:J -­ e0 ~o t.e8 Gold and copperlbronze 00 ~O I)a i~ e0 ~O •• Spacers _ '. 9~' :.D: ·ea:xDSegmented Coix Q ~[) rn~ .:~ : (ft. Selected.phase beads from Harappa: 2~1900 BC Figure 9 Harappan bead styles.

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different communities and social classes. Specialized raw materials that were reworked into new forms. crahs were also used to create distinctive ritual objects The only exotic finished goods found in Indus cities such as figrirines, ornaments, and narrative seals. originate' in Baluchistan or Mghanistan and include copper and· stone tools, cylinder seals, carved stone figurines, stone vessels and ornaments, and possibly Trade ~nd Economy some pottery vessels. The overall economic organization of the Indus cities .can be reconstructed through a study of the distri­ Indus Script bution of resource 'areas, sites with specialized pro­ duction of semifinished goods, and the presence of During the Harappa phase, the Indus script appears raw materials, workshops, and finished goods in to have been standardized throughout the Indus major settlements. These data reveal a' highly strati­ region and used in a wide variety of contexts and fied economic interaction system. Many of the larger forms. This script emerged out of earlier forms of towns and cities were directly connected with external .writing found during the Kot Dijiphase at Harappa regions and to each other by inter-regional networks. and other sites throughout the greater Indus valley' The long-term stability of this system would have been region (Figure 10). Beginning around 2600-2450 Be, essential for merchants to make profits (rom raw the most widespread context for writing. is seen in materials and goods after traveling hundreds of cursive .graffiti incised onto pottery that was used kilometers to the major cities. Cities were connected for ~torage and trade, as well as for personal or r.itual to towns and villages through regional networks of use. Other forms ofcursive script are seen on personal exchange, and more local networks were used to ornaments used to indicate ownership or dedication. redistribute food items and essential commodities The most formal type of writing is seen inscribed on between a city and its immediate hinterland. square steatite seals that were also carved with animal Although no coinage system has been discovered, a .motifs. The various iconographic motifs include the highly standardized system of stone weights was used mythical uriicorn, multiple headed animals, as well as throughout the entire area of the Indus civilization. the bull, elephant, bison, goat, tiger, and rhinoceros. The base weight may have been two seeds ofbarley or The inscriptions were made in reverse and stamped moong bean, or possibly the wild licorice seed (Abrus into clay sealings to create a positive text indicating precator;uS or 'gunja'), which is red and black and ownership or destination. Beginning around 2450­ weighs approximately 0.109 g. Indus weights use a 2200 BC, a complex system of inscribed tablets or combination of both a binary system (doubling in tokens was developed for keeping accounts and main­ size. from 1:2:4:8:16:32:64) and a decimal system of taining trade contacts throughout the .Indus valley. 160,200, 320, 640, etc. The smallest weight is equal .Toward the end of the Harappa phase, c. 2200­ . to 8 'gunja' or 0.871 g, and the largest weight at 1900 BC, distinctive copper tablets with incised script Mohenjo-daro is .10865 g. Cubical stone weights and animal motifs were produced at Mohenjo-daro, were probably not used for everyday exchange, but and a different style of copper tablet with raised script are found primarily in the gateway areas of large on both sides Was produced at Harappa. These cop­ cities and may have been used for taxation. Another per tablets were 'relatively standardized in terms of possible form of accounting or credit may have been shape, weight, and inscriptions, and may have been the use of inscribed tablets or molded faience tablets used for special accounting or rituals. During this that begins around 2450BC (period 3B) at Harappa same time period, rectangular se3.Is with writing, but and continues through the end of the Harappa phase. no animal motif began to be used, and writing came Stamp seals with Indus script and distinctive animal to be used in conjunction with elaborate narrative motifs were used to mark bundles of goods with clay depictions of myths and religious ceremonies found sealings, and provide conclusive evidence for elite on seals, tablets, or pendants. control of trade within the Indus region as well as in The Indus script has not yet been deciphered, due long-distance trade. Indus weights, seals, and sealings to the absence of bilingual tablets and the lack of long have been found in the Arabian Gulf and distant inscriptions. More than one language may have been Mesopotamia, as well as in Central Asia. Special spoken in the Indus settlements' and therefore the trade goods produced in the Indus, such as beads, Indus script was probably used to write words or shell objects and figurines have been recorded from short sentenceS in more than one language. The Mesopotamian sites, but so far there is no evidence major language families that may have coexisted in for Mesopotamian produced items in the Indus sites. the greater Indus region include Dravidian, Austro­ Trade goods from Mesopotamia may have been per­ Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan, and Indo-Aryan. While some ishable materials such as textiles or consumables, or individuals have proposed that the Indus script was

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730 ASIA, WESTllndus Civilization o Inscribed stoneware bangle II~ Intaglio steatite seals /hI f o em -----­3 Ii II.'\)

Inscribed terracotta cone

Inscribed Molded terracotta . Molded steatite tablet faience tablet

/ Oem. 3

Inscribed pottery

Terracotta sealings

Figure 10 Indus script and seal types.

not a writing system and was not used to encode a into three phases corresponding to the major chrono­ language, this opinion is not widely supported. logical developments at Harappa. Although there Most inscriptions are made up of orily a few sIgns, . may have been some use of graffiti on pottery during with the average being five signs. The contexts of its the Late Harappa phase (1900-1300 BC), inscribed use allow archaeologists to reconstruct the function Indus seals were no longer made or used after around and importance of writing in the economy, politics, 1900 BC. The relatively abrupt disappearance of a and ideology of the Indus cities. The script was quite writing system that had existed. for over 700 years .versatile and could be used to encode a range of suggests that theIndus script itself was closely linked messages. The general function of the inscriptions to the ruling elites of the Indus cities and that the would ·have been to identify ownership of goods or writing system had· economic, religious, and political economic transactions, accounting, the recording of s~gnificance. . sociopolitical OJ: ritual events and less fonn.a1 graffiti. Approximately 400-450 dif(erent signs have been Religion identified, but not all were used at the same time. The number of signs and the sequences in which Given the large geographic area of the Indus cities and they occur has led many scholars to suggest that the the hierarchy of settlements, it is surprising that dis­ writing system is log

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symbolic sacrificial purposes. Human figurines of after-life (Figure 12). Although these burials do not males and females with ornaments and elaborate contain large amounts of material· wealth, they do headdresses may represent fertility or other specific contain distinctive pottery and ornaments that would deities (Figure 11).Various geometric symbols such as not have been available to common people. The the stepped cross, swastika, endless knot, and inter­ health status and mature age profiles of the buried secting circle motif are found· on pottery as well as ,individuals also indicate that they were a privileged pendants and seals. Narrative scenes on seals depict class. The delicate shell bangles found buried with outdoor ceremonies that took place under the sacred many of the women also indicate that over time they pipal or fig tree, worship of deities in trees or seated in became less and less involved in manual labor, clearly yogic position on a throne, processions with sacred an indication of elite status. Although there are no aniinals, the practice of animal sacrifice, and possibly 'royal burials', the recent excavation of a burial com­ even human sacrifice. Other 'scenes depict what may plex at Dholavira suggests that some individuals were be important myths and stories. Local cults may have interred with gold ornaments, a tradition that was not been practiced in specific regions ·while a moreestab­ practiced in the major cities and towns. Cemeteries Jished' state religion appears to· have emerged in the that have been discovered represent only a, small major cities. At Mohenjo-daro and Dholavira, stone portion of the population, and the rest of the urban ·sculptures of male figures have been found that may population would have been disposed of by other represent clan leaders. In the past, these were incor­ means that have left no archaeological trace. This rectly called 'priest-king' images. burial pattern is one more indication of social differ­ The most direct evidence for ritual practiCe is found entiation and hierarchy. in the cemetery burials at major sites such as Harappa, Dholavira, and Mohenjo-daro, as well as some smal­ Social and Political Organization ler settlements such as Lothal, Rupar, and Kalibangan. Most 'burials were made in a north-south-oriented Without the aid of written texts, the sociopolitical and rectangular pit with· the head to the north. The body ritual character ofIn:dus cities is difficult to understand. was placed in a wooden coffin or wrapped in a Nevertheless, the various types of artifacts and the shroud, and laid out on top of or surrounded by patterns, of their use· discussed above provide insight burial pottery and other offerings needed for the into the ways in which these cities and thesociety as a

(a) (b)

(d)

(e)

Figure 11 Harappan figurines and sculpture. (a) Terracotta female figUrine, Mohenjo-daro; (b) terracotta female Figurine, Harappa; (c) bronze fe.male figurine, Mohenjo-daro; (d) steatite 'priest-king' figure, Mohenjo-daro; (e) terracotta male figurine, Harappa.

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Harappa: Female burial, 127a Harappa: Male burial196a + + + + + + + + + +

+ N987 + N987

+ +

GrlMlpl +N986 + N986

~ + i + 0

iw

+N985 +N98S

N + +

t Grave pi + N984 + N984'

+ + + + + + + + + + E1998 EI999 E2000 EI996 E 1997

1mel~ 1meter , Figure 12 Harappa burials with pottery and ornaments.

whole was organized. Urban populations would have major resource areas, and long-distance traders would included adnlinistrative and service classes such as have moved betweencitiesand resource'areas tomarket sweepers and garbage, collectors. Wealthy landlords their goods. ' ,and merchants along with their service groups and It is not difficult to reconstruct the many different craftsmen may have occupied the large multiroomed occupations that are necessary to run a city; but the houses. Numerous specialized craftspeople would have actUal pol~tical organization is more difficult to been employed by the merchants or worked as entre­ define. The lack of palaces, temples, and extravagant preneurs in the urban market places and craft work­ burials of hereditary monarchs has'led some scholars shops. The' gateways would have been staffed with to argue that this urban society was not organized as a gatekeepers and tax collectors, while guards would state, but rather as a complex chiefdom or some other have kept watch at the gateways and on the city walls. form of nonstate society. Without the aid of written Many farmers may have lived inside the city walls in texis, it would be quite difficult to differentiate a addition to maintaining hamlets close to their fields~ complex chiefdom and an early state-level society. Herders, fisher folk, and hunters may have lived in Nevertheless, other scholars, including this author, the city periodically in order to participate in urban argue that these cities were organized as state-level markets and to provision the large urban popula­ societies with highly stratified and. hierarchical social 'tion. Rural populations would have been'made, up of organization. .farmers and herders, fisher folk, and hunters. Miners The support for this model is seen in the hierarchy an4 specialized craftspeople would have lived near of settlement patterns, the relatively limited use of

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ASIA, WESTlKashmir and the-Northwest Frontier 733

seals, weights and writing by some cO.l11.Qlu:nities liv­ Mughal MR (1997) Ancient Cholistan: Archaeology and ArChitec­ ing in the city, and the presence of relatively small and ture. Lahore: Ferozsons. " Parpola. A (1994) Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge: intensively used cemeteries that contain individuals Cambridge University Press. " "who represent elites. Possehl GL (1999) Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford Instead ofa single dominant gro~p, the rulers of the and mH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. " various cities would have controlled through a corpo­ Possehl GL (2002) The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Per­ rate structure, similar to that seen in the republics and spective. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press. Weber S~ (2003) Archaeobotany atHarappa: IndicationsforChange. confederacies of the subsequent Early Historic peri­ In: Weber S and Belcher WR (eds.) Ethnobiology and the Indus od. The major ruling communities would have been Civilization, pp. 175-198. Lanham, ML: Lexington Books. made up of landlords, merchants, or ritual specialists Wright RP, Schuldenrein J, Khan A, and Mughal MR (2005) The who shared a common ideology and economic system emergence of satellite communities along the Beas Drainage: "as represented by seals, ornaments, ceramics, and Preliminary Results from Lahoma Lallibba and Chak Purbane SyaL In: Jarrige C and Lefevre V (ed~.) South Asian Archaeology other artifacts. The citieswere probably more rigidly­ 2001, voL 1, p. 327-336. Paris:CNRS~ "stratified and segregated than the rural settlements, "but the social organization of the soc~ety as a whole would have been loosely stratified. While the largest cities may have been relatively independent, they were integrated with other settlements though politi­ "Kash"mir "the cal and economic interaction based on the trade and and exchange of important subsistence goods as well as Northwest Frontier socioritual status items. " Robin Coningham and Mark Manuel, Durham University. Durham, UK See also: Asia, South: Baluchistan and the Borderlands; © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Ganges Valley; India~ DecCan and Central Plateau; Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier; Sri Lanka; Cities, " Ancient," and Dally Life; Civilization and Urbanism, Rise of; Craft Specialization; Exchange Systems; GlossarY Writing Systems. Early Historic Refer~ to the second emergence of urbanization in South Asia, dating to the early part of the first millenium BeE through to the mid-first millenium AD. Its historic references are derived from Vedic texts such as the lUg Veda and Mahabharata, Further Reading texts. The period ends with the e~tablishmentof the Gupta Empire, which witnesses massive chang~s in both political and Allchin R and Allchin B (1997) Origins of a Civilization: The administrative structures. Prehistory and Early Archaeology ofSouth Asia. Delhi: Viking. Gandhara The name of one of the early Historic Bisht RS (2005) The water structures and engineering of the Mahajanapadas, situated in northern Pakistan and Afghanistan. Harappans at Dholavita (India). In: Jarrige C and Lefevre V (eds.) Gandhara"was located primarily within the Kabul River valley, South Asian Archaeology 2001, voL 1, p. 11-26. Paris: CNRS. the Vale of Peshawar, Potwar Plateau, but had strong links to the Dales GF and Kenoyer JM (1986) Excavations at Mohenjo Daro, Swat Valley. The main citi~ are Charsadda and Taxila. The name Pakisttm: The Pottery. Philadelphia: Uiliversity Mu~um Press. has been utilized throughout history to refer to this region and its Kenoyer JM (1998) Ancient Cities ofthe Indus Valley Civilization. inhabitants. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Janapada (and Mahajanapada) ]anapada or 'territory' refers to Kenoyer JM (2003) Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities. the"emergence of a number of settlements and their hinterlands Scientific American Jul.2003: 67-75. during the first milleniUril BCE. Competition and internecine Kenoyer JM (2006) The origin, context and function of the Indus fighting between these settlements, resulted in individual centers Script: Recent insights from Harappa. In: Osada T and Hase N expanding their control oveJ: neighboringjanapada - resulting in (eds.) Proceedings of the Pre-symposium and the 7th ESCA" the establishment of the classic sixteen Mahajanapadas or 'Great Harvard-Kyoto Roundtable, pp. 9-27. Kyoto: Research Institute Territories'. for Humanity and Nature, RIHN. philhellene Someone who was an admirer of Greek culture, but Lal BB (1997) The Earliest Civilization of South Asia (Rise, not necessarily of Greek origin. In this sense, refers to a series of Maturity and Decline). New Delhi: Aryan Books International. communities within Central and Southern Asia who adopted Law RW (2005) Regional interaction in the Prehistoric Indus Greek architecture, coinage, religion, and script or language, but Valley: Initial results of Rock and Mineral Sourcing Studies at were not of Greek descent. Harappa. In: Jarrige C and Lef~re V (eds.) South Asian Archae­"satrapy A territory or province that was governed by a governor o/ogy 2001, vol. 1, p. 179-190. Paris: cNRS. or client-king. Originating in the Persian Empire, conquered "Meadow RH and Patel AI< (2003) Prehistoric pastoralism in landswere"run as politically and economically, semi-autonomous Northwestern South Asia from the Neolithic through the states, whilst military aspects were centrally controlled and . Harappan Period. In: Weber S and Belcher WR (eds.) Ethnobio/­annual tributes/taXes were paid to the Fmpire. Satrapies were ogy and the Indus Civilization, pp. 65-94. Lanham, ML: used by later philhellene empires in Central, Southern, and Lexington Books. Western Asia. " "

Encyclopedia ofArchaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 715-733