Indus Civilization and other early state level societies and Oman OMAN Major advances have been made in our understanding of the origins of the Indus and its relationships with surrounding regions. Prehistoric Cultural Traditions Bactro-Margiana, Helmand, Baluchistan, INDUS, Malwa, Ganga-Vindhya, Deccan Early Historic Tradition Indo-Gangetic (Mauryan Empire) Indus Valley Regionalization Era – 4 Preconditions fulfilled by 2800 BC Harappa city walls of mud brick and later fired brick no major climate change - diverse resources, double river system, potential for surplus, Walled settlements for protection and control of resources ! Indus Tradition: Regionalization Era 5000-2600 BC Kot Diji Phase - 2800-2600 BC incipient urbanism Early Writing Elephant sealing with cubical Seal script weight INTEGRATION ERA: Indus Valley Civilization, Harappan Phase 2600 to 1900 B. C. largest area covered by an early civilization Major Cities/Urban Centers Harappa, Pakistan,+150 ha Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan+250 ha Lakhanjodaro, Pakistan, +300 ha Dholavira, India, +100 ha Ganweriwala, Pakistan, 40-80 ha Rakhigarhi, India, + 350 ha? Photo courtesy M. Jansen RWTH Regional Towns: 10-50 hectare sites- Kalibangan Small Towns: 5-10 hectare site, Lothal, Kot Diji Villages: 1-5 hectare sites Hamlets: <1 –1 hectare sites Map courtesy of V. Shinde Deccan College Pune - indirect control through market areas inside the gateways and city walls Gateway at Harappa Mound E and Mound ET 8 gunja seeds = smallest weight Standardized Weights throughout the entire region - double as they increase from 1:2:4:8:16:32 etc 16th ratio = 13.7 grams large sign board with writing found inside gateway Defensive entrance in northern gateway at Dholavira -latrines or commodes in each house with water pot for washing - bathing platforms and private wells made from wedge shaped bricks (stone at Dholavira) and drains Public wells for convenience of visitors and traders in the cities Monumental architecture seen at major sites, Great Bath, Mohenjo Daro, about 2000 BCE Water harvesting in regions with less rainfall. Dholavira Eastern Reservoir with step well in one section for accessing the water table during the dry season Southern reservoir more than 65% with unicorn motif - most widespread community or officials - possibly merchants Seals with animal motifs and Indus script, may represent ruling elites - landowners, merchants, ritual specialists Indus Writing - not yet deciphered , possible languages are proto-Dravidian,Mundari, Indo-Aryan, Sino-Tibetan, Language “X” - written from right to left -used for economic, ritual and personal identification purposes - found on square seals, used for trade and ritual purposes - faience, steatite or terra cotta tokens, accounting and possible ritual purposes Square Indus seals, large and small Four different unicorn seal impression on a clay sealing indicates corporate ownership or centralized bureaucracy Circular Persian Gulf seals with different language Britsh Museum seal Akkadian “Ka lu shig”? “May the affair be favorable” Sumerian – “God Kaku is favorable” cf. Julian Reade, or other readings Ka ku shi or Ka ku li cf. G. Marchesi Harappa bull seal – possibly the wild gaur found in South Asia Male Figurine with beard and head Indus style figurine in dress Mari, Mesopotamia, 2400 BC Allahdino, Pakistan jewelry hoard Indus Female figurine with elaborate jewelry indicates use of ornament to represent status and power Trade contacts with Mesopotamian, the Gulf, Central Asia, and possibly China Priest King sculpture, Mohenjo-daro Gold bead Modern textiles with designs and colors similar to ancient Indus textiles Hierarchies of materials can be linked to status and wealth Shell Gold ornaments from hoards Stoneware Faience Copper terracotta bangles worn by men and women, thin shell bangles indicate elite status Most people of the Indus were not buried but were disposed of in other unknown ways, such as cremation, water burial or exposure in the jungle. The Harappa cemetery has burials with simple burial goods of pottery and a few ornaments. Male burial in a coffin with offerings of pottery and beads Spear thrower figurines from Chanhudaro and Lakhanjodaro Kalibangan cylinder seal - no depictions of people being killed or conquered - no images of rulers -very few weapons, no swords - no Indus cities were destroyed by warfare Writing and Religion Sacred Tree and ritual offering stand Indus Religion - sacred pipal tree as temple, processions and sacrifice - no central temples Indus Narrative scenes with deities, animal sacrifice, and human- tiger interaction - later image of Hindu goddess killing water buffalo demon Yogi seal and Buddha image Localization Era: Late Harappan Punjab Phase = Cemetery H Culture 1900-1300 BC (or 1000 in Ganga region) New burial tradition Harappa Period 4/5 - Late Harappan - no seals or molded tablets - no clear evidence of inscriptions on pottery - disappearance of the unicorn motif The 2nd millennium BC Transition to Early Historic Period - Post to Late Indus/Harappan decline and reorganization of the Harappan cities, no invasion from outside areas - shift in populations centers, shift in political centers, interface with peninsular communities, new urban and religious traditions in the Indus to the Gangetic region. coinage Brahma and other warfare Vedic deities Mauryan Empire - standing armies established - Horse and camel used for long-distance communication - horse and elephant used for warfare - iron technology became quite common for making tools and weapons New writing system Brahmi script that can be deciphered and linked to later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages - first used for trade, and then for Buddhist and Jain texts and edicts carved on monumental columns or boulders .