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Chapter – 1

Ancient Civilizations

Introduction - The study of is very interesting. Through it we know how the origin and evolution of human civilization, which the cultures prevailed in different times, how different rose uplifted and declined how the social and economic system developed and what were their characteristics what was the nature and effect of , what literary, scientific and artistic achievements occrued and thease elements influenced human civilization. Since the initial presence of the human community, many civilizations have developed and declined in the world till date. The history of these civilizations is a history of humanity in a way, so the study of these ancient developed civilizations for an advanced social life. Objective - After teaching this lesson you will be able to:  Get information about the ancient civilizations of the world.  Know the causes of development along the bank of rivers of ancient civilizations.  Describe the features of social and political life in ancient civilizations.  Mention the achievements of the religious and cultural life of ancient civilizations.  Know the reasons for the decline of various civilizations. Meaning of civilization The resources and art skills from which man fulfills all the necessities of his life, are called civilization. I.e. the various activities of the human being that provide opportunities for sustenance and safe living. The word 'civilization' literally means the rules of those discipline or discipline of those human behaviors which lead to collective life in human society. So civilization may be called a social discipline by which man fulfills all his human needs. Causes of development of ancient civilizations along the rivers - In different places of the world, man developed his civilization along major rivers and nearby river basins, keeping in mind all the needs of life. There are many reasons for the development of human civilization in the form of their habitat on the banks of the river like - (a) Availability of water and food (b) safety concerns (c) animal husbandry (d) suitable climate (e) accessible access to metals (f) means of transport. Due to the above reasons, various ancient civilizations of the world have developed along river banks only. The Indus- civilization along the Indus-Saraswati rivers, the civilization of Egypt in the valley of Nile, Persian civilization on the banks of the Dajla-Farrats, the development of Chinese civilization along the Hwang Ho and Siqiang rivers. For centuries, these civilizations developed, flourished along these rivers.

1.1 Vedic civilization The ancient civilization that which developed in the region which is called Sapta Sendhav region is Vedic civilization. The main source of information about this civilization and culture is 2

Vedas. The scholars have called the people who have developed this Vedic civilization as and these Aryans have been described as the founders and administrators of Vedic civilization. Some scholars have also said that Aryans came from outside Bharat from the North Pole, , Tibet or Europe, but with current archaeological and historical evidence it has been proved that Aryans were originally an inhabitant of Bharat. Interpretation of the word Arya - The word 'Arya' literally means 'superior' or “the residents born in best kul”. Actually, the good-natured man who is a true and scientifically-behaved man is 'Arya'. The father of the Vedic civilization was such a cultured persons of Bharat. This was the human community, who developed the advanced living of the present system and culture and developed its advanced lifestyle. Vedic Literature - Arya scholars who have composed the literature is known as 'Vedic literature'. are four in number , , and . Each Veda has a commentry and is associated with each commentaries are , Aranyak and Upanishad, which are the fundamental sources of Vedic religious , philosophical principles and spiritual knowledge respectively. Based on the Shruti tradition, Vedas are terme Apaurusheya which have been compiled by the wise sages through . Features of Vedic Civilization (A) Political organization – In the beginning the political organization of the Aryans and the administrative system was in infancy. On the basis of blood relations, Kutumb or kul, family were organized. Family was the smallest unit. Gram was formed by group of many families. Some village- groups were called 'vish'. Many groups of vish were called 'janas'. Its head was called Rajan, Gopa or Rakshak. Rajan, though supreme in the state and his vote being universally accepted was not selfish, autocratic and anti-national. There were democratic institutions called 'Sabha' and 'Committee'. Regional states emerged in place of small tribal states due in course of time. Now in place of the democratic political organization, monarchical political organizations began to grow and the status of the king, its power and authority increased. Many district states were established in Bharat. In such districts, Kuru, Panchal, , Kaikya, , Kashi, Kalinga, aang, , Lichchavi, , , Kaushal, Shivi etc. were the main district. The coronation ceremony of the king was done according to rules, which is mentioned in the literature of this era. (B) Social life - The social life of Rigvedic Aryans was simple, natural, based on equality and was holy. (1) system - There is no discrimination found in the Vedic society. The Varna system was popular in society. Varna are considered four in number-, , and . Each man was free to choose a business according to his capacity and personal interest. This Varna system was on based not birth. Thus the initial form of the caste system was very good. (2) Family - Family was the smallest and most important unit of the Vedic society and the state. The joint family and patriarchy were the main features of this age. The elder man of the family was the head or the 'gharapati'. There was the embodiment of love, kindness and sympathy towards all the relatives. in this age was a sacred and religious . The presence of both wife and husband in religious rituals was expected. Marriage was performed in nature age. (3) Women status – There was a sense of respect for women. There was definitely a patriarchal society but the girl was given enough affection and authority in the family. The daughters also had the right to initiate education as a son. Many women were famous for their Scholorly merits. Maitrei, Gargi, Lopamudra, Vishwavara, Apala, Ghosha etc. are mentioned as women scholars. 3

(4) Ashram system - After considering the ideal age of man in of 100 years, it is divided in four equal parts and mentionsedthe ashram system. They were divided into Brahmacharya, Grihasta Vanprasta and Sanyasa Ashram. The objective of the ashram system was to make man a partner for society and to achieve the four greatest purusharth of human life - Religion, , , , . (5) Foods Ornaments and utensils - The main diet of the people of Vedic period was specially, milk and curd, ghee, yogurt etc. In addition, barley, wheat, urad, rice were used. In this period, men and women used to wear beautiful, attractive clothes, and ornaments. Clothing was manufactured from cotton, wool, silk and deersrkin Both men and women liked to wear ornaments. Jewelry was made of gold and silver. (C) Economic life Generally, the Vedic civilization was a rural one. There is also evidence of commerce and trade along with agriculture and animal husbandry. (1) Agriculture and Live Stock - Agriculture was the main source of livelihood of Aryans. Two oxen were harnessed in plowshouses. There was more dependence on rainfall. Wells and canals were also arranged for irrigation. Cow, , horse, buffalo, deer, sheep, goat and ass were reared as pets. The cow was considered as the center of holy and economic prosperity. The cow was said to be protected as “Avadhya”.. (2) Art Craft and Industry - In the Vedic period, the business was primarily practiced by goldsmiths, blacksmiths, sailors, charioteers, rangers, magnets etc. The cow was considered a unit of value. The word 'Hiranya' was used for gold metal, used to make jewelery or gold coins (Nishk) etc. 'Bhishak' (vadya) is described as trying to connect broken bone. (3) Business and Trade - In Vedic period trade was done through water and road routes. The business of grain, textiles, and leather was prosperous. The word 'Panni' was used for the trader, who was rich and prosperous. (D) Religious life - The religion of the people of the Vedic age was simple. They considered natural powers as divine powers and worshiped them. The Vedic people propitiated the and wished for happiness, peace and prosperity. They used to delight the by , praise and . , , Fire, Vaayu, Usha, , , Prithvi and Jupiter were the chief . In 'Rig Veda' is said to be the world's place of union with the gods. Yajna was of two types, Nitya Yajna and Naimittik Yagya. Textual questions Answer the following questions - 1. Write the name of any two wise women of Vedic times. 2. Who was called 'Vish'? 3. What is the meaning of the word 'Arya'? 4. Name four major Vedas?

1.2 Indus Saraswati civilization Indus saraswati valley civilization holds an important place in ancient river valley civilizations of the world. The origin of the is believed to be from the glacier located north of Kailash Mansarovar in Tibet. The origin of the river Saraswati is believed to be from the hills of Shivalik. Presently the Saraswati River does not exist physically. Due to changes in the geo- 4 structure it became extinct. Due to not being present in existence, some scholars have considered the Saraswati River as mere imagination, but the photographs taken by geo satellite have now been discovered and the flow of the Saraswati river has now been detected and it is still flowing in the form of the Antah Salila. There is sufficient evidence of the existence of Saraswati River in Vedic literature, and . During the Mahabharata war, 's brother Balram visited the places of on the Saraswati River, the details of which are found. Exploration of Indus Saraswati Civilization - In 1826 AD, an Englishman named Charles Mason saw the remnants of ancient settlements in village and guessed that this exquisite place was of Alexander's time. Archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham traveled to Harappa in 1872, and collected some archaeological objects, such as sculpted beetle from there. They thought that there is an old civilization suppressed here. But they could not determine its duration. The earliest search for Indus Saraswati civilization was done in the year 1921 by Dr Dayaram Sahni at Harappa. One year later, in the year 1922, Dr. Rakaldas Bannerjee discovered Mohanjodaro. In 1924, archaeologist John Marshall, in a detailed report about Harappa, informed that the long-lost civilization is as ancient as the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Thereafter, many scholars, N.L. Majumdar, Madhoswaroop Vats, K.N. Dixit, Ernest Mackay, Wheeler, Amendu Ghosh, Bal Krishna Thapar and Stein etc. presented their own ideas by studying the material obtained in excavation. The excavation work started in Harappan in 1921 AD continued till the information of Kalibanga in 1959 AD, and still there are notable information from excavation at different places. Period of Indus Saraswati Civilization - The period of civilization has been determined only by silent evidences available in excavation at many places of . Dr. Rakaldas Banerjee gives the Saraswati civilization the pride of being the oldest civilization in the world. Although the opinion of the scholars differ. Dharmapal Agarwal determines the age of Indus Civilization on the basis of scientific carbon dating method is from 2300 BCE to 1750 BCE. Splendor of Indus-Civilization - (1) - Sutkangenodar, Sutkakoh, Balakot, Anjira, Togau, Nandawadi etc. (2) - Mohanjodaro, Kotadiji, Alimurid, Chanhudodaro, Juderojodara etc. (3) () - Harappa, Rahmandari, Saraikhol, Ganeriwal etc. (4) Punjab (Bharat) - Ropar, Sangol, Kotla Nihangkhan etc. (5) - Banvali, , Rakhigadi etc. (6) - (Meerut), Kaushambi (), Hullas (Saharanpur) etc. (7) - Kalibanga, Giluand, Ojiyana (Bhilwara) etc. (8) - Rangpur, , , Rojadi, Prabhaspatan, Malavana, Bhagatrao, , Deshalpur etc. (9) - (Ahmednagar). (10) Jammu - Manda (Jammu) So far 1500 sites related to Indus Saraswati civilization have been discovered, 900 of them are in Bharat and 600 are in Pakistan. Following the partition of Bharat in 1947, some archaeological sites of the Indus-Saraswati civilization like Harappa, Mohanjodaro, and Ganweriwala etc. went to Pakistan. Kalibanga, Rakhigadi, Dholavira, Lothal, Rangpur are the major archaeological sites in Bharat.

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Town planning project A key feature of Indus Saraswati civilization is the city-building plan. The most amazing thing is that the construction of the cities is uniformity. The same type of city planning can be seen in Harappa, Mohanjodaro, Kalibanga or Lothal. Roads and drains were properly maintained in the cities and the buildings were built according to a certain plan. Looking at the town-building plan, an idea of the nature of the administration of the developed municipality can be guessed. Two-tier city - Indus Saraswati civilization provides evidence of construction of two-tier cities- Durg or Garhi and lower city. The residence of the ruler in the fort and other important public buildings remained. In the lower city there were residential buildings. Town planning (1)Road system - Proper arrangement of roads was made for the convenience of transport while making the city. There was a network of roads and streets in the entire city. The roads were wide and they were attached to small sub-roads and alleys. These roads went from east to west and from north to south. Pits were made on the sides, in which the waste was thrown. Similarly, to prevent the accumulation of water, the roads were rounded off from the edges and the water did not deposit on the roads. Roads cut each other at right angles. (2) Construction of water drainage systems and sanitation - Water was used for drinking water taken from wells. Almost all large wells were arranged in the houses. Some public wells were also built in the streets. Good drainage system was done for drainage of water. Most of the drains were covered. In order to clean the drains, pits were also built in the middle, whose dirt was cleaned. The inhabitants of the Indus Saraswati civilization gave much attention to the arrangement of drains for cleanliness, as none of the other civilization in the ancient times. This can be considered as a distinct achievement of the Indus Saraswati civilization. (3) Building-Planning - The buildings of these towns were planned in a planned manner. There was a courtyard in the middle of every house, the rooms were built around it. Every building had a kitchen, a toilet and a bathroom. Arrangements for wells and drains were also made in the houses. There was proper arrangement of light and air flow in building construction. Presence of toilets and dustbin in every building is also an indicator of the advanced thinking of the residents of the Indus Saraswati civilization. (4) Spacious bathhouse of Mohanjodara - Existence of a huge water body within the fort of Mohan jodaro has come to light. Its length was around 12 meters, width 7 meters and depth was 2.5 meters. Stairs of bricks were made on the southern and northern sides to enter this watercourse. This reservoir was used for ceremonial baths. Economic life (1)Agriculture- Evidences of cultivation of fields in Kalibanga by “Ploughs” is found. It is estimated that even during this civilization, Rajasthan cultivation was done with ploughs. Sindhuvas used to grow various types of cereals, fruits and vegetables. Wheat, barley, sesame, mustard, mustard seeks and peas were also cultivated. In addition to cereals, dates like palm, watermelon, coconut, lemon, pomegranate and many other types of vegetables were grown. Extra grains were kept safe in state controlled warehouses. (2) Animal Husbandry - Agriculture as well as animal husbandry was given attention. On the basis of images, seals and bone-residues on pottery, we can get information about the pets then tamed. Pigs, sheep, goats, cows, humped bulls, buffaloes, dogs, , camels were pet. 6

(3) Trade and Business – Trade was done both through road and water. Bullock carts and camels were used for land trade and boats were used for water ways. Copper, gold, tin, silver and beads were imported from places like Balochistan, Rajasthan, Mysore, , Hazaribagh area, Tibet, Turkistan etc respectively. Many pottery utensils seem to be imported from Egypt or Babylon. The remains of the harbor have been found in Lothal. Trade was from West Asia and Arabian territories. Harappan stamps in and Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamia. The currency was both circulation and barter. (4) Industry’s businesses – People of Sindhu Saraswati were highly skilled in the field of industries. Potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, jewelers, artisants sulptors, weavers, and Rangres were the main industrial classes. Sindhu Saraswati residents were skilled in the art of smelting, molding and metal blending of various metals. Social Life - The only ancient source of knowledge of the Indusa Saraswati society is the antiquity available in excavation. The lives of the people of Indusa Saraswati civilization have been considered to be simple, and pure. (1)Social classification – On the basis of city plan and separate settlements according to professions there were probably the following major categories in society (a) scholars, priests, astrologers, vaidya, (b) warriors, soldiers and government officials, (c) traders, workers, craftsmen, artisans (2) Family System - Family was the main unit of the society of civilization. There was a separate housing scheme for the residence of different families. Peaceful living, public prosperity, collective and organized society was their goal. (3) Place of women - The discovery of majority of women's idols and the worship of Mother is a sign of the excellent place of women in the Indus Saraswati society. Female and male used to participate in all festivals equally. Religious life - The Indus Saraswati civilization was also polytheistic and naturalist as other civilizations of the ancient world. They used to worship different powers of nature, such as fire, tree, water, animal etc. There is not enough information regarding their religious practices and methods of worship, but information on the main features of their religious life can be obtained on the basis of images found on excavations and found in excavations. Mother goddess worship - Idols are obtained in large numbers from Harappa, Mohenjodaro and other places. They are considered to be the symbol of earth or mother goddess. The Chief of Indus Saraswati civilization was . His idols and pictures are seen in various forms. Among them is the picture of '' setting in posture of . On one seal, yogi is inscribed with three forces and two horns is surrounded by elephant tiger, rhinocerous and buffalo respectively. Archeologists regard this as 'Yogishwar' and "pashupati. Language and script Language and script also developed in Sindhu Saraswati civilization. It probably has been developed to keep account of business. Numerous scribed seals have been discovered in excavatione. This script can not be read satisfactorily and unanimously. Attempt to read the script is still going on. 7

Decline of Indus Saraswati civilization - Scholars believe that by 1700 BCE the Indus Saraswati civilization collapsed. There are many reasons for the collapse of this civilization, such as extreme rainfall, disaster, climate change, foreign invasions and environmental factors. Under the above study of Indus Saraswati civilization, it is clear that it was Bharat's oldest, bronze, urban, business commerce-oriented civilization. Awakening for environmental awareness and hygiene, in terms of art, science and technology development, it was excellent in contemporary world’s civilizations. Well organized administration, well-organized society, prosperous economic life, advanced and holy religion, is certainly noteworthy. In the other civilizations of the world, the place of Indus-Saraswati civilization is and specific.

Textual questions Answer the following questions - 5. What does civilization mean? 6. Why did ancient civilizations develop on the banks of rivers? 7. Which industries were popular in the Indus-Saraswati civilization? Fill in the blanks - 8. In ...... , there is evidence of the cultivation of fields by “ploughs”. 9. The main feature of the Indus-Saraswati civilization is the scheme of ...... ?

1.3 civilization Where in today's Mexico there is a place named Yucatan, where people of the Maya civilization used to live in an era. It is also called Meso-American civilization. The Maya civilization was located in Guatemala, Mexico, Honduras and Yucatán Peninsula. It was an important Mexican civilization. The civilization began in 1500 BCE. It was quite progressive from 300 CE to 800 CE, then gradually it ended. At this time, people of the Maya civilization were far ahead in the field of arts, mathematics, architecture, astrology and writing. This period is also called the golden age of artistic development. During this, farming and city development took place. The most remarkable building in this civilization are pyramids which they built as religious centers. It is claimed that after 900 CE, these cities of Maya civilization began to get affected and the city started to isolate. Maize cultivation was the main basis of the Maya civilization and their religious activities and celebrations were associated with sowing, growing and harvesting maize. The cultivation of the inhabitants of this civilization was advanced, due to good yield in the fields. This helped the ruling class priests and princes to develop an advanced culture. Maya people had their own script which was pictorial but, so far, success has not been achieved in reading this script. The biggest feature of the people of the Maya civilization was their astronomical knowledge. They created the calendar to keep an eye on various events, religious festivals and birth and death. The calculation of the Maya civilization and the ephemeris was called the Maya calendar. It was an year of 290 days. The dates in the Maya calendar were determined in three ways. The date was determined by the length of the count, which means that it was through the divine calendar and the hub or public calendar. On this basis, the people of the Maya civilization used to make predictions. The people of the Maya civilization believed that when the dates of their calendar end, there is a catastrophe on the earth and the beginning of the new era begins. There are many opinions of historians on why and how the Maya 8 civilization declined. Some believe that this civilization collapsed due to foreign invasion or rebellion, some say that the civilization ended due to natural calamities such as famine or epidemic. Textual questions 10. In which country was the Maya civilization located? 11. The people of Maya civilization used to cultivate which crop mainly?

1.4 Mesopotamian civilization Mesopotamia is a Greek word, which means land between two rivers. Here the meaning of 'Meso' is Middle and 'Pottam' means water. Present name of this region is . This region is surrounded by Dajla and Farrat rivers. Both of these rivers flow from the Kakeshas mountains of Turkey and meet in the Persian Gulf. Three civilizations developed in the state of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians first developed the 'Sumeria' civilization. Subsequently, 'Babylonian civilization' emerged from the mixed race. Following the fall of this civilization, the 'Assyrian' civilization was established. The rise and fall of the states of Mesopotamia - It is believed that the Sumerians who came from Armenian mountainous regions in the north settled in Mesopotamia and they developed a very rich civilization. The Sumerians established the government of the city state. , Bhashash, Eraque, and Aridu were the famous city kingdoms. 's first powerful King, Sagon I, is believed to be, who came from Accadem. Together with Sumer and Akkad states, he established a strong state. Sumer's civilization collapsed with frequent foreign invasions. Then the Babylonian civilization emerged, in which the Hammurabi was the most glorious king. He established a strong state by stopping the battles among various city states and implementing similar laws across the country. In fact, people did not have any civilization in Babylon. When he won the valley, he adopted what they received. The Babylonian civilization began in Sumeria and ended in Assyria. Subsequently in Mesopotamia, the Assyrians established their (about 1100 to 612 BCE). The Assyrians conquered the territories by conquering Syria, Palestine, Finland and other territories. After this, the Caldians defeated the Assyrians and created another powerful Babylonian empire (612 BCE-539 BCE). Features of Mesopotamian Civilization - (1) Hammurabi's Law Code - 'Hammurabi' was the most glorious king of the Amurite caste. Babylonia's remarkable progress was achieved during his reign. Hammurabi's Law Code has given Hammurabi a lot of fame. Hammurabi carved out the code of law on eight feet high black stone. He probably wanted to give information about the law to all the subjects. Hammurabi's penal law was based on the theoretical principles such as eye for eye. In this Code of Law, the laws related to each area of life are included. (2) Social Aspects of Mesopotamia – On the basis to prosperity, society was divided into three parts. The upper class included the high officials, the nobles, the priests, and the rich people. The middle class included businessmen, landlords and shopkeepers. In the lower class or slave class, there were defeated soldiers in the war. The joint family system was popular. (3) Economic life (a) Agriculture and Life stock - The main occupation of the people of this civilization was agriculture. The land was owned by the King, the Samanth, the rich merchants and the priests. Soil 9 was fertile on the banks of rivers. There was a good system for irrigation. On behalf of the state, full support was given to agricultural work and irrigation. The cultivation of wheat, barley, dates, me palm was in abundance. Ploughs and bulls were used. Animal husbandry was the secondary occuption. Cows, bulls, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, mule were pets. (b) Trade and Industry - Industry houses were mainly related to wool, leather, bronze, gold, silver, copper etc. Tools, ornaments were made from metals. Industry was in an advanced state The business was also carried on with distant countries. Mesopotamia had business relationship with Bharat's Indus-Saraswati civilization. Many objects of the Indus-Saraswati civilization have been found in the excavation of 'Ur' city of Mesopotamia. (4) Religion and - The purpose of religion was to attain worldly pleasures. These people were polytheistic. Religious life was the chief of the rituals and priests. Religious rituals were believed to be sin-free. Residents of Mesopotamia were aware in the field of philosophy. The fruit of moral life is good and the result of a sinful workman is bad, that is, they had knowledge about heaven and hell. (5) Knowledge & Science - Residents of Mesopotamia make considerable progress in the field of mathematics, astrology, astronomy. They used to study the movement of the sun, moon, stars and planets. They used to calculate day and night for 24 hours a day. They did the same for a minute of sixty seconds and one hour for sixty minutes. Counting time was also done with and . He began to divide the geometry circle by 360 degrees. They knew to add, substract, multiply and divide. (6) Arts - In the field of art architecture, the construction of two brick buildings and temples of two floors was prominent. Dome, and columnar temples were built. The arches were an important discovery of architecture. These people were also interested in the field of painting and music. (7) Cunieform script - It is believed that the first script of Mesopotamia was developed in Sumeria. It developed into the form of a hieroglyph and became the alphabetic script called the Cuneiform script. They used to write on the clay plates with the pen of the recds and used it to keep Sumeria's business accounts Textual questions Answer the following questions - 12. Where did the Mesopotamian civilization devlop? 13. Which ruler of Babylonian created “LawCode”? 14. What was the cunieform script? 15. What was the main purpose of religion in the Mesopotamian civilization?

1.5 Civilization of Egypt The ancient civilization of Egypt originated in the valley of Nile, which is the major river of African continent. The famous historian Herodotus called Egypt. In ancient times, the cause of the happiness and prosperity of depended Egypt only on the Nile River. The Nile originates from the mountain of Uganda in Ethiopia near the equator in Africa and falls into the Mediterranean flowing through the middle of Egypt. Egypt's existence is due to the Nile, otherwise the Egypt is a part of Libya's desert.

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Key Features of Egyptian Civilization - (1) Egypt's social life - The rulers of Egyptawere called Pharaoh and his rule over the people was despotic. Society was divided into five classes- Ruling family, aristocratic, priests middle class and slaves. The condition of the slave class was pathetic. The royal family, feudal, and priests lived in the big palaces. In the civilization of Egypt, women had high positions. (2) Economic Life (a) Agriculture and Livestock- Wheat, barley, dates, figs, grapes etc were cultivated. Flood water was collected for irrigation in the Nile River. Egyptism administration assisted in agricultural works. Cows, sheep, goats, monkeys, donkeys, were main pets. (b) Trade and Industry - The people of Egypt used to make bouquets, cups, trays and earthen pots. They knew to make papers from leather garments, shields and papyrus. Egyption used to carve wood and paint on paint, boat, mat, rope, and brick. Foreign trade prevailed by boats from the Nile route. Barter system was popular. The business was in control of state. Private business was very nominal.. (3) Religious Life - Egyption society was arimaril a religious society. They considered the Pharaoh as representative of God. They considered the sun to be the creator of the world. The emperor was considered to be the son of the sun. Akash, , , Osram (Nil River) and Sin (Moon) were worshiped. The Pharaoh Akhnatan prohibited the worship of all the gods except for the worship of the sun. This did not last long and again polytheism became prevalent. (4) Knowledge and Science - Progress in the field of astrology and mathematics in Egypt was exemplary for world civilizations. Knowledge of medical and body sciences and health care were the achievements of this period. In Egypt and water clock were invented. Different chemicals were also invented to keep the dead body safe for a long time. Egypt's almanac was adopted by other civilizations. They also developed their alphabet and produced paper from the papyrus tree. Pyramid building was a special achievement of the Egyptians. Pyramid Construction Pyramids are the unique gift of Egypt in art. They believed that after death the resides in the body. So they used to coagulate a special chemical on the dead body. With this, the dead body could be kept safe for a long time. To keep the bodies safe, were made which they called the pyramids. The dead bodies in the pyramid were called 'Mummy'. The Realization of standard determination in the formationbuilding of pyramid is also special, in which the measure of each substrate is the same. In the field of pyramid, architecture of 'Giza' and 'Khufu', exhibiting the artistic splendor of arestill counted among the Seven Wonders of the World. (1)Pyramid of Giza – Amongst the pyramids of Egypt, the Pyramid of Giza Egypt is the best art form of ancient architecture. This pyramid of Giza is 481 feet high and 755 feet wide. It has 23 lakh stone pieces of two and a half tons. Outside there is the statue of a giant human head lion of stone called ‘’.

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Textual questions Answer the following questions – 16. What are the pyramids? 17. Why is Egypt called the gift of the Nile River? 18. What is Mummy? Fill in the blank 19. The rulers of Egypt were called ...... 20. Famous historian ...... has called Egypt the gift of the Nile River. 21. The statue of a giant human headed lion outside the pyramid of Gija is called ......

1.6 Civilization of China In the ancient civilizations which developed in the river valley, the location of China’s civilization is unique and important. This civilization was developed in the valleys of the rivers Hwang Ho and Chang Jiang (Yangtze-Siking). The species of ancient Chinese civilization is predominantly ‘Mongol’. Although a mixture of Tibetan, Hun, Manchu, Miao etc. are also considered anong the Chinese castes. Among the royal dynasties of kings, the Shang Dynasty, Chau Dynasty, Chin Dynasty, Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty were prominent. Due to the rule of ‘Chin’ dynasty, this civilization was named ‘China’. Features of Chinese Civilization (1) Social life - The society of China was divided into four parts – the aristocrat, the priest, the and the educated; the craftsmen class; the business class and; The Mandarin class was called the educated class of China's society. On the basis of his scholarship, anybody could join in the Mandarin class. These people were famous for aquiring learning and knowledge. Among the people of China, family was the main unit of society. The joint family system was patriarchal. The head of an elderly family was respected with the development of Chinese civilization, the situation of women in Chinese society became miserable. There were many controls on women. Divorce and purdah were practiced. The women did not have the right to divorce. (2) Economic life (a) Agriculture and Livestock - Economic life in Chinese civilization was largely dependent on agriculture. In addition to wheat, rice, cotton, mulch and tea were also cultivated. Silk worms were also reased. Cows, bulls, sheep goats, pigs and dogs were the main pets. (b) Business and industry - Trade of salt, silk, fur and fish in the Chau era commenced on a large scale. Foreign trade was also developed. Trade was with Central Asia, Bharat, Afghanistan, Persia and Lanka. Chinese people were skilled in making ceramic utensils, polishing on them, and producing high quality silk and making cards. The route from North China to Persia was called 'Silk Road'. (3) Religious life - The religion of Chinese people was simple and refined. In China, along with the natural powers, flaura, weapons, ancestors etc. were also worshiped. Magic controlled the spirits. (4) Philosophy - People of China made tremendous progress in the field of philosophy. China is famous for the hundred philosophical communities. Confucius, Mensius, Laotse and Motsu were major philosophers. Confucius opposed illusions and superstitions, he gave the five principles of mercy, knowledge, justice, truth and devotion to make life happy. The Confucian proverbs are also 12 currently relevant as 'Do into other as you wish thers to do into you'. Laotse's ideas are compiled in the book 'Tao-Te-Ching' and hence their ideology is called '' is. (5) Enlightenment - People of China was curious. They made their almanac. Chinese navigator invented 'kutubunuma' (Compass). The invention of gunpowder, paper, printing plant was first made in China. (6) The Great Wall of China - China's best symbol of architecture, is the Great Wall of China, which was built to protect from the invasions of Barbarians (Hunts) from the north west by Chi Wang Ti. It is 1800 miles long, 20 feet wide and 22 feet high. About 20 thousand turret, 23 thousand columns and ten thousand security checkpoints are built on this wall.

The Great Wall of China Textual questions Answer the following questions - 22. Who built the Great Wall of China? 23. Name the major dynasties of China? 24. Which civilization developed on the banks of China? Fill in the blank - 25. The ideology of Laotse is called ...... 26. Chinese sailors invented the device ...... 27. 'Do into others as you want others to do into you' whose statement is it?

1.7 Civilization of Greece A small country located in the Mediterranean Sea in the south-western corner of Europe is Greece, surrounded by sea on three sides and full of many small hills. In the history of Greece, BCE. The twelfth to the eighth century is considered to be a dark era. The information of this period comes from two epics called 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey', which were composed by the famous 'Homer', who was blind. BCE About 800 BCE, Greek villages groups took the form of city-states. Every city state considered its hill or valley as its own country. Every city-state had its own government and its god. 'Sparta' and 'Athens' were the major cities of Greece.

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Important features of Greek civilization (1) Life of 'Sparta' city state - The city state of Greece Sparta was often a military state different from all other states. The inhabitants of Sparta were skilled and warriors by birth in the operation of weapons and ammunition. At the age of seven years, the boys were trained to endure hardship and to become a combat warrior. In their literature, only the discription of the military successes and the knights are found. Apart from this, they had no contribution in the creation of Greek culture. 'Poloponician war was fought between Sparta and Athens from 431 BCE to 404 BCE. Finally Sparta won it. (2) Life of the Athens city - The city-state of Athens evolved in a different way from Sparta. Here democracy developed in place of militarism. The city of Athens was surrounded by a fort called “Acropolis”. Initially, there was a lot of governance of the rulers due to lack of written law. First of all, Judge Draques wrote the laws. After this, 'Solan' made many laws in the interest of the poor people and made them equal before justice. After this, Claithians made many reforms to give general wider political rights and strengthened democracy in Athens. This is why Claithians are called 'Father of the Greek Democracy.' The invincible monarch of invaded Greece. There was a war in the marathon ground between Athens and Iranians. Greece won the war. As a result of the Iranian- Greek War, Athens became dominant in Greek states. (3) Pericles era - In BCE 465, the reign of Athens came in the hands of Pericles, the best democratic leader of Greece. Under his leadership, the most prominent advancement of Athens took place and this period is called the golden period of Greek history. His personality was so much contributing in this development that this period is called 'Pericles era'. Contribution of Greek civilization - Inhabitants of ancient Greece had made all-round progress in every area of civilization. The glory of Greece that the world could never forget was the glory of Athens at the time of Paraclees. The Greeks gave birth to different branches of Western philosophy and named them. The most famous philosophers of Greece were 'Socrates', 'Plato' and 'Aristotle'. Socrates believed that knowledge shows man the right way to live and the path of happiness. Homer's epic 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey' have an indelible influence on Greek literature. Credit goes to "Herodotus" for writing history books. He is called 'father of history'. The great scientist of the ancient world 'Archimedes' was supposed to be from Greece. The famous Greek scholar, Euclid, greatly expanded the knowledge of geometry. 'Hippocrates' laid the foundations of modern medicine Pythagoras was a great mathematician. The Olympics held in 776 BCE were organized at a place called Olympia. Sports and athletics used to be in honor of King 'Zeus'. Textual questions Answer the following questions - 28. Who wrote the laws in Greece first? 29. What kind of governance system was there in Sparta City? 30. Who was the best democratic leader of Greece? Fill in the blank space - 31. The composition of Iliad and Odyssey was made by ...... 32. Athens city was situated around the fort called ...... 33...... laid the foundations of modern medical science.

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1.8 Civilization of Rome If Greece gave birth to an excellent culture and laid the foundation of European civilization, then Rome saved it and spread it to its distant countries as its legacy. The main center of the Roman civilization was Italy. Italy served as a link to combine the cultures of Greece and Europe. Rome had succeeded in establishing a great empire by starting its development from a city state like Athens. Almost in 200 B.C.E. after crossing the Alps Mountains, some races settled in Italy, including the 'Atstrasan' caste. Latinos castes laid the foundation of the Roman civilization by defeating the Atstras. History of Rome begins with the monarchy. In Sixth century BCE the post of the King was abolished and Republic was established. There was a Senate and a meeting in the governing system of the Republic of the Republic of Rome. The Roman Empire was divided into two classes at that time. (A) Petricians - who belonged to high and elite classes. (B) Plebians - who were farmers, laborers and middle class. The struggle between the Palestinian and the Plebianians continued for nearly a hundred years. In the end, a written law code was approved in Rome, by which the Plebians received all political rights. These codes of written laws are called 'The Laws of Twelve Plates'. I War with Carthage - There was a city named Carthage on the northern coast of Africa. The trade of Carthage was deeply shocked by the spread of Rome in the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, between the inhabitants of Rome and Carthage ensued between 246 BCE to 146 BC there was a long struggle that called the Punic War. In these wars, Greece helped Carthage residents. So after the end of these wars, Rome invaded Greece and merged it with his empire. II Julius Caesar - The power of Rome came in the hands of the generals because of constant wars. Bc In the first century, the great victories of the talented commander Julius Caesar actually created the Roman Empire. Caesar concentrated the administrative system in his own hands by taking the right to appoint on higher posts. He also made changes in the Senate format. His actions made it clear that he was interested in establishing an autocratic regime in Rome. Therefore, the championsof the Republic became his opponents. Eventually in 44 B.C.E. Julius Caesar was murdered. Octavian (Agustus) - After the murder of Julius Caesar, three members of the Trivvirate were established, whose most prominent member was Octavian, also known as Agustus. He ruled from 31 BCE to 14 C.E. The reforms made by the Augustists gave birth to happiness and prosperity in the empire. During this period the Roman Empire reached its climax. This age golden age is considered as of Roman history. Contribution of Roman civilization - Rome's greatest contribution to the world is the law and rule of governance of Rome. Emperor Justinian created law code by collecting laws which is known as 'Justinian Code'. With the contact of the Greeks, there was progress in education, language and literature in Rome. The Latin language developed by the Romans became the language of all educated people in western Europe. Pliny's 'Natural History' was an important scientific treatise written in Latin. An important contribution in the field of Roman astrology was the construction of the calendar. The creator of this calendar was Julius Caesar. The name of the of July was named after him. It is thus clear that the Roman civilization influenced the world civilization. Textual questions 34. How many classes was the ancient Roman Empire divided into? 35. What is the law of twelve plates? 15

36. Whose rule was considered to be the Golden Age of Roman Empire? 37. Who wrote the book 'Natural History'?

1.9 Ancient Civilizations of Rajasthan Kalibanga (Hanumangarh) - Kalibanga means black clay bangles. It is located on the banks of the Ghagghar (Saraswati) river in of northern Rajasthan. Surrounded by security rugged two mounds have been found here. One of these is the eastern mound, from where the evidence of ordinary settlement is found. The western mound is the fort where probably the upper class dwelled. Proof of farming from Kalibanga is found, which is the oldest in the world. Evidences of fire pits in a line are dound from raised platforms made of raw bricks. It is speculated that these platforms were constructed for religious purposes. Remains of many utensils made from clay have been obtained from Kalibanga. The script found on the pottery and seals from here is similar to the Sandhwa script, which has not yet been read. Due to the absence of stones, the walls were made of sun baked bricks and they were joined by sand. Personal and public drains and garbage utensils were part of extraordinary arrangements for cleaning the city. Fortunately, the center of such a prosperous civilization was lost. Probably due to the lack of rainfall here, the water of the river decreased. In the long run, this land became the sea of sand. The mention of extinction of Saraswati river is found in the . Thus, it was civilization declined. Ahad () – It is a city situated near Udaipur. Its civilization also evolved around river as other ancient civilizations. Ahad developed in valleys of Bedach (Ayad) river. Tamarvati Nagari is also second name, where the center of copper tools is proven. In the tenth-eleventh century, it was called 'Aghaatpur'. The local people used to call it 'Dhoolkot'. Copper axes, stone tools and other tools have been found. The people used to use precious stones such as onyx, rhinestone etc. to make ornaments. Like the Kalibanga, pottery is found in large number. The people of this place could make beautiful pottery without even painting. The people of the this civilization were familiar with agriculture. It is proved by the large utensils and granite stones found here which they used to produce food. The presence of 4 to 6 large squares in a house throws light on the arrangement of large family and group food. Excavation done at Ghillund (Rajsamand), Ballathal (Udaipur), Bagaur (Bhilwara), adjoining areas of Khaia, we get information about the spread of civilization. The Ahad civilization was not only confined to the Ahadriver (river valley), but till the valley of Chambal rivers and Kutch in Gujarat. Belonging to copper age this place is situated in Vallabh Nagar in Udaipur. The work of excavation of this mound was done by Dr. V. N. Poona of Poona in March 1993, under the Supervision of Dr Dev Kothari, Institute of Rajasthan Studies, University, Udaipur. Dr. V.N. Mishra of Poona, Dr. V. S. Shinde, Dr. R.K. Mohanty and Dr. Lalit Pandey and Dr. Jivan Kharkal. The excavation work was done here for 7 years. By the way, this place is an extension of the Ahad. This civilization dates back to approximately 3200 B.C.E. (1) Copper Equipment - Residents of this civilization used copper-made equipments and weapons. They were using axl knife, chisel, razor, and arrow panels. Stone made tools have also been found. Easy availability of copper to the people here could be one of the reason. (2) Pottery - The special type shiny pottery obtained from Ballathal is of two types - one with rough walls and other smooth clay walls. For black, red and dark red colors, shiny coating is found inside outside of such utensils. White paintings are usually found on black and red pots. A massive 16 structure was discovered in the middle of Balathal's mound whose walls were 3.15 meters high and about 5 meters thick, this fort spread over 5600 square meters area. This fort was made of clay and stone. In the construction of Ballathal, the construction of a large building of eleven rooms is also found, which were built in the second phase of Copper period. Just as the remnants of copper smelting furnaces have been found in the civilization of Copper era, similarly remains of iron furnaces are found in Balathal. Textual questions 38. The remains of Kalibanga were found along the banks of which river in Rajasthan? 39. “Aahar” civilization was developed along the banks of which river? 40. In which district are the remains of Balathal civilization found?

What have you learnt?  The main sources of information of Vedic civilization are four Vedas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharva Veda.  The social life of Rigvedic Aryans was based on simplicity and equality.  Indus civilization was a urban civilization whereas Vedic civilization was rural civilization.  Three civilizations developed in the state of Mesopotamia - Sumeria, Babylonia and Assyrian civilization.  A ruler named Hammurabi is known for his code of law.  The rise of Egyptian civilization in the valley of Nile This civilization is especially known for the construction of the pyramid.  China's wall was built to protect against the invasion of barbarous races.  In China, there were famous philosophers like Confucius, Mensius and Laotse.  The key feature of Greek civilization is the location of the city kingdoms. 'Sparta' and 'Athens' were the major cities of Greece.  The main center of the Roman civilization was Italy. Italy worked hard to combine the cultures of Europe and Greece.  The largest contribution of Rome to the world is principle of Law and good governance. Answers 1. Maitrei, Gargi 2. The group of villages was called vish. 3. The word Arya literally means 'superior' or 'born in high family'. 4. Rigveda, Samved, Yajurveda, Atharva Veda. 5. The resources and art skills from which human beings meet all the needs of their life, are called civilizations. 6. Availability of water and food, safety concerns, animal husbandry, suitable climate, access to metals, means of traffic. 7. Smelting, molding and blending of metals. 8. Kalibanga 9. Urban Construction 10. Mexico 11. Mecca 12. The banks of Dajla and Farhat rivers 17

13. Hammurabi 14. Written by reads on clay pots.. 15. For the materialistic pleasures. 16. Samadhias were made to protect the dead bodies, which were called pyramids. 17. In the ancient times, the cause of happiness and prosperity of Egypt was the Nile river. 18. The Egyptians kept a special type of coating on the bodies and kept them safe. These bodies were called 'Mummies'. 19. Pharaoh 20. Herodotus 21. Sphins 22. Shi-Wang Ti, to protect against the invasion of the hoonas. 23. Shang Dynasty, Chau Dynasty, Chin Dynasty, Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty. 24. Huanghou and Chang Jiang (Yagty-Ceking) 25. Taoism 26. Qutubnuma (Compass 27. Confucius 28. Judge Draco 29. Acropolis 30. Hipprocrates 31. Homer 32. Acropolis 33. Hippocrates 34. Two class-Patrishians and Plebians 35. The code of written laws which were engraved on twelve plates, all sections of the political rights were received by the people named Plebian. 36. Age of Octavian (Augustus) 37. Pliny 38. Ghagghar (Saraswati) 39. Fleet 40. Udaipur Question for exercise Objective Typ question 1. Which of the following is the oldest Vedas? (A) Rig Veda (B) Samaveda (S) Yajurveda (D) Atharva Veda 2. Which civilization originated in the Nile valley? (A) China's civilization (B) Maya civilization (c) Civilization of Greece (D) Mishra's civilization 3. Whose ideas are collected in the book "Tao-Te-Ching"? (A) Confucius (B) Mensius (c) Laotse (D) Kotsu 4. Which of the following is called 'Father of History'? (A) Homer (B) Herodotus (c) Socrates (D) Aristotle 18

5. Kalibanga civilization existed in which of the present district of Rajasthan? (A) Sikar (B) Udaipur (c) Bhilwara (D) Hanumangarh Short Answer question 6. What place has been called in the Rig Veda the worldly as place of union of Gods? 7. Which of the trees of Egypt used to produce paper? 8. Into how many communities was China's society divided into? 9. Which year did the first ancient Olympic Games begin? 10. What was the marathon war between? 11. Which emperor of Rome compiled the laws? 12. Tell the brief features of the Vedic monarchy? 13. Write a comment on the urban life of Sindhu Saraswati civilization. 14. Briefly describe Hammurabi Law Code. 15. How was the development of philosophy in China's civilization? Explain. 16. What kind of life was the city of 'Sparta'? 17. How did democracy develop in the city of 'Athens' city? Explain. 18. What was the contribution of Rome to the world? Briefly describe Essay Type question 19. Describe the social life of the Vedic civilization. 20. Describe the economic and social life of the Indus-Saraswati civilization. 21. Describe the Mesopotamian Civilization under the following points. (i) Social life (ii) Economic life (iii) Religion and philosophy; 22. Describe the major characteristics of the civilization of Egypt. 23. Describe the economic and social life of China's civilization. 24. Ancient Greece had progress in every field of knowledge-science. Explain

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Chapter 2

Major of the World

Introduction - The intellectual interpretation of all phenomena of the world and the attempts to evaluate them can be called 'philosophy'. From the earliest times, human are engaged in finding solutions to some fundamental questions. Some of these questions are: What is human? What is soul? What is the world, why and how did it originate? What is God? What is the evidence of its existence? What is enlightment and what are the means of attaining it? What's fair-improper? And so on. Thus, philosophy is an attempt to understand the whole world and its corresponding interpretation. Vedic philosophy, , , Persian philosophy, Jewish philosophy, Christian philosophy and Islamic philosophy are prominent in the world's major thinkings. Objectives - After studying this lesson you:  You will be able to know about the key points of the major philosophies world.  You will be able to get acquainted with the original sentiments of different ideas.  You will be able to mention the importance of philosophies in human development.  Contributors of different ideas will be able to tell about the contribution of great men to humankind.  You will be able to accept good teaching of different philosophies.  2.1 Vedic philosophy The word 'Veda' is derived from the word 'Vid' of language. It means 'Knowledge'. The Vedas consider 'Apurushya' or created by God. Vedic philosophy is available in Vedic literature. The following sections of Vedic literature are: - (1) Vedas (2) Brahman Granth, (3) Aranyak, (4) Upanishad (Vedantya) (5) Vedang. Vedic literature (1) Vedas – There ar Four major Vedas and they are - (1) Rig Veda (2) Yajurveda (3) Samaveda (4) Atharva Veda. The Rigveda is considered the oldest and the first book of the world in which the main theme is 'Gyan'. In the Rig Veda, it is primarily religious. The main theme of Samaveda is worship. Studies of Samaveda show that Aryas were music-loving ones. Yajurveda reveals the methodology of yajna related to Yajurveda. Yajurveda has two parts - Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda. The Atharvaveda mentions the rituals to be made to make human life happy and sad. (2)Brahman Granth - After Vedas, Vedic literature comes in place of Brahmanical texts. They were designed to understand the law of sacrifice and its action. In the Brahmanic texts, the descriptions of the , along with their fruis, are also explained to us. (3)Aranyak – After the Brahmin texts, the Aranyaks were formed. They were created for the purpose of teaching in the forests. That is why they were called Aranyak. In this place, knowledge and have been given priority in place of yagna. 20

(4)Upanishad - The last part of Vedic literature is , also called . The number of Upanishads has been counted as 108. Upanishad, are complete philosophical treatise whose main goal is to search for knowledge. (5)Vedang – A new literature was created which was called to understand the meaning of the Vedas and to help in the rendering of Vedic rituals. , Kalp, Vyakaran, grammar, , Chhanda, and jyotish are these six . Important features of Vedic philosophy (1)The concept of the Ritt - the concept of the “Ritt” is the best concepts of Rig Vedaik era’s philosophy. The system of the entire world and nature is believed to be controlled by 'Ritt'. It is also mandatory for the gods to follow. In fact, the Ritt has been called the moral system of the entire world. (2) Karma Siddhantta - According to Vedic philosophy, there is rebirth on the basis of karma. With this, one can make life better by editing good deeds. Every organism is born again to enjoy its fruits according to the deeds done by them. (3) Vedic gods and - In the Vedic age, people used to worship various divine powers. The Aryans marveled by the various powers of nature and its various wondrous nature, they were divinely done. Considering these natural powers as spinach and destroyer, they considered them gods. Among them, Indra, Mitra, Varun, Agni, Yama, Aditi and Prithvi are prominent. For the worship of these deities, people of Vedic age used to perform many yajnas. Yajna has been called the best karma. devoting havan content and ghee etc. in fire is not just sacrifice. Their use is important to the environment, in reality the name of all the best deeds is the Yajnas”. (4) Ashram System and Purushartha - The aim of the Ashram system is to make the person devoted to society. The basic purpose of human organization's physical nature and talent and the proportional division of the physical, social and spiritual life goals of human beings, the basic purpose of the ashram system is to show that the person can achieve satisfaction. Considering the ideal age of hundred years in the Vedas, the life of a person is divided into four parts, which are called as four ashrams-brahmacharya, grihastta, vanprastha and ashram. Arrangements have been made for the promotion of life to spiritual and materially. These are Purusharthas -Dhrma, arth, Kama and Moksha. Dharma refers to duty and morality. arth (money) is to acquire the material of material pleasure and to make a concurrent enjoyment and 'kama' means ao use these acquired materials. 'Moksha' is the ultimate goal of life. Textual questions Answer the following questions - 1. Which is the world's oldest book? 2. What is the last part of Vedic literature? 3. Whole world and nature are considered to be controlled by whom? fill in the blanks 4. According to Vedic philosophy rebirth is on the basis of...... 5. There are two parts of Yajurveda ...... and ......

2.2 Jain Darshan The history of Jain philosophy is very ancient. Tirthankars have played an important role in the development of this philosophy. There were 23 Jain Tirthankars before Mahavir Swami. The first 21 tirthankar is considered as Rishabhdev or Adinath. Twenty third Parvashnath and twenty-fourth Tirthankara were Swami. Mahavira had won over anger, hatred, greed, anger, etc. on the basis of penance, and made self satisfaction part of his life. That is why they are called 'Mahavira'. Mahavir Swami - Mahavir Swami was born in 599 BC Nearly there was Kundagram near . His father Siddhartha was the head of the Jataka kul. Mother Trishala was the sister of the chief sorcerer of the Lichchhavi clan. Mahavira's childhood name was 'Vardhaman'. They grew up in a majestic atmosphere with great love and affection. In her youth, He was married to Yashoda. Vardhman spent a happy married life till the age of 30. After the death of the parents, he exiled his house with the permission of his elder brother Nandivardhan. After 12 years of hard penance and , he got supreme knowledge “Kayvalyam” under the tree of 'sal' on the banks of 'Rijuplika' river near the village. After acquiring knowledge, they are called 'kaivline', 'jin' (victorious), Ahart (qualified) and Niragrantn (non-tied). Mahavira started preaching his teachings after receiving Kaivalya. They travel for eight and in four months of the rainy , Chatturmas at one place. In the same way, spreading his thoughts in 527 B.C. Mahavir Swami's was held in Pavapuri () near Rajgrih (at the age of 72). Mahavir Swami Teaching of - Jain knowledge of the teachings of Jainism meets the scriptures 'Agam literature'. (1) Triratnas– –To combine with jeeva and Karma is a kind of bonding or bondage as water combine with milk, in the same way karma creates joint union with jeeva. Every organism holds the body according to its former accumulated actions. Getting rid of bondage is the ultimate aim of life. Mahaveer Swami told three measures to get salvation. Which is called 'triratna'. (a) Samyak Gyan (proper knowledge) - understanding the difference between a living being and a living being and identifying reality is just the right knowledge. (B) Samyak Darshan (Proper philosophy) - The conviction in Jain and their teachings is only visible or revered. (C) Samyak Character (proper character) - High and pious conduct only helps in attaining liberation for a person. (2) Panchamahavarta - arrangement of 'Panch Mahavrat' principle has been made to free the soul from physical bondage. (a) Truth - Mahavir Swamy had said that every person should speak the truth in every situation and should give up the false speech. (b) Nonviolence - This is the Major principle of Jainism, not to be violent with mind, word or action, knowingly or unknowingly, should avoid any kind of violence. (c) Astiya - unless one does not give yourself the object should not be accepted means not be stolen. (d) Aparigraha - It is emphasized not to collect any kind of property, because the collection is the source of attachment and possessiveness. 22

(e) Brahmacharya - Abandoning all kinds of desires is considered as Brahmacharya. Parshvanath, the foregoing twinty third Tirthankar before Mahavira, had made the law of only four verses. Fifth fasted Brahmacharya Mahavir Swamy added and compulsory to follow, and it was mandatory. (3) Fasting and tenacity – Fasting and penance are more important in the practice of Jainism. Mahavir Swami told two kinds of austerities -one external second internal For external penance, fasting, and internal meditation requires modesty, service, self-discipline, atonement (confession). (4) Immortality of the soul, Karma and Reincarnation - Jainism in the immortality of the soul. The soul is whole and pessimistic, its existence is like light. The soul has its existence in everything in the universe. Just as there are variations in organisms, similarly, the soul also varies. Mahavir Swami has accepted the key principle of karma. Jainism tells the determination of reincarnation is from the deeds of previous birth. (5) Syadvad - The concern of Jain religion is that there is a different view of every man towards truth. According to Mahavira Swamy, what you say may be true, but what others say, that can also be true. As a person, you see, seeing him, you say that he is a Guruji but this sentence is from the view of the disciple, but the same person will be called a son than the expectation of a father, sister, than the expectation of the child, the expectation of the husband than the wife. . Similarly, all our decisions regarding worldly things are relative and limited. The tension and strife in today's world is due to not understanding others' perspective. Partial knowledge is the root of all disputes. There are seven types of partial knowledge ie 'Naya', hence this classification is also called 'Saptbhangniya' and 'Polytheism'. (6) Kavalya or Moksha - The ultimate goal of Jainism is to attain Moksha or 'Nirvana', which is possible only by Kaivalya knowledge. The destruction of pre-accumulated and exemption from the fruits of this birth is Nirvana. Those who believe in Jain Tirthankaras, follow the Triratna legislation and the Panch Maha Vrats, that person, achieves liberation by becoming free from the bonding of fruits and Karmas. Textual questions Answer the following questions - 6. Who was the 23rd Tirthankar of Jainism? 7. What is Syadvad? 8. What does “Aprigarh” mean? Fill in the blanks 9. Knowledge of the teachings of Jainism meets in ...... literature. 10. There are seven types of partial knowledge so that is why they are called ...... naya. 11. To abandon all kinds of desires and wishes ...... have been considered.

2.3 Buddhist philosophy The second religious vote of the period of Indian religious revolution in the 6th century BC is 'Buddhist-religion'. The establishment of was done by Mahatma Buddha and the religion spread in that era has voiced a sense of guilt, conservatism and social complexity. Early life of Mahatma Buddha - Mahatma Buddha was born in 563 BC in forest (modern Rumindai) near Kapilavastu. His father was Shuddhodhan, Kapilavastu's head of Shaykygana. Mother's name was Mahamaya who was the daughter of the Kaushal republic. Mahatma Buddha's childhood name was 'Siddhartha'. Due to being Gautra of his grandson, he is called Gautam. 23

A few days after Buddha's birth, his mother 'Mahamaya' passed away and he was raised by Vimata Gautami

. Lecture of Mahatma Buddha- The spirit of Mahatma Buddha was born in the atmosphere of majestic beauty and splendor. But Siddhartha did not even enjoy any pleasure in luxury goods. At the age of 16, Siddhartha was married to Princess Yashodhara. Yashodhara and Siddhartha had a son named Rahul. Even after living in a family life of 12 years, Siddhartha's mind did not feel in worldly trends. On his way to Vihar, he first saw an old man, the second time the diseased (patient) man, the third time a deceased, and a celebrated ascetic for the fourth time. Seeing all these, Siddhartha's mind became very distraught. One day, abandoning his wife, son and majestic splendor, he came out on the path of Nirvana knowledge. This incident of life is called 'Mahabhinishkriman' in Buddhist Mahatma Buddha Literature. At this time his age was 29 years. First of all he went to Vaishali near the teacher of Sankhya Darshan 'Alarakalam', but his lust of knowledge could not be rested. From here he went to Brahmin Dharmacharya 'Uddrak Ramputra' near the Rajgrih Even here, their unstained mind was not satisfied. Then Siddhartha reached the place called Urvella (Bodhgaya). With many ascetic stalwarts, he adopted the path of strictest penance. Eventually he concluded that the path of penance is not suitable for weakening the body and intellect for knowledge. Without healthy body and healthy mind, how can we do good for humanity? On the banks of 'Niranjana' river near the 'Gaya' in Bihar on the day of Baisakh , he was seen in the realization of Satyajyana under the (tree of Peepal). Since then, he started being called 'Buddha'. After acquiring knowledge, Gautam Buddha decided to publicize his opinion. From 'Gaya' they came first to Rishipatan (). Here he gave his first sermon to five Brahmin saints. These sannyasins had left them before. This first sermon is given the name of 'Dharma Pravartan'. Buddha continued to preach his religion for 45 years. Finally, at the age of 80, at 483 B.C. In , he left his body. The incident of renunciation of the body of Mahatma Buddha is also called 'Mahaparinirvana' in Buddhist history. Buddhist teachings (1) Four Arya - has accepted the entire physical world with suffering. a.Sorrow - Sorrow is everywhere in the world. Life is full of sorrows and sufferings. Those whom we feel happy are also full of sorrow. b. The cause of sorrow - there is definitely some reason for every thing. Therefore there is also a reason for sorrow because no object can be without any reason. The cause of all kinds of sorrows is craving or lust. c. Suffering suppression - the end of suffering is possible. If the root cause of the misery is destroyed, '' will be destroyed and the sorrow will also be destroyed. d. Grief Rescue path - The solution to the destruction of the 'Trishna', the root cause of sadness is the Astangik Marg. (2) Ashtangaik Marg - eight ways of Ashtangaik Marg are as follows: 24

1. Samak Drishti (or vision) Knowledge of the real form of objects is a real sight. 2. Samyak Samkalp (or resolution) - it is the right decision to keep free views of hatred and violence. 3. Samyak Vak (sayihg) - The purity of the word is right. 4. Samyak Karmant - charity, mercy, truth, nonviolence etc. is only following the action of deeds. 5. Samyaka Ajeevika (livelihood) - should properly earn 'livelihood'. 6. Samyak Vyagam - Exercise persistent efforts for ethical, mental and spiritual advancement is the right exercise. 7. Samyak - It is only memory to keep true perception of leaving all kinds of misconceptions about your subject. 8. Samyak - The concentration of the mind is the real samadhi only. (3) Ten Commandments of the Shilah - In his teachings, Mahatma Buddha has said that following the Ten Commandments of Righteousness for the purity of conduct is necessary. These are - truth, non-violence, brahmacharya, music and dance abandoning, untimely food, sacrifice of aromatic substances, sacrifice of gentle bed, and sacrifice of Kanchan-Kamini. (4) Nirvana - 'Nirvana' in Buddhism has been described as the ultimate goal of life. The literal meaning of 'Nirvana' is to be extinguished or rested. Nirvana is freed from the trap of birth and death, it gets rid of all kinds of sorrows. Textual questions Answer the following questions - 12. Where was the birth took place Mahatma Buddha? 13. What is Mahabhinishkriman? 14. Which are the four Arya Satya?

2.4 Parsi Philosophy Parsi leligion is also called because Saint Zarathushrat introduced it. Zarathushurth was born in Azerbaijan province of western Iran. His father's name was Pamshashpa and mother's name was “durodha. They were thoughtful from the begning. At the age of thirty years, he received the knowledge on Sabanan Mountains. Most scholars of period 600 BC believe it. According to the philosophical thinking established by Zarathushtar, the body is mortal and the soul is immortal. According to man's true deeds and beliefs, heaven and hell are attained. Parsi philosophy is also seen similar to Vedic philosophy with these thoughts. According to the philosophy of Parsi, there are two types of divine and demonic powers in the world. The symbol of divine powers is Ahuramajada. This great god is who created the earth, man and heaven. The symbol of the demonic powers is the word of Allah. The power of Aaronmen leads humans to the devil by making demons. Conflicts continue in these two powers but the final victory is of Ahurmajda. According to the philosophy of Parsi, this world is made Zaratushtar

25 from air, water, fire and earth. The holy book of Parsi religion is Avesta-e-Jed. In this, the teachings of Zarathushrta are compiled. In the long run, due to external aggression on Iran, a large number of Parsis settled in Bharat. The Parsi Temple located in is still very famous in terms of architecture. Parsis worship in the temples of Parsi.

Textual questions 15. Who introduced Zoroastrianism or Parsi religion? 16. According to Zoroastrianism, whose Ahurmajada is the symbol? 17. According to Zoroastrianism, who is the symbol of demonic powers?

2.5 Jewish philosophy recognizes that God transmits his message through the prophets. The Jews regard Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as their grandfather Prophet, Moses as the chief prophet. Judaism is based on monotheism. His God, 'Jehovah' is abstract, nirguna, judicial, and condescending. It is believed that when the people of the Hebrew tribe were heading towards Israel under Moses, on Mount Sinai, Moses received a message from God that Jehovah is the only God, therefore obey his command and have reverence for him. Moses told this message to the people of the Hebrew tribe. Thus, the worshipers of the Lord are called 'Jews'. The pilgrimages of the Jews are called 'Synagogue'. Many of the Jews are prevalent in which the 'Tora' is the chief. In Judaism, 10 religions (ten religion formulas) have special significance in which respecting their parents, not stealing, giving false witness, not keeping a bad look at the property. Textual questions 18. What are the places of worship of Jews? 19. Who do the Jews consider their chief prophet? 20. Who is "Jehovah"?

2.6 Christian Philosophy Christ, the founder of Christian religion and philosophy, was a Jew. Born to b.c. Around 4 in Palestine, there was a small village called 'Bethlehem'. His father's name was Yusuf and mother's name was Mary. From the childhood in the heart of Jesus Christ, there was a curiosity to discover the truth and understand God. They wanted to free the society surrounded by superstitions. But the Jews began to disrupt this behavior of Jesus Christ. The popularity, fearlessness and truthfulness of Christ made an overwhelming anger against the religious leaders and the rich. Roman officials also understood that Jesus came to revolution. Therefore, Judaism was arrested for the conspiracy of the Jewish rulers and the Roman rulers. One of the twelve major disciples of Jesus had betrayed Judas. He played an active role in capturing Jesus. After the arrest of Christ, a lawsuit was initiated in the Roman court and the archbishop of the Jews' Kaifas accused Jesus of saying that he had insulted the God of Jesus Christ 26

'Jehovah' by calling you 'Son of God'. They were crucified as punishment. Before that Jesus Christ was tortured severely. In the last time, Jesus said, "O God! Please forgive them because these people do not know what they are doing. " Major teachings of Jesus Christ - 1. God is one and in his sight, all creatures are equal. 2. The kingdom of God is within every creature, which can find through love, service, sacrifice and non-violence. 3. God is the Universal Sovereign and should pray alone. 4. Money, glory, greed and greed are very obstacles in reaching the kingdom of God. Jesus Christ said, "It is easy for a camel to get out of the needle hole, but it is not possible for a rich person to enter God's kingdom." 5. Do not hate sinners but from sin. 6. You should love the person who hates you. Thus we see that Jesus preached the principles of human equality, faternity, truth, love, non-violence, tolerance by his teachings. Their teachings are compiled in the Holy Book 'Bible' of the Christians. Textual questions Answer the following questions - 21. Where was Jesus Christ born? 22. What was the main statement of Jesus Christ in the last time? 23. Name the holy book of Christians?

2.7 Islamic philosophy A religious movement began in Arabia in the seventh century, which organized the Arabians scattered among tribes and castes. This religious movement came to be known in the world as Islamism. The founder of was Hazrat Mohammad Early life of Prophet Hazrat Mohammad - Hazrat Mohammad Sahab was born in 570 AD in Mecca. His father's name was Abdullah and mother's name was Amina. In the childhood of Muhammad Sahib, his parents had died. Mohammed Sahib's early life was denied by amenities. At the age of 25, he was married to a wealthy widow Khadija. Khadija was 40 years old at that time. Muhammad Sahib was of contemplative and grave nature from the beginning. After being liberated from marriage, his religious curiosity increased and he would often have become involved in meditation. The rise of Islam - before the rise of Islam, the people of Arabia were polytheistic and believed in idol worship. Hazrat Mohammad had divine knowledge in the cave named Hira. He conveyed the message to the Arab public: "There is no worship except Allah (God) and I am His Prophet (Muhammad)." At that time, everywhere in Arabia, supremacy and ignorance dominated. Hazrat Mohammad put the things in front of the people who had heard it as Allah's message. Makkaswas got angry with Mohammad Sahib and began to oppose him. Under these circumstances, Muhammad Sahib decided to leave Mecca and go to Medina. In 622 AD, Muhammad Sahib reached Madina from Mecca with his followers. This event is called 'Hijrat'. From this day, 'Hijri Samvat' starts. The residents of Medina welcomed Muhammad Sahib and a large number of people became his followers who were called 'Ansar'. Mohammed Sahib died in 632 AD. 27

Hazrat Muhammad's teachings - The main religious scripture of Islam is 'Quran' in which the teachings of the prophet Muhammad Sahib are compiled. According to the five religious acts - According to the Quran, every Muslim should live his life according to these five principles. (1) Reading kalma - that is to read the above mentioned that Allah is One and Muhammad is His Prophet (messenger). (2) Praying Namaz - followers of Islam should read Namaz at five fixed days every day. These times are before sunrise (Fajar) afternoon (Johar), third pahar (asar), sunset (Magrib) and night bed (Isha). On Friday a big mass Namaz (3) Keeping rosa - In the month of Ramzan every day should not eat and drink from sunrise until sunset. (4) Zakat - Muslims should donate one and a half percent of their income i.e., half a percent annually. (5) Hajj - Every Muslim should make to Mecca at least once in 'Haj'. In addition to these five principles, there are many rules and principles of Islam religion. Islam does not believe in idol worship. Islam believes that after death, man has to go to heaven or go to hell according to his deeds. Textual questions Answer the following questions - 24. What does zakat mean? 25. What is the incident called Hijrat? 26. Which year did the beginning of the Hijri Samvat? What have you learned?  Vedic philosphy is received by Vedic literature.  In Vedic Darshan, the system of the entire world and nature is considered controlled by the 'Ritt'.  Tirthankars have an important contribution in the development of Jain Darshan. The first Tirthankar was Rishabhdev (Adinath) while the twenty-fourth Tirthankar was Mahavir Swami.  Jain went arranged punch-Mahavratas principles of free conditions, the physical constraints of philosophy are truth, non-violence, asteya, aprigrih and Brihmcharya  The basic of Buddhism is that the four “Arya Satya”.  Ashtangaik Rath has been mentioned in Buddhism for the destruction of the 'Trishna' of misery.  According to the Quran, every Muslim should live his life according to five religious acts. These are kalam reading, praying namaz, fasting rosa, zakat and hajj.  The sacred scripture of Jesus Christ is compiled in the Bible. According to Jesus Christ, God is one and in his sight, all creatures are equal.  According to Parsi Darshan, 'Ahuramajda' is the great deity and 'Ahiraman' is a symbol of demonic powers.  The places of worship of Jews are called 'Synagogue', they worship the 'Lord' – “Yehoba”. Answeres 1. Rig Veda 28

2. Vedanta (Upanishad) 3. Ritt 4. Karma 5. Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda 6. Parsharvnath 7. Every person has a different attitude towards truth. 8. Do not collect any kind of property. 9. Agam 10. Saptbhangniya 11. Brahmacharya 12. Lumbini Forest 13. Leaving the majestic glory of Mahatma Buddha and going on the path of Nirvana. 14. Suffering, the cause of sorrow, grief suppression and grief prevention path 15. Zarathust 16. Divine power 17. Ahran 18. Synagogue 19. Moses 20. The God of the Jews who are Abstract, nirguna, judicial, and condescending. 21. Donating one-fourth of its income every year to Muslims. 22. The incident of coming from Mecca to Medina with his followers by Muhammad Saheb. 23. 622 AD 24. Bethhalam 25. O God! Please forgive them because these people do not know what they are doing. 26. The Bible Question for Excersise Objective Type questionnaire 1. Which study of Vedas shows that Arya was a music-loving one? (A) Rig Veda (B) Samaveda (C) Yajurveda (D) Arth Veda 2. In which of the following places Mahavira Swami was Nirvana? (A) Kundagram (B) Sarnath (C) Lumbini (D) Pavpuri 3. 'Synagogue' is a place of worship related to which religion? (A) Jew (B) Parsi (C) Jain (d) Muslim 4. 'Avesta-e-Jed' is the sacred book of which religion? (A) Muslims (b) jews (C) Christian (D) Parsi 5. Which year did Mohammad Sahib die? (A) 620 AD (B) 622 AD (C) 632 AD (d) 640 AD Short Answer question 6. Which are the four purusarthas? Give the name. 29

7. Name the four Ashrams. 8. Who were the first Theertankar of Jainism? 9. What is 'Panchamahavrata'? 10. What do you think of 'Kaivalya'? 11. Who had raised Mahatma Buddha? 12. Under which tree did Mahatma Buddha come to realize the true knowledge? 13. What do you think of 'zakat'? 14. What was the name of Jesus' mother? 15. Name the major religious texts of Parsis. 16. Explain briefly about four major Vedas. 17. Describe the concept of Triratna of Jain philosophy. 18. Explain the importance of four truths in Buddhist philosophy. 19. What do you think of the Astangik path? Briefly describe 20. Describe the early life of Hazrat Muhammad. Essay Type question 21. Explain the main features of Vedic philosophy. 22. What are the major teachings of Jain philosophy? Describe. 23. What are the major teachings of Buddhist philosophy? Describe. 24. Describe the major teachings of Hazrat Mohammad. 25. Illustrate the major teachings of Jesus Christ describe the life of Christ.

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Chapter 3

Ancient Bharat and World

Introduction - In spite of the geographical and natural barriers of Bharat, Indians have not been imprisoned in their geographical boundaries and they have introduced their indomitable courage, establishing Indian political, trade and cultural centers in remote territories and many countries have their own Taken into cultural influence. Thus, all the states on which Indians have made political, commercial or cultural impact their own, are called 'Greater Bharat'. Greater Bharat means that out of Bharat, it is from a vast land where propaganda of Indian culture has spread and in which ancient Indians established their colonies. The geographical and political boundaries in which Bharat is shown today in the map of the world, Bharat was not so small or limited before. Bharat's geographical boundaries were quite wide. Objective After teaching this lesson you:  You will be able to know about the detailed geographical boundaries of ancient Bharat.  In the greater Bharat, the main reasons for the spread of Indian culture will be known.  Know about the countries of the world where the culture of Bharat was spread.  In the greater Bharat, we can find out the reasons for the development of trade and commerce.  In ancient Bharat, we can study the development of various aspects of art.  We will be able to get details of the achievements of Ancient Indian universities , , and Vikramshila.  Get information about the writings of ancient Bharat and the texts written by them.

3.1 Greater Bharat Boundries of Greater Bharat We can divide the countries of greater Bharat in two parts. In the first part, central Asia, Tibet and China can be kept, whereas in the second part, Bharat-China and Eastern Islands can be calculated. In Indo-China, Cambuj (), (), Burma (), Malaya () and Siam () etc. are included. Similarly, the East-island group comprises Sumatra (Srivijaya), , Borneo, (Indonesia) etc. Reasons due to the expansion of Indian Culture in greater Bharat (1) Economic reasons - One of the main reasons for Indian culture being propagated abroad was trade, there was a huge demand in Bharat's goods in abroad. After the establishment of the Roman Empire, Bharat's business relationship with the western world was further strengthened. The book "Periplus of the Erythrionian Sea", from the Greek text, shows that many Indians had settled in the islanders of . (2) Religious reasons - In ancient Bharat, there were many rulers and religious leaders, who sent their followers to a large number abroad to spread their religion. In such rulers, the name of Emperor 31

Ashoka and Kanishka is remarkable. Many Buddhist monks from Bharat travelled to distant lands crossing the Himalaya Mount ranges and crossing the sea for the purpose of propagating religion. Religion propagators promoted not just religion in foreign countries but also Indian civilization and cultural aspects. (3) Political Reason - In ancient times, many rulers attacked other countries on time and took them into their area of influence. Indians in many countries like Kamboja, Champa, Malaya, Burma etc. in have established their colonies. In addition to all these reasons, Bharat's geographical location was also such that Bharat is located in the middle of the southern part of the Asia-Pacific, which was natural to have relations with other countries. Textual questions 1. Which is called 'Greater Bharat'? 2. Tell the names of any of the three countries of East Island? 3. What were the reasons for the Spreading of Indian culture in greater Bharat?

3.2 The spread of Indian culture in different parts of the world Inspired by the spirit of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam', the residents of Bharat, from time to time, have been crossing the boundaries of the country and have been reaching out to other countries to distribute the property of their knowledge-science freely. Some of them are the following: (1) Central Asia - The region situated between China, Bharat and Iran is called Central Asia. In this state there was the influence of Indian culture at places like Khotan (Khutamn), Turfan, Karasahar (FireDirect), Kucha (Kuchi) etc. Due to business links between the southern states of Central Asia and the north-western part of Bharat, Indian colonies were established. 'Khotan' was the largest trading and the main center of Indian culture on the southern route. A Chinese traveler, Phayhain and Hvyensang, had come to Bharat only through the route of Khotan and he has written about the existence of hundreds of grand temples of Buddhism at that time. In Khotan, the followers of the branch of Buddhism lived much more. Like the Khotan, the 'Kucha' situated on the northern route was an important and powerful Indian colony. The ancient kings of the Kutch used to hold Indian names like Swarnpushp, Haripusha, Hardev. Hundreds of and temples were constructed here and Sanskrit was taught in the viharas. Indian music and medicine also had the knowledge of residents there. Karashera was another major center of Indian civilization. He was also called a fire-drive. The names of his kings were Indrajrun, Chandrabhajun etc. Karasahar was an important part of Kanishka's empire. Buddhist relics and Sanskrit language records have also been received in Turafan east of Kucha. (2) Tibet - In the seventh century Tibet became a powerful king called Srosang Nempo. At the same time, Buddhism spread in Tibet. Many scholars from Bharat reached Tibet and translated into Tibetan language. Many Tibetan Indians come to study in Indian schools and started studying. (3) China - Since ancient times, Indians had a knowledge about China. China is mentioned in the Mahabharata, . Kautilya's receives the details of 'Chinese silk'. The credit to Indian mystics and religion-publishers as much as credit to Chinese scholars and Buddhist monks in making Bharat and China's relationship deep, intimate and bright. Many Chinese travelers came to Bharat by facing difficulties and hardships and waterways difficulties, learned Sanskrit language, 32 studied the scriptures. Returning to China, taking as many books as possible, he translated these texts into Chinese and offered selflessness to the whole of life in the propagation of Buddhism. In these Chinese travelers Phyhiyan, Hwansang and Itsing are above all the names.

Vishnu temple called Angkorwat' (4) Comboz – It was the most ancient state among the states of Indo-china. It is called 'Foonan' in Chinese literature, which was founded by Indian called Kondinya. Before its arrival, the inhabitants of that place were uncivilized. The congregation brought civilization there and taught the people there to wear clothes. The descendants of the Kondinya ruled for 100 years and spread the Indian culture. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, Jayawarma settled down in the Ankor region. King Sunvarma II of this lineage built a famous Vishnu temple called 'Angkorwat'. This temple is a great specimen of Indian architecture. The last famous and successful ruler of Kamboja was Jayavarman VII who built the Vishnu temple called 'Angkoratham'. (5) Champa – In the eastern part of Kamboj was a state called Champa, whose modern name is 'Vietnam'. It was also the Indian colonel in ancient times. Here, many Hindu dynasties ruled for a long time, including Bhadravarma, Gangraj, Pandurang, and Harivarman. In Chamapa, there was caste system like Bharat. People used Indian dress. HBurning of queens over their husband's pyres in mentioned (). The was also prevalent. Sanskrit was the official language. Brahmi script was used in the records. The architectural style of Chalukya was followed in the construction of the temples. (6) Burma - Burma, which is currently known as 'Myanmar', before first century C.E., Indian culture had already spread. In the very ancient times, Hindu colonies were established here in Arakan, Tangeng, Shree Shekhar, Dagan and Pigu. Many of Burma's records are in Sanskrit and Pali. Many religious monuments including Indian Goddesses have also been found in Burma. The religion of Burma was the biggest influence of Hindu religion in the state. 'Pagan' was the famous ruler of the state. He was Buddhist. He made many pagodas or temples. He preached higher culture in Burma's barbaric castes. Burma's 'Anand-Mandir' is built by Indian artisans. (7) Malaya - In the 7th Malaya-Malaya (Malay Island), which is currently known as Malaysia, Indians also established their colonies in ancient times. People from Indonesia and Indo-China going to Bharat had to go through the Malaya country. Many portions of this island have found interesting articles in the ruins, statues and Sanskrit languages of ancient temples. In the Hindu states of the 33

Malay Archipelago, there were artisans, Kalashpur, Katah, Pahag etc. The names of the Indian names found in Gautam, sea Vijayavarman etc are found in the kings here. Among the inhabitants there were both Buddhists and who constructed stupas and temples. (8) Siam - Siam is now called 'Thailand' in the name of Thai caste but the influence of Thai caste was not here before the thirteenth century. Earlier it was dominated by Indians. Many places in Siam were Indian names and were related to Buddhism. Apart from Buddha there are many statues of Vishnu and Shiva too. The laws of Siam are reflected in the converted forms of of . There are many Pali and Sanskrit words in the present Siami terminology. (9) Sumatra (Suvarndeep) - Its current name is Indonesia. In about 4th century AD, a Hindu kingdom called 'Sreevijay' was established which reached the peak of progress in the seventh century. There was trade between sea and sea between Bharat and Srivijaya. This was also the main center of trade between Bharat and China. The Chinese traveler, Itsing, studied the Sanskrit language by staying here. According to Itsing, Sumatra was a famous center of Buddhism. (10) Java (Yavidwip) - It is currently located in Indonesia. In the , the name of the Java is found as yavadwipa. King Devavarma was the ruler of Java in 132 C.E. who sent his ambassador to the court of the Chinese emperor. There were many Hindu states in Java. In the Sanskrit archives, the mention of King Purushurna is found. While traveling back from Bharat to China, Fahien stopped in Java. Hundreds of Hindu and Buddhist temples have reveated archaeological finds in Java. The famous monument of Java is the Buddhist of '' which is near Jakarta. It was built by Shailendra dynastic kings during the period 750 to 850 C.E. , literature, language, Varna system, festival customs can be seen in wide spread of each region. (11) Varna Borneo - Borneo there found many Sanskrit articles, which mentions Hindu Ruler called 'Mulvarma'. It is clear from the records that most of the Borneo residents were Brahmins and there was widespread publicity of Indian culture. Statues of Shiva, , , , Mahakal and Buddha have been found in Broneo. (12) Bali - Bali Island is also located in Indonesia. Located in the far east, it is the only colony which has kept its ancient culture and civilization still intact in sufficiently. Islam did not have much impact here. Consequently, the remains of Hindu religion and culture are still existing here today. Even today, there are statues of Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha and Durga. (13) Lavdesh (Laos) - 'Lavpuri' is a town named after 'Lav', son of Lord Bhadreshwar is the god of Lavdesh. had a widespread influence here. Its first king was Shrutvarman. His son was a Shreshtha Varman, who established a city called Shrashtpur. Pratipada and Vijaya Dashmi were the popular festivals of the year. Here Shalivahan samvat was very popular, which is still effective. It is evident from the above statements that the propagators of Indian civilization and culture spread their civilization, culture, language, lifestyle and customs by spreading the spirit of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam' and reaching the corner of the world. Textual questions 4. What is the modern name of 'Champa'? 5. Which Chinese object is mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra? 6. What is the name of the Kambuj in the Chinese literature?

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3.3 Business, Industry and Commerce in Greater Bharat Trade and commerce have been the main element of Bharat's economic life. In fact it was the prime reason for the prosperity of the residents here. For this reason Bharat was known as the 'Golden Bird'. Trade - Bharat's trade from abroad was done by both water and land. Land trade routes were used for trade with Tibet, China in the east and main part Iran and Arabia in the west. In the east, Tamralipti () port was the chief of the water route. This port was trade with countries like China, Lanka, Java, Sumatra etc. In the west there were ports, such as Bhadoch, Sopara. From here the ships used to go to Western countries. Exports - Cotton, silk and zari dresses, spices, ivory, tobacco, cloves, , Indigo, precious stones. Import- Sweet wine, fig, silver, red ruby, diamonds, gold. There was a heavy consumption of Bharat in western countries textiles, cosmetics, ornaments. In exchange for these goods, gold came in huge quantities in Bharat. Industry - Bharat's textile industry was very advanced. The best silk fabrics were made in Banaras. Very high quality cotton cloth was prepared in Madura. Bengal's malmal was famous all over the world. The art of muslin artisans is exposed by the fact that the location of a muslin which was 20 yards long and 1 yards wide could be taken out from a . Metal business was also advanced. Various types of utensils, weapons, ornaments and sculptures were made by various types of metals by melting and molding them. Jewelery was very beautiful and attractive. Jewelers were proficient in testing. Ivary crafts were also advanced. The ivory furniture decorating and stamping industry was also well-developed. Ships of seaking capacity of 500 were also made. In other industries, the industry of wood business, business of blacksmith, leather industry, sugar, salt, blue production etc. were in advanced state. The developed state of industry is a sign of the technology and technical skills of Indians. Trade and economic institutions - In the early period of ancient Bharat, trade was done by commodity exchange. Later coins became prevalent. Business transaction was done by coins. Gold coin 'NIshka silver coin 'Dharan'and copper coin was called 'Mashak' and 'Kakani'. Guilds - There were associations of artisans and businessmen who were called shreni or guild. In addition to taking care of their business, these organisations participated in local administration, used to work in the bank and did charity and work of public interest. Textual questions 7. Which area of malmal was famous all over the world ? 8. What type of coin was known as 'Nishak’? 9. What were the main functions of 'Shreni'?

3.4 Art of Ancient Bharat Achievements of ancient Bharat in the field of art are very important along with diverse fields of culture. Due to the various art forms of art like architecture, sculpture, painting and music, cultural heritage of ancient Bharat developed. Architecture - Monuments of the architectural importance of ancient Bharat are found in four forms - pillars, stupas, buildings, cave house. 35

(1)Pillars - The best examples of the pillars are found in the Mauryan period. About thirty pillars made by Emperor are obtained from different parts of Bharat. All these pillars were made from the same piece of stone, so they are called 'monotonous' columns. Ashok's orders are sculped on these. The four lions is the best of the Ashoka Pillar of Sarnath in the column head. On its side,

Lions on Ashoka Pillar of Sarnath The Stupa of () four lions are sticking back too back and sitting firmly in front of the four directions. The bright polishing on the columns is remarkable. (2) Stupa – Stupa is a, round shape movement, monument semi circular in form made of stones or bricks in which the bones of Mahatma Buddha or great Buddhist monks were preserved. To circumambulate the stupa, the pathway was made around it. The Stupa of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) is most famous in terms of art. (3) Palace (Raj Prasad) - The rulers of ancient Bharat built grand royal palaces. In the beginning, in construction of buildings, wood, clay etc. were used, but Emperor Ashoka started using stone in them. He built a beautiful palace in , which was located in a huge garden. Looking at these palaces, the Chinese traveler Fa-Hien said, 'By seeing these palaces and buildings, the people of this people can not make them, they must have been made by the gods'. (4) Cave house - Indian artists were experts in the art of making caves by cutting rocks of hard stones. In the time of Emperor Ashoka and his grandson Dashrath, the caves were built by cutting the hills of Nagarjuni and the nearby hills. These caves have polished poles on the roofs and walls. Sculpture - Sculpture of ancient Bharat was largely influenced by religion. It presented life, morality and originality. Most of the statues are made of dieties , Buddha and Tirthankaras. , Saranath and Pataliputra were the main centers of sculpture. The statue of Lord Vishnu, the idol of Uravagiri, the statue of , reclining statue of Vishnu in the Dashavtar temple of Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh), statues of Ganga and on the entrance of the Vishnu temple of Tigwan (Madhya Pradesh) etc are not able examples of sculpture. Apart from this, sculptures of Vishnu, Shiva, Saraswati, , Ganesh etc. are found in Cambodia of Greater Bharat. Painting - In ancient Bharat there was a special progress in the field of painting. The use of colors, lines, expressions and themes was done very effectively. (1) Ajanta painting – Many frescoes of Ajanta (Maharastra) are related to Buddhist religion. Various events of Buddha's life and scenes of Jataka tales have been marked in abundance with the 36 picture of dying in Ajanta's 16th cave, which is most attractive and beautiful. The families around her are in mournful state. In another picture, the expression of surrender and spiritual peace is displayed. (2) Painting of Ellora - Caves of Ellora (Maharashtra) are full of sculpture and painting, which reflects excellent knowledge of art and precious work in human history. Here images are related to Buddhism, and Jainism which show live ancient Indian civilization. Painting of the Bagh- Like the Ajanta, pictures are obtained from the caves of the Bagh hill are also beautiful and attractive. The pictures here are different from Ajanta's pictures in the sense that their subject matter is not religious, and related to the temporal life. Music Art - Ancient Indian rulers were music lovers. Music was given personal interest and state protection. On the coins of Samudragupta, he has been depicted playing the Veena. Hence his love of music appears. There has been considerable advancement in the field of music and dance. Instruments like flute, mridang, bheri, jhanje, etc. were developed. Dancing women in pictures is also displayed. Dancing and music are also mentioned in the literature of Kalidas. Textual questions 10. The cave paintings of Ajanta were found in which state? 11. What is the stupa? 12. Which ruler made famous pillar of Sarnath?

3.5 Education in ancient Bharat Education was highly valued in ancient Bharat. In the Mahabharata, it is described that there is no better vision than (knowledge) and not kind of penance than the truth (Nasti Vidyamam Chakkurnaasti Satyamam). It is considered as a means of salvation (light or liberation). Details of ancient Indian literature and foreign travelers reveal that there were four Vedas, six Vedanga, 14 vidhya, 18 shilps and 64 arts etc. in the course of education. A major element of ancient Indian education system was the Gurukul system in which the students used to live away from their home in Gurukul and received education. Along with the advancement of Buddhism, Vihar also became the center of education and developed into some reputed university. Taxila - Takshshila is currently located in Pakistan. In ancient times, this Gandhara was the capital of the state. Students from Takshshila University came from far and wide to study. King Prasenjit of Kausal, Rajadhyak living in Magadha, etc got education right here. was a teacher here. Nalanda - Nalanda University is currently located in the state of Bihar. First of all Buddhist Vihara founded here in the Gupta period. Nalanda grew into an internationally renowned university Emperor Harshavardhana. Chinese traveler Hien Tsang has givendetailed description of Nalanda. According to him, 10 thousand students used to do schooling. Students were not only from Bharat but also from China, , Tibet, Mongolia, Korea and other countries came to study here. Hien Tsang and Itsing also studied in Nalanda. Vikramshila University - Vikramshila University, located in Bhagalpur district of present-day Bihar state, has also been an education center of International repute similar to Nalanda. Vikramshila Vihar was founded by Pal Naresh Dharmapala. The special subjects of study in the university were grammar, logic, theory, theology etc. 37

Apart from these, , Vallabh, Banaras, Rajghat and Pataliputra were famous centers of higher education in ancient Bharat. Textual questions 13. Taxila is situated in which country? 14. Nalanda University’s international fame came in the time of which ruler ? 15. By which ruler was Vikramshila University founded?

3.6 Literature of Ancient Bharat In ancient Bharat, literary development was also accompanied by academic progress. On the basis of language, we can divide the ancient literature into three parts: Sanskrit literature; Buddhist literature; . Sanskrit Literature - Vedas, Vedanga, Upanishads, Smriti and Literature are prominent in Sanskrit literature. Kalidas is the best poet and playwrite of Sanskrit language. 'Kumar Sambhavam' and 'Raghuvansham,' are two epic poems of Kalidas. 'Meghdootam' and ' Samharm' are two minor poetry. 'Vikrammanshiyam' 'Malavikagnimatram' and 'Abhiyan Shakuntalam' are his plays. 'AbhigyanShakuntalam' is the quintessential great composition of Kalidas, in which dramatic portrayal of the story of the union between Dushyant and Shakuntala, separation and reunion has been done with great vitality. Sanskrit poet 'Bharavi' composed an epic called 'Kiratarjuniyam', whose story is taken from Mahabharata. The poet 'Magh' composed the book 'Shishupalvadham'. In addition to this, 'Bhas', 'Swapnavasavadatta', Visakhadatta 'Mudraraksha', 'Shudrak', 'Merrichatikam' and 'Arthssastra' of Kautilya (Chanakya) are unique works of Sanskrit literature. Buddhist literature - Buddhist literature is found mainly in Pali and Sanskrit languages. The famous scripture of the Buddhists is 'Tripitak'. It is in pali language. In the aftermath of the death of Mahatma Buddha, his teachings were compiled and divided into three pitak: method Vinay Pitka; Suttapitak; and abhidhammpitka.These are compiled as Tripitak. Apart from Pali language, many Buddhist texts are also written in Sanskrit language. Among them is the name of the famous poet and playwright 'Ashwaghosh', who decorated the emperor Kanishka's court who composed 'Buddhaitrita', 'Saundaranand' and 'Sariputra Prakran'. Apart from these, Buddhist literature contains important texts like Mahavastu, Lalit Vistar, Divya Vedan, Manju Shrimulkalpa etc. In Jatak, there is a description of the previous births of Mahatma Buddha which is in the form of stories. Jain Literature - Jain texts were composed mainly in language. The origin of Jainism is called 'Agam Sahitya'. Historically, the 'Parishista Parvan' written by Hemchandra Suri, is considered to be most the most important inthe Jain literature, Bhadrabahucharita tells us the life and history of Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu in 3rd BCE. Apart from this, Kuvalayamala written by Udyotan Suri is also a valuable treatise, which also throws light on the cultural history of Bharat. Textual questions 16. Which ruler's is described in the play named 'AbhigyanShakuntalam'? Mahauroli () Iron Pillar of Chandragupta II. 38

17. Write the name of the three Pitaks of Triptik? 18. Who wrote the book 'Parishista Parvan'? 3.7 Science Ancient Bharat was very rich in science and technical terms. Its important example is the Mahauroli (Delhi) Iron Pillar of Chandragupta II. It is a sufficient proof of the advancement of . This pillar is 24 feet long and weighing 180 maunds is characterized by the fact that it was propounded has stood still without rust tolerating cold, heat and rain for hundreds of years. The theory of molecule was propounded in the Gupta era. was not only philosopher, but also a scientist who promoted shunyavad and theory of relativity. Textual questions 19. The Mehrauli pillar of Delhi was biult during the reign of which ruler? 20. Who introduced the theory of relativity?

3.8 Mathematics Aryabhatta was the famous mathematician of ancient Bharat, whose main work is 'Aryabhatyam'. He rendered diverse rules of mathematics. Bharat's greatest contribution in the field of mathematics is the invention of zero which was used by Aryabhatta in the fifth century. The development of decimal method also happened in this era. Aryabhatta had knowledge of square root and taking out cube, triangle, quadrilateral and circle of sphere and area extract, diagonals of interacting with cyclic quadrilateral and their use, parallel, ratio and their integration etc. Not only that, however, Aryabhatta made sure that even the four decimal places of 'pie' definite real values. Bhaskaracharya's 'Lilavati' and 'Siddhant Shiromani' are both priceless treasures of the world. The quotient is 'infinite' after dividing the positive number by zero; it was also known by Bhaskaracharya. In the field of mathematics, the present Pythagorean Theorem was rendered about twenty-seven hundred years ago by Bodhayaan, which was known as the Chithi-theorem. Thus, a number of systems which provided the revolutionary basis for the development of mathematics were originally made in Bharat, which became popular throughout the world through the translation texts from Sanskrit to Arabic and Latin after the seventh century. Textual questions 21. The famous mathematician Aryabhatta wrote which book? 22. Who wrote the book 'Leelavati'?

3.9 Astrology and astronomy was a mathematician as well as a scholar of astrology. Aryabhatta first discovered the earth rotatesaround on its own axis. He calculated the causes of eclipse and the motion of various constellations by ' Siddhant'. He discovered that the solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse are the result of the shadow of the moon and the earth. By adjusting the moon's earth all four and the Earth on its axis, adjusting the Twelve Signs, the Power of Constellation, the Moon of Thirty Day, the Year of the Twelve Years, the Moon and the Solar Years, adjusted by the Purushottam (more) month every third year. Pure astronomical theories are proposed in ancient astrology scholars. Bharamagupta wrote ' Siddhantta' in which Newton's gravitational theory was discovered years before Newton. 'Varahamihir' rendered five principles of astrology in the book 'Panch Siddhika'. 39

Textual questions 23. Who created the writer of 'Brahma Siddhant'? 24. Which text was written by Varahmihir?

3.10 Ayurveda is the world's oldest medical practice, which is the contribution of Bharat. Famous Ayurvedaacharya Vagbatta of Gupta period composed 'Ashtang' Hriday '. was the royal physician of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. They are considered to be the father of Ayurveda. Nagarjuna invented the innovative method in the field of medicine by inventing the Ras Chikitsa system (consuming various metals and using them as a medicine). The named 'Palakapya' wrote the book 'Hastaurveda' in which elephants' diseases and remedies are described. Various prescriptions are described in the Ayurveda book 'Navneetakam'. Sushruta is considered as the world's first surgeon. He also had the knowledge of aenesthesia along with the surgical procedures of organ transplants, extracting stones, curing cataracts etc. 'Charak' 'is the invaluable treasure for Ayurveda. Textual questions 25. What text was written by PalakPya? 26. Who is considered the world's first surgeon? 27. Who is called “Ras Chikista”? What have you learned? 1. Indians had established their influence in greater Bharat in political, commercial and cultural terms. 2. and Buddhist stupas are often found everywhere in greater Bharat. 3. Bharat's trade with abroad was from both water and land. 4. There were associations of artisans and businessmen who called 'Shreni or Nigam'. 5. Monuments of architectural art of ancient Bharat are found in four forms, columns, stupas, buildings and cave houses. 6. Indian sculpture has visions of life, ethics and originality. 7. Gurukul education system was prevailing in ancient Bharat. 8. Bharat had internationally renowned universities like Taxshila, Nalanda and Vikramshila. 9. Kalidas, Bharavi, Magh and Bhas were famous writers of Sanskrit. 10. Buddhist literature was primarily in Pali and Sanskrit languages while Jain literature was written in Sanskrit language. 11. In ancient Bharat, there was tremendous progress in the field of science, mathematics, astrology, astronomy and ayurveda. 12. There were renowned Ayurvedaacharya like Dhanvantri, Charak and Sushrut in Bharat. Answeres 1. On all those traditions on which Indians had their influence in political, commercial or cultural terms. 2. Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Bali (Indonesia) 3. Economic reasons, religious reasons, political reasons 4. Vietnam 5. Chinese Silk 40

6. Foonan 7. Bengal 8. Gold 9. In addition to the care of the businesses, work of charity and charity and public works of the bank 10. Maharashtra 11. Such monuments where the bones of Mahatma Buddha or great Buddhist monks were kept safe. 12. Ashoka 13. Pakistan 14. Harshavardhana 15. Pal Naresh Dharmapal 16. King Dushyanta 17. Vinay Pittak, Sutta Pitta, Abhidhma Pittak 18. Hemchandra Suri 19. Chandragupta II 20. Nagarjuna 21. Arya Bhattiam 22. Bhaskaracharya 23. Brahma Gupta 24. Punch Siddhantika 25. Hastaurveda 26. Sushruta 27. Consumption of various metals and their use as medicine Question for Exercise Objective Typr questionnaire 1. Where was Hindu kingdom called 'Shri Vijay' established? (A) Java (b) Sumatra (C) Malayya (D) Syaam 2. With which royal Court 'Charaka'was associated ? (A) Kanishka (B) Chandragupta Vikramaditya (C) Ashok (D) Samudragupta 3. Which of the following books was not composed by Ashwaghosh? (A) Sariputta Prakran (B) Buddha charitra (C) Bhadrabhu Charitra (D) Saundranand 4. The Buddhist stupa of Borobudur is located on the following places - (A) China (B) Java (C) Burma (D) Cambodia 5. Hien Tsang studied at which University? (A) Taxila (B) Nalanda (C) Vikramshila (D) Vallabhbhai

Short Answer question 6. with what the painting of Bagh related to? 7. Which Chinese travelers came to Bharat by the route of Khotan? 41

8. Which Indian was the founder of Kamboj? 9. In what country is the temple of ? 10. What is the current name of Burma? 11. Which dynasty biult the Buddhist Stupa of Borobudur? 12. Name the two sea ports located in the west of Bharat. 13. Who is called 'Monumental Pillar'? 14. In which state is the Buddhist Stupa of Sanchi situated? 15. Which scripture is associated with 'Triptik'? 16. 'Agum' literature is related to which religion? 17. Briefly mention any two internationally renowned universities of ancient Bharat. 18. Write commentary on Sanskrit literature of ancient Bharat. 19. Describe the achievements of Bharat in the field of astrology and astronomy. 20. Explain the key features of Ajanta painting. 21. What do you Shreni of guilds? Essay type question 22. What do you understand by Greater Bharat? What were the reasons for the spread of Indian culture in greater Bharat? 23. In which countries of greater Bharat did Indian culture spread? 24. Describe the development of art in ancient Bharat. 25. What were Bharat's achievements in the field of mathematics and science?

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Chapter 4

Golden Bharat (From beginning to 1206 AD)

Introduction- Bharat has been a very prosperous country in cultural and historical context. The Upanishads and the Gita which spread the knowledge, it is still unleashing in this country uninterrupted even today. The non-violence and peace that Mahatma Buddha and Mahavir Swami had given, is still alive and awaken in this country. In the Indus-Saraswati culture and in the post- Vedic period, the basic elements of Indian culture had been created and the Gupta emperors made their great contribution in making it fully blooming. Foreign invaders could not move the foundations of Indianism, unlike foreign culture; they got absorbed in Indian culture. In the chapter presented, you will study the history of the and the history of the Vardhans along with the external aggression and self-assimilation. Objectives - After styding this lesson you will:  Aquire the knowledge of different Mahajanapadas of Bharat.  Development Indian history from Mahajanapadas to Harsh times.  Identify the beneficial factors of the decline of various dynasties.  Be able to study the effects and consequences of external attacks.  Understand the process of self-assimilation.

4.1 Mahajanapad Period Sixth century to fourth century BCE By the middle of the Indian history, many important events occurred from. At this time Mahatma Buddha was born and at the same time there was no supreme power in Bharat. Bharat was divided into several states, whose rulers continued to wage war with each other to gain supreme power. Powerful ended the existence of weak janapadas. The states which were geographically detailed and powerful, those states were called 'Mahajanapadas'. These Mahajanapadas were independent and sovereign. Both the monarchy and republican system were popular in these Mahajanapadas. Sixteen Mahajanapadas have been mentioned in the Buddhist text 'Angutarinikay' and Jain Granth 'Bhagwatasutra'. There were only four states out of 16 Mahajanpadas (Magadha, Kaushal, and Avanti), which has a Monarchy lest of them had democratic governance. Sixteen Mahajanapadas - 1. Ang - The Champanagari was the capital of this Mahajanapad situated in present day Bhagalpur and Munger district of Bihar. The Ang was the neighboring state of Magadha. Bimbisara, the powerful ruler of Magadha, annexed Ang in Magadha state. 2. Magadha – In 6th century BCE Magadha was one of the most famous and powerful Mahajanapadas of all. In this Mahajanapad, the and Gaya areas of the present Bihar state were included. The ancient capital of Magadha was 'Rajgrih' or 'Girivraj'. In time, the capital of Magadha was established in Pataliputra (Patna, Kusumpur). The rulers of the Haryank dynasty, Bimbasar and Ajatshatru made many efforts to increase its strength. Later, under the Shishunaga dynasty and Nand Dynasty, the power and extent of this state expanded. Magadha soon emerged as the political power center of northern Bharat. 43

3. Kashi - Present (Uttar Pradesh) and its adjoining area were the Kashi Mahajanapadas in ancient times. Varanasi (Benaras), surrounded by Varuna in the north and the Asi rivers in the south, Varanasi (Banaras) was the capital of this Mahajanapada. It was a prosperous and resourceful state. The most powerful king here was Brahmadatta who had won over Kaushal. But finally King Kans of Kausal annexed Kashi in his kingdom. Ajatshatru made Kashi a part of Magadha. 4. Vats - This state was spread along the river Yamuna. Its capital was Kaushambi (Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh). Udayan was the most famous king of Vats. King of Avanti Chandpardyoth defeated Vatsaraj Udyan. 5. Koshal - The area of the current Awadh (Faizabad) was called Kaushal. The capital of Ramayana’s Kaushal was 'Ayodhya'. The Saryu River divided the Kingdom into two parts, northern and southern Kosala The capital of northern Kosala was Saket (Ayodhya) and was the capital of southern Kosala. At the time of Buddha, Kausal's King was Prasenjit. 6. Shurasen - This Mahajanapada was located in the modern Braj region. Its capital was Mathura. Mathura town was settled on the banks of river Yamuna. The description of this city is found in the Mahabharata and Puranas. Here the rule of Yadu (Yadav) dynasty ruled. According to Pali Literature, Avintaputra was the contemporary of Buddha and the son of Shursen. 7. Panchal - The state of Panchlas was located in Ruhalkhand (Bareilly, Badayun, Farrukhabad) of modern Western Uttar Pradesh. Initially it had two parts. Uttar Panchal's capital was Ahichatra (Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh) and the capital of southern Panchal was Kampliya (Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh). This state is described in the Mahabharata. Draupadi was the daughter of this kingdom. 8. Kuru - Kuru Mahajanapad was situated in Delhi-Meerut area. The capital of the Kurus was in (Delhi). The town of Hastinapur of Mahabharata was also located in this state. Initially Kurus was a monarchical state, but later on democracy was established. 9. Matsya - It was located in present Rajasthan in , and Bharatpur areas. Its capital was 'Viratnagar' which was founded by the king named Virat. It is said that had spent the last year of their exile here. 10. Chedi - From the area of modern , there is boundary of the Chedi-state. Its capital was 'Shaktimati'. In the Mahabharata period, the king was 'Shishu Pala', who was killed by Krishna. 11. Avanti - The major state in and Madhya Pradesh were Avanti in western Bharat. This state was also divided into two parts. Ujjaini (Ujjain), the capital of Northern Avanti and the capital of Southern Avanti was the Mahismati. During the time of Mahatma Buddha, the king was Chandapradyoth. 12. Gandhara - The area of and Rawalpindi of Pakistan was called Gandhara Mahajanapada. Its capital was Takshshila, which was a major center of learning and trade in its time. The famous ruler here was Sarith. 13. Kamboj - This was a neighboring state of Gandhara. The capital of this state was Hatak or Rajpur. In the beginning, Kamboj had a monarchy system, but later the Republican system was established here. 14. Ashmak - It was situated on the banks of in the south. Its capital was Poten or Potlie. Among the mahajanpadas, only Ashmak Mahajanapadas was located in South Bharat. 15. – It was the most important Mahajanpad among the republican states mentioned in sixteen Mahajanapadas. It was located in the north of Magadha. It was a group of eight republics in which Vaishali's Lichchhavi, Videha of and the Gyatrik of Kundagram were particularly famous, whose capital was Vaishali, Mithila and Kundagram respectively. Magadha Emperor Ajatshatru took control on Vaishali and made it part of the Magadha empire. 44

16. Malla - Apart from Vajji, the second important democratic state was Malla. This Mahajanapad was situated in the adjoining region of Gorakhpur. The Mala state was divided into two parts. The capitals of these two states were Kushinara and respectively. Mahatma Buddha made his last meal in Pava and took nirvana in Kushinara. Textual questions Fill in the blanks - 1. The mention of sixteen Mahajanapadas is found in Buddhist texts ...... 2. Shurasen was the capital of Mahajanapadh ...... 3. The most powerful Mahajanapadas in sixteen Mahajanapadas were ...... 4. In Mahajanapadas only ...... Mahajanapadas were located in South Bharat. 4.2 Chief Mahajanpadas of Rajasthan Rise of Vedic civilization is also found in the districts in Rajasthan. Embarking on Alexander’s campaign and protecting his independence, Malav, Shivi and Arjunaan castes, who were famous for their courage and bravery, settled here. These castes were organized in the form of . Jangal - This region was called Kuru Jangal and Madr jangal in the Mahabharata period. The capital of this region was Ahichtrapur (Nagaur). In ancient times, areas of , Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Nagaur and districts came in the border of Jangal Desh. In the Mahabharata period, the Yudhayas used to reside in the northern part of the Jangal Desh, which was called Yudhay because of love for war. The King of Bikaner was the owner of this Jangal country, so he called himself 'Jangaldhar Badshah'. Matsya- Matsya District was spread in the intermediate area of modern Jaipur-Alwar-Bharatpur districts. Matsya has been mentioned in the Rig Veda as a major Aryan group. In the Mahabharata period, the monarch was ruled by a king named Viraat and Viratnagar (present day Baratha) was its capital. The records of the time of Ashoka from Viratnagar confirm that the Mauryas ruled here for long periods of time. Thus, from the Rig Vedaic period to the rise of the Magadha empire, Rajasthan's Matsya Mahajanapadan played an important role in the political and cultural life of ancient Bharat. Shurasen - This Mahajanapada was located in the modern Braj region. Its capital was Mathura. The ancient Greek writers call this state 'Shusarenoi' and the capital 'Methora'. According to the Mahabharata, there was rule of Yadu (yadav). Most of Bharatpur, Dhaulpur and Karauli districts were covered under this region the district. The eastern part of was also under the reign of Shurasen. Vasudev's son Krishna belonged to this district. Shivi - The capital of Shivi district was Shivpur and King Sushin defeated it with other castes in the war of ten kings. Ancient Sivpur is identified from the location of the present day Shortkot in Pakistan. In the long run, this ancient tribe of Southern Punjab started living in the region of Rajasthan. Textual questions 5. What was the capital of the Jangal region? 6. Which modern districts were included in the Matsya area? 4.3 Rise and expansion of Magadha Empire As has been said, Magadha was among the most powerful and prosperous Mahajanapadas in sixteen Mahajanapadas. The in the north and the Son River flowed in the north. In the Mahabharata, the mention of 'Vahradrath', founder of the ancient Dynasty of Magadha, is mentioned. Magadha was an economically advanced state with access to iron mineral and there was excellent army too. 45

The new dynasty which came into power after Vritadratha dynasty in Magadha is known as 'Harynk' Dynasty. The first great ruler of this dynesty was 'Bimbisara'. He gained the support of its neighboring mighty kings through marital relations and succeeded in the spread of Magadha's empire. After Bimbisar, Ajatashtru and Udayin were proud rulers of the Haryank dynasty. Amatya named Shishunag, laid the foundations of a new dynasty after the last ruler Nagashak of the Hariyank dynasty, which is called the Shishunaga Dynasty. Apart from Shishunaag, Kalashok was another famous ruler, during whose reign the second Buddhist music was organized. Mahapadam laid the foundations of 'Nanda' dynasty after the Shishunaag dynasty. The last ruler of this lineage was Dhananand. Dhananand was a contemporary ruler of Sikandar who was a tyrannical ruler. The public was suffering from his atrocities was looking for a remedy for liberation. Under these circumstances, Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan dynasty with the help of the people of Magadha and Chanakya and ended the Nand dynasty. Maurya dynasty - The establishment of the is an event that is a beginning of a new era in Indian history. The Mauryas established political unity by establishing a vast empire. The inscriptions of Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Ashoka are notable among the principal rulers of this lineage. The Chandragupta Maurya and Ashok, literary sources, Arthsastra of Kautilya, and the details of the history of the Mauryan period give information about the history of Maurya period. In addition to political integration, the Mauryas made significant contributions in the development of the economic, social, administrative and religious areas and the development of art skills. Chandragupta Maurya (322 BC to 298 BC) - Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Maurya dynasty. With the help of Chanakya, he established his kingdom end the crisis caused by the Greek invasion and to provide relief from the oppressed rulers of Magadha. Early life - Various historical proofs have proved that Chandragupta was born into a branch of the Sakya dynasty of Mori or Maury. Probably being the son of mayurpalakas, he was called Maurya. The Brahman scriptures consider him related to a lower kul, whereas Buddhist and Jain texts prove him Kshatriya. Chandragupta had a strong intellect since childhood. One day during the ‘Rajkilam’ game in which the child Chandragupta was made king, the eye of Chanakya fell on the Chandragupta. Chanakya was very impressed with him. He took him to Takshshila and provided him with proper education and planned to destroy Nand dynasty. The achievements of Chandragupta - Chandragupta Maurya had two distinct goals- to eliminate the tyrannical rule of Nand from Magadha and to free Bharat from Greek invaders. Chandragupta and Chanakya organized a huge army and started the triumph of victory for achieving their goals. (1) Triumph over Punjab- Chanakya and Chandragupta started their triumph over Punjab as per their plans. He incited public opinion against the foreign rule (the Greeks) in the North-East Frontier Province and organized an army of freedom fighters of Punjab and established friendship with the hill king of the Himalayas. In fact, this war against the Greeks was given a form of mass rebellion and Chandragupta led the rebellion for this independence. Thus, the freedom of the North-West Front was the major achievement of Chandragupta. (2) Triumph Over Magadha - From Punjab he reached Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha. The people of Magadha got fed up with the atrocities of Nand rulers. Hence, Chandragupta was welcomed as a liberator. Nand King Dhanand was famous for his immense wealth and great and invincible army. With the help of the people of Magadha, he succeeded in defeating the last Nand ruler, Dhananand. (3) War with Saleukes - After the death of Alexander, he inherited the successor of the Eastern territories. His aim was to retake Alexzanders territories. So he invaded Bharat. Chandragupta 46

Maurya not only did successful resistance but also proved his victory by the terms of the treaty. The terms of the treaty were the following: - Saleukes handed over the regions to of Arcosia (Kandahar), Peroponnisdai (), Aria (Herat) and Jadrosia (Balochistan) to Chandragupta. A marital relationship was established between the two rulers. According to some scholars, Saleukas married his daughter to Chandragupta Maurya. ; Chandra Gupta was presented the gift of 500 elephants to the Salukes. Salukes sent an ambassador named 'Megasthenes' in the court of Chandragupta Maurya who composed a book called 'Indica'. Conquest over South Bharat - There is some indication of Chandra Gupta Maurya's victory in South Bharat, from Jain and Tamil sources too. His death in () also confirmed his rule in the South. Empire expansion - Chandragupta Maurya tied almost all Bharat in the form of unity. The kingdom of Chandragupta Maurya is from the Himalayas in the north and Masur in the south and Hindus in the in east. In North West, his empire extended to middle Asia. Before that any other Indian ruler had not established such a large empire. End of Chandragupta Maurya- According to Jain conginition, Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jianism in the last phase of his lifetime.He went to Mysore with Acharya Bhadrabahu after 12 year of famine of Magadha. In Shravanbalagola (Mysore) he give up his life by fasting method. It is said to be ‘Sanlekhana’ in Jainism. Bindusara (298 B.C to 273 B.C)- After Chandragupta Maurya, his son Bindusara sat on the throne of the Maurya Empire. The Greek writer addresses him ‘Amitraghat’(Destroyer of Enemy). Bindusara also followed his father’s policy. In the time of Bindusara, the friendship between Bharat and the Western Greek states continued. King of Syria Antiyocas I sent his ambassador, Dimakus to the Court of Bindusar.Bindusara protected the kingdom of his father and suppressed the revolt. He ruled for 25 years. Emperor Ashoka (273 BC to 236 BC) - After the death of Bindusara, his capable son Ashok sat on the throne of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka holds his top position among the greatest emperors of world history, who marked his personality on his own era.

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Early life of Ashoka - Ashoka was the governor of Ujjayini during his father's reign. In a saga of Sinhalese, Ashoka has been accused to get the throne by killing 99 of his brothers. Ashoka's coronation took place in 269 BCE. Kalinga Vijay - In the ninth year of coronation, Ashoka invaded Kalinga (Orissa), and describes this war in his 13th inscription. This was a fierce war in which millions of people were killed, and hundreds of people were injured and imprisoned. Ultimately, Ashok defeated Kalinga. Kalinga became part of the Magadha Empire. The consequences of the Kalinga war turned out to be very important. Seeing the horrific bloodshed in the war, Ashoka's heart changed. He adopted the policy of peace and non-violence and left the war for ever. Ashoka took the path of Dhamma Vijay in place of victory Accepting Buddhism, Ashok dedicated his body, mind, wealth, and religion to spread religion. Ashoka and Buddhism - In the early years of his rule, Ashoka was a follower of Hinduism. Later, he adopted Buddhism. Ashoka provided political protection to Buddhism. Ashoka built many Buddhist monuments during his reign, Ashoka travelled to Buddhist Gaya and Buddhist shrines in 'Lumbini'. In the era of Ashoka, third Buddhist counal was organized in Pataliputra. Ashok also sent many abroad for the promotion of Buddhism. His son Mahendra and daughter sent Sanghamitra went to Sri Lanka to promote Buddhism. Apart from this, Ashoka created a new section of office bearers for the propagation of religion which was called 'Dharam Mahamatra'. For the promotion of religion, Ashoka inscribed his principles on various rocks and pillars. These records were spread in every corner of his vast empire. The language of the records was not Sanskrit but it was the language of the general public at the time. To popularize his religion, Ashok did many things for the welfare of human and animal species. He banned the killing of animals and birds, planted fruit trees and dug wells. For the ethical uplift of its subjects, the code of ethics which Ashoka presented was called 'Dhamma' in its records. Actually, this Dhamma and its propaganda are the main cause of Ashoka being famous in world history. He did not try to impose his religious beliefs on anyone. He pursued policy of . Maurya administration - The main source of knowledge of Maurya system is Arthashastra, Indica and inscription. For the first time in the Mauryan period, centralized government was established. Central administration – King was the centre point of the system. There was a council of ministers for his help. Eighteen departments are mentioned in Arthshastra which are called ‘Tirths', including ministers, priests, commanders and Yuvraj heads. In addition, there are mention of 26 Chairmen in the Arthshastra, such as the Sitadhyaksh (Agriculture), Lakshandhyaksh (Issue of currency), Treasurer, Atwik (Chief of Forest Department) etc. Provincial Administration - At the time of Ashoka, there is a mention of divisions of empire into five provinces - Kalinga (Tosli), Uttarapath (Takshshila), Avanti (Ujjayini), Dakshinapath (Suvarnagiri), Madhyadha (Pataliputra). The province was governed by 'Kumar'. The province was divided into ‘Vishay’ whose heads were 'Vishaypati. The district's administrative officer was 'sthanik'. The 'Gramik' was a rural level officer. Town management - Megasthenese has mentioned six committees for town management. (1) Industry and Architecture, (2) Birth and Death Accounts, (3) Business-and trade, (4) Sales, (5) Sale Tax (6) Overseas supervision. There were five members in each committee. There was an advanced military system during the Maurya period. There were five divisions of the army- infantry, horses, elephant, chariot, and navy. The Maurya Emperor was the supreme authority of the justice system. Dhramsthaliya and Kantak Shodhan were respectively settling civil and criminal cases. 48

Mauryan society - Indian society has been classified into seven castes in Megasthenes Indica - farmer, archers, managers, craftsmen, soldiers, inspectors and rulers .Kautilya has mentioned four types of business as well as other castes Nishad, Rathkar and Chandal. In Maurya period women's position was better than Smriti Kal. They were allowed to remarry and Neyog was prevalent. Fall of Maurya Empire – In 232 B.C.E. with the death of Ashoka, the Maurya Empire headed towards decline. All successors of Ashok were inefficient and weak. Under such circumstances, the last Mauryan emperor, Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Sung. Thus, the Maurya Empire ended. Textual questions 7. Who is the founder of the Maurya Empire? 8. Name of of Chandragupta Maurya? 9. Which Buddhist Couveil was held during Ashoka's reign? 10. Whom did Ashok sent to promote Buddhism in Sri Lanka?

4.4 Shung Dynasty After the Mauryan power, the power of Magadha came under the hands of the Shungs. The founder of Shung State was 'Pushyamitra Shung'. Pushyamitra Shung established the Shung dynasty after killing the last Maurya ruler Brihadratha in 184 BCE in Magadha. Information about the history of the Shung is obtained from literary and archaeological sources. Among the literary sources are 's 'Mahabashya', Kalidas's Malvikaagnimitram, and Harshcharita of Banbhatt etc. under the inscriptional sources, Kharvel's Hathi-Gumpha and the Ayodhya record of Dhandev also give information about Shung Dynasty. According to most of sources Shung is confirmed as a Brahmin. Pushyamitra Shunga - Pushyamitra Shunga holds an important place in ancient Indian rulers. He was the commander of the last Maurya ruling king Briadratha. After grabbing the power of Maurya, he established his control over various parts of the empire. As Awanti was far away from Magadha, it was becoming difficult to get administrative control over Pataliputra, so Pushyamitra made Vidisha its second capital. In Vidisha, he appointed his son Agnimitra as the governor. An important event of Pusyamitra era was war with Vidarbha. The ruler of Vidarbha kingdom was the father of Yagasena, the last Maurya emperor, and was governor of Vidarbha at that time. 'Malavikagnimatram' gives details of conflict between Pusyamitra and Yagyasen. This war was conducted by Pushyamitra's son Agnimitra and he got victory. This victory increased the reputation of Pushyamitra. The second important incident of the time of Pushyamitra was the invasion of the Greeks on Bharat. Probably the leader of these invaders was Demetrius (Dimitra). , the grandson of Pushyamitra, badly defeated the Greeks. Ashwamedh Yagya - Pushyamitra Shung was followerof Brahmin religion. During his reign, he performed Ashwamedh Yajya. It is mentioned in both Malvikagnimitram and Patanjali's great Mahabashya. Patanjali was himself the chief priest of this yagya. Religious policy - Pushyamitra's reign was also important from religious perspective. In his time there was a resurrection of the Brahmin religion. Now the importance of Vedic religion increased more than Buddhism. Where Pushyamitra Shung is known on the one side as the patron and protector of Vedic or Brahmin religion, in Buddhist texts, it has been described as a staunch oppose and destructor of Buddhism. It is possible that some people of Buddhism have criticized Pushyamitra's attempt to revive the Brahmin religion as a Buddhist, because Pushyamitra's atrocities on Buddhism are found only in Buddhist literature. Apart from this, the construction of Buddhist Stupas and Vedika in Bharhuth and the new form of stupas in Bodhgaya and Sanchi were provided only during the Shung period, which proved the tolerance of Pushyamitra. 49

After ruling for 36 years, from 148 BCE Pushyamitra died. After Pushyamitra, eight of his successors ruled. The last ruler of the Shung dynasty was Devabhuti. In 72 B.C.E. his minister Vasudev Kanva killed him and established .

Textual questions 11. Who was the founder of the Shung dynasty? 12. What was the name of the son of Pushyamitra Shung? 13. Which ruler of the Shung dynasty brought Ashwamedh Yagya? 14. Which book was composed by Patanjali?

4.5 Satvahan Like many ancient tribes, the origin of Satvahanas is not beyond the dispute. Most of the scholars think that Satavahanas was originally a resident of Maharashtra, but when defeated by the rulers, they settled in between Krishna and Godavari rivers. That is why he was also called 'Andhra-Satvahan'. Satvahan was also a Brahmin like Shunga. The founder of the Satvahan dynasty was the 'Simuk' who defeated by the Sushma, the last ruler of the Kanva dynasty. After Simu, Krishna (Kanha), Shatkarni I, Vedishree, Satishri and Shatakarni were the rules. Among the Satvahanas, there was also a ruler called 'Hal', who composed the book 'Gathasaptashati'. Gautami's Putra Shatkarni - Gautamaputra Shatkarni was the most glorious ruler of the . He reconstructed the dismal Satavahana Empire with his power and expanded it. He was the first Satavahana king, where the name of his mother's name also mentioned. This shows that from this time the maternal elements in the state also became important. Gautamiputra Shatkarni ruled for 24 years. Nashik prashasti shows that Gautami's son Shatkarni defeated Shaka ruler Nahpan in the war and reclaimed his name on his coins. The most authentic source of victories, empire expansion and personality of Gautimiputra Shatkarni is the Nasik Guha inscription by his mother Gautami Balashree. In this inscription it has been said that 'his horses drank water of three seas'. In addition to this, information about his empire is also gained from the names of those mountains and their location, which describe him as master. The mention of his authority on various mountain ranges, such as Vindhyachal, Western , Krishnaagiri and Mahendra Mountains, is found in this inscription. Gautimiputra Shatkarni was a great conqueror, warrior and empire-builder. He always tried to protect the good of his subjects and protect their interests. He was not only a brave warrior but also a liberator. Thus, Gautimiputra Shatkarni was a great and famous ruler of his time. After Gautamiputra Shatkarni, his son Vasishthi putra Pulumai was made king of Satvahana. He was a worthy son of a worthy father, who not only protected the empire he inherited but also expanded it. Yagyashree Shatkarni was the last great ruler of Satvahan. After this, the power of Satvahan was gradually declined. By the middle of the third century, the political power of Satavahanas was over. Textual questions 15. Who was the founder of Satavahana dynasty? 16. Who was the most powerful ruler of the Satavahana dynasty? 17. Who became the ruler of Satavahan dynasty after Gautimiputra Shatkarni?

4.6 Gupta Dynasty In Bharat, the rule of the Guptas is considered to be very important. The Gupta period is also considered as the 'Golden Age' of ancient Bharat. After the Mauryan rulers (in addition to the 50

Satavahanas and Kushanas), the Gupta rulers again tried to establish political unity in Bharat. Extensive material is available for knowing the Gupta period such as ancient literature, records, currency, details of Chinese travelers etc. Sri Gupta established Gupta Dynasty and assumed the title of 'Maharaj'. Srirupupta's successor was Ghototakchh. More information about this is not available. Chandragupta I - Chandragupta was the first great ruler of the Gupta dynasty, who assumed the title of 'Maharajadhiraj'. From 'Prayag Prashasti' it is known that Chandragupta I had married Lichchhavi princess 'Kumar '. Lichchhavi was the main political power of northern Bihar till then. The proof of this marriage relationship is found in coins of 'Chandragupta-Kumaradevi type', which has a picture of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi on one side and on the other side is a picture of Lakshmi. Chandragupta I started the 'Gupta Samvat' in 319 CE, which is the date of his coronation. Samudragupta (335 CE-300 CE) - After Chandragupta I, his Samudragupta became the suler. Information about him is received from Prayag prashasti. He not only forced the Indian rulers to accept his subjugation, the foreign rulers were also frightened and pleaded for friendship. At the end of his campaign, Samudragupta 'Ashwamedh Yojna' and issued coins in his name. A coin is found which depicts Samundragupta playing the harp performed which shows the interest of Samudragupta's music. Samudragupta was a great poet. He had assumed the title of 'kaviraj'. Undoubtedly, Samudragupta was a great ruler of ancient Bharat. Chandragupta II 'Vikramaditya' (380 CE - 412 CE) - Ramagupta was the eldest son of Samudragupta who ruled the for a short time. After him his younger brother Chandragupta II ascended the throne. Chandragupta II is also known as 'Devraj' and 'Devgupta'. Chandragupta II strengthened his position by marital relations. Chandragupta II married the princess Kubernaga of Nag Dynasty. From this marriage, one of his daughters, Prabhavati Gupta, was born, whom he got married to Wakatak Naresh Rudrasen II. Chandragupta II, who has established friendship between Gupta and Vakatakas with this marital relationship, conquered the Shakas and assumed the title of 'Vikramaditya'. Chinese traveler fa-ttier came in search of Buddhist texts during the period of Chandragupta II. He praised Chandragupta II's generous religious policy and charity. Chandragupta II was a lover of art and literature and a patron of scholars. His court was decorated with navratanas. Among them were the most famous Mahakavi Kalidas. During the period of Chandragupta II, there was great progress in the field of sculpture, painting, medicine, and architecture and science. For this reason, the period of Chandragupta II is called the 'golden age' of ancient Bharat. Kumar Gupta (412 CE - 455 CE) - After the death of Chandragupta II, his son Kumar Gupta 'Mahindradhya' became the ruler. He secured and maintained the empire received from Chandragupta II. His empire extended from to Bengal. Kumar Gupta established Nalanda Vihar. An important incident of Kumar Gupta's reign was an attack of Pushyamitra. Skandagupta (455 CE-467 CE) - The last great ruler of the Guptas was Skand Gupta. He confronted the invasion of the Hunas and defeated them. He revived the 'Sudarshan ' near Junagadh in Saurashtra. In fact, Sudarshan Lake was built by Pushy Gupta, the provincial ruler of Chandragupta Maurya. Due to flood, a wall of the lake dam was damaged, which was repaired by Rudradaman. During the Skandagupta, the wall of the dam broke again due to excessive rain, which was reconstructed by Chakrapalit, son of the local ruler Parnadutta, whose information is gathered Junagadh inscription. Cultural achievements of the Guptas - The Gupta period represents the era of ancient Indian history in which unprecedented progress has been made in every region of civilization and culture and the Hindu culture reached the peak of its prosperity. That is why the Gupta period has been 51 called 'Golden Age' or 'Classical Age'. During the Gupta reign, the statues of Brahmin religion were established and many temples and idols were placed. Apart from Brahmin religion, also spread in the Gupta period. Many paintings of Ajanta and Bagh represent secret painting. With the establishment of the Gupta Empire, the progress of Sanskrit language strengthened and it became official language. 'Prayag-Prasati' of Harishena was written in pure Sanskrit The most famous poet and playwright of this time was Kalidas (Mahakavi). He composed plays such as Ritusamhar, Meghdoot, Kumar Sambhav, Raghuvansh and composed plays like Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Vikramvsheeryam and Malvikagnimitram. The development of various branches of science and technology also took place in the Gupta period. Aryabhatta was the greatest scientist and mathematician of Gupta. The decimal system developed in this period. Varahmihir and were also famous scientists of this period. The best specimen of the Gupta metal art is Mehrauli (Delhi) Iron pillar and the magnificent statue of Buddha made of copper from Sultanganj. The Gupta Society - The era of social reconstruction and peace began at the time of the Guptas after foreign invasions, conflicts and political upheaval. Many foreigners assimilated in the Indian society and they got place in Kshatriya Varna. Everywhere in the society the spirit of cultural revival started. Varna and caste system was prevalent. The four Varnas, duties were conducted scientifically. There was co-, tolerance and harmony among all the Varnas and castes. The joint family practice was prevalent. In the Gupta era, women's status was respected. They could own the property. The changes in society during the Gupta period had a major impact on the economic sector. Choice of job based on talent made economy of Gupta surged forward on the path of progress. Textual questions 18. Who was the founder of the Gupta Dynasty? 19. Which ruler of Gupta Dynasty had assumed the title of “Vikramaditya”? 20. Which king held the title of 'Kaviraj'? 21. Which ruler of Gupta Dynasty was reconstructed the 'Sudarshan' Lake?

4.7 Vardhan Dynasty () The dissolution of the Gupta Empire led to the establishment of many smaller states. At the same time, he increased his strength by establishing a marriage relationship with the Mokhri dynasty of Kannauj of Pushybhuti (Vardhan) dynasty of Thaneshwar. Thaneshwar was an extremely prosperous district of ancient 'Srikanth', which was inhabited in the vicinity of modern Delhi, where Pushyabhuti had established the Vardhan dynasty. Prabhakarvardhan was the founder of power and prestige of Vardhan Dynasty. Prabhakarvardhan had three children. Rajyavardhana and Harshvardhan were sons and Rajyashree was daughter. Rajyashree was married to King Grahavarma of the Mokhri dynasty. During the era of Prabhakar Vardhan Honnas attacked. Prabhakarvardhan sent his two sons to fight against them. Prabhakar Vardhan died during this campaign. After the death of Prabhakarvardhan, his eldest son Rajyavardhana sat on the throne, but after the coronation Rajyavardhana got involved in wars and was killed in 606 CE by the ruler of Bengal, Shashank. After Rajyavardhana, his younger brother Harshvardhan (606-647 CE) became the ruler. When Harshvardhana became the ruler he was surrounded by many problems. His sister Rajashree's husband (ruler of Kannauj) was murdered by the ruler of Malwa, Devgupta, and he had put Rajshree in Kannauj jail. Rajashree left the prison and went to the forests of Vindhachal. Harshavardhana wanted to punish Shashank, the killer of his brother Rajyavardhan. At the same time, the responsibility of Kannauj, the state of his brother-in- law, was also on Harshavardhana. 52

Harshavardhana faced these early problems with great bravery. Firstly, with the help of the Buddhist monk Divakarmtra, saved Rajashree in the jungles of Vindhyachal at that time when she was going to burn. Similarly, Harsh accepted the responsibility of Kannauj as the guardian of his sister. Harsh fought many wars to subject the entire Bharat to a central power. The most important battle of Harsh was with Chalukya king Pulakeshin II of South Bharat. Harsha was defeated in this war and he had to accept the southern border of his empire as Narmada. Information about this war comes from the '' record of Pulakeshin II, which was written by Ravikirti. Along with being a winner, Harsh was also an efficient administrator. He also performed many benevolent works of his subjects like Ashok. International fame of Nalanda University was only during Harshvardhan. Harshavardhana used to organize Mahamoksha Parishad in Prayag every fifth year, in which liberal donations to the poor and the monks were given. In the era of Harsh, the famous Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang traveled to Bharat and participated in the Prayag Mahamokshak Parishad. Kannauj Sabha is an important event of the era of Harsha, which is also called the Mahasabha of Dharma, in which Brahmins and Jain monks and Buddhist monks participated. Harshavardhana himself was a high ranking scholar who wrote Naganand, Priyadarshika and Ratnavali, the plays. In the Sabha of Harsh, there was a Buddhists scholars like Banabhata and Mayoor stayed. Banabhatt wrote a famous text of Sanskrit Harshcharit and Kadambari. Mayoor composed the Suryashtak. Textual questions 22. Name the sons of Prabhakar Vardhan. 23. Harshavardhana was defeated in a war with which ruler? 24. Who wrote the book 'Harshcharit'? 25. Where was the brother in law of Harsh “Grihverma” ruler?

4.8 Foreign Invasion and Assimilation When the political clutter came on Bharat's north-western border, then Bharat had to face foreign invaders. After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, there was a period of political instability in Bharat for almost five centuries, which continued till the establishment of the Gupta Empire. In this period, crossing the Hindukush mountain from Bharat's north-west border, many foreign races invaded, including Greeks, Scythians, Parthians and Kushan heads. Shaka– Shaka or Sajthain were originally residents of Central Asia. In 165 BCE this, the tribe was driven away from Central Asia by another tribe called 'U-chi'. Moving forward, they attacked Bactria, Parthia etc. In Bharat there were two branches of the Shaka rulers. One was called northern satraps, who were in Takshshila and Mathura and the other were who belonged to Nasik and Ujjain. In North-Western Bharat, the suspicions of the Indian rulers, neither the resistance of the people, had to be fought hard in their military operations. But in Indian literature and tradition, in 58 BCE in Ujjain's King Vikramaditya, his conclusive victory over doubt is found. In the memory of this historic victory, only 58 BCE the started, which became an authentic source of Indian time calculation. This historic victory of Vikramaditya on Shakas has given him such a high reputation and popularity that the name of Vikramaditya was distinguished in a great title and every king used to be respected for holding this title. Gupta emperor Chandragupta II is the most famous among the kings who hold the title of Vikramaditya.

Bharat in 150 C.E. Western Kshatrap were divided into two branches, the ksatrap of Nasik and Ujjain. The ksatrap of Nasik is also called ‘Kshaharat kshatrap’. There were two famous ruler Bhumak and 53

Nahapan in Nasik, Nahapan was the most powerful ruler of the Kshahrat-Dynasty. He held the title of 'Mahakshatrap'. Chashtan and Rudradaman became the chief rulers in Ujjain. The ruler of this dynasty came to be known as 'Kardamak' satrap. Ujjain's greatest Shaka was ruler Rudradaman who won victory in several wars. It is reflected in Junagadh (Gujarat) records that its empire was very large. The Sundarshan Lake, which was built by Chandragupta Maurya and which had been repaired by Ashoka, was re-broken during the lake Rudradaman. Then Rudradaman repaired it with personal income and no tax was taken from the people for it. Sanskrit language was developed during Rudradaman. Huns - Huns were also a resident of Central Asia who entered Bharat on the north-western border. In Bharat, the attacks of the Hunas the special cause of the fall of the Gupta Empire. Huns attacked during the time of Skandagupta, but they were defeated. The Torman was the first ruler of the Hunas, who had reached to the intermediate parts of Bharat. He assumed the title of 'Maharajadhiraj' after possessing Punjab, Rajputana, Sindh and Malwa. Taking advantage of the weakness of Gupta power after the Torman, his son Mihirkul also attacked the internal parts of Bharat. Yashodharma, ruler of Malwa, defeated him. Kushan - The U-Chi caste had overtaken the Shakas and took over the Bactria. While staying here, the U-chi who divided into five branches. This is why the word Kushan replaced U-chi. In the post Mauryan period, of Bharat Kushanes were most prominent race. Kushan-rule has particularly influenced Indian history, civilization and culture. Kujul Kadphisis (15 CE - 65 CE) - The credit of establishment of Kushan-rule in Bharat is given to Kujul Kadfisis (Kadfus I). He established his power in Kabul and Kandhar. He embraced Vedic religion. His coins are obtained in a large number from Taxila. Vaam Kadphis (65 CE-75 CE) - After the death of Kujul in 65 CE, his son, Vim Kadphisis (Kadfisis II) became King of Kushanas. He issued gold and copper coins in large quantities. The pictures of Shiva on his coins, Nandi and Trishul, shone that he was influenced by Shaivism. Kanishka (78 AD-101E) - Kanishka was the greatest ruler among the Kushan kings. Many scholars believe that Kanishka was the ruler who initiated the Saka Samvat (CE 78). It is the date of the reign of Kanishka. Kanishka was a great winner, skilled administrator and art lover. His empire had two capitals. Purushpur (Peshawar) was controlled from central Asia and north-western areas and while control over eastern parts was kept from Mathura. Kanishka proved to be the most powerful supporter of Buddhism after Maurya Emperor Asoka. Kanishka organized fourth Buddhist council in Kundalvan in Kashmir. This gathering was convened on the advice of the Parshva, Statue of Kanishka without head headed by Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra and Vice President Ashwaghosh An important consequence of fourth Buddhist council was the division of Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana. Kanishka recognized Mahayana branch of Buddhism as a Slatt religion. In the court of Kanishka, Buddhist thinkers such as Vaishumitra and Ashwaghosh (Buddhist), Saundranand and author of 54

Sariputra Prakrutna), the originator of Shoonyawad and Relativism, Nagarjuna and the knower Charak of Ayurvedic (the author of Charak Samhita) lived. Kanishka conquered Kashmir and established there a city called Kanishkpur. In terms of Saulplure and architecture, three major styles have been developed in three different centers during the reign of Kanishka- Mathura, Amravati and Gandhara. A statue has been found in Mathura, where Kanishka is shown wearing a dress in a military dress. 'Gandhara style' was a major achievement of Kanishka's rule. Thought Kanishka promoted Buddhism, however, he was a generous ruler from religious perspective. We get the proof of this from his coins. In addition to the Buddha on his coin, the images of the Greek, Iranian and are also found. Thus, the establishment of Kushan-state deeply influenced Indian history and culture. Kushanas left their last impression in both political and cultural areas. Assimilation - Various caste castes came in Bharat but Indian culture continued to flourish at an uninterrupted speed. Shaka, Hun, Kushan, Mongol, and Turks also continued to do rule here for a period of time. Some of them permanently settled in Bharat. They adopted our language, religion and policy. In this way, Indian culture completely absorbed the elemental elements. In addition to mixing other castes, Indians also embraced the beautiful elements of other cultures. This is the reason that all types of religious beliefs and living conditions are found in Bharat. The principle of eclipse and conservation in Indian culture is not a demolition. Here the main principle is of live and let line'. Due to the generous tendency of Indians, many barbaric tribal species became part of the society. Kanishka's work for the advancement of Buddhism is unique. Rudradaman issued Junagadh records in the pure Sanskrit language, inspite being a foregiver. In fact, Bharat never won people with their sword, but gave them the opportunity to get their cultures flourished in their own umbrella. Textual questions 26. Torman was the ruler of which caste? 27. Which city did Kanishka establish? What have you learned? 1. The mention of sixteen Mahajanapadas is found in the Buddhist texts 'Angutarinika' and Jain Granth 'Bhagwatasutra'. 2. The most revered Mahajanapada among the sixteen Mahajanapadas was Magadha. 3. Chandragupta Maurya laid the foundation of the Maurya Empire by defeating Dhananand. Bindusar and Ashok have become famous monks in this . 4. Pushyamitra Shung started the Shung Dynasty by killing the last Mauryan king. 5. The Guptas are considered as the golden age of ancient Bharat, its real founder was Chandragupta- I. 6. Many small states have been established since the dissolution of the Gupta Empire. At the same time, the Pushyubhuti (Vardhan) of Thaneshwar raised his power by establishing a marriage relationship with the of Kannauj. 7. Bharat had to face hostile invaders when political clutter arose on Bharat's north-western border. 8. Greek, Native Parthian and Kushan were the chiefs of the oppressed castes. 9. Kanishka was the greatest ruler in the Kushan kings who contributed immensely the development of Buddhism. 10. Shakas, Hun, and Kushan races ruled over Bharat but gradually they were also assimilated into Indian society and culture. 55

Answeres 1. Anguntrnikaya 2. Mathura 3. Magadha 4. Ashmak 5. Ahichatrapur 6. Jaipur, Alwar, Bharatpur 7. Chandragupta Maurya 8. Chanakya 9. Third 10. Son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra 11. Pushyamitra Shung 12. Agnimitra 13. Pushyamitra 14. Mahabashya 15. Simuk 16. Gautamee putra Shashtkarni 17. Vasishthi's son Pulumai 18. Shree Gupta 19. Chandragupta II 20. Samudragupta 21. Skandagupta 22. Harsh Vardhan and Rajyavardhan 23. Puakeshin II 24. Banabhatta 25. Kannauj 26. Hun 27. Kanishkpur Questions for Excersise Objective questionnaire 1. Which of the following Mahajanapadas was in Rajasthan? (A) Panchal (B) Aang (C) Matsya (D) Kosal 2. In which state is Kalinga was situated? (A) Rajasthan (B) Madhya pradesh (C) Maharashtra (d) Orissa 3. Which of the following dynasty was matriarchal? (A) Gupt dynasty (B) Maurya dynasty (C) Satvahan Dynasty (D) Shung Dynasty 4. Which of the following books was not written by Harshvardhan? (A) Kadambari (B) Nagananda (C) Priyadarshika (d) Ratnavali 5. Who was the most powerful ruler of the Kushan Dynasty? (A) Vim Kadphisis (B) Kanishka (C) Kujul Kadfisis (d) Kadfisis I 56

Short Answer questions 6. What was the capital of the Koshal of Ramayana age? 7. Who succeeded the after Chandragupta Maurya in Maurya dynasty? 8. Who was the last ruler of Shunga Dynasty? 9. In the Nashik article it has been said that 'whose horses have drowned the water of the three seas', which famous ruler has been referred to? 10. Which metal is Mehroli pillar made of? 11. The Aihole record is written by whom? 12. What were the reasons for the emergence of Mahajanapadas? 13. Describe the Matsaya Mahajanapada briefly? 14. What was the main achievement of Bindusara? 15. Who started the Vikram Samvat and why? 16. Explain Pushyamitra's religious policy? 17. What do you think about assimilation? Explain. Essay type question 18. Describe the various Mahajanapadas in detail. 19. Describe the achievements while describing the early life of Chandragupta Maurya. 20. Write articles on the cultural achievements of the Guptas describing Chandragupta II. 21. Describe the accomplishments of Kanishka in detail.

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Chapter 5

Struggling Bharat (712-1757 AD)

Introduction - From time immemorial, Bharat has been a victim of foreign invasions from time to time. Being surrounded by sea from three sides and Himalyan Mountain on one hand, Bharat received natural protection from such attacks. For this reason, her northwest border became the easiest way for foreigners to enter the country. In addition to being the only road to enter to Bharat, this northwestern province of Bharat has never been politically organized, which is why most foreign invasions are successful. The first Muslim invasion to the Mughal rulers, on Bharat has been mentioned in this chapter and how the rulers of Rajasthan adopted a policy of resistance and cooperation with the Muslim authority. In this chapter, there is a brief history of the kingdom of South Bharat - Vijaynagar and Bahamani in addition to the life character of Chhatrapati . Objective - After reading this chapter you will:  Get information about the Arab invasion and its resistance.  You will be able to study the achievements of all dynasties of Sultanate of Delhi  You will be able to get information on the various aspects of or era.  You will be able to know about the rulers of Rajasthan and their resistance and co-operation with Muslim authority.  You will realize the importance of Vijaynagar and Bahmani.  Development of power and you can tell about Shivaji's contribution.

5.1 Arabian invasions Once again after the death of Harshavardhana, political unity was destroyed in Bharat. New political power flourished in different areas. Sindh was a powerful state in western Bharat. The rulers there resisted the Arab and Muslim invasions for a long time. Arab invasion of Sindh was not an accident, but its background had already been prepared. At that time the glory of Bharat was famous. Acquittable property was stored in the temples. By robbing these, there was fulfilment of economic objectives and fulfilling religious purposes also would have got an opportunity to campaigiving for religion. Also, with the desire of expansion of the empire, they were also keen to get the Arabian land. So they planned Sindh-conquest under a thoughtful plan. Inspired by these purposes, during the time of Khalifa Umar (636 CE), Arabs invaded the Thane near Mumbai, but they did not get success in it. After this Arabs invaded Deval port. The Arab failed in this too. According to the Persian text 'Chachnama', during the early attacks of the Arabs, King Brahmin of Sindh was a Chachrai. In 711- 12 CE, Arabs also got the opportunity to attack Sindh when Sindh ruler Dahir Sen failed to catch those pirates who had looted precious gifts sent to Iraq's Muslim Sub-al-Hajj by the ruler of Lanka. . Al-Hajj sent his nephew and warlike son-in-law Muhammad-bin Qasim for attacking Sindh. In 712 CE, there was a war between Muhammad bin Qasim and King Dahir of Sindh. According to 'Chanchamma', King Dahir forced the Arabs to withdraw with his bravery in this war, but at the same time sitting on elephants, an arrow came and he died. This led to the demoralization of the army of Dahir. Rani Bai, wife of Dahir, made a lot of effort to protect the fort, but after failing she performed Jauhar with her colleagues. Qasim took control over the fort. Here the second Queen 58

Ladi Bai and two daughters Suryadevi and Parmaldevi mere taken by Qasim. Both the daughters showed their bravery and by foresight put to death Muhammad bin Qasim from the hands of Khalifa and took revenge for the murder of their father. Textual questions 1. King Dahir Sen was the ruler of which region? 2. King Dahir bravely faced which Arab invaders? 3. Name the wife of Dahir who committed Johar? 4. Mention the names of the heroic daughters of Dahir Sen who took revenge for the death of their father? The 11th-12th century was an important event in Indian history, the invasion of Turkey and the establishment of Turkish power in Bharat. This campaign was led by Mahmud Ghajnavi and Muhammad Gauri. Mehmood Gajnavi invaded Bharat between 1000 CE to 1027 CE and in 1025 CE, Gajnavi invaded the of Gujarat. Gajanvi received huge amount of money from victory of Somnath. Like Mahmood Ghajnavi, Muhammad Gauri was not only satisfied with loot, but in Bharat he wanted to establish a permanent state. There were two decisive battles of Muhammad Ghauri with Prithviraj which are known as the First battle of Tarain (1191 AD) and the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD). won the first battle of Tarain while the second battle of Tarain was won by Muhammad Gauri by fraud and deceit. After this victory, Gauri returned to his state by handing over the victorious Indian territories to his slave and commander Qutubuddin Aibak.

5.2 (1206 CE - 1526 CE) Turkish power ultimately paved the way for the establishment of a Turkish state in Bharat in the beginning of thirteenth century (1206 CE), which is known as the Delhi Sultanate. In the year 1206 CE, the Delhi Sultanate, established by a slave Qutubuddin Aibak of Muhammad Ghauri, was ruled by several dynasties and rulers. These are followed by the rule of the Ghulam dynasty, Khilji dynasty, , Syed dynasty and dynasty (from 1206 CE to 1526 CE) and known as the rule of Delhi Sultanate The Slave dynasty (1206 CE - 1290 CE) – Qutbuddin Aibak was a slave of Muhammad Gauri, so the dynasty he founded were called Das clan or slave dynasty. Most of the princes of this lineage were slaves before becoming Sultan. Although they were not of a lineage but all were Turks, some historians are call them early Turk Sultans. Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210 CE) – Aibak received the Indian Empire after the death of Gauri and became the independent ruler by making Lahore his capital. By his diplomacy, Aibak strengthened his position by joining the main opponents Tajuddin Yaldoz and Nasiruddin Kubacha in his favor. Aibak was not an efficient administrator though he was a liberal and art lover, scholar and a donor. Being highly charitable, he is called 'Lakh Bakhsh'. He also constructed two famous mosques - 'Kuvat-ul-Islam' in Delhi and 'Aadai-din-ka-Jhopra' in . Aibak also started the task of building a Kutub Minar, but he could not fulfill it. Aibak died after falling in a horse while playing Chaugan in 1210 CE. Kutub Minar Delhi 59

Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE) - After the sudden death of Aibak, the Turkish leaders declared Aramshah as a sultan, but defeated him and became the sultan himself. Shamsuddin Iltutmish was Aibak's son-in-law and an Ilbari Türk. In fact, Delhi's first legal sultan was Iltutmish because he obtained the acceptance of Sultan's post from the ruler of Gore but not from the Khalifa. He removed capital from Lahore and made Delhi his capital. Iltutmish strengthened his position by ending the power of his opponents (Yaldoz, Nasiruddin Kubacha) In front of Iltutmish; there was a severe crisis of Mongol invasion. The dreaded Mongol leader Changze Khan had arrived at the Indian border chasing Jalaluddin Mangbarni the prince of Khawarizm. Iltutmish avoided the help of Jalaluddin Mangbari and saved Bharat from the fierce invasion of Mongols. He prepared a team of his forty loyal rich who are known as 'Chalisa' or 'Turkan a Chalagani'. The construction work of Kutubaminar was also completed by Iltutmishi. Razia Sultan (1236-1240 CE) - Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as his successor only during his lifetime, but the rich class declared Ruknuddin Firoz Shah, son of Iltutmish as the sultan of Delhi. Ruknuddin Sultan was coroneted but he could not control the state. Eventually after seven months of misrule, he was removed and Razia Sultan was made ruler. Razia was educated and expert in military art and state work. But there was a lot of challenges before Razia. Badyaun, the governors of Multan and Lahore refused to accept her rule. Muslim males and many Turkish commanders were unsatisfied with her manly behavior, leaving veil, wearing masculine clothes. Razia appointed a Abyssinian noble named Jamaluddin Yakut as Amir-i-Akhur (Chief of Horse Riding). The Turks became angry. Razia made attempts to increase Sultan's position and prestige. She started wearing Kuba (coats) and kulah (hats) and started appearing in court. She sat on the throne of Sultan and listened to the plea in the court. The public was affected by these works. Razia married Bhatinda's ruler, Altiunia. In 1240 CE, Altunia and Razia were killed by some bandits. Balban (1266-1296 CE) - After the death of Razia, the weak and inept person like Bahramshah, Masoodshah and Nasiruddin Mahmud ruled. After this, Balban took over the rule. At this time there was instability and chaos in the northern part of the country. The Mongols attacked from the north. Balban resolved all the problems rigorously. Balban followed the policy of 'blood and iron' and established the principle of his rule. He wanted to establish the supremacy of Sultan. He considered the position of the sultan as God-given and considered the aristocracy as a necessity. He claimed to be a royal descendant and related his "ancestry" to the lineage in Iran. According to the Persian tradition, he started the practice of sijada (bowing his knees) and pabos (kissing sultan's foot) in the court. Bulban also changed his public behavior - stopped drinking, prohibited drinking at the public place, started wearing gorgeous and state costumes. Balban destroyed the 'Chalisa' founded by Iltutmishish. Balban named his grandsons on the names of ancient eminent rulers of Central Asia such as Kaikhusro, Kaikubabad, Cameras etc. Textual questions 5. Who was the founder of the slave dynasty? 6. Who formed the 'Chalisa'? 7. Which ruler completed the construction of Kutub Minar? 8. Which ruler of the slave dynasty was killed while playing 'Chaugan'?

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Khilji dynasty (1290 CE-1320 CE) The dynasty whose power was established by Qutbuddin and Iltutmish and whom Balaban gave the stability, ended within 100 years. The Khilji gained power by revolution. The leader of this revolution was Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji. Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 CE) - The founder of the Khilji dynasty in Bharat was Jalaluddin Khilji. He started his life in the form of a simple soldier, by with hard work, he became a competent army chief, skilled administrator, and finally a sultan. His nephew and son-in-law Ali Gurshasp (Alauddin Khilji), who was also the subedar of Kadha, had killed Jalaluddin Khilji in the year 1296 and became a sultan himself. Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 CE) - Alauddin Khilji was one of the most successful sultans of Delhi. After assuming the throne of Delhi, Alauddin Khilji first noticed the administrative system. He focused all the powers of the state in his hands. To control the revolt, Alauddin made four important laws, under which - (a) to seize the property of the rich persons, (b) the formation of the intelligence department (s) impose prohibition (d) the ban on the involvement of the rich . Military reform and market policy - Like Alexander, Alaudin Khilji had the ambition of becoming a world champion, he issued coins as second Alexander. Therefore, realise it Alauddin needed a large army to face the Mongols and various rebels, so he started the practice of standing army, arrangement to mark the horse and reorganization of face of soldiers. Alauddin made many attempts to control the market and price. He arranged different markets for all items. Under him, Shehna (Market Superintendent) and Barid (Intelligence Officer) was appointed. Sarai-e-Adal was the market of local and foreign commodities. This market was also provided aid of the government. Allauddin Khilji's victories - Before starting his conquest-campaign, Allauddin protected the West- border because of the continuous attack of Mongols from here. Therefore, Sultan repaired the old of the border-provinces and built new forts. The biggest challenge before Alauddin Khilji was to conquer -kingdoms. Allauddin sent an army against Gujarat's Baghela Rajput Dev. The army of Gujarat was defeated in this war. After Gujarat's victory, Allauddin paid attention to of Rajputana states. In 1301 CE, Alaudin fought with Hamir dev Chauhan of Ranthambhore and captured Ranthambore with conspiracy. Women protected their respect by jauhar. The second center of the power of Rajputs was Chittaurgarh, the ruler of was Ratan Singh. Alauddin won this fort in 1303 CE. Here also women took Johar, men took . This is called the first saka of Chittaur. The fall of the third Rajput state of was also done by Alauddin, where the ruler Kanhardev ruled. Here Alauddin won in 1311 CE. Alauddin's South Expedition - Alauddin Khilji wanted to grab the wealth of South States. There were four major states in the south at this time - Devgiri, , Hoysal and Pandya-State. Allauddin Khilji completed the campaign of South Bharat with the help of his commander Malik Kafur. Allauddin Khilji was the most capable ruler among the rulers of the Khilji dynasty. He was the first Sultan of Delhi who interested in economic reforms. He had also a patron of scholars. Amir Khusro was the greatest poet of his time. Allauddin constructed the Alai Fort or the Kaush-l-Siri. Alauddin Khilji died in 1316 CE. After this, the governance was taken by Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (CE 1316- 1320). As soon as he declared himself Khalifa and assumed the title of 'UL-VASAK-BILLH', he was soon immersed in luxury and was assassinated in 1320 CE. After Mubarakshah, Khusrava Shah became the ruler who was the last sultan of the Khilji dynasty. Textual questions 9. Who was the founder of the Khilji dynasty? 10. Who was the last sultan of the Khilji dynasty? 61

11. Alauddin Khilji completed the South campgain with the help of which commander?

Tughlaq dynasty (1320 CE-1414 CE) Khusran Shah, the last sultan of Khilji dynasty ruled for only 5 months. Subedar Ghazi Malik (Gasududdin Tughlaq) of Dipalpur rebelled against Khusrav Shah and killed him and became himself Sultan. Thus, in the Sultanate, a new dynasty emerged which is known as Tughlaq Dynasty. The chief ruler of this lineage were Gasasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad bin Tughluq and Firuz Tughlaq. Giasudin Tughlaq (1320 CE-1325 CE) - He was the founder of Tughlaq Dynasty. He was of imperialist instincts. In 1321 CE, Gasasuddin sent his son Juna Khan to Warangal against King Pratap Rudre Dev of Telangana. Telangana was merged with Delhi border Gaiusuddin also led a successful campaign against Bengal. While returning to Delhi, he died after a wooden reception door fell on lim near Afganpur. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325 CE-1351 CE) - After the death of his father, Giyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad ascended the throne in the year 1325 CE. He is considered to be the most controversial ruler of Indian history. All the qualities of a successful ruler were present in him, yet he proved to be a failure in history. Historian Barani has mentioned five new plans of Sultan- the increase in revenue in the two states, the capital change, introducing symbolic currency, the Khorasan-attack plan and the Karachil-campaign. Although Sultan Tughlaq executed all these plans. But all these schemes have failed for many reasons. The most controversial plan of Muhammad Tughlaq was shifting of Delhi to the Devgiri capital and changed its name to Daulatabad. This plan was completely unsuccessful. Sultan issued coins of copper and bronze, but in the market many fake coins came into circulation and the plan had to be shut down. Thus, most of Muhammad-bin Tughlaq's plans proved unsuccessful. Sultan made efforts to expand the agriculture. For this purpose, a new department 'Diwan-i-Kohi' was established. During Mohammed-bin-Tughluq, Morocco's traveler Ibnbuttuta came to Bharat, who composed the book 'Rehla'. This Sultan appointed him Kaji of Delhi and sent him as ambassador to China. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq died in 1351 CE. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 CE - 1388 CE) - After the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, his cousin Feroz Tughlaq sat on the throne of Delhi. He was a fanatic and a follower of Shariat. Firoz imposed only four taxes as was prescribed by Muslim law, which is Kharaj (land tax), Khams (part of the property grab in war), Jajiya (religious taxes taken from non-Muslims) and zakat ( 2.5 percent of the income of Muslims). Firoz Tughlaq was the first Sultan of Delhi Sultanate which also imposed 'Jijiya' on Brahmins. He built five main canals to develop irrigation facilities. In addition, Firoz Tughlaq built many cities, the chief of which was Fatehabad, , Ferozepur, Jaunpur etc. Firoz encouraged the cultivation of melons and grapes in Delhi. There were approximately 1,80,000 slaves in Firoz Tughlaq’s rein. A pioneer department for the welfare of slaves also established as Divan-e- Bandagan. Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the first sultan of Delhi Sultanate, who wrote his autobiography 'Fatuhat-e- Firoz Shahi'. He found two pillar inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka which were in Topra and Meerut and they were installed with great diligence and efficiency in Delhi. Firoz Tughluq died in 1388 CE. The last Sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty was Nasiruddin Mehmood. At this time, Timur Lung invaded Bharat in 1398 AD. Taimur destroyed a large number of cities and completed fall of the Tughlaq dynasty. Textual questions 12. Who was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty? 62

13. Which ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty created a large number of canals and cities? 14. Who was the last Sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty?

Sayyad dynasty (1414-1451 CE) Timur conquered Delhi and appointed Khizr Khan as his representative. Khizr Khan established the Syed dynasty only. This dynasty ruled for 37 years in which there were four rulers in total - Khizr Khan, Mubarakshah, and Alauddin Alamshaha was the last Sultan of the Syed dynasty, Alauddin Alamshah was commissioned and weak ruler. At this time, Baholol Lodi took control of Delhi and the Syed dynasty collapsed. (1451 CE - 1526 CE) - The founder of the first Afghan State (Pathan State) of Delhi Sultanate, Baholol Lodi was born from Lodi, a branch of Giljai tribe of Afghans. Therefore, the dynasty established by him is known as the Lodhi dynasty. Bahlol Lodi (1451 CE - 1489 CE) - Bahlol Lodhi, behaving with generosity and equality but with intelligence and tact, obtained the cooperation of various Afghan groups and not only organized expanded the empire. The biggest danger to Delhi was from the Sharki state of Jaunpur. Bahlol had to struggle for long against the state of Jaunpur. The last victory in this struggle is that of Bholol Lodi. Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517 CE) - After the death of Baholok Lodi, his third son, Nizam Khan, sat on the throne of Delhi under the name of Sikandar Lodi. He tried to improve Sikandar Lodi's administration and reduce the power of Afghan warlords. He provided for an authentic measure called 'Gaz-e-Sikandari' which continued till the Mughal period. He established the city of in 1506. Sikandar Lodi also wrote poems from the nickname 'Gulrukhi'. Ibrahim Lodi (1517 CE-1526 CE) - After the death of Sikandar Lodi, his son Ibrahim Lodi sat on the throne of Delhi. In 1517-18, Ibrahim Lodi and Sanga of Mewar had a war in which the Ibrahim Lodi was defeated. Ibrahim Lodi had a decisive battle with Babar in 1526 CE. This war is known in the Indian history as the first war of . was victorious in this war, the Delhi Sultanate ended and the power of the was established in Bharat. Textual questions 15. Who was the founder of the Lodi dynasty? 16. Who was the founder of Agra Nagar? 17. The was fought between whom? 18. Who won the first battle of Panipat?

Sultanate administration With the establishment of the Muslim Sultanate in Delhi, significant changes took place. The Sultan obtained recognition from Khalifa and ruled as his representative in his own country. The Sultanate administrator was mainly divided into three parts (a) Central Administration (b) Provincial Administration (c) Local Government Central administration - The entire power of the administration of the Sultanate was centered in the hands of the Sultan. He was the Almighty and the despotic ruler He was the constitutional and practical head of the state. For the assistance of the Sultan in administrative activities, a society like the Council of Ministers was called Majlis-e-Khalawat. After Sultan, the most prominent person in the state and administration was 'Nayb'. 'Wazir' was the main ally of Sultan. He was literally a link between the people and the Sultan. His office was known as 'Divan-e-Wajrat'. The president of the military department 'Arij-e-Mumalik' and his department was called 'Deewan-e-Arz'. Diwan-e-Insha' was a department of political correspondence. 'Deewan-e-Rasalat' was a department of foreign 63 department. 'Sadr-us-sadr' was the president of the religion and charity department. Qazi-ul-Kujat was the President of the Justice Department and since the Sultan himself was the supreme judge, the post was meant to be held by the chief of the state Kazi. In addition to these major departments, there were other departments and officers such as Wakil-e-dar (The caretaker of Royal Palace and the personal service of the Sultan), Amir-e-Hajib (maintaining discipline in the court), Barid-e-Mumalik (Intelligence Department), Amir-e-Majlis (organizer of the state function) Amir-e-Akur (Chief of houses), Amir-e-Kohi (Chief of Agriculture Department) etc. Provincial government - Sultans of Delhi had divided their empire into several provinces, which were called 'Ikta'. The Chief Administrator of Ikta was called 'Ektaedar'. They also provided military and financial support to Sultan. The rule of the province was only on the central structure. Local Government - In order to facilitate the administration, Ikta was divided into Shik or Districts. The head of shik was called the shikdar. It was 'Amil', who ruled over Pargana. The village was the smallest administrative unit. Textual questions 19. What was the smallest administrative unit in the Sultanate period? 20. Which department was related to Burid-e-Mamlik? 21. What were the provinces called during the Sultanate?

5.3 Bharat during Mughal Period (1526 CE-1757 CE) Babar (1526 CE-1530 CE) - Jahiruddin Muhammad Babar, the founder of the Mughal empire in Bharat, was born in 1483 CE in Fargana. Her father, Umarsheikh Mirza, was a descendant of Timur while mother Kutlugmgar Khanam was descendant from Changez Khan. Due to the death of his father, Babar had to take the father's throne at the age of 11. He sat on the throne with the title of 'Badshah”. In Kabul, Babar concentrated his attention on the northern provinces of Bharat. He had heard a lot about Bharat's prosperity and the situation in the northern border regions of Bharat was also favorable for the attack. Babar first invasion of Bharat was in 1519 CE on Bajaur and Bhera. In the first war of Panipat in 1526 CE, Babar laid the foundations of the Mughal dynasty, defeating the last ruler of the Lodi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodi. In the year 1527 CE, the battle of 'Khanwa' was fought between Babar and Ranasanga. Babur fought this war with 'Tuluguma' method. Babar elevated the morale of his army by giving it the form of 'Jihad'. In this war Babar got victorious and he assumed the title of 'Ghazi'. In 1528 CE, Babar defeated Medinarai in 'Chanderi War'. In 1529 CE, Babur defeated Afghani Mahmoud Lodi in 'War of Ghaghra'. The effect of continued hard work was on Babar's health. Constant wars made him hollow. Babar died in 1530 CE. He was buried at Rambag on the banks of Yamuna and later buried in Kabul as per his last wish. Babar was a skilled ruler, heroic soldier, scholar and nature lover. He wrote his autobiography Babarama (Tujuk-e-Babri) in Turkish language. (1530 CE-1556 CE) - Nasiruddin Muhammad or Humayun Babar's eldest son and successor. His other brothers were Kamran, Askari and Hindal. Humayun's mother was the daughter of Mahm Begum Khurassan's Shiya chief. Humayun means 'lucky', but he was unfortunate during his reign. He had many problems in succession. Humayun was surrounded by enemies in external and internal terms and the treasury was also empty. Humayun divided Babar's kingdom into his brothers. Kamran received Kandhar and Kabul, Askari Sambhal and Hindal got the estate of . The Bahadur Shah of Gujarat laid a seige around Chittaur in 1533-34. Queen of Chittaur, Karnavati (Rana Sangas wife) sent Humayun to Rakhi and sought help, but Humayun delayed coming, consequently Chittaur went into the hands of Bahadur Shah. Humayun and the Afghan ruler, 64

Sher Khan (Fareed Khan), in 1539 CE, 'Chausa war' was fought in between them Humayun defeated in this war. After Chausa's victory, Sher Khan assumed the title of Sher Shah. Humayun's reputation was shattered by the defeat of Chausa. Humayun reconstituted his army. In 1540 CE again the war between Kannauj or Bilgram was fought between Humayun and . Humayun was also defeated in this war and he had to flee Lahore. From 1540 CE to 1555 CE, Humayun has lived a life of exile. At this time, the rulers ruled in Bharat. In 1555, Humayun again started the conquest of Bharat and captured Lahore first. He defeated Sikandar Sur in the Battle of Machiwwara and took control over Punjab. On July 23, 1555, Humayun again sat on the throne of Delhi. On 24th January 1556, when Humayun was descending from the stairs of Dinapnah Library, his foot slipped and he died on 26 January. - The founder of the Sur empire was Sher Shah Suri (Fareed). He was the Zamindar of (Bihar) under the state of Jaunpur. Fareed's childhood was not happy due to step mother and brother. He joined the army of Bahar Khan Lohani, the governor of province of Southern Bihar. He was given the title of 'Sher Khan' after killing lion. After the Battle of Kannauj in 1540, Humayun had to flee from Bharat and thus Sher Shah ascended the throne of Bharat. After becoming the emperor, Sher Shah conquered Bengal, and Malwa. In 1544 CE Sher Shah defeated Rao Maldev, the ruler of in 'Battle of Sumel'. Sher Shah won the battle with Rao Maldev with great effort because Malda's generals, Jaita and Kuppa fought bravely. Then Sher Shah had said, "I had nearly lost the sultanate of for a handful of millet." In 1545 CE, Sher Shah died due to explosions in gunboats during the attack on . Islam Shah, who was the son of Sher Shah, ruled from 1545 to 1553 CE after the Sher Shah, but later the Sur empire collapse due to the conflict of inept heirs. In view of its governance and work done, Sher Shah maintains a special place in the rulers of medieval Bharat. In many cases, he is said to be the leader of . Sher Shah improved the currency system. He issued new coins of silver which were called 'Daam'. Sher Shah built big roads The most important road started from the Sonar village of East Bengal, from Agra, Delhi and Lahore, till the river Sindh. It was called 'Sadak-e-Ajam'. Nowadays this road is called 'Gand Trunk Road'. Sher Shah created 1700 inns along the roads Sher Shah built his tomb in the middle of a lake in Sasaram (Bihar). The tomb of Sasaram is one of the best buildings in Bharat. Textual questions 22. Who was the founder of the Mughal Empire? 23. Write the names of Babar's four sons? 24. Who is the author of the book of “”? 25. The Tomb of Sasaram is located in which state? Akbar (1556 CE - 1605 CE) Akbar was born in Amarkot (Sindh) in the palace of Rana Veersal in 1542 CE. His father Humayun and mother took shelter in the palace of Rajput King here. After the death of Humayun in 1556 CE, Akbar became the ruler of Delhi and his prime minister was . He was also the guardian of Akbar because he was still a minor. The between the Afghan commander and Akbar was fought on 5 November 1556 Bairam Khan led the army of the Mughals in this war. Hemu was defeated in this war. Hemu was the best Hindu generals of the Afghan Muhammad Adilshah of Bihar. He held the title of Vikramaditya. The Second Battle of Panipat proved to be a decisive battle in the history of Bharat. The defeat of Hemu shows, a Hindu Kingdom was broken in Bharat. Akbar soon took control of Gwalior and Malwa. In 1562 CE, Akbar first visited Ajmer in the of Sheikh Muinuddin Chishti. On the way, he was attacked by King of Amber. It 65 was the first ruler of Rajputana who accepted Akbar's submission and married his daughter Harakhabai to Akbar. In 1567 CE, Akbar decided to conquer Chittor. At this time the ruler of this region was Rana Uday Singh. Akbar launched a military campaign towards Chittor. Uday Singh transferred to Jaimal and Patta, two brave warriors and went to the hills himself. After hard struggle, Akbar conquered Chittor fort. Rajput women made “Johar” in the fort. After Chittor fort, Akbar attacked Ranthambore. The ruler of the city, Surjan Raii Hada, made a treaty with Akbar. Akbar organized a huge court in Nagaur in 1570 CE. Here the rulers of Jodhpur and Bikaner accepted Akbar's submission. In 1576 CE, the battle of 'Haldighati' with the Mughal army under the joint leadership of Mansingh and Asaf khan with was fought. But the Mughals did not achieve success. Pratap did not accept the subjection of the Mughals and protected the pride of Mewar. As soon as the Mughals returned, Pratap took control over his territories. After the , Akbar attained conclusive victory on Kabul (Mirza Hakim), Kashmir (Yusuf), Sindh (Mirza Jaani Beg), Orissa (Nisar Khan), Kandhar (Hussain Mirza) etc. Akbar conquered Khandesh of the South and faced the strong resistance of Chand Bibi, yet also conquered Ahmednagar. Akbar achieved his final victory at Asirgarh in 1605 CE. Akbar died in 1605 CE. He was buried in the tomb of Sikandra near Agra. In 1575 CE, the construction of the “Ibadutkhana” in , this used to be a religious discussion. Other religions such as Hindu, Jain, Parsi and Christian Dharmavalambi used to come to the discussion. Navratnas were provided protection in Akbar's court, which included Birbal, Tansen (musician), Abul Fazal and Faizi (writer), Todramal etc. Akbar created Buland Darwaja in Fatehpur Sikri in the celebration of Gujarat victory. Textual questions 26. Where was Akbar born? 27. Who was the first ruler of Rajputana to accept the submission of the Mughals? 28. Name the names of any three navratanas of Akbar. (1605 CE-1627 CE) With the blessings of Sufi saint Sheikh Salim Chishti, Akbar received son in 1569 CE, named Salim. Salim later became the successor of Akbar by the name of Jahangir. Salim was very ambitious and rebelled against his father in 1599 CE, but soon he apologized to his father. In 1605 CE, Nasiruddin Mohammed Salim on the throne with the title of Jahangir Badshah. Shortly after becoming the ruler, Jahangir's son Khushru revolted. Khusro was the son of Jahangir and Manbai (daughter of Raja Bharmal Das0, Amer). In the time of his rebellion, Khusro had met Arjun Dev, the fifth Guru of the . Jahangir gave death punishment to Guru Arjun Dev on the of giving assistance to Khusro. In 1611, Jahangir married a widow named Mehrunnisa, daughter of Gyas Baig, and gave her the title of Noorjahan. Jahangir also wrote autobiography named 'Tujuk-e-Jahangiri'. Jahangir's age is considered as the golden age of painting. (1627 CE-1658 CE) - Shah Jahan's childhood name was Khurram. He was the son of Jagat Gosai, daughter of Jodhpur's Mota Raja Uday Singh. Shah Jahan was married to Nurjahan's brother Asaf Khan's daughter, Arjumand Bano Begum (Mumtaz Mahal). During Shah Jahan's time, there was a rebellion of Lodhi and Jujhar Singh which was suppressed. Shah Jahan adopted the empire expansion policy in South Bharat too. The four sons of Shah Jahan were Darai-shikoh, , Murad and Shuja. Aurangzeb imprisoned Shahjahan in in 1657 CE and killed his brothers Dara, Murad and Shuja and became the ruler himself. Shahjahan died in captivity in 1666 CE. The age of Shah Jahan is called the golden age of architecture. Shah Jahan decorated his empire with splendid buildings which included the of Agra and the Moti Masjid and the and Jama Masjid in Delhi. 66

Aurangzeb (1658 CE-1707 CE) - Aurangzeb's coronation was done in 1658 by making his father captive and defeating the brothers in war. He assumed the title of 'Alamgir Badshah Ghazi'. Aurangzeb tried to expand the empire by adopting imperialist policy after abolishing his opponents for succession. For this purpose, he organized several military operations. Aurangzeb abandoned the policy, followed the intolerant religious policy, which resulted in constant revolt in which the rebellion of Jats, Satnamis and Sikhs was prominent, which was followed by the liberal policy of Emperor Akbar. Aurangzeb also took and Golkunda as their possession. Guru Teghbahadur of Sikhs also raised voice against Aurangzeb's atrocities. Aurangzeb killed him on this. Aurangzeb appointed the Governor of Aamer Mirza Raja Jaysingh as the governor of Deccan. In 1665 CE, there was a treaty of Purandar between Shivaji and Mirza Raja Jai Singh. Aurangzeb followed a staunch religious policy and ordered to demolish many temples. In 1679 CE, the Hindus were again taxed with Jajiya. Practices like Tuladan and Jharokha Darshan were closed. Music was banned. To motivate the Muslims to live life according to the Qur’an, employees ‘Muhatsib’ were appointed. In 1707 CE Aurangzeb died in Ahmednagar. With the death of Aurangzeb, the process of decline of the Mughal Empire started rapidly. Emperors who were Aurangzeb's successors, from Bahadur Shah from the first to Emperor Bahadur Shah II (Zafar), were the only emperor in name. They were neither qualified nor had strong will. Thus, with the death of the last Mughal emperor , the Mughal Empire ended in Bharat.

Mughal administration - In the Mughal period, the center of governance used to be the emperor. He was considered a source of infinite power. The highest officer of the emperor was the Wakil-el- Mustak who was also called the Prime Minister, in the time of Akbar, the position being given to Bairam Khan, the head of the Finance Department. Mir Bakhshi was the head of the military department, Chief Justice of the Kazi-ul-Kujat was Wazir and Sadr-i-Sadur was the religious advisor. Mughal Empire was divided into states for efficient administration. The head of the province used to govern the procuress. In the reign of Akbar, the total number of these procuresses was 15, but by the time of Aurangzeb's reign, the number of the provinces was 21. In addition to the subedar, the Provincial Diwan, Provincial Bakshi, Kotwal, Sadar and Qaji were provincial officers while under the local government, faujdar, Amalgujar (Chief of Revenue Department), Bitikchi (Assistant), Fotdar (Khajanchi), Legislators (Officers of Patwaris) etc. were the main officials. Akbar organized the organization on the basis of mamsab. Manasab means-post. Therefore, Mansabdari were high rank officers in army Textual Questions 29. The Golden Age of architecture is considered to be the period of which Mughal ruler? 30. Name the last Mughal ruler? 31. Mir Bakhshi was the president of which department?

5.4. Resistance and cooperation with Muslim authority in relation to Rajasthan Rao Sheikha - The Sikar and Jhunjhunu districts of the present, which are in the area, have been named after Rao Sheikha. Shekha was born on 24 September 1433 CE. His father's name was Mokal and mother's name was Nirbana. Mokal was the ruler of Nana under the Amer kingdom. Sheikh's father died when Sheikha was at the young age of 12 years. Ruler of Amer Udaikaran gave Sheikh the title of 'Maharaj'. At the age of 16, Rao Shekha conquered Multan, Sevar, and Turbachal. While Rao Sheikh was a brave and mighty warrior, he was also generous with religious views; he provided fiefs for livelihood and also recruited his army. Rao Shekha made the 67 state of Amersar the capital of his kingdom. The temple of Lord Jagadish and built the fort of Shikargarh in Amersar In 1488 CE he died in Ralvata village, where an canopy was built in his memorial. Their descendants were called and the land ruled by Shekhawatas was known as Shekhawati. Hammir Dev Chauhan (1282 CE-1301 CE) - In the rulers of Ranthambore, the name of Hamir Dev Chauhan is known Supreme. Hammir Dev was the son of Jetrasingh During his lifetime Jetrahasingh coronaled Hamir in 1282 CE. As he sat on the throne, Hammir defeated , ruler of Bhimaras. After that he defeated ruler Bhoj. Delhi's ruler Jalaluddin Khilji tried to win the fort of Ranthambore, but he had to face failure. Hammir and Alauddin Khilji - After Jalaluddin Khilji, Allauddin Khilji planned to win Ranthambore. He also got an excuse to attack the fort, that Hammir Dev had sheltered the Mongol rebels. These Mongols fled under the leadership of the rebel Mohammed Shah from Jalore from Ulug Khan and Nusrat Khan Camp and came to Hammir. When Sultan asked him to return these rebels, Hamid refused to return the persons who came to his shelter. Alauddin sent the army under the leadership of Ulug Khan and Nusrat Khan in 1299 CE to attack Ranthambore. Hammir sent and Dharma Singh to fight against the enemy. The two brave warriors defeated Allauddin’s army. In 1301 CE, Alauddin Khilji along with a huge army headed towards Ranthambore from Delhi. Seige were placed on the fort. Alauddin Khilji took over his side two commanders of Hammir, Ranmal and Ratipal through favours. Due to the betrayal of these two generals, the Turkish army came to know the secret passage of the fort. Under the leadership of Hammir’s Queen Rangadevi and his daughter Padmala led the Rajput soldiers, wearing saffron garments, opened the doors of the fort. Hammir Dev was killed fighting fiercely. Thus, in the year 1301 CE, Allauddin Khilji captured Ranthambore. There was also a scholar named Amir Khusro with Alauddin Khilji in the Battle of Ranthambore, Hammir was famous for his stubbornness. He did not return the person who came to his shelter, even if he had not sacrificed his entire family. It has been said about Hammir……… “Singh saman Satpurush Vachan, Kadali Phale Ek Bar Tiria-Tel, Hammer-Hatha, chade na dooji bar”. Along with being courageous, Hamir was a scholar, art lover, architect and a benevolent ruler. In the memory of 32-year rule of his father Jetrah singh, Hammir conducted 32 pillar canopies in , which is also called 'canopy of justice'. Maharana Pratap (1572 CE-1597 CE) - Maharana Pratap's name is a great inspiration and honor for all the patriots struggling for independence. Pratap was born on 9th May ( Shukla ), 1540 CE in the Katar Gadh Mahal of . Pratap's father's name was Maharana Uday Singh and mother's name was Jaywanta Bai. Jaiwanta Bai was the daughter of Pali's Sonagra Chauhan Akhairaj. When Maharana Pratap was 32 years old, his father Udai Singh died in Gogunda on February 28, 1572, on the day of . In Gogunda, at Mahadev Baori Pratap was crowned on 28 February Maharana Pratap 1572 CE while the successor nominated by Maharana Uday Singh, Jagamal was overturned by the feuda of Mewar. Battle of Haldighati (18 June 1576 CE) - Pratap got the throne of Mewar state but it was not a simple task to handle the burden of the state in the critical situation of that time. At this time, Mughal Emperor Akbar ruled by Bharat. Many princely states of Rajputana who had accepted the supremacy 68 of Akbar which included Aamer, Bikaner and . Pratap gave importance to the independence of the motherland and Pratap chose not to accept Akbar's submission and to oppose the struggle. Akbar sent Jalal Khan Korchi with the proposal of a treaty in 1572 CE and compelled Kunwar Mansingh Kachwaha in 1573 CE, then the father of Mansingh, Bhagvant Das and for the fourth time Todar , a strategic representative, to force the treaty. These four delegations failed to convince Pratap. In fact, it was a revolutionary diplomacy of Pratap. Pratap knew that war was inevitable, but he wanted some time for preparation. And in the same way he spent four years. Ultimately, the Battle of the Haldighati was fought. Akbar made Man Singh as Commander for this war and appointed his associate Ashfakhan. Mansingh proceeded from Ajmer on 3 April 1576 CE with the royal army. He took the first stop in the Mandalgarh (Bhilwara). Maharana Pratap was stationed in a narrow valley called Haldighati, situated between the mountains of Gogunda and Khamanaur. In the Battle of Haldighati fought on 18 June 1576, a handful of Rajputs faced the huge Mughal army. Under the leadership of Pratap's commander Hakim Khan Suri, Rajputs aggressively attacked the Mughals so much so that the Mughal soldiers ran away to save lives. The Mughal historian Badayuni who was with the Mughal army also ran away from the war zone. Pratap also did not care for his security, he directly attacked Mansingh. Mansingh was sitting at the elephant named 'Mardana' at this time. Pratap's horse 'Chetak' placed his feet on the head of the elephant. Pratap attacked him with spear but Mansingh hid in the canopy. At this time Pratap was surrounded by the Mughal army. In this situation Manna took the crown of Pratap on his head, fooled the Mughals and then sacrificed himself. The injured Chetak died at a place called 'Balicha', a little away from Haldighati. This is where Chetak's Tomb is bwet. In the Battle of Haldighati, on behalf of Maharana Pratap, Beeda, Mansingh Sonagara, Ramdas, Ramshah and his three sons were killed while performing the gallantry. Salumbar Ravat Krishnadas Chadawat, Ghunrao's Gopaldas, Bamashah, Tarachand etc. were the chiefs who survived the battlefield. In this way the battle of Haldighati ended. Akbar could neither capture or beat Pratap nor destroy Mewar's military power. This military operation of Akbar was unsuccessful and situation was in favor of Maharana Pratap. Akbar, who was unhappy with the outcome of the war, prohibited Mansingh and Asaf Khan for a few days, i.e. deprived them from joining the court. Yet whatever the immediate and short-term consequences were, it is certain that the far-reaching consequences of this war went in favor of Pratap and Mewar. After the battle of Haldighati Akbar sent Shahbaz Khan to Mewar three times to crush Pratap completely. But he could not achieve success. In 1580 CE, Akbar sent Abdul Rahim Khankhana against Pratap. His family came along with the Khanakhana which he left in Sherpur. Pratap's son, Amar Singh, attacked Sherpur and detained the Khanakhana's family. Maharana Pratap got annoyed and asked Amarsinh to leave the family of Abdul Rahim Khakhhanah with respect and return to him. Rana Pratap reconstituted the army with the financial assistance received from Bhamashah and after seeing the opportunity, he attacked the Mughal station located at the pass of Diver (Rajsamand) in 1582 CE. Pratap got the right of the entire valley of Diver. Colonel Tod has described the battle of Diver as 'Marathon of Mewar'. The final campaign against Pratap was made in 1584 CE by the Kachwaha , but he did not get success. Pratap was injured in an attempt to pull the bow, and Pratap passed away on January 19, 1597, at the age of 57, at Chawand. Maharana was cremated in 'Bandoli' village near Chawand. Here the 8 pillared canopies is still a reminder of that great warrior. Rana Pratap's independence struggle became a guiding light for the coming generations of Bharat. Rana Pratap's military organization, operations and strategy were his special achievements, due to which he could defeat the Mughal 69 power for a long time. Rana Pratap, with liberal and in-discriminatory rule, who kept the pride of whole Mewar intact. Textual questions 32. What is the birth year of Maharana Pratap? 33. What was the name of the father of Maharana Pratap? 34. Which year did the Battle of Diver fought? 35. Where did the death of Maharana Pratap take place? Rao Chandrasen (1562 CE-1581 CE) Rao Chandrasen was the youngest son of Rao Maldev, ruler of Jodhpur. After the death of Maldev in Chandra Sen in 1562 CE, he became ruler of Marwar, so both brothers Ram Singh and Mota Raja Uday Singh became angry with him. The elder brother Ram went to Akbar's shelter and asked for royal assistance, Akbar camped his army in the fort of Jodhpur under the leadership of Hussain Kuli Khan. Rao Chandrasena went to Bhadrajoon and took shelter. Nagaur Durbar (1570 CE) - In 1570 CE, Akbar organized Nagaur Darbar. In this court many rulers of Rajputana accepted Akbar's submission. Chandrasena also went to Nagaur Durbar but after seeing Akbar's behavior and his brother Motam Raja Uday Singh he left Nagaur court, came back from there. Akbar appointed Raisingh Singh of Bikaner as Jodhpur officer and sent his army to Bhadrajoon to suppress Rao Chandrasena. Rao Chandrasena left Bhadrajoon and went to Sojat and later on Sivana. Rao Chandrasena died in 11 January 1581 CE. Most of Rao Chandrasen’s he was left spent in the mountains and in Mughal opposition. Maharana Pratap, who had started the struggle, was initiated by Rao Chandrasena also on the same path. For this reason, Chandraseen is also called 'Pratap of Marwar' and 'Prataap's fore runner’. Raisingh of Bikaner (1574 CE-1612 CE) – Raisingh was the eldest son of Kalyanmal Rathod. Kunwar Raisingh was present in the royal Darbar court of Nagaur. Soon Raisingh became loyal to Akbar. Firstly Akbar made Raisingh officer in Jodhpur and after the death of Kalyanmal, he made him ruler of Bikaner. Raisingh gave vital service to the Mughal state. In order to punish Chandraseen, many officers of Raisingh were appointed. Similarly, when Deora Surtan and Tajuddin of Jalore along with Pratap, attacked Akbar Raisingh was sent against him. Akbar, pleased with the services of Raisingh, gave him the area of Junagadh and gave the title of 'Rai'. Raisingh constructed the Junagadh (Bikaner) fort and place known as 'Raisingh Prashasti'. Rai Singh also provided his services to Emperor Jahangir. During Jahangir’s, ragn Raisingh was appointed in South Bharat, where he died in Burhanpur. Textual questions 36. Which ruler is called the Pratap of Marwar? 37. Name the father of Rao Chandrasen? 38. Which did Rai Singh provide his services? Sawai Jaisingh (1699 CE 1743 CE) – Jaisingh was born on 3 September 1688 CE. He was Bishen Singh’s eldest son. Initially his name was Vijay Singh and the name of his younger brother was Jaisingh but Aurangzeb changed his name to Jai Singh and his younger brother as Vijay Singh. After Bishen Singh's death, Jai Singh became the ruler of Amer in 1699 CE. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 CE, there was a war between his sons Muazzam and Azam. Sawai Jai Singh (Jaisingh II) supported Azam in this war, while Jai Singh's brother Vijay Singh gave the support to Muazzam. Maujjam (Bahadur Shah I) won in this war. He made 70

Vijay Singh the ruler of Amer. Thus, once the kingdom of Amer came out of the hands of Jaisingh, but Jai Singh strengthened his position by marrying strengthened his position by marrying the daughter of Chandrakunwari, daughter of Maharana Amarsingh II of Mewar, and defeated Vijay Singh and again got Amer

Jantar Mantar Jaipur

Sawai Jai Singh was not only a hero and a master, but also a patron of scholars . Sawai Jai Singh created a table to calculate the motion of the constellations He wrote a book called 'Jaysingh Karika' on astrology. Five for the study of astrology were made in Jaipur, Delhi, Mathura, Banaras and Ujjain. Jainagar (Jaipur) was established in 1727 CE. He was the last Hindu king who performed Ashwamedh as per the Indian traditions. Sawai Jai Singh died in 1743 CE. Amar Singh Rathod - Jodhpur's Maharaja Gaj Singh had three sons, Amar Singh, second Jaswant Singh and the third Achal Singh who died in his childhood. Amarsingh had been fearless and self- respecting from his childhood. On the advice of Pasvan Anara Maharaja Gaj Singh give the title of Yuvraj Jaswant Singh and ordered to his eldest son, Amar Singh, to leave Jodhpur. Amarsingh was also a pious devotee while being self-respecting. Therefore, following the command, he left Jodhpur and went to serve the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. Pleased with his bravery, Badshah Shah Jahan gave him the title of 'Rao' and Nagor Paragana. A minor border dispute between Nagaur and Bikaner took a terrible appearance in 1644 CE, and in history, this fight became famous as the title of 'Matire Ki Rada'. Nagaur's army was defeated due absence of Amar Singh. After some time when Amarsingh attended the Mughal court, Bakshi Salabat Khan asked for the reason of non-attendance, reminding him of Bikaner's incident and he insulted him. When Salabat Khan said to them as name, AmarSingh could not hear the word and murdered Salabat Khan. After this Amar Singh attacked the King Shah Jahan but Shah Jahan survived. Amar Singh slaughtered the killer with a horse and came out with a horse but Arjun Gaur attacked Amar Singh with cheating in the greed of reward and killed him. In this way Amar Singh, who died in order to protect his self esteem and honor, holds an important place in the history. Textual Questions 39. Which ruler was the founder of Jaipur? 40. In how many cities Sawai Jai Singh established observatories? 41. Which pargana Shah Jahan gave to Amar Singh Rathod? 42. Which title did Shah Jahan give to Amar Singh ?

5.5 History of Marathas Part of south-west Bharat which extends from the Arabian Sea in the west to Satpura ranges in the north is known as Maharashtra. Due to being a part of the plateau, the people here have been 71 hard-working and courageous. In these hilly areas, Maratha caste used to make fortifications and used guerrilla methods to defeat enemies. There were also famous saints like , Eknath, Ramdas, and Vaman Pundit, who further strengthened social unity through the movement. Shivaji (1627 CE-1680 CE) - Shivaji was born on April 20, 1627 CE in the fort of Shivner near Pune. His father's name was Shahaji Bhonsle and mother's name was Jijabai. Shivaji's father was powerful and respected feudal of Bijapur Shahaji Bhonsle also married a woman named Tukabai Mohite. Jijabai lived in Shivaji's house in Pune, separate from her husband. Shahaji could not pay special attention to his son. His loyal servant, Dadaji Kondev was appointed for the care and education of Shivaji. Shivaji had received education of military Chhatrapati – Shivaji organization and state management from Dadaji Konddev. At the age of 12, he received the Jagir of Poona. Shivaji received his mother Jijabai's courage, determination, of opposite atrocities, love for religion, country and caste-love and character-building education. Shivaji first made Bijapur the first target in the early military campaigns of his lifetime, because Bijapur was in the state of powerlessness and anarchic. Taking advantage of the anti-Sultan environment, Shivaji planned a military campaign and took control of Bijapur. In 1646 Shivaji also took control of the fort of the . Shivaji's courage increased after conquering the Toran fort and he also took control of the fort of Baramati, Indrapur, Siahgarh and Purandar. The execution of Afzal Khan - Shivaji captured many fortifications and lands of Bijapur. Troubled and frightened by his growing power, the Sultan of Bijapur, Adilshah, sent a large army to the army of Afzal Khan and ordered Shivaji to be captured alive or alive. Afzal Khan reached Jawla and planned to capture Shivaji by fraud and diplomacy. He desired to meet with Shivaji a letter through Krishna Bhaskar. Shivaji, wisely discovered the secret conspiracy with Krishnaji Bhaskar and prepared to meet Afzal Khan. A place to meet Afzal Khan near Pratapgarh was fixed. Shivaji lid his army in bushes, moving with the two soldiers to the meeting place. On the other hand, Afzal Khan, after leaving his army behind, he also accompanied two soldiers to meet Shivaji. Afzal Khan suppressed Shivaji with his strong and elongated arms, struck him with a sword, but Shivaji kept his armor. Afzal Khan's sword had no effect In the meantime, Shivaji put his baghnakha in the stomach of Afghal Khan left him dead. Encounter with Shaista Khan - After the assassination of Afzal Khan, the spirit of enhancing power prevailed in Shivaji. Aurangzeb made his maternal uncle Shaista Khan a Subedar of Souita after the coronation and ordered that in any way to destroy the power of the Marathas. Shaista Khan continued to conquer the fortresses of the Marathas with force and took control of the fort of Chakan on the fortifications between Ahmednagar and Pune. After the rainy season, Shaista was staying near Pune. By planning an attack, on 5 April 1663 he was attacked by Shivaji with the help of skilled soldiers at night. Shivaji reached the bedroom of Shaista Khan directly and hit him. His right thumb was cut off and the lather ran into the darkness of the night. Raja Jai Singh against Shivaji - The courage of the Marathas was increasing day by day, due to which the personal prestige and respect of the Mughals and Aurangzeb was affected. So Aurangzeb sent Mirja Raja Jaysingh and the army chief Diler Khan and Turk Taj Khan as assistant. Mirza Raja Jai Singh had been serving the Mughals for nearly twenty-five years and was famous as an experienced general. Jai Singh made a special plan to defeat Shivaji. The fort of Purandar was 72 surrounded by four and started dividing the soldiers into smaller units and captured Shivaji's forts. In the end, Shivaji considered it to be judiciousto sign a treaty with Jai Singh on June 11, 1665 CE in the Treaty of Purandar. According to the conditions- (a) Shivaji had to give annual income of 23 forts of his 35 forts as four lakh hoon of Mughals. (B) Aurangzeb made his son Shambhaji five thousand Mansab and asked for exemption from personal appearance in Mughal-Darbar. (C) Shivaji promised to help the Mughals against the Sultan of Bijapur; It was clearly mentioned in the streams of the treaty that Shivaji would not be present in the Mughal army and the Mughal Darbar. Yet by diplomacy Jai Singh started preparing Shivaji for Agra. Aurangzeb did not treat Shivaji with a fair respect and behaved badly and made him stand in third line of Manasabadar. On this, Shivaji expressed his fury in the open court, after which Shivaji was taken captive. Shivaji spent a few days creating an excuse for illness. Later, taking advantage of this opportunity to send sweets, fruits,large baskets donated to charity, Shivaji and his son ran away from Agra on August 19, 1666 and reached safe to their house. From 1667 to 1670 CE there was no bitterness or war between Shivaji and the Mughals. In the meanwhile, Shivaji increased his power. Shivaji saw that despite being a power-loving ruler for a long time, he had only become a vassal in the eyes of many rulers. So in 1674 CE, Shivaji assumed title of independent ruler of Maharashtra in the fort of Raigrah through his coronation. On this occasion, he took the title of Chhatrapati.

5.6. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Empire Empire The credit for establishing of the Vijayanagar state goes to two brothers named Harihar and Bukka. When the army of Delhi Sultanate invaded Warangal, these two brothers were arrested and brought to Delhi. When a rebellion broke out in Kampili, Muhammad bin Tughluq sent Harihar and Bukka to the South again to suppress it. In 1336 CE, Harihar laid the foundation of Hastinavati (modern ) state, which was later called Vijayanagar state. In the Vijayanagar state, principally the following four dynasties ruled. (1) Sangam Dynasty (2) Saluv Dynasty (3) Tuly Dynasty (4) Aridu Dynasty Harihar became the first ruler of the Sangam dynasty. Harihar I had four brothers - Kampa I, Bukka I, Marappa and Mudpa. These brothers took over the entire area of Vijayanagara After the death of Harihar I, his brother Bukka sat on the throne At the same time the first Bahamani- Vijayanagara conflict started. The state of Vijayanagar was counted among rich states. The treasures of the temple and the temple were full of metals and gems. Therefore, the main cause of the Bahamani and Vijayanagara conflict was to establish its superiority in the property and the south and the fertile Doab region of Krishna and Tungabhadra. Devyaraya II, an important ruler of Vijayanagar, who fought twice against the Bahmani rulers. Devaray's reign is important because at this time the ambassador of Iran, "Abdurrazzak" (1443), traveled to Vijayanagara. In the inscriptions, Devaraya II has been called 'Gajbetekar', meaning elephants hunter. Krishna Dev Rai (1509-1530 CE) - After the death of Veer , his brother Krishnadev Rai sat on the throne. He was the most glorious ruler of this lineage. During the reign of his reign, the Muslim ruler of the north was against Vijayanagara. Krishnadev fought with Sultan Yusuf Adilshah of Bijapur and defeated him. There was a long struggle of Krishan Dev Rai with the Bahamani ruler Mahmud Shah. The Portuguese passenger 'Domingo Pius' came to Bharat only during his time along with being a mighty ruler, he was a generous patron of knowledge and wisdom. During his time there was progress of fine arts and literature-mainly . He wrote a book titled 'Amukt-malydaya' in Telugu. Babar has described Krishna dev Rai as the most powerful ruler in his 73 autobiography. During his reign, many scholars were given patronage. The famous scholar 'Tenaliram' was in his court. Battle of Talikota (1565 CE) - Combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda and Bidar attacked Vijayanagar. On January 23, 1565, this historic war fought between the two armies. The combined army defeated the Vijayanagara army. Bahamani Empire– This dynasty was established by Zafar Khan Hassan, an officer of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq of Delhi in 1347 CE. He held the title of 'Abul Hassan Muzaffar Alauddin Bahman Shah'. Because of the atrocities and unsuccessful plans of Muhammad Tughlaq, the Amir revolted in the south. Bahman Shah (Zafar Khan) took advantage of this rebellion and established the Bahmani dynasty. Alauddin Bahman Shah built his capital Gulbarga, which is why his descendants are called Bahmani of Gulbarga. The chief rulers of this lineage were Hassan Kadoon, Muhammad Shah I, Alauddin Mujahid Shah and Tajuddin Ferozeshah. In the Bahamani rulers of Gulbarga, Firoz was the last ruler, after which the capital changed to Bidar. Among the Bahamani rulers of Bidar, Shiajuddin, Ahmed I, Alauddin Ahmed II and Humayun Shah were the chief rulers. Humayun Shah was very cruel, so in history, he is remembered in the name of 'Zalim Humayun'. It is also called 'Nrro of the South'. He appointed 'Mahmud Ganwa' as his prime minister. After the death of Humayun Shah, after his son Ahmed Hassan and Ahmed Hassan's death, his brother Muhammadshah sat on the Throne At this time all the work of the state was accomplished by Mahmud Ghanva. Mahmud Ghanwa was hanged because some rich people instigated Muhammad Shah III. Since the death of Mahmud Ghanwa, the downfall of the Bahmani empire started. From the remains of Bahmani state, five independent states of Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Barar and Bidar were established. Textual questions 43. Who was the founder of the Bahamani kingdom? 44. Who founded the Vijayanagar Empire?

5.7. The rise and development of (from Nanak to ) with special reference to Banda Bairagi and Ranjit Singh) Gurunanak (1469 CE to 1538 CE) - The founder of Sikhism, was born in 1469 CE in Talwandi (Western Punjab). None it is called 'Nankana Sahib'. It is said that Nanak was of serious nature since childhood. His father tried to put them in many occupations, but instead of doing business and earning money he used to distribute money among the poor. They got married to a girl named 'Sulakhni', but there was no effect on mind even after marriage and he remained interested in his . For almost thirty years, Nanak continued to excel in various parts of the nation, giving knowledge and wisdom. Guru Nanak died in 1538 CE. Nanak teachings - According to, Ishwar is one that is immortal, unborn and formless. He is omnipresent and kind. Guru Nanak emphasized the importance of the master for the realization. Without the guru, the Lord cannot be found, only the guru has wisdom. According to Nanak, Kam (desire), krodh (anger), moh (lud), lobh (greed) and ahankar (ego) are the five enemies of man. Gurunanak also denied caste system and regarded the path of devotion as appropriate to reach god. Guru Angad (1538 CE-1552 CE) - Guru Nanak appointed Guru Angad as his successor. Guru Angad developed the 'Gurumukhi' script. Guru Amardas (1552 CE to 1574 CE) - The successor of 74

Angad was Amardas. He improved the langar pattern and made it popular. He oppose Sati practice. Goindwal is considered as a pilgrimage site due to Guru Amardas. Guru Ramdas (1574 CE-1581 CE) - He founded the city of 'Amritsar'. Guru Ramdas was contemporary to Akbar. Guru Arjun Dev (1581 CE-1606 CE) - Guru Arjun Dev was the fifth Guru of the Sikhs. He compiled the book ' Granth' of the Sikhs. He provided the masand practice a sure form, under which the Sikhs had to dedicate some part of their income to the poor. Jahangir put to death Guru Arjun Deo because of his blessings to the rebel son Khusro. Hargovind Singh (1606 CE-1645 CE) - He held two swords in place of 'Saili' (garland of wool). A sword was a symbol of 'Piri' religious cushion and second 'Miri' political title. As offering he began to take arms and ammunition instead of money. He built a building near every temple in which a high platform was made. It was called 'Akal Takht'. This emerged as a symbol of the political power of the Sikhs. Though Hargovind started the task of giving a military form to the Sikh , but the later Sikh Guru Harirai (1645-1661 CE), Harikrishna (1661-1664.), Teg Bahadur (1664-1675 CE) of the Sikh faith did the same thing to spread the word. Aurangzeb cut the head of Teghbahadur after refused to accept Islam. It has been written for them that he gave his head but not ‘Saar’. His monument in Delhi is famous in Chandni Chowk as, 'Sisganj Gurudwara'. Guru Gobind Singh (1675 CE - 1708 CE) - He was the son of Guru Teg Bahadur and the tenth and last Guru of the Sikhs. The Khalsa Panth was established in 1699 CE. With the motive of organizing Sikhs, removing evils and awakening the new energy. A new practice was started by five devotees of Panj Pyaaran, Pahul (Charanamrit) and Amrit Chakana (Addressed Water). The Sikhs of Khalsa cult had to keep five 'kakar', meaning kada kesh, kutcha, kripan and comb. Due to Aurangzeb's fear of war, he opened a military center in Anandpur Sahib in 1699 CE. In 1705 CE he had to leave Anandpur due to the invasion of the Mughals. Both sons Zorar Singh and Fateh Singh who were left at Anandpur were confined to the fort in the fort of Sirhind, but they did not convert their religion. The other two sons Ajit Singh and Junjhar Guru Gobind Singh Singh were killed in the battle of Chamkur. Guru Gobind Singh died in 1708 CE in Nanded (Maharashtra). Banda Bairagi (1708-1716 CE) - the original name of Banda Bairagi (Bahadur) was Madhodas. He was born in 1670 CE in the Rajput family and lived in the ashram on the banks of Godavari. At the time of Guru Gobind Singh's migration to South, he called himself 'Banda' of Guru, and hence he was recognized by the name of Banda Bairagi. By Guru's command, he reached Punjab to complete the work of Guru. At this time the people of Punjab were patronizing the oppressed of the Subedar Wazir Khan. They all got organized under the leadership of . Banda first chanted the 'Sirhind'. Wazir Khan called upon all Muslims of Punjab to fight Banda by giving a slogan of jihad. With the help of Mujal Jats of Mayhas he killed Wazir khan at a place called Chhappar Chidi and started ruling a icrritary worth at 36 million annual revenues. The Mughal administration ended in Punjab the Mughal emperor Bahadurshah had to send the army to Punjab. Banda went to the hilly fort of . He started attacking Mughal soldiers with a guerrilla policy. Bahadurshah died in 1712 CE. The new Mughal Badshah sent the Mughal army against the prisoners under the leadership of Safdar Khan. Banda surrendered after being surrounded for a long time in Deraababa. In Delhi, he was killed with hundreds of his colleagues. 75

Ranjeet Singh - Ranjeet Singh was born in Gujranwala on November 13, 1780. His grandfather was a brave leader of Chakia Missal. He made several wars against Ahmadshah Abdali. His father was Mahasingh, who died in 1792 CE. From 1792 to 1797 CE, the Jhansan Parishad, in which his mother, his mother-in-law and Dewan Lakhpat Rai, run the administration. Ranjit Singh took control of the bhangishi mishal of Amritsar in 1799 and Lahore in 1805. In 1803 CE, Akalgarh was captured. In 1808 CE, Ranjit Singh crossed the river and conquered Faridkot, Malerkotla and Ambala, but after the Treaty of Amritsar in 1809 CE, British rights were accepted on the crossings of the river Sutlej. Ranjit Singh died in 1839 CE. Textual questions 45. Who was the first Guru of the Sikhs? 46. Which Mughal ruler killed Guru Arjun Dev? 47. In which year did the Treaty of Amritsar took place? What have you learned? 1. Sindh was a predominant state of western Bharat, where the rulers resisted the Arab and Muslim invasions for a long time. 2. In 712 CE, there was a war between Muhammad bin Qasim and King Dahir of Sindh. 3. In Bharat, the period from 1206 CE to 1526 CE is called the period of Delhi Sultanate. Their capital was Delhi. 4. In Delhi Sultanate, mainly the slave Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyed Dynasty and Lodhi's Dynasty ruled. 5. The last Sultan of Delhi Sultan was Ibrahim Lodi, who was defeated in the first battle of Panipat and Babar laid the foundations of Mughal rule. 6. Before Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb were famous rulers of Mughal caste. 7. During the Mughal period, the center of adminstration was the king, who was called the Badshah. 8. Many rulers of Rajputana resisted and supported Muslim power. 9. Alauddin Khilji attacked Ranthambore in 1301 CE. At this time, the King Hammir Dev Chauhan ruled here. 10. Maharana Pratap, the chivalrous ruler of Mewar, did not accept submission and chose the path of struggle. 11. Chandrasena is also called 'Pride of Marwar' and 'Prataap's predecessor. 12. Rai Singh constructed Junagarh (Bikaner) fort and put “Rai Singh Prashati” there. 13. Sawai Jai Singh was not only a chivalrous but also a patron of scholars and scholars. 14. In 1674 CE in the fort of Raigad, Shivaji organised his coronation as an independent ruler of Maharashtra and assumed the title of 'Chhatrapati'. 15. Raja Krishna Rai was a glorious and wise rulerof Vijayanagar state. 16. The first Guru of the Sikhs, was 'Gurunanak'. He opposed the caste-system, anti-caste, and worked for social reform. Answeres 1. Sindh 2. Muhammad bin Qasim 3. Rani Bai 4. Surya Devi and Paramal Devi 5. Qutubuddin Aibak 6. Iltutmish 7. Iltutmish 76

8. Qutubuddin Aibak 9. Jalaluddin Khilji 10. Khusarwa Shishah 11. Malik Kafur 12. Giasuddin Tughlaq 13. Firozeshah Tughlaq 14. Nasiruddin Mahmood 15. Baholol Lodi 16. Sikandar Lodi 17. Babur and Ibrahim Lodi 18. Babar 19. Village 20. Intelligence Department 21. Ikta 22. Babar 23. Humayun, Askari Hindal, Kamran 24. Babar 25. Bihar 26. Amarkot (Sindh) 27. Harmal 28. Birbal, Tansen, Abul Fajal, Faizi, Todramal (any three) 29. Shah Jahan 30. Bahadur Shashsh II (Zafar) 31. Military Department 32. 1540 CE 33. Maharana Uday Singh 34. 1582 CE 35. In Chavand 36. Rao Chandrasen 37. Maldev 38. Akbar and Jahangir 39. Sawai Jai Singh 40. Five 41. Nagaur 42. Rao 43. Zafar Khan Hassan 44. Harihar and Bukka 45. Gurunanak 46. Jahangir 47. 1809 CE

Question for Exercise Objective questionnaire 1. Which of the following is also called "lakhs bakhsh"? (A) Qutubuddin Aibak (B) Illutmishi (C) Ballan (d) Razia Sultan 77

2. Which famous battle between Lord Rao Maldeo and Shershah Suri was fought between Marwar? (A) Battle of Chausa (B) Battle of Sammel (C) Battle of Kannauj (d) Battle of Bilgram 3. In 1679 CE, which of the following levied 'Jazia' again on Hindus? (A) Akbar (B) Jahangir (C) Shahazah (d) Aurangzeb 4. After the Battle of Haldighati, how often did Akbar send army to defeat Pratap? (A) Once (B) twice (C) Three times (d) four times 5. Where did Sawai Jayasinh not create the Vedhasala on the following? (A) Jaipur (B) Agra (C) Delhi (D) Mathura Very Short Answer question 6. In what language is the 'Chacanama' text written? 7. Which ruler of slave dynasty followed the 'blood and iron' policy? 8. With the help of which of his commander Allauddin Khilji completed the operation of South Bharat? 9. Who was the first sultan of Delhi Sultanate who wrote his autobiography? 10. What was the name of Rao Shekha’s parents? 11. Which author is also known for his stubbornness? 12. Which feudal protected the lives of Maharana Pratap by sacrificing his own self? 13. In which year was the Nagaur Durbar organized? 14 Treaty of the Purandar was concluded between whom? 15. Who was the 'Mahmood Ghanwa'? 16. Amar Singh Rathor went out of Jodhpur and went to the service of which Mughal ruler? Short Answer question 17. What are the major achievements of Sawai Jai Singh? 18. Mention the unsuccessful plans of Muhammad bin Tughluq. 19. Write a comment on the Bahamani state. 20. Describe the achivements of Vijaynagar’s Ruler Krishna Deva Rai. 21. How did Shivaji kill Afzal Khan? 22. Briefly describe the encounter of Shivaji with Shauista Khan. 23. Describe the work done by Guru Arjun Dev for Sikh religion. 24. What are the steps taken by Guru Gobind Singh to oppose Aurangzeb's atrocities? Essay type question 25. Describe the victories of Alauddin Khilji describing the military reform and market policy. 26. Describes the major events of the Akbar reign? 27. Describe the resistance of the Mughals made by Maharana Pratap. 28. Write articles on the incidence and development of Sikhism. 29. Describe the contribution of Chhatrapati Shivaji in the rise of Marathas.

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Chapter 6

British Empire and Freedom Conssiousness

In this chapter, the students will study about the rising voices of outrage against the establishment of the British Empire after the downfall of Mughal Kingdom and the atrocities carried out by the British against the Indian populace. They will also study about the first Independence struggle against British in Bharat as well as about the different mass movements against the British and their results. They will also come to know how the farmers and the general populace tried to resist different forms of exploitation by the British. Students will also come to know about different national leaders who played their part in Bharat’s freedom struggle. The objectives of the given chapter are:- 1. To understand the reasons behind the rise of nationalism. 2. To learn about different national organizations involved. 3. To learn about various national movements. 4. To learn about the contributions of various national leaders in these national movements. 5. To understand the conditions under which Bharat attained independence.

6.1 The Renaissance of Nationalism in Bharat. 6.1 The reasons behind the Indian Renaissance – The history of Bharat has been a prideful one, In the ancient period we were known for our teachings to the world and as a place of immense wealth and riches. However, a time came in the medieval period that plunged our identity into darkness. The Mughal Kingdom flourished from 12th century to 15th century after which British traders first arrived onto Indian shores in 1601 AD and established the East Bharat Company. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Kingdom saw its downfall. East Bharat Company had by then managed to form an economic integrity over the Indian market. Taking advantage of the political situations the British began increasing their political influence and by using the subsequent Mughal rulers as puppets they took control over the entire kingdom. British began exploitations on economic as well as social fronts. The 700 years of subjugation and the British exploitation gave birth to the feeling of nationalism in the Indian populace from the beginning of the 19th century which we call the Indian renaissance. The reasons for Indian renaissance are as follows:- 1. Bharat’s Glorious history – Bharat’s history has been rich with academic advancements and economic milestones. From Kashmir to Kanyakumari and from Rann of Kachch to Kamrup geographically Bharat was united. The ancient kingdoms of Bharat brought us together and served as our source of inspiration. This sentience of pride paved way for nationalism in Bharat. 79

2. Effect of British Rule – British carried social, economic and political exploitation in Bharat to reinforce their hold on us. They destroyed Bharat’s cottage industries & handicrafts’ industries and began sending Indian riches and gold to Britain. They began destroying religious and cultural heritages. Indian populace began protesting against Lord Lytton’s reactionary policy and Lord Dalhousie’s doctrine of lapse. This instilled the feeling of nationalism in people. 3. Modern Education – Lord Macaulay started English medium education system to acquire cheap clerical staff. However, learning about modern education system and English language gave a new direction to Indian politics. English language proved useful as a link language with western civilizations. The Indian society came to learn about the liberal foreign thinkers like Bentham, Mill, Spencer, Ruso, Milton, etc, result of which instilled the feeling for the need of independence in Indian intellectuals. 4. Development of Transportation – British set up various modes of commute to improve trade in Bharat, which also helped unified the nation as one. The most important means of transport was Railways. A network of roads and rails was laid out around the nation, through which helped in a faster circulation of journals and magazines as well as various literaturewas possibe. From various states in Bharat people came to connect with each other. 5. Contribution of Press and newspapers – Newspapers and magazines proved to be a very efficient way to broadcast your thoughts. British set-up various printing press to propagate their ideologies across the nation. Eventually, newspapers in regional languages also started getting published. In the year 1800, the printing press was established near Kolkata in Shrirampur. In 1774 the first news papers, “Indian Gazette” and in 1780 “Bengal Gazette” began publishing. Raja began publishing, “Samvaad : Kaumudi” and “Mirat-Ul-Akhbaar” which were full on nationalist sentiment. Tilak began the publishing of “Kesari” in Marathi and “Maratha” in English languages. The Amritbazar magazine saw its first publication in 1868. The first newspaper was Uddand Martand. Through these newspapers and magazines, the revolutionary thoughts of various political thinkers and social works began reaching the general populace. Indian newspapers became the face of Indian Renaissance and proved as a potent medium to propagate nationalism through out the nation. 6. Contribution of Indian Litterateurs – Through various novels and poems Indian litterateurs propagated the feeling of nationalism in people. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee wrote Anand Math and his song Vandematarm became synonyms to patriotism. Through Neel Darpan, he brought to light the exploitation of farmers in Bengal. Similarly, many other writers used their writings which instilled a feeling of patriotism and love for their motherland. 7. Effect of European Movements – The effect of various European national revolutions also affected the Indian renaissance. Ireland’s Freedom Movement, establishment of various African nations, America’s Freedom Struggle, unification of Italy and Germany, etc affected Indian renaissance. 8. The discrimination policyof British– The Indian population was subjected to various kinds of racial discriminations. They were not appointed on positions of power or prestige. Reactionary Lord Lytton reduced the maximum age for I.C.C Exam for Indians. Even in the army there wasn’t appropriate representation for Indian. Different laws were applicable for British and Indian. All these things instilled a feeling of discontent among the Indian populace. 80

9. Economic Exploitation – In Bharat the primary agenda of the British was to gain maximum economic profits. They destroyed most small scale industries as well as cottage industries. Raw Materials were exported at extremely low prices from Bharat and finished goods were imported at inflated prices back to Bharat. Thus, the economic drain began in Bharat. They set up the Indian economic system as a basic for colonial profit gain. Agriculture, Industry, Investment and Banking systems were set up only to maintain profits for British Empire. In England the expenditure of the Home Ministry were born by Bharat itself, which had adverse effects on Indian Economy. This caused a sense of hatred towards foreign rule among Indian populace and instilled a feeling of Swaraj and to use domestic products. 10. Effect of religious reforms – From 19th century many social reformers in Bharat came to learn from foreign philosophies and knowledge due to which they began experimenting with various religious beliefs and customs and bring about reforms in them. From these social revolutions many organisation like Brahm Samaj, , , Ram Krishna Mission, etc emerged. These social organisations protested against various skewed and wrong rituals and worked towards equality and patriotism in the society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the Father of modern Bharat, helped to abolish Sati Pratha and empower women. Swami Dayanand Sarasvati set up Vedic Studies. Swami Vivekand propagated the teachings of Vedant. Thus, these social thinkers instilled the Indian pride among the populace. Thus from the aforementioned factors nationalism was reborn in Bharat. Contextual Questions 1. Who wrote Anand Math? 2. Who gave the theory of Economic Drain? 3. Name the newspaper published by Tilak. 4. Which was the first Hindi Newspaper published? 5. Who helped abolish Sati Pratha?

6.2 The Political Consciousness from 1757 to 1857 The British came to Bharat as traders and established the East Bharat Company. Slowly with time and their trade expertise they established a monopoly over most things in Indian market and attained economic stability. Political situations were becoming favourable to them too, as the Mughal kingdom was heading towards downfall. With their strong economic presence they had started interfering in political matters as well. In 1757, under the leadership of Clive they won the and established their rule in Bengal. British started social, economic, religious as well as political exploitation. They destroyed the small scale and cottage industries in Bharat. They destroyed the agriculture in Bharat too. They tried to interfere with the Indian Social system and sent Indian capital to Indian. Every section of society in Bharat was affected by this British interference and a feeling of protest emerged which resulted in many rebellions given as follows:- 1. Rebellion by Ascetics – When British established themselves in Bengal they also changed the social and economic structure in the area. Traditional craftworks and agro-works were destroyed. Even during famine the British government continued to exploit. Interfering with many social constructions they put a ban on Pilgrimages, which resulted in infuriating Sages and Monks becoming angry and discontent and they attacked British mansions and storages. 81

Warren Hastings after a lot of difficulties managed to put an end to it. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee has mentioned Fakir-Sanyasi rebellion in his novel Anand Math. 2. – This rebellion began under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu by the people of Santhal Tribe. In the district , Santhal were being subjected to atrocities by the British as well as landlords and loan-sharks. Sidhu claimed him to be a free man and mobilized as many as 10,000 Santhals to rebel against the East Bharat Company and run a parallel govt. After a very strict army operation the situation was brought under control by the British. 3. Chuar, Ho and Kol rebellion – In Midanpur district the chuar tribe lived whose primary occupation was agriculture but due to famine and large amount of mortgage their financial condition was really depreciated. The kings of Dalbhum, Kailapala, and Barabhum united in 1768 to form a front against East Bharat Company. Similarly in Chhota Nagpur and Singhbhum district land from the native populace was grabbed and given t Sikh people, resulting in a violent rebellion. 4. Ahom Rebellion – Ahom is a region in , where British initiated with political system. Initially British assured the local population that they will retreat from their lands after the Anglo-Burmese War, but that didn’t happen. Instead they tried to add to the British Empire. In 1828, the populace of Ahom declared Gomdhar Kuwar their king and fought against British under his leadership. 5. Khasi Rebellion – Jaintiya towards East and Garo in the west of Bengal are two mountain regions forming the Khasi hills where British tried to assert control. They tried to make a military road through the area. Tirat Sing, the king of Nannakalaw together with Khampati and Singpo tribes started the Anglo-Khasi war to stop this interference. However, British used their strong military force to put an end to it in 1833. 6. Bheel Rebellion – Tribal People Bheel were primarily natives of Khandesh District. After agricultural hurdles caused by the British they raised their voices in protest. Bajirao II of the Maratha and his representative Trimbkaji also motivated Bheel to rebel. The British Army tried to suppress them but they kept fighting again and again. From 1812 to 1846, Bheel protested and attacked British many times.gviers 7. Ramosi Rebellion – Ramosi were the tribal groups of western shores and use to make a living from agro and forest products. They were unhappy by the British interference. In 1822, Sardar Chatar Singh rebelled and took control of Satara and nearby regions. In 1839, British government. deposed the ruler of Satara Pratap Singh causing uproar in the populace. From 1840 to 1841 Narsingh Petkar assembled an army and took control of the Fort. 8. Non-Violent Movement – Champaran is a place in Northern Bihar. The European business men used to exploit the dye farmers here. They would be given very low wages. Under the Tinkathiya system 3/20 portion of every famer’s land was mandatory to be used for Dye farming. The British paid unfairly low prices for it. In 1917, initiated this movement. The government had to enact Champaran Agriculture Act and give proper money owed to the farmers for the dye. 9. Kheda Non-Violent Movement – This movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1919. This movement was by farmers against the Mumbai authorities. Due to famine the crops were destroyed and farmers were requesting for a relief in imposed cess, but the government didn’t 82

accept those requests. Many farmers were put into jails for failing to pay tax. Under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership the farmers held mass movements and declared to not pay Lagaan. The British government in the end had to accept their terms. 10. Vijaynagar and Rebellion – The ruler of Vijaynagar after immense pressure and exploitation of British rebelled. He denied the East Bharat Companies conditions of disbanding his army and paying 3 Lakh . Similarly, the King of Travancore refused to pay the subsidy for the Travancore Subsidiary Alliance Treaty and in 1808, Velu Thampi with Madras Native Infantry opened rebellion against British rule. 11. Army Rebellion – As the East Bharat Company grew, its military requirements also increased. However the behaviour of British authorities towards Indian soldiers didn’t change, their wages were also very low. This created discontent among the soldiers. In 1764, in the a battalion joined Mir Kasim’s army. In 1806 due to interference in religious practices, the soldiers in Mysore opened rebellion. In 1838, a company of soldiers in Sholapur rebelled for not getting sufficient salary. Thus, in the period from 1757 to 1857, agro, Social as well as military rebellions took place and were subsequently suppressed by the British. However, a feeling of nationalism kept growing through these revolts, which took its form as the first freedom struggle of 1857. Contextual Questions:- 6. Ascetic rebellion is mentioned in which novel? 7. Where did Ahom Rebellion take place? 8. Whom did people of Ahom proclaimed as their king? 9. Who led the Santhal Rebellion? 10. Who established Brahma Samaj?

6.3 The First Indian Feedom Struggle of 1857. The British came to Bharat as traders, and established East Bharat Company. The Company had two primary agendas first was to establish British Empire in Bharat and second was to exploit as much colonial profits out of it as possible. This had adverse effects on Indian Society. A feeling of discontentment had completely prevailed in the populace. The was the result of this discontentment. Some British scholars have called it Sepoy Mutiny. Vir Savarkar called it the first freedom struggle of Bharat. For the first time British had to face a united rebellion of the entire nation. 6.3.1 The reasons behind the freedom struggle of 1857. The Indian history from 1757 to 1857 was a reflection of British atrocities on Indian populace and their interference in socio-political as well as religious affairs. Their exploitation and cruelty was filling Indians with a feeling of rebellion which was sparked by the cartridges made of animal fat. Following were the primary reasons behind the revolution of 1857:- 1. Political Reason – Lord Wellesley under the imperialist policies of British Empire made many subsidiary treaties and Lord Dalhousie implemented Doctrine of Lapse and annexed , Nagpur, Sataara, Avadh, etc kingdoms into British Empire. The British discredited and mistreated Mughal Ruler Bahadur Shah Zafar which angered the Muslims in Bharat. The judiciary during the colonial period made extremely biases between Indians and British. They would not appoint any Indians on higher administrative posts. 83

2. Social Reason – The British mistreated Indians, they would look down upon Indians with contempt and superiority. They were discriminated racially and believed that having white skin makes them superior. Indians were not allowed to travel in the First Class coach of the railways. Their instructions were that no matter what authoritative position a Indians may hold he had to pay respects to any British personnel. Under the doctrine of lapse, adopting children was banned and any person who failed to have a successor would have his inheritance absorbed into the East Bharat Company. However, they made changes to this law and stated that anybody who takes up shall be allowed to inherit their forefathers’ wealth. In the name of modernization British messed with the social construct of Indian populace which resulted in a feeling of unhappiness and discontentment among Indian. 3. Religious Reason – The British carried out conversion to Christianity in Bharat. They tried to bribe Indians in different ways to get them to convert to Christianity. The education system was the primary method for propagating Christian beliefs. They opened several schools. In 1837, Christian missionaries used the famine to attempt conversion of masses. Any Indian who’d convert to Christianity would be provided economic help and rewards. In 1833, under the Saint Helena Act( also called Charter Act) preachers of Christianity were allowed to operate freely on Indian soil with the help of the administration. The then chairman of the Company, Maglus said in the British House of Commons, “By the grace of god we have received this huge empire of Bharat so that we can propagate Christianity from one end to the other.” The religious and cultural aggression of British forces instilled a feeling of discontentment in Indian populace. 4. Economic Reason – After making a strong foothold in Bharat, the primary agenda of East Bharat Company was to drain us of our economic resources. They destroyed small scale and cottage industries in Bharat. 1793, Ryotwari System 1820, Mahalwari system of 1800 were the various land revenue systems implemented by British Govt. on Indians which resulted in extremely poor conditions of farmers. During famine Indians still had to pay Lagaan, and no administrative help was provided. The raw materials were exported from Bharat at low prices and finished goods were imported at higher prices. This was called Economic Drain. 5. Military Reason – By early 1800s the numbers of Indian soldiers in the British military was much larger. Still, the Indian soldiers were mistreated and discriminated. They were made to serve at lower wages. They had to manage their armaments and clothes within that salary by themselves. Apart from that, a new kind of rifle called “Enfield” was introduced in the British military the cartridges of which were made out of animal fats from cows and pigs. Its seal had to be removed by your mouth which made Hindi and Muslim soldiers really angry. On 29th March 1857, Mangal Pandey attacked British officers in the Barrackpur Cantonment and opened rebellion. On 8th April 1857, Mangal Pandey was sentenced to hang till death. This caused an uproar among the soldiers and a nationwide revolt took place. The rebellion spread through Jhansi, Gwalior, Alahabad, Varanasi, Nagpur, Kanpur, Utter Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan. 6.3.2 The leaders of the freedom struggle of 1857. Lead by Bahadur Shah Zafar, the first war of Independence spread nationwide. The emblem for this war was a “Lotus and Roti”. Bakht Khan in Bareilly, Nana Sahib, and Maulana Ahamadulla in Kanpur, Rani Laxmi Bai in Jhansi, Kunwar singh in Jagdishpur, Bihar 84

lead the Indian rebellion. In Rajasthan the soldiers were aided by Khushal Singh Thakur of Ahua, Rawat Kesari Singh of Salumbar, Jodh Singh of Kothariya, and feudals of Mewar. In South Bharat, Rangaji Bapu and Gupte helped to support the revolution. 6.3.3 Contribution of Rajasthan in the freedom struggle of 1857. The freedom struggle of 1857 affected the people of Rajasthan also. The revolutionaries marched towards Delhi with slogans of “Chalo Dilli Maro Firangi”. The revolutionaries were lead by the Thakur of Auwa, Khushal Singh. The landlords of Asop, Aalniyavas, Gular, Buntawas, etc also gave their support. Captain Monk Mason, the political agent of Jodhpur was murdered by the rebels and his head was marched across the city of Auwa and later hanged onto the fort wall. Lawrence fled to Ajmer and the revolutionaries won. Mewar also gave its support to Khushal Singh. The British besieged the fort of Auwa for 15 days after which having no hope of Victory Khushal singh left for Salumbar. In Naseerabad, two cantonments of Ajmer Merwara were stationed. After the news of Meerut Rebellion spread the soldiers in Naseerabad rebelled on 28th May 1857 and looted the government treasury. They marched towards Delhi and British officers had to flee for their lives. The Maharana of Mewar and Maharao of Kota fought for the British side but the rebels defeated them and took control of Kota. Major Burton was the political agent of Kota, he asked for dismissal of revolting officers to the Maharao. When the news reached to the soldiers they rebelled and with the leadership of Lala Jaya Dayal and Risaldar Meharab Khan captured the Maharao of Kota and executed Major Burton along with his two children. The rebels also captured Tonk and Shahpur. 6.3.4 The reasons behind the failure of the freedom struggle of 1857. The freedom of struggle of 1857 was a nationwide phenomenon and the revolutionaries showed their strength to the British regime. However, the British used diplomatic means and superior weaponry to trample the revolution. The other reasons behind the failure of this rebellion as follows:- 1. The rebels lacked a proper nationwide plan and lacked communication between various groups of revolution in a country as big as Bharat. 2. The revolutionaries lacked in terms of arms and ammunition while the British forces did not. 3. The revolution was limited to specific regions. 4. Many regional dominions did not support the rebellion out of their personal greed and agendas. 5. The revolution was supposed to start on 31st May 1857 but due to circumstances it began on 10th May 1857 and the soldiers was not prepared. 6. Lord Canning diplomatically took support of many Indian rulers by providing them minor benefits. This helped suppress the revolution through diplomatic means. 6.3.5 The importance and results of the freedom struggle of 1857A.D. Even though the freedom struggle of 1857 failed but it forced the British regime to think about their policies regarding Indian populace. They brought about many reforms and changes in their administrative structure and policies. 1. The administration of Bharat was taken from East Bharat Company and placed directly under the British Crown. Queen Victoria was proclaimed as the Empress of Bharat. 2. Despite its failure the revolution paved way for the future revolts and instilled a feeling of patriotism in Indian populace. 85

3. British approached a ‘Divide and Rule’ policy and attempted to divide Hindi and Muslims over religious disputes. 4. The British concentrated on increasing British soldiers in the . 5. They became more liberal in their dealings with different regional dominions and their rulers to keep their loyalty to the crown. The freedom struggle of 1857 despite its failures became a corner stone for the independence struggle of Bharat from which Bharat was inspired and eventually attained freedom in 1947. Contextual Questions:- 11. When was the Freedom Struggle of 1857 started? 12. Who was the political agent of Kota? 13. What was the name of Thakur of Auwa? 14. What was the emblem for the freedom struggle of 1857? 15. Who lead the revolution in Bihar?

6.4 Political Movements 6.4 (A) 1857 AD – 1919 AD The events of the independence struggle of 1857 epoch changing. Despite the fact that the revolution failed it resulted in the dominion being transferred from East Bharat Company to the British Crown. Since, political awakening was rampant across the nation, it resulted in many movements, given as follows:- 1. 1858 Act – This Act transferred Bharat out of East Bharat Company’s hands and gave it to the British crown. On 1st November 1858, a Queens’s manifesto was issued which proclaimed a change towards liberal policies for the Indian populace. 2. Establishment of Congress – To create some harmony and peace between the Indian populace and the British Govt. in 1885 Alan Octavian Hume established the Indian National Congress. In their first session of congress in their first act, increased the age of civil services examinations to 22, issued the formation of a national treasury, abolished Arms Act and established Legislative Assemblies for each province. 3. Era of liberalism – The years between 1885 and 1905 are considered liberal in this era. It is also called as the era of social reforms. The most imminent liberal leaders were, Firoz Shah Mehta, Dada Bhai Nauroji, Gopal Krishan Gokhle and Surendra Bannerjee. Surendra Nath Bannerjee was an astute diplomat. He was the founder of Indian Association on whose backbone Indian National Congress was formed. The liberal leaders had no interest in conflect against the British Government. They were in favour of having their opinions by using diplomatic means like, dialogue and pleas, co-operation with the Government and by sending memorendums. Among their primary demands were the demand to abolish the Imperial Legislative Council and the post for Secretary of State of Bharat, to set up a royal commission for administrative works, civil services exams to be held both in Bharat and Britain, reduce the expenditure on Indian military, reduce taxes on salt, freedom of press, and actions against exploitation of farmers etc. The success of this era was shown by the issuing of Indian Councils Act of 1892. Although congress wasn’t contest with all the reforms but still it was a huge step forward in the direction of judicial and political reforms. 86

4. Extremist or Revolutionary Era – The rise of armed incidents in was not sudden phenomenon. The emptiness of the promises made by liberalist leaders and their methods were becoming increasingly visible to the Indian populace. The British did not believe in equal justice and were only trying to use congress to keep the crowd calm. The youth of India gave birth to a violent revolution which came to be known as Armed Revolution. The prime leaders of the Armed Revolution were Lala Lajpat Rai, Vipin Chandrapal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. They came to be known as Lal, Pal and Bal. They were upset by the 20 years of failed dialogue between liberal leaders and the British govt. and wanted to utilize armed means to gain Independence of India. Bal Gangadhar Tilak said, “Swaraj, is my birthright, and I shall have it!” The atrocities of then employed Viceroy Lord Curzon and his inhuman behaviour also contributed to the beliefs of a armed revolution and not a diplomatic one. Lord Curzon had abolished any promotions for Indians on high administrative posts, in the name of governing reforms he carried out partition of Bengal into 2 provinces, he wanted to create a rift between Hindu and Muslim population in the region. Revolutionaries protested against the partition of Bengal. They boycotted all kinds of foreign goods and were burned in Holi, emphasis was put on use of domestic products. Swadeshi Movement began in India where inland finished goods were bought by Indian populace as a feeling of patriotism. Swami Dayanand Saraswati first coined the term Swadeshi. More emphasis was put on the education sector nationally. Due to a sharp contrast between the philosophies of armed revolutionaries and liberal leaders, in 1907 Congress went through a partition. The leader of Armed Revolutionaries were Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He was born in Maharashtra. He began the publishing of Maratha and Kesari newspapers. He was also the author of many popular books such as “Geeya Rahasya” and “Arctic Home in the Vedas”. Lala Lajpat Rai came to be knowns as Sher-E-Punjab. He held a mass satyagrah movement during Simon Commission. He was the editor of Punjabi and Vandemataram newspapers. In 1922, he supported Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violent movement too. Similarly, Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandrapal were also among the primary armed revolutionary leaders. 5. 6.4 (B) 1919 - 1947 The years between 1919 and 1947 were the second phase of the political movement. It is also known as the Gandhi Era. Mahatma Gandhi was born in the city of Porbandar in Gujrat on 2 Oct, 1869. His complete name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He began working as an advocate in Bombay (Mumbai) High Court after finishing his law studies in England. For a certain affair he had to travel to South Africa. After seeing outrageous atrocities being carried out on Indians there he began his protest. His political life started from there onwards. He came back to Bharat on 1914 and made acquaintance with Gopal Krishn Gokhale. Gopal Krishna Gokhle is considered as Gandhi’s political mentor and teacher. From 1920 to 1948 Mahatam Gandhi led various political movements. He set up his Ashram in Sabarmati and used truth and non-violence as his primary weapons in his freedom struggle. He brought Bharat its independence by means of Satyagraha only. Satyagraha was the primary element for all of Mahtama Gandhi’s movements. He believed in non-violence. His first experiment on Satyagrah was in Champaran in 1917 and successfully led the farmers of Champaran, Kheda and Ahemadabad. Non-cooperation Movement – After Mahatma Gandhi’s arrival after seeing the atrocities of British against Indians he had to resort to a Non-cooperation movement. Following are the reasons behind Non-cooperation movement:- 87

Rowlatt Act – A committee to crush revolutionaries was formed under a rrtired judge, Rowlatt in 1919 AD, which passed an Act known as Rowlatt Act. Under this act any personnel could be arrested and put into jail for indefinite period of time without appearance in a Magistrate court on suspicion of subversion. There rules allowed the prisoner to have no lawyer, no appeal and no plea in court. This was strongly opposed by the Indian population and called a Kala Kanoon {Black Law}. Jalianwala Bagh Massacre – On 13th April, 1919 an assembly of twenty thousand people was organised in Jalianwala Bagh. It was a peaceful proceeding when General R. Dyer intercepted it with Gorkha and British soldiers and ordered a shooting on defenceless civilians. It is known as the Jalianwala Bagh Massacre in the history. Khilafat Movement – After the First World War, British Prime Minister Loyd George had assured the Muslims in Bharat that there will be no mistreatment of the ruler of Turkey. However, he didn’t hold his promise. Therefore, Indian Muslims protested against the British and it was known as Khilafat Movement. After these aforementioned incidents and their impact on Mahatma Gandhi’s life he resorted to non-cooperation movement. He gave up his title of Kesar-E-Hind and medal, and began non- cooperation against the government. Under this he preached boycott of foreign goods, to give up government degrees and posts, boycott of government laid judiciary and schools, and insisted development of cottage industries. He also preached social reforms like abolishment of caste based discrimination and setting up of international schools. The entire movement was going non-violently and peacefully but on 5th February 1922 in a place named Chauri-Chaura police began a Lathi Charge to disperse the mob which aggravated the mob and people attacked the police. They locked 21 sepoys in police station and set it on fire. All the policemen died. Mahatma Gandhi had withdrawn the movement. Simon Commission – Under the Indian Council Act of 1919, there was a provision for a checking of the Indian govt by a British commission every 10 years. On 3rd February 1928 under the leadership of Sir John Simon a commission came to Bharat. However, there was not a single Indian representative on the council. This saw massive protests and slogans of, “Simon go back!” were made. In a similar protest Lala Lajpat Rai got injured in a Lathicharge and succumbed to death. Civil Disobedience Movement – British govt. had levied taxes on Salt extraction. This was protested by the masses in entire nation. Mahatma Gandhi himself held the Dandi march and broke the salt law to begin this movement. On 6th April 1930 Mahtma Gandhi arrived at Dandi and made salt out of seawater to mark the beginning of this non-violent movement. Quit Bharat Movement or Bharat August Movement – To propagate his thoughts to the masses, Mahatma Gandhi began the publishing of Harijan newspaper. On 8th August 1942, Indian national congress challenged the British government to leave Bharat. It was also called August Movement. The primary objects of this movement were “an orderly British withdrawal”, and empowerment of Indian populace and create communal unification. Stepwise planning was carried out for many agendas. Mahatma Gandhi gave the Quit Bharat Speech and gay the idea of “Do or Die”. The British took all the congress leaders as prisoners within hours of Gandhi’s speech and the movement was effectively crushed. Cabinet Mission to Bharat – On 26th March 1946, a Cabinet mission arrived to Bharat with the aim to preserve Bharat’s unity and granting it independence. The members of the cabinet were, Lord Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and Lord A. V. Alexander. No parties conformed to the offers made by the Cabinet which then returned to England on 26th June 1946. 88

Mountbatten Plan – On 20th Februrary 1947, Clement Atlee the British Prime Minister announced in the House of Commons that by June 1948 they will give the power in the hands of Indian populace. Mountbatten was sent as Governor General to facilitate the same. On 24th March, 1947 Mountbatten took his office. After discussions with Congress and Muslim League, Mountbatten proposed the scheme of partition on 3rd June, to keep the best interests of Hindi and Muslim community. The scheme also stated that by 15th August 1947, Bharat be given the status of a dominion state and power be transferred completely in the hands of Indian government. On 15th August 1947, Bharat became independent. Contextual Questions:- 16. What was the name of the newspaper published by Mahatma Gandhi? 17. Who was the last governor general of Bharat? 18. Who is the author of the book, “Geeta Rahasya”? 19. Who established Indian National Congress? 20. Sher-E-Punjab was the title of which political leader?

6.5 Contributions of various Revolutionary Organisations. 6.5 (A) Farmers’ and Tribal Movements Farmers’ Movement – The cycle of atrocities and exploitation was prevailing throughout the nation. This had adverse effects on Rajasthan also and the kings & landlords in Rajasthan were driven by greed and selfishness. Be it a farmer or a labourer, everyone was plagued by their exploitation and wanted to attain freedom. Farmers in Rajasthan too raised their voices against these atrocities and protested :- Bijoliya Peasant Movement or Bijoliya Farmers’ Movement – The credit for an organised protest in Rajasthan goes to farmers of Bijoliya. were the founder of Bijoliya. The northern landlords had become selfish due to which despite being hardworking and making good harvest peasants remained hungry and poor. A total of 84 kinds of taxes were levied on the farmers. Half of the yield went directly as “lagaan”. They were subjected to forced labour on lands owned by landlords. Chanwari Tax, coronation Tax (Talwaar Bandhai) and many other taxes were levied directly onto farmers and labourers. Farmers began protesting all of these taxes. The leadership of the Bijoliya Peasent Movement was done by Vijay Singh Pathik. He was also known as Bhoop Singh. He founded the Pracharini Sabha to get in touch with the farmers. In 1917, he established Uparmal Panchboard. Farmers decided to not adhere to paying unfair taxes and forced labour. From village to village by means of poems a feeling of awareness was created among the farmers. Maan maan Mewara Rana, praja pukare re. Roos zaar ko pato na lagyo, sun rana Phatmal re. Vijay Singh Pathik also founded Rajasthan Sewa Sangh and published the newspaper Naveen Rajasthan. Begu Farmer’s Movement – Bijolya Farmers’ movement affected the people in Begun also. Begun’s farmers were also going through the same conflicts and problems. In 1921, farmers in Begun gathered at a place named Menaal and vowed to not pay any taxes like Laag baag, Begar etc. Begu Farmers’ Movement was lead by Ram Narayan Chowdhary who was a member of Rajasthan Sewa Sangh. Landlords from Begun and the nearby areas united to exploit and suppress the farmers 89 of Begu. This forced the farmers of Begu to stop any agriculture activities altogether for two years. Eventually Thakur Anup Singh had to accept their terms. Later the leadership of the movement was handed over to Vijay Singh Pathik. Bundi Peasant Movement – The leadership of Bundi Farmers’ Movement was borne by Pt. Nayanuram Sharma. In 1926 farmers raised their voices against the high tax rates in Bundi. This agitation saw participation of women also. To suppress this movement police had to use force and they even opened fire on the peaceful crowd. Nanakji Bheel was martyred in that incident. Alwar Peasant Movement – In Alwar the farmer’s movement began in 1921. The province used to foster wild boars which used to destroy the harvest of the farmers and killing them was banned. Being agitated and angered by this the farmers protested. The king of Alwar had to accept the farmers’ terms and lift the ban on killing wild boars. On 24th May, 1925 in Neemuchina Village of Alwar, an organised protest was held against the increasing rates of Lagaan Tax. The British Military surrounded the peaceful gatherers and opened fire on unarmed civilians. Many people died in this incident. The entire village was then put to fire. Mahatma Gandhi compared this incident as even more gruesome than the Jalianwala Bagh Massacre. Tribal Movements Bheel, Meena, Garasiya, etc are the main tribes in Rajasthan. They used to live inside forests by means of gathering resources within. During , these tribes got disconnected from the mainland, and smaller families ended up scattering here and there. Thus, they started getting exploited by people in power. In the 19th and 20th century many leaders came forward who worked to empower these tribes, and the movements which followed are :- 1. Bheel Movement – The leader of Bheel Movement was Govind Guru. He was born in 1858 in a Banjara Village in Bansiya Village. He came in contact with Swami Dayanand Saraswati and decided to serve the tribes around Rajasthan. He gathered Bheels and Garsiyas from Doongarpur, Idar, Malwa, Gujrat and Mewar. He preached them to refrain from liquor and meat. In 1907 he was arrested after reports from liquor contractors. He also worked towards abolishing various superstitious beliefs. He urged his followers in Bansiya to put up a Dhuni(Fire Pit) and Nishan(Flag) at the front of their houses. He established Samp Sabha. The first session of Samp Sabha took place on 1903 on the Mangarh Hills in Gujrat and was continued every year from then onwards. The rising consciousness among the Bheels and Garsiyas made the British administration wary and in the 1908 session of Samp Sabha, British forces surrounded the gatherers and opened fire from all side. Almost 1500 tribal people died. Govind Guru along with his wife was arrested. He was let out of prison after 10 years of captivity. Govind Guru spent the rest of his years in Komboi in Gujrat. The Mangarh Hill is considered as a pilgrimage of (tribal) people. After Govind Guru, Motilal Tajawat began working actively towards the welfare of Tribal folks. Manikyalal Verma, Bhogilal Pandya, Mama Baleshwar Dayal were among the prime social reforms who worked for tribal welfare. Many educational institutes were also setup for the tribal folks. 2. Meena Movement – Meena Tribals were a native to Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur. In time Dynasty took over these areas from Meena. To make living Meena folks used to do variety of works. In 1924, the British Government declared them as criminals under the Criminal Tribes Act. According to this act, every personnel woman and man over the age of 90

25 had to give attendance at the local police station. For good moral behaviour some Meenas would be given the job of a gatekeeper. In 1933, Meena Regional Sabha was established and demands were made to abolish Criminal Tribe Act. Under the leadership of Muni Magansaagar, a gathering was held at Neem ka Thana where Meena Sudhar Samiti was formed. After many efforts of Thakkar Baapa, a social reformer on 3rd July 1946, within the Jaipur province Criminal Tribes Act was abolished. On 1952, all sorts of restrictions were finally lifted from Menas.

6.5 (B) Praja Mandal Movements of the Princely States. Rajasthan was not aloof from the wildfire of nationalism that was sweeping across the nation. The populace of Rajasthan was also fed up of the endless exploitation and independent movements against unfair taxes like Malguzari, Baith Begaar, Lagbag were taking place in many parts. Attempts were being made in every region to make politically active organisations. In 1938, at the Haripur session of the Congress, permission to make provincial political organisations was granted for appropriate representation of the regional population. Such organisations were called Praja Mandal in Rajasthan. 1. Mewar Prajamandal – On 24th April 1938, Mewar Prajamandal was established. Balvant Singh was elected as President, Bhure Lal as Vice-President and Manikyalal Verma, the secretary. It was the first such event in history. Very rapidly people joined the Prajamandal as members. The British Government was not pleased by this and it was declared unlawful. 2. Marwar Lok Parishad – In Jodhpur on 16th May 1938, the local workers established the foundation for the creation of Marwar Lok Parishad. Jaya Narayan Vyas was living a life of an exile during that phase. To tend to his ailing father in Jodhpur he was granted a conditional permission. He demanded an accountable governing system in Jodhpur. Around the same time the famine struck and the Lok Parishad’s social work and welfare made them really popular. The administration first imprisoned all the members of the Parishad but accepted the demand for accountable governance and freed them. 3. Jaipur Prajamandal – By the help of Jamnalal Bajaj and the help of his social workers from Jeevan Kutir, Pt. Heeralal Shastri founded the Jaipur Prajamandal in 1937. Its governing body members were, Chiranjeelal Mishra, president and Hiralal Shastri Secretary. Its first session was chaired by Jamnalal Bajaj. During the famine Jaipur Prajamandal carried out relief works around the region. Many other Prajamandals were established for example, Bikaner Prajamandal in Bikaner by Vaidya Megharam, Kota Prajamandal in Kota by Pt. Nayanuram Sharma. Similarly many other Prajamandals were established in other regions to demand for accountable governance and to protest against atrocities. Contextual Questions 21. Who was the instigator of Bijoliya Peasant Movement? 22. Who established Samp Sabha? 23. When was the decision to make Pramandal Movements taken? 24. Who published the newspaper Tarun Rajasthan? 25. Who established Jaipur Prajamandal? What did we learn? 1. Indian renaissance took place against the oppressive policies made by British Raj. 91

2. Incorporation of foreign cultural values helped improve our society from religious dogmas. 3. The freedom struggle of 1857 was the first independence struggle of Bharat. 4. In the Independence Struggle, every sector of the society from farmers, labourers to women and children all participated. 5. Even the tribals fought against British atrocities, 6. Even the people of Rajasthan couldn’t remain unaffected from the atrocities of the British and protested in all their might.

Answer Key for contextual questions:- 1) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee 2) Dada Bhai Nauroji 3) Maratha 4) Udand Martand 5) Raja Ram Mohan Roy 6) Anand Math 7) Assam 8) Gomdhan Kunwar 9) Seedu and Kanhu 10) Raja Ram Mohan Roy 11) 10th May 1857 12) Major Burton 13) Khushal Singh 14) Roti and Kamal 15) Kunwar Singh 16) Harijan 17) Mountbatten 18) Lokmanya Tilak 19) A.O. Hume 20)Lala Lajpat Roy 21) Vijay Singh Pathik 22) Govind Guru 23) 1938 24) Jay Narayan Vyas 25) Heeralal Shastri Questions for Exercise Multiple Choice Question Type:- 1. What was the name of the newspaper published by Raja Ram Mohon Roy? A) Samvad-Kaumudi B) Maratha C) Kesari D) Bengal Gazette ( ) 2. Neel Darpan elaborates the ill-treatment of the farmers of which region? A) Rajasthan B) Utter Pradesh C) Bengal D) Madhya Pradesh ( ) 3. What was the name of the rifle given to soldiers in 1857? A) Enfield B) Mouser C) Brown Base D) S.L.R ( ) 4. Non-Cooperation movement was started in which year? A) 1920 B) 1921 C) 1922 D) 1923 ( ) Short Answer Type Question 1. Who initiated the English medium schooling in Bharat? 2. When was the first newspaper published in Bharat? 3. Khushal Singh was the Thakur of which region? 4. What was Rowlatt Act? 5. Who was the leader of Bheel Movement? Essay Type Questions 1 Write in detail about the Prajamandal Movements. 2 Shed light on different reasons for rise of nationalism in Bharat. 3 Elaborate on the reasons, importance and results of the first freedom struggle of 1857.

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Chapter 7

Major Events around the World

In this chapter, students will study about the global events which took place in the last three centuries. During this period, the world went through a phase of reformation and instability. The American Independence, French Revolution, Russian Revolution and the two world wars are some of the prominent events that shaped and affected the entire world. On one side these revolutions took place while on the other hand imperialism and feudalism came to end. Along with a race to attain colonies across the world created hostilities and plunged the world into two world wars along with weaponization of technologies being the first priority. After the world war attempts were made to create peace. The world was divided into two ideologies that are imperialism and capitalism. These events also led to the development of culture and literature. Nazism, Communism, Fascism also came to prominence through this. These events also had effects in Bharat leading to feeling of nationalism among its populace resulting in the independence. Objectives – The main objectives of this chapter are as follows :- 1. Students will come to know about various notable events in the world. 2. They will also learn about the effects of these events. 3. Students will also come to know about communism as well as different imperialist regimes. 4. They will come to know about the different revolutions which took place around the world. 5. The will come to understand the situations which created war due to colonial race. 6. They will also understand the effects of these events on Bharat.

7.1 The American Revolution America is one of the prominent powers in modern day world. However, its discovery was an accidental event. In 1492, Christopher Columbus travelled from Spain to find an alternate route to Asia. However, on 12th Oct 1492 he landed in the Bahamas Islands of the North American continent. The name America was coined by the suggestion of a German cartographer from the name of an Italian traveller named Amerigo Vespucci who first informed that the discovered place is a different continent than Asia. Spain was among the first countries to claim dominion over the American lands. They first conquered Peru and Mexico in South America and established the first settlements by the names Saint Augustine which in modern day is known as Florida. After this, other nations namely France, Holland, Portugal, Germany, Sweden, Britain, etc also attempted to setup colonies over there. Britain was the most successful among these. By the second half of the 18th century Britain had pretty much conquered all of America. In 1607 under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport the first settlement of James Town was established. Gradually, the number of colonies by the British increased to 13 which were – New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rode Islands, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. 93

7.1.1 The main reasons behind the American Independence movement. Faulty Trade System – The rules made by the British for trades in America was full of flaws. They believed that American Colonisation is part of the British Empire and the only objective is to gain as much monetary benefit as possible. Therefore, to completely cut the market competition they imposed ban on the production of iron, woollen clothes, cotton clothes, etc by implementing different acts which were Woollen Act 1699, Hat Act 1732, Iron Act 1750 and more. Colonial Exploitation - The British appointed governor generals to oversee and control the administration on the colonies. They had the authority to make laws as well as nullify them. The Americans saw it as an obstacle to their independence. The Seven Years’ War – England and France were colonial rivals. They both were expanding their colonial territories simultaneously. This eventually resulted in a clash between the two which is known as The Seven Years’ War. Finally, France was defeated in this war and due to this American populace became fearless regarding any further invasions from France and began concentrating their efforts to gain independence from England. Critical Outlook – Most of the inhabitants of America albeit being British citizens were actually only the exiled ones or the ones who abandoned Britain for their war policies for conquests. All these people despised the British influence on American administration. This resulted in a feeling for the need of independence in American populace. The Faulty policies by the British Prime Minister – Prime Minster George Grenville set up four rules to protect the colonial interests of Britain which were:- 1. Any trade body that may cause harm to British trade interests was punishable and for this in 1763 Admirality Court was established. This was met with wide protests in America. 2. In 1763, The Sugar Act was implemented which reduced the import rates on Sugar. This resulted in more powers and taxes through customs. 3. In the name of protection for American populace the British established a British army in America, the expenses of which were born by America. 4. Large areas in Mississippi were protected for Red Indians. All the mentioned incidents were bluntly aimed at exploitation of American populace. This resulted in a feeling of revolution among them. Other Notable Reasons - Apart from the above mentioned incidents certain other incidents simultaneously happened that agitated the crowd and nudged them towards independence. These events are:- 1. Stamp Act – To increase the revenues from American colonies British Prime Minister George Grenville imposed Stamp Act in 1765. This tax required them to pay tax on every piece of printed paper they used. There was no representation of America in the British Parliament and hence they protested with slogans, “No Taxation without Representation”. In 1766, Stamp Act was finally repealed. 2. Townshend Tax Act – In 1767, British Prime Minister Townshend passed the Townshend Tax Act under which import taxes were applied on all items such as paper, tea, glass, metal, color, coins, etc without any consultation with American representatives. In Boston City, the protests took violent form which resulted in the use of force by the army to restore order. This resulted in the death of five Americans. It is known as the “Boston Massacre”. 94

3. Boston Tea Party – British Prime Minister Townshend had implemented a duty of 3 pennies per pound tax on Tea, this duty varied from 10% to 66% of the original price. This was to help cope the East Bharat Company from Bankruptcy due to the Bengal Famine of 1769. This had adverse effects on American populace as the tea prices rose and sales plummeted. The nationalist revolutionaries on 16th December 1773 under the leadership of Samuel Adams occupied the 7 tea ships docked on the Massachusetts’s Boston Port and dumped the 350 boxes Boston Tea Party 4. of tea in the sea. This incident came to be known as Boston Tea Party, and it resulted in British closing the port. Closing of port caused many common people to lose their jobs and the protests were finally transformed into the Independence war. The American War Independence After being overwhelmed by the exploiting policies of the British the American Populace held a huge public gathering in Philadelphia in 1774. In this meeting attempts were made to solve the situation by means of talks. However, due to the stubbornness of the British Emperor George III and his Prime Minister Lord North this did not prove fruitful. In 1776, another meeting was held in Philadelphia. In this meeting the majority were nationalists. Richard Henry Lee brought forward the idea of American independence and this was supported by Samuel Adams. For the “Declaration of Independence” a five member committee was made that presented its proposal on 2nd July 1776, this was then accepted on 4th July 1776 and independence of America was declared. Simultaneously under the leadership of George Washington the American Revolutionary War began. The American Revolutionary War went on for seven years from 1776 to 1783. France also declared war on Britain after the requests of America in 1778 to take revenge of the defeat of Seven Years’ War. Initially American forces faced defeats on many fronts and George Washington had to flee the country. However, eventually by multiple diplomatic channels they formed the army and with the help of the French on 19th October 1781 defeated the British Army in Yorktown and forced the surrender of Lord Cornwallis. From April 1782 to November 1783 multiple talks were held between Britain and America at Paris. Finally on 3rd Sept 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed according to which the United States of America was formed. In September 1787 in the session of American Congress in Philadelphia the Constitution of America was finally accepted. From 21st June 1788 the constitution was implemented and in 1789 George Washington became the first president of United States of America. Thus, the 13 colonies of transformed into the 50 united states and rose on the international platform. 7.1.2 The Effects and Results of American Revolution. The events were important not just for America but the entire world. It marked an end to wayward ways of ruling of George III. England began searching for more colonies and also changed many of its colonial policies. Now instead of exploiting the colonies heedlessly Britain began the policy of good governance and co-operation. The American Revolution also enabled the people of Ireland to break free from British clutches. The people of France also found the motivation to speak against the cruel imperialist regimes and this finally resulted in the French Revolution of 1789. Contextual Questions 95

1. How many years did the American Revolutionary War last ? 2. Who was the first president of United States of America? 3. After which Italian traveller the American continent was named? 4. What was the name of first Spanish settlement in America? 5. In which year was America discovered?

7.2 French Revolution 7.2.1 Reasons behind the French Revolution The French army also participated in the American revolution and French soldiers had a positive impact of this. The revolution instilled a feeling of freedom, nationalism and equality among the soldiers. Gradually the ideas spread like wildfire and people began speaking against the cruel rule of Louis XVI. In 1789, the people of France declared rebellion with the slogans of “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”. The main reasons of French Revolution are as follows :- 1. Social Inequality – The society of France was divided into three sections which were called estates. The first estate was , Abbots and Lords. The second estate consisted of Nobility and the Third Estate was the Peasant and worker group. All sorts of taxes were born by the Third Estate and the first two estates had all the privileges. This inequality was causing massive discontent in the society. 2. Political Despotisim – The French administrative and ruling people were autocraticand selfish. The then king Louis XVI used to consider himself to have godlike authority over his subjects. He was apathetic, indifferent and cruel towards the populace of France and ruled in the methods of a dictator. Due to his stoic and indifference towards welfare led to a facer defeat to the French in the Seven Years’ War as well as they lost many Indian and American colonies to the British. 3. Economic Discontentment – The nobles in France used to live a lavish lifestyle and the preceding as well as then existing rulers had been consistently keeping France at war. This resulted in really terrible economic conditions. There were many direct and indirect taxes that had been imposed on the Third Estate for example, Tithe religious tax and Taille land tax. This caused massive unhappiness among the French people. 4. Religious Discontentment - The capacity of Church was one of administrator in the society. Despite the ruling authority being the Lords and Nobility, the Church had the capacity to challenge and overrule any authority except king. The Abbots and Clergy spent extremely lavish lifestyle and were stoic to the religious duties. They’d act as parallel rulers and judiciary. The Tithe religious tax was levied by them on the Third Estate which was a choice but instead it was taken from the people by force. This waywardness also became cause of the revolution. 5. The Effects of American Revolution – The French soldiers who took part in the American Revolutionary War were deeply influenced by the idea of nationalism and equality. 6. Intellectual Consciousness – The intellectuals and writers of France played a big role in mobilizing and uniting the nation’s people. The main thinkers among them were – Rousseau, Montesquieu and Voltaire. Rousseau in his most famous book, “The Social Contract” coined the famous slogan of, “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” 7.2.2 The beginning of French Revolution – By the order of Luis XVI the elections for the representatives of all the three houses began in Estates General in 1789. On 5th May 1789 the sessions began. Luis XVI addressed the meeting. However, no reformative results were made. The 96

Third Estate representatives were demanding a unified voting on reforms but that was rejected. On 17th June 1789 third estate declared themselve as the National Assembly and requested the other two estates to join them. On 20th June 1789, Louis XVI locked the meeting hall of the third estate with the help of his soldiers, the deputies gathered in the nearby tennis court. Here on suggestions of Joseph Guillotin they swore not to separate until they have formed a new constitution. This was called the Tennis Court Oath. Due to the immense pressure King finally accepted the terms of National Assembly and unified voting. The Storming of Bastille Fortress – The fort of Bastille was a symbol of the despoti leadership and atrocities of the imperialists in France. On 17th July 1789 the aggravated crowd in France attacked the fortress and murdered the royal governor inside it. They also set free 7 prisoners from inside and destroyed the fort. The 14th of July is celebrated in France as . The Fall of Bastille became a symbol of the victory against the administrative desptisim. In August 1789, the National Assembly abolished the privileges and feudal rights of the nobility. On 27th August 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen” was presented. The king and queen of France were taken captive and sent off to Paris. In 1791 the first written constitution was made. In January 1793, Louis XVI was sentenced to death by guillotine on charges of treason. This marked a new era in the history of France. The fall of Bastille 7.2.3 The results of French Revolution – The French Revolution didn’t just impact Europe but it had effects and reactions all over the world. It paved path to the philosophy of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. The main effects of French Revolution are as follows:- 1. It marked the end of selfish unaccounted imperialist rule. The despot king and his queen were sentenced to death and privileges of the nobility were repealed. 2. Superstitious religious exploitation came to an end. Liberalism and religious tolerance were promoted. 3. Social Equality and Equal Rights were promoted. 4. The feeling of nationalism increased. 5. Socialist sentiments came to rise in the society where every person has the right to justice and equality. 6. Educational reforms were introduced – as Dante said, “Thou shalt prove how salt is the taste of another man's bread” Free of cost and religiously neutral education system was established. Contextual Questions 6. Who was the ruler of France during French Revolution? 7. What was the moto of French Revolution? 8. Who wrote the book, “The Social Contract”? 9. Which religious tax was levied on the people of France? 10. The Fortress of Bastille is the symbol of atrocities by which French dynasty?

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7.3 Russian Revolution 7.3.1 Reasons behind Russian Revolution – The Russian Revolution of 1917 is considered as one of the notable events in the world history. It is compared to the French Revolution. Even though the foundation of both revolutions was same, French revolution gave birth to a democratic era while Russian Revolution brought forward the idea of Socialism. The main reasons behind the Russian Revolution are listed below:- 1. Unaccountable Imperialism – The Russian rulers were unaccountable and selfish in their methods of governance. The Tsar of Russia had established Duma(Assembly) for the welfare of the people. However actual control remained in the hands of the king. The King used to exploit on both economic and social fronts. To break free from this Tsarist autocracy the Russian revolution took place. 2. The Miserable Condition of the Farmers and Labourers – The Russian society was divided into two groups. One had access to all privileges and resources and one lived without them. Most of the farmers had no lands to work on and were made to work like slaves to the rich sections of the society for barely enough food to survive. When industrialization began in Russia these conditions transformed into capitalism. The people were made to work for 14 hours a day and treated as commodities and not human beings. The poor settlements would be very dirty and people would succumb to terminal diseases. This paved way to Russian Revolution. 3. Social Inequality – The society was divided into two sections where one was of nobles, royal family, higher administrative officers, etc and the second section consisted of small farmers, landless farmers labourers and slaves. The First section would exploit the second to the bone. This became a prominent reason for the revolution. 4. Protests by the Minority – Russia was a large state which predominantly had people of Slavic orgin. However, the society also had Polish, Czech, Jews, Ukrainians, Croats, Belarusians, etc. Russian Czar tried to conquer Poland, Baltic and Georgia nations which resulted in protest of minorities. 5. The personality of Czar Nicholas II – The Czar of Russia was a superstitious, tardy and irrational, he was also a person of weak character who would always be surrounded by lickspittles. He was under the influence of Queen Alexendra and Rasputin and the nation was practically run by them. Had he been influential he could have prevented the revolution of 1917 but he failed to do so. 6. Corrupt Bureaucracy – Due to an ineffective ruler the bureaucracy in Russia had become corrupt and indifferent towards the people of Russia. In the First World War, Russia lost due to this corrupt bureaucracy. 7. Role of Intellectuals – Through the medium of universities and schools many socialist thinkers came forward to mobilize the people. This created a political consciousness among the common people and gave support to the revolution. Main Russian thinkers are Leo Tolstoy, Maxim Gorky, Ivan Turgenev, and Karl Marx. 8. Competent Leadership – The leaders behind the fall of Tsarist Autocracy were – Leon Trotsky, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin and Alexander Kerensky. They led the Russian Revolution to an assured victory. 9. The defeat of Russia in the First World War – 1st August 1914, Russia joined the first world war. The Russian Army lacked armaments and ammunition and was facing defeat on multiple fronts. 98

The people of Russia were really fed up of the war but the imperialists were not in favour of withdrawing from the war. This also caused massive outrage in the populace and resulted in the revolution. 7.3.2 The Nature of Russian Revolution – The people of Russia were fed of mismanagement in administration. Due to hunger, they attacked lavish hotels and stole breads. All the factories in Petrograd went on strike. The Duma was disbanded. The soldiers and labourers came together to form a “Union of labourers and soldiers”. Soviet Union was thus formed. Russian Czar had to step down from the throne and the administration was given in the hands of a provisional government. Thus, the rule of Romanov Dynasty came to an end after a rule of 300 years. The provisional government could not run for long and was overthrown by Bolsheviks. The Bolshevik took control of Petrograd in the October Revolution and gave the power in the hands of Lenin. Thus bourgeoisie government was made. Russia came to be known as USSR from then onwards. 7.3.3 Results and effects of the Russian Revolution. 1. The Czar autocracy came to end and the first communist government was formed. 2. After the revolution Russia emerged as a super power in the world. The world was now divided into two groups, Communist Group in favour of Russia and Capitalist group in favour of America. 3. Russia completely withdrew itself from the First World War. 4. The Russian Revolution paved way for nationalist sentiments in many other nations. 5. Social Equality was promoted and education sector was more developed. Steps towards women empowerment were also taken. 6. Industrial developments took place in Russia which helped improve the economical condition of the farmers. 7. Due to Russian revolution rise of dictatorship took place in many parts of the world. Hitler and Mussolini rose from Germany and Italy respectively. Contextual Questions 11. What was the assembly in Russia called? 12. Who was the Tsar of Russia during the Russian Revolution? 13. Name any Russian thinker. 14. Under whose leadership was the bourgeoisie government formed in Russia? 15. What was the name of dictator dynasty of Russia?

7.4 First World War 7.4.1 Reasons behind the First World war – In the history of man, first world war is known to be the most destructive and apocalyptic event. It started in 1914 and went on for 4 years 3 months and 14 days. Most of the developed countries were involved directly in this war and it affected every other country nonetheless. The reasons for First World War are:- 1. Inter-national Animosity – Most of the nations were competitive and jealous of each other’s development. They all wanted to occupy as many colonies as possible post renaissance. Germany moved first and occupied the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine and France wanted them back. Poland wanted to break free from foreign rulers as well as Austria and Hungary wanted the same. 2. Political Alliances – Germany was rising as a world power during the Pre-World War phase and it had defeated France and occupied Alsace and Lorraine. Therefore, rest of the European nations were 99 looking at Germany as a threat. Germany too wanted to protect its interests. This resulted in various political alliances being formed between many nations. They were primarily divided into two groups. One comprised of England, France, USSR, America, Japan, Italy, Serbia, China, Bharat, Brazil, Canada, etc. The other group had Germany, Hungary, Austria, Turkey, Bulgaria etc. 3. Militarization – During this period of conquests and wars, most nations were arming themselves and spending more and more capital on their military. Some nations wanted to expand their territories, some wanted to protect it yet some other were just building their arsenal to fight back and take revenge for previous defeats. 4. Contribution of Newspapers – Newspapers and print media by means of communication also contributed in creating propaganda for animosity, enmity and bitterness. While German papers were spewing venom against England and France, the British newspapers were nothing but critical of German international policies. When the Prince of Austria was murdered same state followed in Austria and Bulgaria and created very hostile situations. 5. Feeling of Imperialism – After the industrial revolution to keep the ongoing industrial development at its peak most nations went into a race of colonisation of rest of the world. This created tense and hostile situations between most nations. The concern of growing population and military requirements to keep control over colonies also caused a lot of hostility. 6. William Kaiser II and his policies – William Kaiser II aspired to make Germany world’s greatest country. He was actively developing his navy which was considered hostile by Britain and opposed by them too. In 1902, he made a settlement with Turkey to create the Baghdad railway line. Britain considered it as a potential security threat and a hostile move towards its Bharat colony. Seeing the growing strength of Germany, all three surrounding countries united against it i.e France, Britain and Russia. 7. International Crises – Many events during the Pre-world war phase divided the world into two groups. Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Moroccan Crisis, Agadir Crisis, the Balkan wars of 1912-1913 were some of these events. 8. Lack of an international diplomatic body – There was no international committee at that time which could help create dialogue and spred peace between nations. 9. Conditions at the time – Austria had control of Bosnia and Herzegovina due to which there were tensions between Austria and Serbia. In June 1914, Archduke and heir to the throne of Austria Francis Ferdinand along with his wife Sophie went to Bosnian capital Sarajevo. During the procession of 28th June 1914 they were mortally wounded by Gavrilo Princip and later succumbed. Aggravated from this incident on 28th July 1914, Austria waged War on Serbia. Russia joined Serbia in favour and declared war in reflection of which Germany also joined Austria and thus the First World War began. 7.4.2 The nature of the First World War On one side in the First World War were Allied Nations which included England, France, Serbia, Russia, Japan, Portugal, Italy, United State of America, Romania, Greece, China, Panama and Brazil. The other side was called Axis Powers and it included Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. During the onset of the war Axis Powers were gaining hand, Russia was defeated by Germany and due to its internal affairs decided to withdraw from the world war at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3rd March 1918. Germany destroyed a lot of American ships after which America directly entered the war in April 1917. This created an upset in the affairs of war and Allied Nations defeated the Central Powers. On 9th November 1918, William Kaiser II stepped off from the throne 100 of Germany. On 10th November Germany was declared a democracy and the World War was finally called off on 11th November 1918. After the war in 1919 Paris Peace Conference was held, where many kinds of treaties were signed with different nations of Axis power. With Germany the Treaty of Versailles was signed. However, the terms of the treaty were insulting. 7.4.3 Results of the First World War – The First World War lasted for a little over 4 years. It was one of the most costly and bloody wars in history. Its results were as follows :- 1. A lot of destruction took place, of men and material. A total of 6.5 crore soldiers participated in this war and 1 crore 30 lakh were martyred. 2 crore 30 lakh were wounded. The epidemic after the war also claimed many lives and caused a decline in the number of men in Europe. 2. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria all became democratic nations and dictatorship in these countries came to an end. 3. New nations named Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland and Estonia came to rise. 4. It marked the end of wayward imperialist regimes of Germany, Russia and Austria. 5. It also marked the beginning of Communism in Russia, Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy. 6. Many factories were shut down and destroyed due to the war and it created an economic crisis and problems of unemployment also become rampant. 7. Status of women became better as during the war many internal jobs and domestic responsibilities were handled by women. 8. America rose as one of the largest economies and a world power. American president Wilson with his efforts established the international body United Nations. Contextual Questions 16. When did the First World War start? 17. What was the name of ruler of Germany? 18. What was the name of the treaty signed by Germany after the War? 19. What was the name of peace conference held after the War? 20. After which Treaty did Russia break off from the First World War?

7.5 League of Nations After the end of First World War by the efforts of American President Woodrow Wilson during the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, United Nations was established. A committee was formed headed by Woodrow Wilson himself. Lord Cecil, Lord Fillmore and General Smuts were the members of this committee. The first draft of League of Nations had 26 articles. On 10th January 1920 League of Nations finally came into existence. The headquarters of the League was in Geneva, Switzerland and a total of 55 countries were its members. 7.5.1 The Objectives of League of Nations. 1. To put an end to the colonial and military race between European nations and create a feeling of peace among them. 2. To create a dialogue between any conflicting nations and resolve the issue peacefully. 3. To work towards betterment of human kind and to uphold the agreements signed during Paris Peace Conference.

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7.5.2 The Principal Organs of League of Nations. For the uninterrupted functioning of the League, it was divided into 3 bodies and 2 sovereign bodies listed below:- 1. The Assembly 2. The Council 3. The Permanent Secretariat Sovereign Bodies:- 4. The Permanent Court of International Justice 5. The International Labour Organisation Apart from these for further support in administration there were Disarmament Commission, The Mandate Commission and International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation. However, the objectives for which League of Nations was made could not be fulfilled; even United States of America which was the creator of this organisation did not become its member. Contextual Questions 21. When was League of Nations established? 22. Who was the head of committee which established the League? 23. Where was the headquarters for League established? 24. What was the initial count of members of the League? 25. How many articles were there in the covenant of League of Nations?

7.6 Second World War The treaties that were signed after the First World War in the Paris Peace Conference were actually one-sided unfair and forced upon the defeated nations. League of Nations had failed in its objectives too. Therefore, instead of being peace treaties these treaties were just for a momentary break from war. Defeated nations were looking to get even. Finally, on 1st September 1939 Germany invaded Poland and started World War II. 7.6.1 Reasons behind the Second World War 1. Treaty of Versailles – The treaty of Versailles, which was a treaty between Germany and Allied Nations, was considered as a “Violation of Honour” and of unfair terms such as the “War Guilt Clause”. Germany wanted to take revenge for its insult on the international platform. Therefore, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, Germany contravened the terms of the treaty and began armament of its army. In 1938, Germany occupied Austria. 2. Failure of League of Nations – Even though League of Nations was established with aims to solve any conflicts between nations in a peaceful manner and create balance, it failed to do so. America did not become a member of the league himself despite being its progenitor. It ended up just being a league for Allied Nations who could only ensure that treaties of Paris Peace Conference are being followed. 3. Failure to disarmament – After the end of First World War even though Allied Nations ensured that Axis Powers stop the militarization they themselves kept increasing their weapons arsenal, due to which all nations became suspicious of each other and began fearing invasions. Hitler began militarization in Germany due to which all other nations followed and this finally took form of the Second World War. 102

4. Policy of Appeasement – Britain to control the communist influence in Russia and to keep its own interests safe used the policy of appeasement as formulated by Prime Minister Chamberlain. During the appeasement, Britain ignored the rise of fascism in Italy and ignored armament activities of both Germany and Italy. Germany attacked Austria and divided Czechoslovakia but Britain ignored it. 5. Rise of Dictatorship – After the end of First World War, the rise of democracy in defeated nations of Germany, Austria, Hungary, etc was a failure. These countries saw rise of dictatorships. Germany saw the rise of Nazism with the rise of Adolf Hitler, Italy saw rise of Fascism with the rise of Mussolini, Russia saw rise of Communism, Japan saw rise of militarism. They violated the Treaty of Versailles and formed the Axis powers of Rome, Berlin and Tokyo. Allied Nations stood against them. 6. Imperialist Reasons – The defeated nations were looking to take their lost regions back and also to take revenge, so despite the treaties of Paris Peace Conference all these nations continued their armament. 7. Economic Crisis – The year1930 saw the first ever global economic crisis by the name of The Great Depression. To keep their domestic market safe all the nations imposed heavy taxes on imports and this resulted in extremely weak international trade. In such situations nations like Britain, Germany, Italy and Japan opted for imperialist methods to sell their finished goods and to take raw materials from developing nations. This competitive situation resulted in Second World War. 8. Indifference of America – After the First World War, America distanced itself from the international politics. Had they participated and became member of League of Nations they’d have kept Germany in check but that did not happen. 9. Immediate Cause– Germany demanded the control of Denzing port from Poland which the latter rejected. On 1st September 1939 Germany attacked Poland in retaliation of which Britain and France declared war on Germany marking the beginning of the Second World War. 7.6.2 The Nature of the Second World War During the war one group was of Axis Powers which included, Germany, Japan, Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, etc. and the other group was of Allied Nations which included Britain, France, United States of America, China, Poland, etc along with their colonies. In the initial phase of war Axis Powers found success due to which out of apprehension Japan attacked the Pearl Harbor Port of America on 7th December 1941. This agitated America and it also joined the war which gave the allied nations an upperhand and finally Germany and Italy were defeated. On 6th August 1945 in Hiroshima and on 9th August 1945 in Nagasaki America attacked with Nuclear Bombs. This forced Japan to surrender. On 14th August 1945 end of war was declared. 7.6.3 The results of Second World War. 1. A lot of destruction both in terms of men and money took place. The war affected over five crore people, either they were crippled or killed. A total of 1 Lakh Crore USD were invested in the war. 2. For the First time a Nuclear Bomb was used in a war. The entire world watched the destructive capacity of it. Various nations began developing their own nuclear arsenals. 3. Formation of regional organisations. The world was divided into two ideologies. On the basis of these two ideologies, under the leadership of America capitalist countries formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and South Atlantic Treaty Organisation (SATO). While, the communist nations formed the Warsaw Pact. 103

4. In the form of Russia and America two world powers arose, one with communist views and other with capitalist views. 5. The beginning of Cold War Era – After the Second World war a series of blaming and criticizing carried on between nations. This is termed as Cold War. Whose two man participants were Russia and America. In 1991 after the division of Russia Cold War ended. 6. Countries like Britain, France, Holland and Belgium became considerably weaker. 7. The destruction by nuclear bombs were witnessed by the entire world and people realized that without cooperation, trust and friendship peace cannot be achieved and humankind will be doomed. 8. To protect world peace and create solidarity between nations on 24th October 1945 United Nations was established. Contextual Questions 26. When did the Second World War start? 27. When did the great depression take place? 28. Which American port was destroyed by the Japanese? 29. America dropped nuclear bombs on which cities of Japan? 30. Who was the progenitor of Nazism in Germany?

7.7 United Nations The destruction of First World War and The Great Depression created by it, again a Second World War made the world leaders think seriously towards making sincere efforts for world peace. In this direction world powers held many dialogues, of which the notable ones were London Conference, Atlantic Charter, Moscow Conference, Tehran Conference, San Francisco Conference and the Dumbarton Oaks Conference. To draft the first UN charter on 25th April 1945, San Francisco Conference was held. A total of 51 national governments participated in it. On 26th June 1945 the Charter was accepted and all the nations signed it. On 24th October 1945, United Nations Organisation was inaugurated. Every year on 24th October United Nations Day is celebrated. The Headquarters for United Nations is situated in New York. United Nations recognises Spanish, French, Russian, English and Chinese as the official languages. The prime administrative officer of United Nations is called Secretary General whose appointment is made after the recommendation of Security Council by the voting of the General Assembly. Any nation after the recommendation of the Security Council can become the member of United Nations after a 2/3rd vote of favour. 7.7.1 The objectives of United Nations 1. To establish international peace and security. 2. To develop bilateral relations between nations on the basis of equality and to solve disputes peacefully. 3. To create cooperation at international level for preservation of social, economic, cultural welfare. 4. To act as a mediating body between various nations. 7.7.2 Principal Organs of United Nations 1. General Assembly – This is the organisations prime body, every member country is by default the member of this assembly. Every member country can recommend 5 representatives. However, the vote is counted as one. For smooth functioning of the assembly one president and vice-presidents are appointed. Their tenure is for one year 104

beginning from 2nd week of September. International peace, security, membership of nations, explulsion etc are decided by majority of 2/3rd votes. 2. Security Council – It is the most powerful organ of the United Nations and works as a policy making body. There are 5 members of Security council, namely America, Russia, England, France and China. The permanent members are provided the Veto power, which means that if even a single member decides against the ruling of a draft resolution then the draft is not passed. During the Veto the attendance of permanent member is compulsory. Among the elected members of assembly 10 temporary members are chosen for Security Council for a term of two years. Security Council appoints the Secretary General as well as the Judges of the International Court. The regular meetings of the council are held twice every month. 3. Economic and Social Council – To create peace and harmony among different nations this body of United Nations was created. The meetings of this council are held twice a year. Its President and Vice-President are appointed for one year tenures and are elected by the council. There are total 54 members and 1/3rd members are elected for 3 years. Its main objective is to develop weaker nations on economic, social, health, education and cultural fronts. To fulfil these tasks various organisations such as International Labour Organisation, Food and Agriculture Organisation, International Treasury, World Health Organisation, UNICEF, UNESCO etc have been made. 4. Human Rights Protection Council – The primary objective of this council is to help make dependent nations self sustainable. Council makes developed nations incharge of these smaller nations and keeps them under its protection until they can join the mainstream global politics. 5. International Court – To solve international disputes in 1946 during Hague convention International Court was established. By the agreement of Security Council and the General Assembly 15 judges are appointed for a period of 9 years in the international court out of which at a time only 1/3rd judges are provided retirement so that others can be elected. For decisions on any given topic an attendance of 9 judges is required. The official languages of international court are French and English. 6. Secretariat – The main working office of United Nations is called Secretariat. It is situated in New York. The editing of all kinds of paperwork is done in Secretariat. The head of secretariat is called Secretary General, whose appointment is made by the recommendation of Security Council and 2/3rd vote in favour in General Assembly. Secretary General appoints all the staff inside the secretariat. He also presents the yearly report of secretariat in the general assembly sessions. United Nations has successfully resolved Iran Crisis, Greece, Indonesia, Philippines problems. Bharat too has from time to time provided its support in the UN – Korean War, Suez Crisis, Congo, Somalia Crisis etc. Bharat also supported the sovereignty and independence of many African countries as well. Contextual Questions 31. When was the United Nations established? 32. Where is the headquarters of United Nations situated? 33. Where was the International Court established? 34. How many official languages are recognized in United Nations? 105

35. What is the head of Security Council of United Nations called?

What did we learn – Students learned the following things after the study of this chapter 1. Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1942. 2. Revolutionaries helped make a democratic government in France and the government of bourgeoisie community in Russia. 3. Due to economic growth a race to attain colonies began around the world. 4. Mistrust and individual armament created the situations for the world wars. 5. Two world powers were born out of the world war namely Russia and America. 6. Under Hitler’s leadership Nazism and Mussolini’s leadership Fascism save their rise.

Answers to the Contextual Questions 1. 7 years 2. George Washington 3. Amerigo Vespucci 4. Saint Augustine 5. 1492 6. Lous XVI 7. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity 8. Rousseau 9. Tithe 10. Bourbon 11. Dyuma 12. Nicholas II 13. Tolstoy 14. Lenin 15. Romanov 16. 1914 17. William Kaiser II 18. Treaty of Versailles 19. Paris Peace Conference 20. Brest-Litovsk 21. 1920 22. Wilson 23. Geneva 24. 55 25. 26 26. 1930 27. 1939 28. Pearl Harbour 29. Hiroshima and Nagasaki 30. Hitler 31. 1945 32. New York 33. Hague 34. 5 35. Secretary General

Questions for Exercise: Multiple Choice Question:- 2. How long did the American Revolutionary War last? B) Three Years B) Four Years C) Seven Years D) Eight Years ( ) 2. What was the name of Russian Parliament? B) Dyuma B) Parliament C) Raikhsteg D) Soviet ( ) 3. “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” was the slogan for which revolution? B) French B) American C) Russian D) Chinese ( ) 4. When was United Nations Established? B) 1945 B) 1942 C) 1920 D) 1944 ( )

Short Answer Question 3 Who discovered America? 4 Write a short note on Bastille? 5 Who was the ruler of France during French Revolution? 6 Where is the headquarters of United Nations? 7 What were the incidents leading to second world war?

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Essay Type Questions 8 Write in detail about the American Revolutionary War. 9 Write about the reasons, results and importance of French Revolutions. 10 Write about the reasons, results and importance of Second World War. 11 Write in detail about the functioning of United Nations.

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Chapter 8

Indian Renaissance and Social Movements

Introduction – Our culture and history through ancient times has been one of prideful heritage. During the medieval period due to various foreign invasions that heritage was struck down and our society was torn apart. Religion as well as society became laced with many superstitious rituals. In such hard times many socialist reformers were born who devoted their life to resolve these issues and resolve many social afflictions from the society. In the 19th century many such reformers worked towards building our society back to a healthier state. Objective – The main objectives of this chapter are. 1. Students will come to learn about socialist reformers in Bharat. 2. Students will come to know about different social afflictions that prevailed in Bharat. 3. Students will take motivation from the life of these socialist reformers. 4. Students will learn the importance of their contribution to making a healthy society. 5. Students will develop elements like social harmony and cultural tolerance in their lives.

8.1 Raja Ram Mohan Roy Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the ambassador of Indian renaissance and one of the prime architects of various socialist reform movements in Bharat. He was born in a small village Radhanagar in the Hugli district of Bengal on 22nd May 1772 in an elite family. From the early childhood he proved to be exceptionally intelligent. He learned many languages like Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, French, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, etc. In his early days he worked at the East Bharat Company. However, eventually he quit the job and became an active social worker. He did many comparative studies on the major religions of the world. As a true philosopher he re-established the of . Despite his hatred towards British and their atrocious rule he favoured English medium education systems. He believed that learning about western society and culture will instil a more modern and new Indian society. Through ideological discussion, he wanted to reach the entire nation and with that aim to awaken the society in 1821 he began publishing of the Bangla newspaper “Samvaad Kaumudi” and in 1822 he began publishing Persian newspaper “Mirat-Ul-Akhbar” and English newspaper “Brahmanical”. For modern education he established Hindu College in Calcutta in 1817. He also established Anglo-Indian School in 1822 and Vedant College in 1825. 8.1.1 Social Reformer – On the basis of Indian philosophy he began opposing social evils such as cast system, child marriage, polygamy, sati system, etc. After his efforts to raise awareness against sati system on 4th December 1829 Lord William Bentinck passed an act to declare sati pratha as illegal. He made efforts to give equal social status to women. He preached against caste system 108 explaining that it divides the society even more. His efforts against child marriage led to the Sarda Act of 1929 which established a minimum legal age of both a man and a woman for marriage. 8.1.II Brahma Samaj – Raja Ram Mohan Roy established Brahma Samaj on 20th August 1828 to remove superficial beliefs and evils from society and also to help shape out a society through of Indian philosophy the way he dreamt. The main teachings of Brahmo Samaj are as follows:- 1. There is only one God, he is infinite and omnipresent. Soul is immortal. 2. God does not affiliate to any particular caste or community. 3. Brahmo Samaj was against worshiping idols. 4. God should only be worshipped by spiritual connections. 5. Atoning to any ill deeds and to practice abdication are the only ways to attain liberation of one’s soul. 6. Brahmo Samaj was also against any hefty rituals. Thus, Brahmo Samaj was a monotheistic institution purely based on Upnishads. After establishing Brahma Samaj Raja Ram Mohan Roy had to visit England where in 1833 he died. After Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Brahmo Samaj was taken forward by Devendra Nath Tagore and Keshav Chandra Sen. Over the period of time Brahmo Samaj was divided into two parts 1) Adi Brahmo Samaj 2) Bharatiya Brahmo Samaj.Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first person to wage war against social afflictions gripping Indian society and therefore he came to be know as father of the Indian renaissance. Contextual Questions 1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy began the publishing of which Bangla Newspaper? 2. Who is called the father of Modern Bharat? 3. What was the name of the institution formed by Raja Ram Mohon Roy? 4. Where did Raja Ram Mohan die? 5. Which social evils did Raja Ram Mohan Roy help abolish?

8.2 Swami Dayanand Saraswati Swami Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of Arya Samaj, was born in Mauravi village of Kathiavada in Gujrat in 1824 in an established Brahman family. His name during childhood was Moolshankar. His father was a Vedic Brahmin and his education too started from Yajurveda. At the age of 14, to take part in Shivratri celebrations he went to Shiv temple. At night he noticed that a small mouse was climbing up the Shivling and fooling around. This affected him and he thought what sort of God is Shiva if he can’t defend himself. When he consulted his father, the father replied that this is just an idol of Shiva and not Shiva himself. After this, he stopped believing in Idol-worshipping. At the age of 21 he decided to abdicate home in search ofenlightenment. He travelled around in Bharat for 19 years. He made Swami Virajnand, one of the mightiest scholars of Vedic literature; language and philosophy of his time his teacher in Mathura and learnt about Vedas from him. There was sadism prevailing in Indian society due to pertaining to various social evils and superstitions. He worked towards enlightenment of society by means of Vedic philosophy and culture. In 1874 he wrote Satyarth Prakash. He proclaimed Vedas to be the 109 prime source of Indian philosophy and believed that only by studying them can the world actually be purified. He tried to reveal the truths about Vedic knowledge and gave the slogan, “Vedo ki aur lauto”(Back to Vedas). He founded Arya Samaj on 10th April 1875. The main principles of Arya Samaj are as follows:- 1. God is all powerful, omnipotent, omnipresent and all knowledgeable. 2. God is the embodiment of the entire knowledge present in the universe. 3. Humans must always be willing and eager to accept and find the truth. 4. Veda is a source of immense knowledge and every person should read it. 5. A human should spend life only as described by the Vedas. 6. A person should indulge in Yajna and Hawan as described in Vedas. 7. A person should worship Brahma. 8. A person should always move forward for the betterment of entire society. 9. A person should educate as many in his life as possible. 10. Arya Samaj believes in Karma and Reincarnations. Swami Dayanand Saraswati by means of Arya Samaj worked in various fields for social reforms which are as follows:- 1. Religious – He worked against idol-worshiping, caste system, ritualism, girl-infanticide, etc. He also preached monotheism, Yajna, havan and piety. 2. Social – He believed in social equality and worked against caste system. He firmly fought against child marriage, polygamy, purdah system. He supported widow . He was the founder of movement where he converted families and people back to Hinduism who had to convert to Islam or Christianity forcibly. 3. Educational – Swami Dayanand Saraswati tried to preach his teachings by the medium of educational institutions. He founded Dayanand Anglo Vedic schools and colleges and also the Gurukul education system. Along with all contemporary subjects these institutes also worked extensively to promote Sanskrit and Vedas. 4. Nationalist movements – Arya Samaj also worked towards spreading political consciousness in the society. Dayanand Saraswati was the first person to proclaim the word “swaraj” and claim Hindi as the nation’s language. He preached boycott of imported goods and utilisation of domestic goods, which became an important organ to the Freedom struggle of Bharat. Thus, Dayanand Saraswati kept travelling around Bharat throughout his life. He was in Rajasthan in his final days and died a natural death on 30th Oct 1883. Contextual Questions 6. What was the childhood name of Dayanand Saraswati? 7. What was the name of institution established by Dayanand Saraswati? 8. What was the name of the book written by Dayanand Saraswati? 9. Who was the first person to preach use of domestic goods? 10. Where did Swami Dayanand Saraswati die?

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8.3 Swami Vivekanand The Father of the youth, Swami Vivekanand, was born to Vishwanath Dutta family of Calcutta on 12th January 1863. His mother’s name was Buvaneshwari Devi. She was a very religious person. Vivekanand’s childhood name was Narendra Nath Dutta and he finished his graduation from Calcutta University. Along with Indian philosophy, Vivekanand studied western philosophers like John Stuart Mill, Duma, Herbert Spencer, etc. In 1881, Vivekanad met Ramkrishna Paramhansa, and inspired by his personality Vivekanand became his student. Vivekanand spread his philosophy of humanism across the world. After the death of Ramkrishna, he decided to open a monastery. Along with few of his friends Vivekanand started this later. He travelled all over Bharat during which he met King of Alwar and Khetari Ajit Singh. Ajit Singh was really inspired and named him “Vivekanand”. From the monetary Swami Vivekanand help of Ajit Singh, Vivekanand in 1893 attended the World Religious conference in Chicago and made the country proud. Initially he was not given a much time to speak but when he started to speak and began his speech with the lines, “Sisters and brothers of America” entire Columbus hall applauded. After this Swami Vivekanand became world renowned and attained many world’s conferences in various countries and spread the knowledge of Indian philosophy. On 4th July 1902, Vivekanand died at an early age. Swami Vivekanand established Ramkrishna Mission and through it he propagated the teaching of his teacher Paramhansa. Vivekanand established the Indian philosophy and civilisation all over the world. Through the medium of Indian spiritualism he gave a new life to Hinduism and gave the slogan,” उत्ततष्ट जातित प्राप्य वरृन्तनबोधत”, meaning Arise, Awake and stop not till the goal is reached. He was the living embodiment of Indian philosophy and religion. Thoughts of Swami Vivekanand 1. VIvekanand believed that God is above all imaginations and omnipresent. By means of knowledge, devotion and karma one can find God and all the religions follow any one of these paths? 2. Every religion is good and no person should ever abandon his religion. He should also respect other religions as well. 3. Hindi religion is the oldest of all. It involves spirituality and has no ills. 4. He also worked in instilling a feeling of pride among Hindus by his Vedant Philosophy. Swami Vivekanand’s philosophy was based off Vedant. According to that, inequality and untouchability were strongly condemned. He inspired people to look beyond castes and creeds. He was father of youth in Bharat and instilled nationalism among many youths around the nation. He supported complete independence of Bharat and motivated the youth to work towards the same. Thus, his thoughts become a source of inspiration to the nation and the society. Contextual Questions 11. When was Swami Vivekanand born? 111

12. What was the childhood name of Swami Vivekanand? 13. Who established ? 14. Who gave the name Vivekanand to Narendra Nath? 15. Where was the World conference held?

8.4 Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedakar In the 19th and 20th century modernisation of education resulted in awakening of lower or oppressed castes of the society. Many reformers worked towards homogeneity and equality. Dr. Ambedakar also hailed from a caste which had a lower status in the society. He emerged as a crusader of lower castes in that era. Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedakar was born in district of Madhya Pradesh inthe Mahar caste on 14th April 1891. His father was Ramji Maloji Sakpal and mother was Bhimabai. He was the fourteenth child in the family. He was married to Ramabai in 1905 that later died in 1935. He finished his graduation from Elphinstone College and with the help of the ruler of Gaikwad finished his higher education from Columbia Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedakar University and Ph.D from London School of Economics. He became a barrister in 1923. From 1924, he actively began working towards upliftment of oppressed castes and to abolish untouchability. He believed untouchability to be a mark of shame on Hindu community. He established the Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha whose main objective was the upliftment of oppressed castes. He began publishing Bahishkrit Bharat newspaper. Bhim Rao Ambedkar is a personality who came from the lowest castes of Bharat, worked against all odds and became the maker of the constituition of Bharat. He came to be known as Baba Sahib. He firmly respected women and believed in women empowerment, and the privileges to women provided in the constitution of Bharat are his contributions which he presented in the form of Hindu Code Bill. In 1930, Ambedkar entered Indian politics. In 1932, he created provisional legislature for lower castes by means of Poona Act. He formed Independent Labour Party in 1936 and won 15 seats in the central elections of 1937. He created the reservation policy for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and created the Uniform Civil Code under article 370. After the independence he became the first law minister in the new government and he presided the committee responsible for making the Constitution of Bharat. In the constitution prepared by Ambedkar has provided inherent independence to a citizen of Bharat and has proclaimed untouchability as unlawful. On 26th January 1950, the constitution of Bharat was implemented. His famous books are Who were the , The Buddha and his Dhamma, Thoughts on Pakistan and The Untouchables. On 14th October 1956, Ambedkar converted to Buddhism. He died on 6th December 1956. He was cremated in Dadar, Mumbai according to Buddhist rituals. After his death Ambedkar was honoured by Bharat Ratna, Bharat’s most prestigious award. Contextual Questions 16. Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar was known by which name? 17. Who was the first law minister of Independent Bharat? 18. Ambedkar converted to which religion? 19. When was Dr. Ambedkar born? 112

20. In which family was Bhim Rao Ambedkar born? 8.5 Acharya Tulsi In 20th Century many great thinkers were born across the world, which also had positive effects on Bharat.When Bharat became independent; the society was still gripped by orthodox caste based division. In such situation, the birth of Acharya Tulsi in Terapanth of Jain community was a ray of hope. Acharya Tulsi was born on 20th October 1914 in the Ladnun village of Rajasthan. His father’s name was Jhoomarlal Khater and mother’s was Vandana. He was the youngest of 8 siblings. His family was really influenced by religious environments from the begining and his elder brother Champalal had already become a Jain Saint. At the age of 11 Acharya Tulsi became the disciple of 8th Acharya Kalugani of the Terapanth Sangh and was initiated into monkhood. At the age of 22 he was named successor of Kalugani becoming the 9th Acharya of Terapanth Sangh. He was a dedicated academic. He studied Jain Agamas along with Indian as well as Non-Indian philosophy. He was extremely fluent in Hindi, Sanskrit and Prakrit languages. He took many daring socialist steps by virtue of that knowledge some of which are Prekshadhyayan, Life Sciences and Anuvrat Movement. Understanding the national and social conditions he began the Anuvrat movement in the Sardarshahar city of in Rajasthan. He encouraged all communities participate and join this movement. Anuvrat is formed of two words (Anu = small and Vrat = Vow). Anuvrat movement comprised of small vows which any person could conveniently follow along with his normal lifestyle. There were 75 such vows. Even though Anuvrat movement was started by Jain monks there was no restriction of caste in it. Any person from any caste, creed or status was allowed to join. This movement emphasized upon reducing social inequality by condemning misbehaviour in the name of castes. They put more emphasis on women empowerment as well. To live one’s life free of any addictions was another aspect. It was a movement purely aimed at social welfare. The main code of conduct under Anuvrat movement as follows:- 1. I will abstain from any kind of violence. 2. I will not behave aggressively to situations. 3. I will not participate in destructive activities. 4. I will maintain religious tolerance. 5. I will believe in unity among humans. 6. I will lead a life free off any addictions. 7. I will indulge in Brahmacharya and possessionlessness. 8. I will protest against social malpractices. 9. I will not behave immorally or unethically. 10. I will protect the environment. 11. I will lead my life as if to leave an example for others. Today there are countless people following Anuvrat code of conduct in their life. Thus Acharya Tulsi instilled a new life in Indian society by the Anuvrat movement. On 23rd June 1997 he died in Ganga City of Bikaner. 113

Contextual Questions 21. Where was Acharya Tulsi born? 22. Who was the father of Acharya Tulsi? 23. Which Acharya initiated Acharya Tulsi into monkhood? 24. What was the name of the movement started by Acharya Tulsi? 25. When did Acharya Tulsi die?

8.6 Jyoti Rao Phule Jyotiba Phule despite hailing from an oppressed caste in Maharashtra is considered a forerunner for socialist revolutions in Bharat. He worked extensively in the field of women empowerment and welfare for oppressed castes. Jyotiba Phule was born to a Mali family in Pune, Maharashtra on 11th April 1827. His father’s name was Govind Rao and mother was Chimna Bai. His ancestors worked in making flower rosaries and wreaths. Thus they were named Phule(Flower). His primary education was in Marathi however later he was admitted to English-medium school. He was the oldest in terms of age in his class. At the age of 13 he was married to Savitri Bai in 1840. Savtri Bai was also one of the renowned socialist workers who worked along with Jyotiba Phule in the field of welfare for women and oppressed castes. At that time caste system was really strong in Maharashtra. Jyotiba Phule publically protested against this and spread the message of human unity. The society was indifferent towards women and women education. To fulfil this objective, in 1848 he opened the first All Girls School. Initially due to lack of teachers, he himself taught in the school and later made Savitri Bai the principle of the school. This was strongly condemned by the higher class society and he was even ousted from his own family along with his wife. However, he went on to open three all girls schools. To help the poor and oppressed castes, and to grant them a reputable stature in the society on 24th September 1873 he established Satya Shodhak Samaj. He also opened many schools for orphans and women. He actively protested against child marriage. He also conducted many marriages without a Brahmin or Pundit for the ceremony, taking validation from the court. He supported widow marriages. In a huge gathering in Mumbai in 1888 he was first called Mahatma. At the age of 63 on 28th November 1890 he died.

Contextual Questions 26. What was the profession of ancestors of Jyotiba Phule? 27. What was the name of Jyotiba Phule’s wife? 28. What was the name of institution started by Jyotiba Phule? 29. Who was the father of Jyotiba Phule? 30. Who started the first All Girls School in Bharat?

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What did we learn? 1. From 19th century many religious reforming movements took place in Bharat. 2. The main objective of these social reforms was to remove evils in our social structure. 3. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered the Father of Modern Bharat. 4. Dayanand Saraswati established Arya Samaj. 5. Swami Vivekanand attended the World Religion Conference, Chicago. 6. Acharya Tulsi was the founder of Anuvrat Movement. 7. Movements extensively worked towards welfare oppressed castes and women education. 8. Jyotiba Phule established Satya Shodhak Samaj.

Answers to the contextual questions. 1. Samvad Kaumudi 2. Raja Ram Mohan Roy 3. Brahmo Samaj 4. Bristol 5. Sati Pratha 6. Mool Shankar 7. Arya Samaj 8. Satyarth Prakash 9. Chandan 10. Ajmer 11. 12th Jan 1863 12. Narendra Nath 13. Swami Vivekanand 14. King of Khetari 15. Chicago 16. Baba Sahib 17. Bhimrao Ambedkar 18. Buddhism 19. 14th April 1891 20. Mahar family 21. Ladnun 22. Jhoomarmal Khater 23. Kalguni 24. Anuvrat 25. 1997 26. Making flower Rosaries 27. Savitri Bai 28. Satya Shodhak Samaj 29. Govind Rao 30. Jyotiba Phule

Exercise Questions: Multiple Choice Question Type:- 3. What was the name of social institution established by Dayanand Saraswati? C) Arya Samaj B) Ramakrishna Mission C) Brahmo Samaj D) Vaishnav Samaj ( ) 2. Who is considered the Father of Modern Bharat? C) Raja Ram Mohon Roy B) Dayanand Saraswati C) Mahatma Gandhi D) Jyotiba Phule ( ) 3. Who established Satya Shodhak Samaj? C) Jyotiba Phule B) Jambeshwar Ji C) Swami Vivekanand D) Acharya Tulsi ( ) 4. Who was the herald of Anuvrat Movement? C) Acharya Tulsi B) Acharya Bikshu C) Acharya Kalguni D) Acharya Mahapragya ( ) 5. Babasahib Bhimrao Ambedkar established which social organisation? A) Satya Shodhak Samaj B) Dharma Sabha C) Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha D) Adivasi Sabha ( )

Short Answer Question Type 12 What is the meaning of Anuvrat? 13 Who established Satya Shodhak Samaj in Bharat? 14 Who helped to ban Satipratha? 15 Who helped in the formulation of Act banning Sati Pratha? 115

16 When did Swami Dayanand Saraswati die?

Essay Answer Question Type 17 Write in detail about the social contributions of Bhim Rao Ambedkar. 18 Explain in detail the primary teaching of Brahmo Samaj. 19 Write in detail about the life of Swami Dayanand Saraswati and his teachings. 20 Write about the contribution of Jyotiba Phule in the field of women education. 21 Write in detail about the life and teachings of Acharya Tulsi

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Chapter 9

Inspirational Characters

Introduction – In this chapter we will study about the different inspirational figures who affected our society in one way or another. The student will be introduced to their contribution to social, religious and political fields of Bharat. They will come to know how these people sacrificed the comfort of their homes and led the crusade of reforms despite harsh conditions and unfavourable situations. Many even sacrificed their lives to catalyze social reforms in the country and went on to become inspirational symbols. Objectives – The main objectives of this chapter are:- 1. To instil the sentiments of patriotism and sacrifice in the students. 2. To make students aware of various social inequalities and enable them to become active towards building of a healthy society. 3. To inspire students towards betterment of all flora and fauna along with humanitarian activities.

9.1 Inspirational figures 9.1.1 Maharshi Parshuram – Parshuram was a sage in Treta Yug and was born into Bhragu lineage. His father’s name was Jamdagni and mother’s name was Renuka. After being happy from Maharshi ’s ‘putryeshti yajna’ Indra blessed him with a child on 3rd of Vaishakh month. He was the 5th child in his family and came to be known as the 6th reincarnation of Vishnu. After his birth, his grandfather named him Ramabhadra and by virtue of being the son of Jamdagni he also came to beknown as Jamdagneya. Taking birth in the Bhragu lineage he also came to be known as Bhargav. He always respected and obeyed his elders. He had a very sentimental relationship with plants and animals as he was brought up in an ashram. He could understand different birds and animals and could talk to them. By virtue of his personality he could even befriend most violent animals. He studied under Sage Vishwamitra and Sage Richik. Impressed by his efforst Sage Richik gave him a divine bow called sarang and Sage Kashyap gave him Vaishnavi mantra. He was a devotee of Shiva and he did tapasya on Kailash Mountain, after being pleased by his Shiva gave him a divine parshu by the name Viduyadabhi and thus he came to be known as Parshuram. Parshuram wanted to spread the Vedic culture throughout the world. Despite being a Brahimin he wielded weapons and disregarded the caste system by behaving like a Kshatriya proving that a man’s caste is a virtue of his Karma and not his birth. Parshuram was well versed in weapons 117 training. Among his strongest students were Acharya Drona, Pitamah Bishma and Angraj Karna. He was an immensely powerful human and once engaged Ganesha in a battle in which Ganesh lost his tusk and came to be known as Ekdant. He firmly believed in providing women a respectable status in society. He worked towards women empowerment with the help of Anusuya and Lopamudra who were the wives of Sage and . During Mahabharat Era when Bhishma abducted the daughter of Kashiraj, Parshuram fought him to protect her. Parshuram also gave the idiology of monogamy for men. In Treta yug when Sri Ram broke the bow of Shiva in swayamwar, Prashuram became furious and visited Mithila. Laxman indulged in an argument with Parshuram. On this, however, once he realised that it was Sri Ram who broke the bow he calmed down and presented his bow to him before going back to Kailash. 9.1.2 Bapa Rawal – In the history of Mewar, Bapa Rawal holds an important place. It is a matter of great sorrow that about such a historic figure there is no contemporary evidential information. There are no single opinions on his birth and mother and father. However, his childhood was spent in Nagda village near Ekling. He worked as a cattle herder. In the forests around Nagda where he met Harit Rashi. Harit Rashi was a monk in Shivmat community and lived in an Ashram in the forests of Nagda. During that period Bharat suffered from many Arabic invasions and atrocities. Harit Rashi saw Bapa as a symbol of hope in such times. Harit trained Bapa in a manner such that he could stand against the Arabic invaders. Bapa’s hardwork really impressed Harit. Bapa was made the ruler of Mewar by counsel of Harit before his death and was given the blessings to maintain the name of Bapa Rawal who’s legacy would hold the throne for many generations to come. After the death of Harit Rashi, Bapa Rawal assembled an army and sieged the fort of Chittaur. To fight the Arabic invaders, Bapa Rawal formed an alliance between Dahir king of Sind, Devraj of Jaisalmer, Nagabhatt ruler of Pratihar, Ajayraj of Ajmer and Dhawal of Hadauti. They defeated the Arabic invader Mohammad Bin Qasin and took control of Sind. The alliance also won over parts of Iran and Iraq as well. Those people who were forced to adopt Islam were brought back into Hindu religion. This was the first and one of the strongest resistances that Arabic invaders had to face in Bharat. Bapa carried out many administrative reforms in his kingdom and coins of gold were in circulation during his rule which also prove his efforts towards restoration of art forms. In his old age he gave his throne to his son and went on pilgrimage. During the pilgrimage he died near Nagda where his memorial was made. The place is still known as Bapa Rawal. Without doubt Bapa Rawal was one of the strongest rulers in Mewar and is credited for expanding the boundaries of Mewar beyond any other ruler. 9.1.3 Prithvi Raj Chauhan III – The Chauhan Royal Dynasty has an important position in history of Rajasthan. During the later half of the 12th century they reached the peak of their prestige. They controlled the lands from Kannauj to Jahajpur in Mewar. After the death of his father, Pritviraj ascended to throne at the age of 11. Due to his young age his mother Karpuri Devi took care of the proceedings of the king’s court and she was an accomplished politician. Prithviraj Chauhan III was an ambitious ruler and so despite his young age after one year he took the complete control of the 118 kingdom. After appointing ministers loyal to him he began conquering lands around him. First he defeated his cousins Nagarjun and Bhandanaks. In the second phase he defeated neighbouring kings namely of , Chalukyas and then Gharwals of Kannauj. In the third phase he began fighting the Turks. In 1173, Giyasuddin Ghori made his younger brother Shahbuddin ghori the governer of . Shahbuddin attacked the ruler of Gujrat Bhimdev II out of ambitions to expand his empire in 1178. Gujrat’s ruler Bhimdev II defeated Shahbuddin and due to this to make his empire stronger Gayasuddin Ghori attacked and took control of areas around Siyalkot and Lahore. This brought the Turk territory and Chauhan’s kingdom in contact with each other. This inevitably led to wars. From 1186 AD to 1191 AD many battles took place between and Turks in which Muhammad Ghori was defeated many times. Prithviraj won the battles many times as given in foiiwing sources: - according to Hmeer Mahakavya 7 times, according to Prithviraj Raso 21 times, according to Prithviraj Prabandh 8 times, according to Chintamani 23 times, according to Surjancharitam 21 times. However two deciding battles between the Turks and Prithviraj are important. In the first battle of Tarain in 1191, in this battle Muhammad Ghori was gravely injured and had to be taken away by his army on which Chauhan’s did not attack the retreating army. The siege of fort took 13 months. After being humiliated Ghori started preparing to take revenge. He assembled Turk, Tazik and Afghan soldiers in his army and after amassing a huge army he appeared again on the fields of Tarain to fight. This time however he tried to cheat to win and sent an ambassador to Pritviraj to assemble their forces for a talk in the field. In the morning when the soldiers were busy doing daily chores Ghori attacked and massacred everyone. Govindrai was also martyred and Turks occupied Delhi and Ajmer. Prithviraj was taken captive and moved to Gajni where he was blinded. His wife Chanderbai accompanied him as well. During a presentation of Bhedi Ban (Archery based of sound of the target) he killed Muhammad Ghori. Both Chanderbai and Prithviraj ended their own lives after this before getting into hands of the enemies again. Prithviraj Chauhan participated in many battles in his life time and only lost in the 2nd battle of Tarain. This proves that he was a brave and accomplished warrior. He was also a lover of art and literature. In his court the most popular court poets were Vidyapati, Vagishwar, Jayanayak, and Janardan. Prithviraj Chauhan was an accomplished warrior and commander. However, he was a not a good diplomat and lacked farsightedness. Instead of making allies in his neighbouring kingdoms he made them his enemy by conquering them and attacking them. Despite defeating Turk invaders many times he spared their lives which ultimately caused him to face defeat. 9.1.4 Maharana Sanga - Among the princes of Maharana Raimal of Mewar prince prithviraj, Jaymal, Rai Singh and Sangram Singh are the most popular. Among these Sangram Singh was revered as one of the most ambitious and brave ruller as a result of his ambitions and capabilities he became the king after the death of Maharana Raimal. Maharana Sanga became the strongest ruler in Mewar in his time. He assembled all the Rajput communities and made allies with smaller Rajput rulers by befriending and offering protection. During his ascension Mewar was surrounded by Muslim rulers. Sikander Lodhi in Delhi, Mahamud Shah Begada in Gujarat and Mehamud in Malwa. 119

All these joined together would have spelt doom to Mewar dynasty and hence Maharana Sanga had to prepare beforehand for this and a battle was pertinent. In 1520, after assembling all the Rajput forces Maharana Sanga attacked and defeated Gujarat as well as sultan Khilji of Malwa was taken prisoner. After a few years of captivity Maharana took one of his prince in court and released him. Now Maharana had only one challenge left – Delhi. Rana started by conquering smaller provinces around Delhi and adding them to his kingdom. Delhi’s Sultan was angered by this and attacked Mewar with a huge army. In 1517, the two forces met in battle on the fields of Khatoli where Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated. Defeated Sultan retreated and assembled another army to fight in Dhaulpur and faced defeat again. In 1526, Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and took over Delhi to establish the Mughal Empire. The newly formed empire by Babar faced only threat in terms of as he was the only one capable of taking over Delhi. At the time Rana Sanga had the support of 7 high kings, 9 Raos and 104 Sardars as reported by Colonel Todd. Babar made the first move following his imperialistic policy and occupied Dhaulpur and Kalwi. Bayana the next city was under Rana and Mughals faced a gruesome defeat. Babar assembled another army and in 1527 met Rana on the battlefield of Khanwa. On 17th March 1527 the battle started which was initially being won by Rajputs. However; unfortunately Rana Sanga was struck by an arrow in his eye and had to step off from the frontlines. This caused anarchy in the Rajput ranks and they fled. When Rana regained consciousness he requested to go on battle again but the sardars advised him to rest. In January 1528, Babar invaded Medanirai, Rana marched towards Chanderi as well to provide his support but due to multiple injuries he died on the way on 20th January 1528. He was brought back and cremated in Mandalgarh where his memorial has been raised. Rana Sanga has a special place in Indian history. Not only was he a formidable warrior but he was also a braveheart. He assembled the Rajput’s and presented their strength to the world. 104 Kings fought in the leadership of Rana. He had 80 wounds and despite losing his limbs he continued to fight which speaks of his bravery. Rana’s character tells us that protecting ones country and motherland is above all the luxuries of the world. 9.1.5 Rao Maldeo– Rao Maldeo was the eldest son of Rao Ganga of Marwar. His mother was the daughter of Jagmal, Dewada ruler of Sirohi. Rav Maldev ascended to throne after the death of his father in 1532. At that time Marwar controlled Jodhpur and Sojat. Maldev was an ambitious ruler and in his time the boundaries of Jodhpur extended as far as Delhi. The contemporary conditions favoured Maldeo as well. Babar succumbed to his death in 1530 and Mughal Empire was unstable. Rana Sanga had also died leaving Maldeo as one of the strongest rulers in the region. Maldeo began his expansion and first conquered and Raipur which were almost 50 miles away from Jodhpur, from there he went on to occupy Jalaur, Ajmer, Merata, etc. In the second phase he conquered the 120 kingdoms surrounded Ajmer, including Sambhar, Lalsot, and Chaksu. After Rana Sanga’s death Mewar had become a much weaker entity and taking advantage of this he took control of the Badnaur, Kosisthal, Bisalpur, Madariya, Nadaul and Jahajpur regions of Mewar. During this phase the political conditions in Delhi were also unstable. After Babar’s death, Afghan ruler Shershah attacked and defeated Humayun in Chausa and Kannauj. Humayun was forced to flee Delhi and Afghan monarchy was established again on Delhi. Maldev was afraid of Afghan invasion as well and so he decided to support Humayun. When Shershah was fighting in Bengal, he delivered a message to Humayun to offer 20,000 Cavalry. Shershah was also aware of the growing strength of Maldeo and so he took 80,000 Infantry soldiers along with some artillery and set-up tents between Agra and Delhi at a place called Giri. Maldeo was also carefully observing his movements and in response he placed his own army on the Giri mountains. After a month of stand off Shershah decided to use diplomacy and cunningness. He tried to divide Maldev from his sardars Kupa and Jaita. He sent 20,000Rs and blankets to the tents of Jeta and Kupa separately and requested for swords of Sirohi. Maldeo received the news that his soldiers have joined Shershah and confused he retreated back to Jodhpur in 1544. Jeta and Kupa with 1200 soldiers remained on the battlefield and fought bravely against Shershah’s forces and eventually began to overpower them. However, Shershah’s commander Jalal Khan arrived with more troops and surrounded the Marwari sardars. Despite their deaths Jeta and Kupa caused immense harm to Shershah who is quoted saying. “For a handful of barley, I’d have lost my kingdom of Hindustan.” Maldeo has an important place in the history of Marwar. He gave very small kingdom strength and expansion from just two cities by his end Maldev had 58 cities under his control. He also provided refuge to many litterateurs. In his period many literary compositions were written in Dingal language. He used to donate freely to poets, artists and intellectuals. On 7th December 1562 he died. 9.1.6 Vir Durgadas Rathore – Vir Durgadas Rathore was born in 1638. His father was a minister to King Jaswant Singh and Lord of Dunera province. Due to arguments with his wife Askaran had left his son and wife in Dunera itself where they indulged in agriculture for livelihood. Durgadas had the blood of a Kshatriya in him and as he grew older he began showing traits of bravery and strength. His mother had raised him as a Kshatriya as well and he was immensely patriotic. Durgadas Rathore was a fearless and honest man. Once had to present himself to the court of Jaswant Singh where without any hesitation he narrated the entire incident and accepted his crime. This really impressed the king and he was apointed in the court where by showing immense loyalty and hardwork he reached onto a very high position. Jaswant Singh died in Jamrood in 1678. At the point he had no child, however, his wife was pregnant. Indersingh who was the grandson of Amar Singh at the time was a Lord in the Mughal Court. Amar Singh’s two generations had served in the Mughal Darbar and Aurangzeb was unaware of Jaswant Singh’s wife being pregnant. So Aurangzeb believed that Indersingh would be a fit ruler in Jaswant Singh’s place. Aurangzeb wanted to exploit the opportunity to take complete control of Jodhpur. He attacked 121

Jodhpur and occupied it however he could not find anything valuable in the treasuries. About 36 Lakh rupees the kingdom of Jodhpur was given to Indersingh. Aurangzeb brought the royal family of Jaswant Singh to Delhi. Rajput started becoming doubtful of Aurangzeb’s intentions and realized that he infact wanted to raise the Rajput prince in captivity. To get the prince and the royal family back, the Rathore sardars prepared a plan in which Durgadas Rathore, Raghunath Bhati, Ranchordas Rathore and Kesari Singh Pancholi played the primary role. Some sardars went back to their estates to make sure Aurangzeb doesn’t get suspicious some sardars remained on the outskirts of Delhi to provide protection and to hold the Mughal army when the prince was taken out. The mastermind of the rebellion was Durgadas Rathore. When Aurangzeb saw that every Rathore Sardar is going back he relaxed. At night Durgadas Rathore along with the help of other sardars attacked the manor of Rup Singh and took the royal family out. They moved towards Marwar. When Aurangzeb was informed about this he sent the Mughal Army after them. First wall of defence was held by Raghunath Bhati and after that Ranchordas Rathore held the mughal army back. By the time they were defeated prince Ajit Singh had gone too far. On 23rd July Ajit singh arrived with Durgadas Rathore to Jodhpur. Akbar, the son of Aurangzeb was an extremely ambitious person and wanted to be king. When Akbar opened rebellion Durgadas Rathore allied with him and saved him from Aurangzeb. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707; under the leadership of Durgadas Rathore Marwar was finally taken over by . As time went by Ajit Singh became wary of the growing strength and popularity of Durgadas Rathore. He began opposing and obstructing Durgadas Rathore in every field. Feeling dishonoured by this behaviour Durgadas left Marwar and moved to Mewar. The Maharana of Udaypur took Durgadas and his family with due respects and gave him the estate of Vijaypur along with a daily wage of 500 rs. Durgadas lived spent his final days here. Durgadas was an accomplished diplomat and a brave warrior. He was also religiously tolerant of people. When Akbar was fleeing from Aurangzeb, Durgadas provided him asylum and even provided education to his children Buland Akhtar and Safayatunnisa. When the time came he delivered them back to Akbar. This Durgadas is revered as one of the most important warriors in history of Rajasthan. 9.1.7 Maharaja Surajmal – Maharaja Surajmal was the ruler of Bharatpur. He was born on 13th February 1707. His father was Badan Singh who establish Deeg as his capital. He also invaded Patahgarhi estate of Khemkaran Sogadhiya in 1733 and established Bharatpur in 1743. After the death of his father Maharaja Surajmal became the ruler of Bharatpur in 1756. He was an accomplished ruler and diplomat due to whom he was also know as, “Plato of Jatts”. He was also a friend to Maharaja Jai Singh of Jaipur and after his death he provided counsel on acession to the eldest child Ishwari Singh. Most of the people in power were in favour of Madhosingh but with his military strength and his diplomacy he brought Ishwari Singh victory in 1743. This victory made Surjmal extremely popular. His empire was really big and it encompassed Deeg, Mathura, Agra, Dhaulpur, Meerut, Hathras and Aligarh. His army included elephants, cavalry and 25,000 soldiers along with 300 cannons. 122

The Nawab of Delhi Gaziuddin instigatedd Marathas against Surajmal who then surrounded the Kumher Fort of Bharatpur. However, with the help of Sindhiya and Queen Kishori a settlement was made between Surajmal and Marathas. In 1757 Ahemadshah Abdali invaded Delhi and attempted to destroy cultural and religious sites around pilgrim places of Brij. At that point it was Maharaja Surajmal who faced him and protected Brij. He supported the Mughal and Marathas in many battles. Once an argument happened between Sadashiv Bhau and Surajmal after which Sadashiv insulted Surajmal and this resulted in Marathas suffering heavy damage in the battle of Panipat. However, despite their behaviour Maharaj Surajmal offered all help as he could to the Marathas. Surajmal’s kingdom was a sanctuary to litterateurs and intellectuals. Kavi Sudan was his royal poet and he wrote Sujan Charit in which the exploits of Maharaja Surajmal are elaborated. On 26th December 1763 engaged in battle with Nazibuddaula Maharaja Surajmal died. 9.1.8 Bhamashah – Bhamashah is known as one of the most charitable person in Mewar as well as a trustworthy friend to Rana Pratap. Bhamashah was born on 29th April 1547 to a Jain family. His father’s name was Bharmal, who served during the period of Sangram Singh and Uday Singh. At the time, Maharana Pratap was engage in battle with the Mughal Empire and his treasury was continually depleting. When Maharana Pratap was running around in jungles with his army attempting to defend Mewar,. Bhamashah presented himself to Pratap and offered all of his riches and encouraged Pratap to defend his motherland. He said that if they manage to defeat the Mughals he may earn this money again, but independence is important above all else. The riches which Bhamashah gave to Maharana were so much that they could feed and bear expense of 25,000 soldiers for 12 years. Thus, to protect his country and religion Bhamashah sacrificed himself completely. He died at the age of 52. 9.1.11 Jhalkari Devi – Jhalkaribai was a woman soldier who played an important role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. She served in the women's army of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi. Jhalkaribai was born to Sadoba Singh and Jamuna Devi on November 22, 1830 in Bhojla village near Jhansi in a Koli family. As a rural girl, her tasks mostly included chores around the household. However, at a very early age, she is said to have exhibited exceptional strength of will. Local folklores tell of several legendary acts of bravery. People were reportedly amazed when they learnt that when a leopard from the jungle tried to attack young Jhalkari, she stood her ground and killed the leopard with only an axe saving herself and her cattle. Consistent with the social conditions of the era, she lacked a formal education, but was trained in horseback riding and the use of weaponry. She married Puran Singh, a soldier from the artillery unit of Rani Laxmibai's army, who introduced her to the Rani. Jhalkaribai bore an uncanny resemblance to Laxmibai and because of this she was inducted into the women's wing of the queen's army. She quickly rose in the ranks and began commanding her own army. During the Rebellion of 1857, General Hugh Rose attacked Jhansi with a large army. The Queen valiantly faced the army with 4000 of her troops in her fort. She waited for relief from Peshwa Nana Sahib's army camping at Kalpi that did not come because Tantia Tope had already been defeated by General Rose. When the British rushed to the fort, Laxmibai, on advice of 123 her courtier, escaped through another gate. Upon hearing of Laxmibai's escape, Jhalkaribai set out for General Hyurose's camp disguised as Laxmi Bai and declared herself as the Queen. This led to a confusion that continued for a whole day and gave the Rani's army renewed advantage. General Hyurose commended Jhalkari Devi for her valour and songs of her bravery are still sun in Bundelkhand. Contextual Questions 1. Who was the father of Parshuram? 2. When did the 2nd Battle of Tarain take place? 3. What was the name of the father of Rao Maldeo? 4. What was the name of the father of Durgadas? 5. Who is known as Plato of Jatts?

9.2 Social Reformers History of Rajasthan has been one of pride and courage. While on one hand the land of Rajasthan gave birth to many bravehearts on the other hand many inspirational reformers and saints also took birth who with their intellect and their speeches worked to fight against social evils ailing the society. These men devoted their lives for the betterment of humanity. These social reformers are as follows:- 9.2.1 Dadu – He was a renowned saint in . He was born on Falgun Shukla , 1601 according to vikram samvat in . He got married in his childhood. He had 2 sons and 2 daughters. After the death of his wife he indulged in religious meditation and worship. At the age of 11 he met a sage named Buddhan who introduced him to Brahma Philosophy. He became Buddhan’s disciple and studied the philosophy of Nirgun Nirankar Brahma. Even though he was born in Ahmedabad, he settled in Naraina village near Sambhar. This is where he attained Yog. In 1585, he counselled Akbar about his discussions on Dharma and Karma and said, ” इश्क खुदा की जात है, इश्क खुदा का रगं.” Ishq khuda ki jaat hai Ishq khuda ka rang Dadu with his sermons helped remove superstitions and frauds in both Hindi as well as Muslim communities. He had 52 prime disciples who established 52 different schools and continued his teachings. They are also known as 52 Thambe. His teachings rare recorded in Dadu Wani. Followers of Dadu stay unmarried and take vows of celibacy. Their greetings would be “Sattaram”. In 1660 Vikram Samvat, Dadu died. After him his son started counducting the school. Dadu is also called as of Rajasthan. He was a true humanitarian. 9.2.2 Jasnath – Among the social reformers of Rajasthan. Saint Jasnath is among the most revered ones. He was born in 1482 in Katariyasar village of Bikaner. He was raised by a foster couple of Hammir Ji Jaat and Rupamde. Jasnath He became disciple of at the age of 12 and studied really hard. 124

He worked to abolish various kinds of social edicts prevailing in the country. He preached the philosophy of Nirgun Nirankar Brahma. He was against Idol-worshipping and caste system. He worked to abolish Sati Pratha as well. He was the founder of Jasnathi Sect, Which he established to spread his teachings. There are five bases of the Jasnath sect, twelve Dham, Chaurasi Bari and one hundred eight establishments. To remain in this community, it is necessary to comply with 36 rules. Haroji, Hansoji and Rustamji were his main disciples. In 1539, he died in his meditation. 9.2.3 Acharya Bhikshu – While on one hand the land of Rajasthan gave birth to many bravehearts and warriors, it also gave birth to amazing intellectuals and social reforms on the other hand. Jain Community has been an ancient community of Rajasthan and time to time many Saints took birth in this community that preached the entire nation human values of humility and kindness. One such saint was – Acharya Bhikshu. Acharya Bhikshu was born in a small village named Kantaliya of Marwar on 13th of Ashad month in the year 1783 of Vikram Calendar. His father’s name was Shah Balluji Saklecha and mother was Deepamji. From an early age he showed signs of high intelligence and a quick grasping power. After a few years of married life he felt a sense of (detachment) and he became a sage in Acharya Raghunathji’s ashram. He remained disciple of Acharya Raghunathji for 8 years. After seeing the corrupt mindsets of sages and that period and their anti-religious activities he became very dissatisfied and when his Guru failed to give him a satisfactory answer he decided to leave and broke all bonds. In 1760 at a vacated shop he began his preaching starting with 13 disciples. Thus, his sect came to be known as Terah Sect. Terah Sect is elaborated as follows – Panch Mahavrat (5 Vows) , Satya, Asteya. Aprigrah and Brahmacharya. Meaning Non-Violence, Truth telling, Abstinence from stealing and Celibacy. 5 associations – Eerya, Adaan Nikshepana, Upaadan, Bhasha and Eshna. There were three Guptis (Secret preaching) – Mano Gupti, Kaya Gupti and Vaak Gupti. Thus, followers of Bhikshu took this Terah rules and are called Terapanthi. After separating from his Guru, Acharya Bhikshu’s took place in Kaleva. He established Terapanth in Ashad Month 1817 of Hindu calendar. He firmly believed in a human life free of various evils and non-humanitarian practices and he preached Jainism across the nation. On 2nd September 1803, after abstaining from food Acharya Bhikshu passed away. 9.2.4 Jambhoji – Jambhoji was born in 1452 AD in Peepsar Village of Nagaur in Jodhpur kingdom to a Rajput family. His father’s name was Lohatji and mother was Hansadevi. He was an introspective person from an early age and he’d surprise elders by impressive arguments or activities. In his childhood he used to be a cattle herder and once while herding he felt the sense of divinity. He was against various communal bad activities that prevailed in the society, as well as bad cultures. Jambhoji remained a saint throughout his life and abandoned his parental riches and estates after their deaths. At Samarathal Dhore he established his Bisnoi Panth. According to this Sect there were 29 rules, Bees (20) and Nau (9) thus it is called Bisnoi Panth. The main rules among these were, to not cut green trees, to not indulge in killing of living beings, to not eat meat etc. Thus he was completely servile to nature and humanity. The king of Bikaner made Khejri Tree as his emblem on advice of Jambhoji. Jambhoji’s 125 disciples revered to him as God. He preached the remembrance of Vishnu and claimed that humanity is the biggest religion of all. Samarathal Dhore which is the prime place of Bisnoi Panth is also known as Dhok Dhore. The preachings of Jamboji are compiled in Sabad. The followers of Bisnoi Panth also call it Jambh Geeta which is an important book in . In 1536, Jambhoji passed away. 9.2.5 RamcharanJi – In the religious traditions of medieval Rajasthan, the Ramsnehi Community has an important place. There are 4 of Ramsnehi Community – Ren, Khedapa, Shahpura, Seenthal. Swami Ramcharan was the founder of Shahpura sect. He was born on 24th February 1720 in Soda village of Tonk to a family. His father’s name was Bakhatram and mother’s name was Devahuti tha. Before his education his name was Ramkishan and he was married to Gulab Kanwar. Jai Singh II of Amer made him DIwan of Malpura. After the death of his mother and father he became indifferent to worldly pleasures and riches. Thus, at the age of 32 in a village named Dantada in Bheelwara he became disciple of Guru Kriparamji and became a saint, from where he came to be known as Ramcharan. After requests from Naresh Singh, the king of Shahpura he made Shapura as his place for meditation. From here he spread the preaching of devotion to Rama for his life. Since he spread the worshiping of Rama his community came to be known as Ramasnehi Community. Ramcharanji Maharaj was against the superstitious cultural activities. He supported and promoted communal harmony and religious tolerance. Ramsnehi Community also promoted Ram internationally to the world and their main office is situated in Shahpura, Bheelwara. Here, on Vaishakh Krishna ,1885 he passed away. He had a total of 225 direct disciples among which 12 are famed for their work in spreading his legacy. His literature is known as Ramcharan Wani. 9.2.6 Shri Pipaji – He was a Khichi Rajput from Gagron. He was born on Purnima 1417 according to Hindu calendar. From an early age he was a brilliant and brave boy. He was also an extremely religious person as well. After becoming ruler of Gagron he fought the ruler of Delhi Feroze Tughlak and won. The people in his kingdom revered him. During his reign his lands never suffered a single famine. After ruling for a while and becoming contemptuous of the violence and blood- shed involved with monarchy he became a saint and became a disciple of Ramanand in Kashi. He was among the 12 prime disciples of Ramanand. After becoming a sage he travelled lands and spread awareness. He was against many social evils such as Parda Pratha. His wife never wore a Parda in her entire life. He denounced idol-worship as well. He spent his final days in Gagron’s caves after returning from Kashi. 9.2.7 Meera Bai – Meera Bai was born into family of Merta, Rajasthan, Bharat. She is mentioned in Bhaktamal, confirming that she was widely known and a cherished figure in the culture by about 1600 CE. Most legends about Meera mention her fearless disregard for social and family conventions, her devotion to Lord Krishna, her treating Krishna as her husband, and she being persecuted by her in-laws for her religious devotion. In her childhood while seeing a 126 procession she asked her grandmother who her husband will be and she said, “Girdhargopal” and since then she treated god as her husband. In 1519, Meera was married to son of Maharana Sanga, Bhojraj. It is said that even on the wedding altar she carried an idol of Krishna with her. Bhojraj never really tried to stop Meera and her devotion. After seven years Bhojraj died in battle against Mughal Empire and Vikramadiya became the Maharana. In the royal palace they started carrying out atrocities against Meera. However, Meera didn’t stop praying and worshiping Krishna. However, the made Meera avert from worldly greed and riches. She travelled first to Medta and then to Vrindavan to feel closer to Krishna. While staying in Vrindavan she once asked to meet ’s Jeeu Goswami disclple who responded that he does not meet women. Meera sent a response, “Is he a Man? I’ve heard in Vrindavan there is only one man Krishna and all others are Gopiyan.” Meera spent the last of her days in Dwarikadhish Temple praying to Krishna. In poems it is said that in her last days in 1556 the Krishna idol absorbed her completely and she vanished. The literature by Meera is a romantic literature. Therefore the Temple of Medta and Murlidhar Temple of Chittaur are also known as Meera Temples. by Meera are called Harjas. 9.2.8 Panna dhaya – Panna dhaya is revered in entire nation for her values of patriotism. After the death of Maharana Sanga there was a political unrest in Mewar. After the death of Sanga, Ratan Singh became the Maharana of Mewar. After the death of Ratansingh, Vikramaditya became the Maharana of Mewar. However, the kingdom remained in a state of unrest. When Bahadurshah attacked them Mewar suffered immense losses. Vikramaditya is seen as one of the weakest rulers in Mewar. His behaviour made him an enemy to his own fedal lords. The populace was full of discontent. At that time Banvir, who was a illegal son of Prithviraj, brother of Maharana Sanga and a royal maid took this opportunity and became Maharna in 1536 after murdering Vikramaditya. To ensure his rule, he planned an assassination of 15 year old Uday Singh. When Pannadhaya got to know about this wicked plot she sprung into action. She had raised Uday Singh like her own child. With help of her support she hid Uday Singh in a jute basket covered with disposable plates and took him out. While, left her son Chandan in place of Uday Singh in the cradle. Banvir murdered Chandan and became carefree, while Pannadhaya after of her son took Uday Singh to the landlord of Kumbhal Garh where Uday Singh grew up. This patriotism displayed by Pannadhaya became an example to the world and she also saved the Royal lineage of Mewar. 9.2.9 Maoji – The Wagar region of Rajasthan is a prospeous region in terms of natural resources and many Adiwasi people lived here. Many Adiwasi and outside leaders carried out religious revolutions from here. The most notable saints among them are Saint Durlabhji, Saint Bai, Surama Abheysingh Ji, Rishi Akhandanand Ji, Saint Surmaldasji, Govindgiriji and Saint Maoji. Maoji was born on Shukla 1714 of Hindu calendar in Sambal village. His father was Dalam Rishi and mother was Kesari Devi. His teacher was Sahajanand. As a child Maoji would 127 do miracles and show signs of divinity. Sometimes out of anger when his mother would try to tie him as punishment the rope would always come short. One time he walked on the water on Gopal Sagar pond to reach the palace. At the age of 12 he abandoned all worldly things and became a sage. At that time Maharawal Shiv Singh was the ruler. Maoji’s popularity started to reach the ends of the nation, and his birthplace Som Mahi became a pilgrimage and came to be called as Vaishvaneshwar. He encouraged Adiwasi folks to give up Alcohol and abstain from Dapa (reversed form of Dowry). Maoji worked towards obtaining social equality and also worked to enable people’s entry in temples. Initially, his primary disciples came from weaver caste. However, eventually many lower and higher caste people became his followers. He was an accomplished litterateur as well, he wrote Meghsagar, Premsagar, Ratansagar, Shyamsagar and Anantsagar. Followers of Maoji revered to him as reincarnation of Krishna. Vishneshwar Dham is an important pilgrimage for adivas folks in Bharat and a huge fair is organised here every year. 9.2.9 Govind Guru – Bheel Caste is one of the primary castes in Bharat. Bringing consciousness in them is credited to Govind Guru. He did immense hardwork in the upliftment of Bheels of Banswada and Dungarpur. Bheel Caste is a warrior caste and has played an important role in the protection of Mewar. Bheels were excellent archers. With time, however, their respect and prosperity reduced and during British Raj they lived in terrible conditions. In such circumstances Govind Guru came into light. He was the leading figure in Bheel Movements. He came in contact with Swami Dayanand Saraswati and began working towards social reformation of Bheel community. He established the system of “Dhuni and Nishan” in Bansiya village. He worked towards abolishing various social evils in Dungarpur, Eedar, Malwa, Gujarat and Mewar. He asked them to abstain from non-vegeteranism and alcohol. He established Samp Sabha. The first session of Samp Sabha took place in 1903 on the hills of Mangarh in Gujarat. This gathering was attacked by British army and as many as 1500 people were killed. Govind Guru was arrested and taken captive for 10 years. The hill is now a pilgrim place for Adiwasi folks. 9.2.10 Bai – It is not just Rajput women whose stories of bravery are popular in Rajasthan, many other women also showed feats of courage that became an example for life. One such braveheart was Kalibai of Dungarpur. The political awareness in Rajasthan affected the adiwasi folks as well. Adiwasi also wanted to live as an independent nation. The first of such a movement started in Rastapal village of Dungarpur. The ruler of Dungerpur Maharawal did not want that Adiwasi folk be educated but the Adiwasi leader Nanabhai Khant believed that education was the only way to liberate a populace and so he opened a school. Sengabhai was appointed as a teacher in this school. Maharawal at many times attempted to shut the school down but Nanabhai did not bow down to his demands. On 19th June 1947, police was sent by Maharawal to shut the school down. When Nanabhai did not close the school, the policemen beat Nanabhai and Sengabhai with the belts of their rifles. After which the policemen tied the two guys to their truck and dragged them on the streets. Nanabhai died during this. Most of the people were watching but remained quiet out of fear but 128

Bheel girl child Kali Bai came forward and cut the rope to free Sengabhai and helped him up. When she resisted the policemen’s orders she was shot at. Injured Kali Bai passed away in the hospital. Kalibai’s martyrdom became an example of the fight of Bheel caste to get proper education.

Contextual Questions 6. Acharya Bhikshu started which sect? 7. Where is the temple of Dadu Panth? 8. Sant Pipa was the ruler of which estate? 9. What was the name of the son of Panna dhaya? 10. What was the name of the community started by Ramcharanji?

9.3 Folk Revered Heroes and Deities In medieval era a new propetrait of religious sentiments spread throughout the country. At that time, Hinduism was suffering with various edicts like caste based discrimination etc. At such time, to remove these social edicts and to uplift the society into a religious and tolerating community many saints played important role. Not just that, to protect and lower caste people many even sacrificed their lives. These made them equally revered as gods in the nation. They are depicted as in poems:- पाबू, हरबू, रामदे,मांगतिया मेहा । पांच पीर पधाररया गोगाजी गेहा ।। These folk heroes are as follows:- 9.3.1 – Gogaji is the most revered among all the folk heroes of Rajasthan. He is counted among the five pirs. He was born in Daderwa (Churu). His father’s name was Jewahar and mother was Bachal. His father was the ruler of Daderwa kingdom. His mother was a profound devotee of Gorakhnathji. After being happy by her devotion Gorakhnath gave her a snake made with gogul and asked her to drink it with milk, which resulted in Gogaji’s birth. Gogaji battled the sultan of Delhi Ferozeshah. In this battle Gogaji’s cousins Arjan and Sarjan fought for Ferozeshah as they had disputes over land with Gogaji. The cousins with help of the mughal soldiers abducted all the cows of Gogaji and this sparked the battle. Arjan and Sarjan both died in this battle. When Gogaji’s mother came to know about this she was very disappointed and asked Gogaji to abandon house. This really crushed Gogaji and he went into Samadhi alive. Cattle herders worship Gogaji and Goganavmi is celebrated every year in his memory on Bhadrapad Krishna Navmi. In Rajasthan under most Khejdi trees (Prosopis cineraria) Idols of Gogaji are made. There is a saying, “गांव गांव ख़ेजडी ने गांव गांव गो गो|” It is believed that if a man bitten by snake goes to the idol of Gogaji, poison does not affect him. Every year in Gogabadi a fair is organized where religious followers from all over nation arrive. Before starting the tilling of a field the famers tie a Rakhi of 9 knots on the Hal and the farmer which is called as Goga Rakhdi. 9.3.2 Veer Tejaji – Tejaji was born in the village Kharnaliya of Nagaur on Magh Shukla 1138 of Hindu calendar to a farmer family. His father’s name was Tahadji and mother was Ramkunwari. He got married at a pre-teen age according to the norms of the society back then. 129

His wife’s name was Pemal. Once, Tejaji was tilling the fields when his sister-in-law came to deliver the tiffin box from home. Tejaji asked her out of concern as to how she got late to which she complained that while Tejaji’s wife is living in her maternal home, she has to do all the household chores. This made Tejaji angry and he went to the in-laws to bring his wife back. When Tejaji reached the in-laws house, it was the time for milking the cows. Hearing the horse’s hooves the cows got irritated due to which Tejaji’s mother-in-law made sniggering comments. This made Tejaji feel dishonoured and he decided to return home. After many requests from his wife, he decided to stay in the village but not at the house. He lived at a Gujjar lady’s house named Lachch. At night some thieves tried to steal Lachch’s cows, when Tejaji heard this he mounted his horse to go and save the cows. On the way, he came across a snake being burned on a pyre, he got the snake out with the tip of his spear, after which snake said that he has to bite Tejaji. Tejaji replied that he is going to save the cows and if the snake can wait he will return the same path. While saving the cows Tejaji got severely wounded. Upon returning the snake said, “you are all covered in blood, where can I bite” to which Tejaji showed his tongue and asked the snake to bite there. After the snake bite Tejaji passed away right there. His wife also became a Sati. The news of this incident spread like wildfire and soon Tejaji’s popularity was a household story. Tejaji’s idols of him atop a horse with a snake biting on his tongue were made from place to place. People injured from snake bites come to Tejaji’s temple for treatments and a religious fair is organised every year in his prayer. 9.3.3 Ramdevji – Ramdevji was born in the 15th century to Tanwar dynasty’s rajput Ajmal ji and Mainade at Pokaran. He was very brave and strong. At a very small age he killed a demon named Bhairav and saved his town from the atrocities. Later, when he gave away Pokaran as dowry to his neice’s wedding, he established a new town name Ramdevra. In 1458, he went into permanent meditation. Every year in Ramdevra a weeklong fair is organized from bhadrapad shukla dvitiya. The religious fair is attended by devotees all over the nation. The priests in his temples are Rajputs of Tanwar dynasty and of Kanwar caste. Ramdev was a living embodiment of a social reformer. He offered sanctuaries to cows and proclaimed Dali Bai as his sister to break the barriers between oppressed caste and upper caste people. His followers are both from Hindu and Muslim religions. Hindus worship him as a reincarnation of Krishna while the Muslims worship him by the name of Ramasa Pir. Among his followers the people of oppressed caste are more. In Rajasthan there are temples of Baba Ramdev at many places. Under a kheri tree Ramdev’s Pagaliya (Footprints) are made. The temples of Ramdev are called Dewal. 9.3.4 Devnarayanji – Devnarayanaji is among the prime folk deities in Rajasthan. He belonged to the Bagadawat Chauhan dynasty. He was born in 911 AD in Malaseri. Mandalji’s son was Hariram, Hariram’s son was Baghsingh and Baghsingh gave birth to 24 children who came to be known as Bagadawat dynasty. Devnarayanji’s father was the eldest child of Baghsingh. It is said that before birth of Devnarayanji, Baghsingh with his 23 brothers died in battle against the Thakur of Bhinay in Ajmer. His mother was afraid that Thakur of Bhinay might kill Devnarayanji as a baby. So she fled 130 to Malwa. Devji was a brave and strong warrior and he defeated many oppressive monarchs in his life. He also took revenge of his father’s death from Thakur of Bhinay. He rescued many cows from the grasp of Thakur of Bhinay and became really popular. He quickly became a diety among the community in Rajasthan and began being known as reincarnation of Vishnu. He was said to have miraculous powers with which he used to save and tend to many kinds of ailments of people. On Bhadrapad shukl navmi he passed away in Dehmali. He had a daughter Beeli and a son Beela. His first priest was his own son. The main temple of Devnarayanji is built in Bhilwara. 9.3.5 Pabuji – Pabuji is known as an extremely powerful man and a protector of cows. He was born in 1239 AD and lived in Kolhugarh. He was the younger son of Dhandhalji and grand-son of the Asthan of Marwar. Pabuji would also protect someone who would come to seek sanctuary. Once he gave sanctuary to seven Thori (Camel herder) brothers when they went against the ruler of Anabaghela. Pabuji’s sister was married to Jeendraj Khinchi the ruler of Jayal. Jeendraj Khinchi and Pabuji weren’t at good terms. Pabuji’s marriage was arranged with Surajmal Sodha’s daughter in Amarkot. When Pabuji went for his wedding at Amarkot Jeendraj abducted some cows from a Kachola Charan. Kachola Charan’s wife came to Pabuji and requested for his help. He left his wedding and took his friends to chase Jeendraj. Both sides had a vicious battle in which Pabuji martyred in 1276 AD. Pabuji is revered as god of camels in Rajasthan. The main followers of Pabuji are from Thori caste. Pabuji’s prime temple is at Kal, Falaudi. 9.3.6 Hadbuji – Hadbuji has an important place among the folk deities of Rajasthan. He hailed from Mundel village of Nagaur and was a Sankhal Rajput. After his father’s death he left his father’s place Falaudi and came to live in Harbham. Here he met Ramdevji. Inspired from Ramdevji he gave up arms and became a sage. When the Maharana of Mewar sent Rao Chuna and took over Mandor. Hadbuji blessed Jodha with a cutlass and cooked lentil seeds. He said with these lentils inside your belly as much land you cover on your horse it will become yours, and this happened. Jodha donated Vengat Village (Falaudi) to Hadbuji as an offering to show his gratitude. Hadbuji was a yogi as well as a warrior. He believed a guest is equally revered as a god and anybody who ever showed up to his door would never go home hungry. He was known for miraculous power and was said to be able to see future. He denounced idol-worship and caste based discrimination. Hadbuji’s temple is built in Vengati village and the priests are Rajputs of Sankhal. Hadbuji’s vehicle is placed here as an emblem. Many devotees come here to worship the vehicle. The temple was made by Ajit Singh in 1721. 131

9.3.7 Mehaji Mangaliya – Mehaji Mangaliya is among the 5 Pirs of Rajasthan. He was a Sankhala. His father’s name was Gopalraj Sankhala. He was not at good terms with his brother Ooda. Once they had a fight in which Gopalraj died. Gopalraj’s wife was pregnant at the time, to protect her child she went to live at her maternal house with the help of Charan Beethu. Meha was born here. He lived in his maternal house from birth, the lineage of his maternal family was Mangaliya and so he became known as Mehaji Mangaliya. After growing up in his grand-father’s house he ascended to throne. At his time Rao Chuda was the ruler in Marwar. When Meha became an adult he assembled an army with his friends and attacked Ooda in Jangal area and avenged his father’s death. After this he came to live in Mahapahilaap village and constructed three ponds in that area. Soon his popularity as a Khshatriya spread everywhere. He was a foreseer and political person. He could sense problem before it is even caused and make a solution. Meha was attacked many times by rivals but he could escape with ease. Finally, while battleing Rangadev Bhati of Jaisalmer he died. Meha worked towards social reformers while maintaining his Khshatriya Dharma due to which he is revered as a god in Rajasthan. Contextual Question 11. What was the name of wife of Tejaji? 12. Where is the religious fare of Ramdevji held? 13. Who is considered as a god of camels? 14. Who is prime folk deity of Gurjar community? 15. Where is the religious fare of Gogaji held? Things we learned:- 1. Rajasthan had many sacrificial rulers who became a symbol of patriotism. 2. Charitable people like Bhamashah, who sacrificed everything for their motherland were also born. 3. Meera was a progenitor of Krishna Bhakti. 4. Many social reformers of Rajasthan worked to abolish various social edicts from the society. 5. Guru Govind Giri and Kali Bai awakened the consciousness in Adivasi community. 6. Folk heroes of Rajasthan gave their lives to preserve and uplift oppressed castes in Rajasthan. Answers to the Contextual Questions. 1. Jamdagni 2. 1192 AD 3. Rao Ganga 4. Aaskaran 5. Raja Surajmal 6. Terapanth 7. Narayan 8. Gagoran 9. Chandan 10. Ramsnehi 11. Pemal 12. Ramdewra 13. Pabuji 14. Devnarayanji 15.

Exercise Questions: Multiple Choice Question Type:- 4. Prashuram was born in which dynasty? D) Bhrigu B) Durwasa C) Pulastya D) ( ) 2. What was the name of Maharana Sanga’ father? D) Uday Singh B) Raimal C) Pratap D) Bapa Rawal ( ) 3. Where is the primary sect of Ramsnehi situated? D) Shahpura B) Bharatpur 132

C) Narayana D) Medta ( ) 4. Where was Meera born? D) Kudki Village B) Salasar C) Malisar D) Mewar ( ) 5. What was the name of Sabha established by Govindguru? A) Raj Sabha B) Dharma Sabha C) Samp Sabha D) Adiwasi Sabha ( )

Short Answer Question Type 22 When was the second battle of Tarain held? 23 What was the name of the community established by Acharya Bhikshu? 24 Veneshwar Dham is known for which saint? 25 What was the name of the sect established by Ramcharanji? 26 Guru Govind Giri established which Sabha? Essay Answer Question Type 27 Write in detail about the various leaders of Rajasthan. 28 Shed light on the contribution of social reformers of Rajasthan. 29 Describe and elaborate any 4 folk deities in Rajasthan.

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Chapter 10

Restructuring of Post Independence Bharat

Introduction- Many dynasties and rulers have ruled in Bharat. There was a conflict among them, but a national consicousness for a long time in Bharat. Sprity of resistance against medieval invaders played an important role in development of nationality. After that, freedom movement against foreigners rule bestowed equal political recognition and allegiance to Bharat. Despite the diversity of language, caste, religion, attire, customs and food, Bharat struggled to attain independence thanks to an underlying harmony of unity. On the Eve of Independence, Bharat was tormented by political and regional problems. During the rule of British, Bharat was divided into ‘British Bharat’ (it was under direct rule of British) and ‘Princely States’. Dividing the British Bharat into states Governor and his other subordinates were responsible for administration and Princely States were ruled by Indian kings, but these kings had accepted supremacy of British territory according to the various kinds of treaties. At the time of Independence there were more than 500 Princely States of minor states, Rajwade, Thikanas etc. In 1946A.D. when interim government was formed, administration of political department was handed over to Home ministry. Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel served as the Minister of Home Affairs. British government announced in the Indian Independence Act 1947, that with the independence of Bharat all of those states would be freed of their obligations to the British Empire, leaving them free to join either Bharat or newly formed Pakistan. Thus weilding these princely states to complete national integration was extremely arduous and challenging which was accomplished by Sardar Vallabh Bhai. Vallabh Bhai appointed V.P. Menon as his secretary and both devised ‘Instrument of Accession’ before 15 August 1947 to make majority of princely states merge in Bharat and merged by taking signature of monarchs. Only merging of Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh was remained which was completed after independence. Objectives – After reading this chapter you will be able to- 1. Know about reformation of Bharat after independence. 2. Know about merger of Kashmir in Bharat. 3. Understand the unification of Hyderabad in Bharat. 4. Know about merger of Junagadh. 5. Understand difference between accession of and Pondicherry. 6. Understand integration of Rajasthan and integration of Greater Rajasthan merging princely states. 7. Discuss after understanding formation of Bharat.

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10.1 Merger of Kashmir Kashmir was the most significant of Bharat. It had the biggest area and its geographical location was very important with the military point of view. It shared boundaries with Afghanistan, China and Tibet. There are 4 major divisions of Kashmir- Jammu region is attached to Punjab and is plain area, Kashmir Valley, High mountain peaks of and Gilgit &Baltistan with small population. Unifying these remote areas was done by Gharana, who had conqured Ladakh in 1830 and obtained Kashmir Valley in 1840 from British. Maharaja Singh had been ruling over Kashmir since 1925. Muslim conference was formed in 1932 which amplified dissatisfaction against Maharaja, later on it was named ‘National Conference’ and Shaikh Abdulla was its chief leader. Till 15-august-1947 Maharaja didn’t take any decision regarding integration of his state. On the other hand Pakistan wanted to access Kashmir anyhow. It tried to tantalize Maharaja in many ways but all in vain. Immediately after independence the army of Pakistan started to intrude in the disguise. The army of Pakistan had reached near Kashmir at the end of October. In this situation a meeting was called in Delhi on 26 October 1947 in which the Prime Minister of Kashmir Meharchand Mahajan and Sheikh Abdulla of National Conference were present. Both Mahajan and Sheikh appealed to Indian government to send army in Kashmir to drive away Pakistani attackers. On 26 October 1947 Maharaja Hari Singh announced accession of Jammu and Kashmir in Bharat signing the ‘Instrument of Accession’ and no one could object in this matter. Thus Jammu and Kashmir merged in Bharat. In 1951 A.D. election were held to form constitutional assembly of Jammu and Kashmir State. On 6 February 1954 the Constitutional Assembly of 75 members confirmed accession of Jammu and Kashmir State in Bharat. According to the Article 3 of constitution Jammu and Kashmir is the essential part of Bharat and will be forever. Till the end of November Government of Bharat had gained Jammu Kashmir by sending army to drive away the army of Pakistan for saving Jammu Kashmir from Kabailee’s attack but 1/3 part of total area of Jammu and Kashmir is under the authority of Pakistan till now which is called Pakistan Occupied Kashmir(POK). 10.1-I. Merger of Hyderabad:- Hyderabad was the second major state after Kashmir, located in and was surrounded on all its borders by Bharat. At the time of Independence Nizam Mir Usman Ali was ruling here. In the population of Hyderabad more than 85% were Hindu but Muslims were dominating in army police and administration. With the help of this Muslim administration power and after the assurance of Jinnah Nizam wanted to establish a sovereign territory. When Mountbatten suggested him to participate in constitutional assembly, he tried to include in Pakistan and also tried to take this case of Hyderabad to UNO. During this period, an extremist Muslim organization named ‘Rajakar’ appeared which started tyranny on high scale. Thus ‘Rajakar’ had chaged the problem of Hyderabad’s accession into communal problem. On the other hand it was heard that Nizam was obtaining weapons from Pakistan with the help of British agents. Neighboring state Madras (Tamilnadu) was burdened due to vast desertion of people of Hyderabad. Consequently Sardar Vallab Bhai Patal decided to take military action against Nizam and for obtaining permission of it he requested to Prime Minister Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru to call a meeting. Thereafter the attacked on Hyderabad from three sides on 13 September 1948, this police action was named ‘Operation Polo’. Soldiers of Nizam started to flee in 135 only 1 to 2 days and Rajakars also surrendered. On 17 September 1948 Nizam accepted accession of in Bharat. Thus the accessionof Hyderabad could be possible only because of Sardar Patel’s resolution, foresight and courage. Textual Question-10.1 1. When and how did Kashmir merge in Bharat? 2. Who was the ruler of Kashmir and how did Kashmir was reformed? 3. What is called Pakistan Occupied Kashmir? 4. Summarize accession of Hyderabad? 5. What is called Operation Polo in the context of Hyderabad?

10.2 Merger of Junagadh in Bharat The princely state Junagadh also had not been merged in Bharat till 15 August 1947. Junagadh is located in Gujarat. During the Independence Mahavat Khan was the Nawab of Junagadh, while majority of population was non-Muslim. Holy Somnath Temple and Jain Tirth Girnar were situated in the state of Junagadh. Berawal was the significant part of this State. In 1947 Shahanawaz had become Diwan of Junagadh who was the relative of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of ‘Muslim League’ and founder of Pakistan. On the suggestion of his Diwan, Nawab announced to merge his state in Pakistan.. On 13 September 1947 Pakistan accepted accession of Junagadh in Pakistan. Actually Pakistan wanted to take profit of Junagadh in the bargaining of Kashmir. Accepting merge of Junagadh by Pakistan outraged Sardar Patel. After this army was sent to merge two states of Junagadh- Mangrol and Babriyawad in Bharat and the people had started movement against Nawab and the frightened Nawab fled to Pakistan. Then Diwan Shahanavaz had to handover Junagadh to Bharat. To strengthen its constitutional validity Indian government merged it in Bharat after conducting plebiscite in February 1948. Thus Jammu and Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh have included in Bharat due to irrepressible courage of Sardar Patel. That’s why Patel is called ‘the Founder of Bharat’ and ‘Ironman’. 10.2-I Merger of Goa and Pondicherry in Bharat- Even after being free from British Portugal still maintained Goa and France maintained its occupation over Pondicherry. Immediately after freedom of Bharat people of these regions started to ask for their freedom from Portuguese and to demand for merging in Bharat and started movements seeking freedom. In 1954 the circumstance of Pondicherry had become tense. Demonstration had been started before French embassy in Madras (Chennai). In November 1954 France handed over Pondicherry to Bharat which was given warm welcome by civilians. On the Republic day in 1955, first time, exhibition of Pondicherry was presented on Rajpath. Thus, Pondicherry merged in Bharat. Portuguese paid no attention to the accession of Goa. They wanted to maintain their supremacy over Goa. The Portuguese dictator of Goa Oliveira Salazar denied to quit saying Goa “Purab ki puratan Dharti par Pashchim ka Prakash”(Light from West on the ancient land of East) and the symbol of “Portugal’s Investigation”. Along with Goa Daman and Diu, Dadara and Nagar Haveli was also under the possession of Portugal. In 1954-55 Bharat had possessed Daman, Dadara and Nagar Haveli due to civil-movement. People of Goa struggled against Portuguese for a decade. Many freedom fighters were imprisoned. Then in 1961 Indian troops marched to Goa for freedom. In the name of ‘Operation Vijay’, Indian army occupied Goa in only 2 days. Local resident cooperated 136 army. Consequently the Governor General of Goa immediately surrendered without any condition. Finally Goa merged in Bharat. Textual Question-10.2 6. Where is Junagadh situated and who was the ruler of Junagadh? 7. Summarize accession of Junagadh in Bharat? 8. Who were ruling in Goa and Pondicherry? 9. How and when did Goa merge in Bharat?

10.3 Integration of Rajasthan Rajasthan has special relevance from the geographical and historical point of view. Many renowned emperors of Rajasthan retained glorious cultural traditions unabated by continuous struggle and wars against invaders in medieval period. During the time of Independence Rajasthan was divided into States except Ajmer-Merwar. At that time Rajasthan included 19 Princely States, 3 Thikanas and a chiefship. Boundaries of major States of Rajasthan- Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, and Bikaner etc. were attached to Pakistan and Pakistan tempted rulers of these states in many ways. That’s why it was a sensitive matter to merge these States which was skillfully done by ‘Ironman’ Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel. Integration of Rajasthan took 8 years 7 month and completed in 7 stages. 10.3-I. Matsya Union In the first stage of merging Matsya Union was formed. Geographical condition of Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli and were similar. So a proposal was put to make a union of these territories. It was named ‘Matsya Union’ which prevailed in Mahabharat period. This union was inaugurated on 18 March 1948 by Central Minister N.V. Gadgil. Ruler of of Dholpur was appointed Rajpramukh and Shobha Ram was appointed Prime Minister and Alwar was made capital of this union. 10.3-II Former Rajasthan In second stage “Former Rajasthan” was formed including 9 States- , Dungarpur, Pratapgadh, Kota, Bundi, , Kishangadh, Shahpura and Tonk, inaugurated by Gadgil on 25 march 1948. The Kota ruler was appointed as a Rajpramukh and Shri Gokul Lal Asawa was appointed as Prime Minister and Kota got the honor of being the capital. 10.3-III United Rajasthan The Maharana of Mewar had already decided to merge in Rajasthan before the formation of former Rajastham. Mewar signed ‘Instrument of Accession’ on 11 April 1948. Including Mewar in former Rajasthan United Rajasthan was formed, inaugurated by Pandit. Jawaharlal Nehru on 18 April 1948. The Maharana of Mewar Bhupal Singh was appointed as Rajpramukh and Mankyalal Verma was appointed as PM. Udaipur got the honor of capital. 10.3-IV. Greater Rajasthan After the dissolution of Mewar it became easy to merge remaining States. In 4th stage formation of Greater Rjasthan was completed by merging big and significant states like Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer. It was inaugurated on 30th March 1949 by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel. Maharana Bhupal Singh of Mewar was appointed as the Maharajpramukh and Hiralal Shastri appointed as Prime Minister, Jaipur was declared its capital. Being the most important state of unification 30 March is celebrated as ‘Rajasthan Divas’ every year. 137

10.3-V. United Greater Rajasthan During this process Matsya Union was acting freely but because of the borderland of Uttar Pradesh, it was necessary to take a decision. That’s why on 15 May 1948, Matsya Union was merged with ‘Greater Rajasthan’ and ‘United States of Greater Rajasthan’ was formed. Shobharam was included in the Cabinet. 10.3-VI. Rajasthan Sangh After these stages of unification the question of Sirohi remained same. Should it be merged in Rajasthan or in contemporary Bombay (Mumbai). On 26 January 1950 two Tahasils of Sirohi- Abu & Delwara were included in Bombay State and rest of Sirohi was merged in Rajasthan. People of Sirohi wanted merging these two Tahasils also in Rajasthan. So this matter was handed over to the States Reorganization Commission (SRC), thereafter Abu and Delwara were also merged in Rajasthan. 10.3-VII. Formation of Present Rajasthan Ajmer- Merwara was a chiefship in British period. So till 1950 it existed as ‘C’ State. Finally it was included in Rajasthan on the recommendation of the States Reorganization Commission. The boundary attached to M.P. was rearranged. Sunel Tappa of the former M.P. was merged with Rajasthan and Sironj of Rajasthan was transferred to M.P. As a result the process of integration got completed on 1 November 1956. Ending the post of Rajpramukh. Gurumukh Nihalsingh took oath as the first Governor of Rajasthan. 10.3-VIII. Reorganization of States The demand for reorganization of states came forward as a leading movement after independence. Specially demand for states to be organized on linguistic basis developed. Demand for the state of Karnataka for Kannad speaking people, United Maharashtra for Marathi speaking people, Punjab for Punjabi speaking people raised. But the most aggressive movement was started by Telgu speaking people in Andhra region. They were demanding Andhra Pradesh apart from Madras. Potti Sreeramalu fasted to death in October 1952 and died after 58days’ hunger strike, after this incident a great disorder spread in all Andhra regions. Thereafter central government announced to separate the Telgu speaking areas from the state of Madras. State of Andhra Pradesh was formed in October 1953. It became the first linguistic statea Consequently there were similar demands for creation of states from other parts of Bharat. So the government of Bharat formed the ‘States Reorganization Commission’ in 1953. Justice Fazal Ali was appointed as the head of this commission and H N Kunjaru and K.M. Panikkar were appointed as members of it. The commission submitted its report in 1955. On the basis of this report parliament of Bharat passed the States Reorganization Act in 1956 and the whole country was arranged into 14 states and 6 union territories under this act. But movements kept prolonging demanding formation of new states. The second great movement flourished in Maharashtra, on the basis of it Indian government formed states of Maharashtra and Gujarat dividing Bombay. The problem of reorganization of North-East Bharat came forward. The majority of tribal cast people resided here where Christian missionaries provoked secessionist activities. In which the movement of Naga tribes is prominent, began under the leadership of Fizo finally the state of was formed in 1963 for Nagas. The same problems in Mizo autonomous region came forward, where a secessionist movement was started organizing ‘Mizo National Front’ under the leadership of Lal Denga. Consequently in 1987 the state if was organized under an agreement. In 1987 Arunachal 138 and Goa also were converted into states from Union Territories. Formerly in 1972 Meghalay, Manipura, too acquired the status of states. Demand for a separate state of Punjab for Punjabi-speaking people under Master Tara Singh was prolonging. Finally in 1966 reorganization of Punjab and organization of Haryana was done and got the status of capital of Punjab & Haryana and an Union Territory. Hilly area of was made Union Territory, which was converted into a state in 1971. Royal Chogyal ruled in till 1975. Sikkim desired to merge in Bharat by conducting plebiscite, then the state of Sikkim was formed by the 36th Amendment in constitution in 1975. Separating from M.P., detaching from U.P. and separating from Bihar new states were founded in 2000 AD. A movement was prolonging for separate state of Telangana apart from Andhra Pradesh, later on it become violent and harsh. Finally a new state of Telangana was formed on 2 June 2014 separating from Andhra Pradesh. Thus at present, the Indian Union consists of 28 states and 7 union territories, but the demands of new states are still continuing in various part of Bharat . 10.Coextual Question- 10. How many Princely States and Thikanas were there in Rajasthan? 11. What do you mean by Matsya Union? 12. When the ‘Rajasthan Divas' is celebrated and why? 13. Summarize Rajasthan Union? 14. When was the state of Telangana founded and how? What did we learn - 1. Since ancient, Bharat has been as a cultural, social and political union, where many mighty emperors established great empires. 2. In ancient period Manu composed ‘Manusmriti’, Shukra composed ‘Shukranitisar’ and Kautilya composed ‘Arthashastra’ like great compositions, which describe ideals to manage organized society. 3. During British rule Bharat was divided into two parts-British Bharat and Princely States, British Bharat was under direct rule of British and kings had trivial rule over Princely States. 4. Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel played the most important role in National unification after independence. Because of Patel’s effort Maharaja Hari Singh the ruler of J&K got ready to unify with Bharat. 5. The state of Hyderabad was accessed in Bharat by police action while Junagadh was merged in Bharat by conducting plebiscite after the flight of Nawab to Pakistan. 6. Pondicherry merged in Bharat from France’s dominance in 1954 while police action against Portugal had to be taken to make Goa free in 1961. 7. At the time of Independence there were 3 Thikanas, 19 Princely States and 1 Chiefship in Rajasthan. Unification of Rajasthan completed on 1 November in 7 stages. Answers of contextual questions Kashmir merged in Bharat on 26 October 1947 after signing Instrument of Accession by Maharaja Hari Singh. 1. Maharaja Hari Singh was the ruler of Kashmir. Kashmir was reorganized by dissolving Jammu region, Laddakh, Kashmir Valley, Gilgit, Baltistan. 2. 1/3 part of Jammu and Kashmir is still under the occupation of Pakistan which is called Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK). 139

3. 85% population of Hyderabad was Hindu who desired to be unified with Bharat but Nizam tried to merge in Pakistan. People revolted. On 17 September 1948 Nizam accepted merge in Bharat. 4. Indian troops attacked from three sides of Hyderabad on 13 September 1948 which was named Operation Polo. 10.2 5. Junagadh is located in Gujarat. Nawab Mahavat Khan was the ruler of Junagadh. 6. Government of Bharat merged Junagadh in Bharat by conducting plebiscite in February 1948. 7. Portuguese on Goa and France on Pondicherry had their possession. 8. Goa merged in Bharat in 1961. Indian army ran ‘Operation Vijay’ for freedom of Goa. 10.3 9. Rajasthan was divided into 3 Thikanas and 19 Princely States. 10. ‘Alwar’, ‘Bharatpur’, ‘Dholpur’, ‘Karauli’ and ‘Nimarana’ were called Matsya Union. 11. Rajasthan Divas is celebrated on 30 March. Because Greater Rajasthan was formed on 30 March 1949. 12. Rajasthan Union was formed merging Sirohi in Rajasthan on 26 January 1950 with the exception of Abu and Delwara. 13. Demand for the state of Telangana was prolonging. Telangana was formed in 2014 after a tremendous movement. Question for exercise - Objective type questions - 1. Hari Singh was ruling in Kashmir since- (a) 1925 (b) 1935 (c) 1937 (d) 1939 ( ) 2. When did Hyderabad merge in Bharat? (a) 18 October 1949 (b) 17 September 1948 (c) 27 September 1948 (c) 30 November 1950 ( ) 3. Where did Junagadh situated at present? (a) Madhya Pradesh (b) Andhra Pradesh (c) Maharashtra (d) Gujarat ( ) 4. Pondicherry was handed over by France in- (a) 1948 (b) 1950 (c) 1954 (d) 1955 ( ) 5. Where did integration of Rajasthan finished? (a) 1 November 1956 (b) 5 November 1950 (c) 8 December 1951 (d) 17 December 1955 ( ) Short Answer type questions – 1. Who wrote ‘Arthashastra’? 2. Who was the emperor of Kashmir at the time of Independence? 3. Who played the most important role in national integration? 4. When did Hyderabad merge in Bharat? 5. Who presided the ‘States Organization Commission’? 6. Which was the first linguistic state? 140

7. Who was ruling over Pondicherry? 8. When did Goa merge in Bharat? 9. Describe the integration of Junagadh state in Bharat. 10. What was the role of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel in national integration? 11. Write name of five states formed after Independence. 12. Comment on the States Organization Commission. 13. Describe accession of Goa and Pondicherry in Bharat. Essay type questions – 1. Give an account of ‘Operation polo’. 2. Describe accession of Jammu and Kashmir in Bharat. 3. Describe accession of Hyderabad in Bharat. 4. Describe the various stages of integration of Rajasthan.

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Chapter 11

The Meaning and Definition of Democracy

Introduction Bharat is the largest democracy of the world. Several countries of the world have the democratic form of governance. Bharat is known as a democracy because here elections are held at regular intervals of time for the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha, the state legislative assemblies and the local bodies at the rural and urban level. Facing the democratic challenges, Bharat is marching forward as a progressive democracy. Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to: 1. Explain the meaning and definitions of democracy. 2. Understand and deliberate upon the characteristics of Indian democracy. 3. Understand and explain the working of democracy and the participation of the people. 4. Identify the major challenges before the democracy in Bharat and review the methods through which democracy can be made successful.

11.1 The Meaning and various types of Democracy Democracy is called Jantantra and Prajatantra in Hindi. The word ‘democracy’ is derived from the Greek language, which is formed by two words viz. ‘demos’ and ‘kratia’. Although ‘demos’ basically means ‘mob’ yet it means ‘people’ in the modern sense and ‘kratia’ means ‘power’. Thus the word ‘democracy’ means ‘power of the people’ i.e. government by the people based on the power of the people. This incorporates three inter related meanings: 1. It is a method to arrive at a decision. 2. It is a collection of the principles of taking decisions. 3. It is a concept related to ideal values. In the modern age, democracy is considered only as a form of government. According to Burns, the word ‘democracy’ carries several meanings.In order to understand its real meaning, we must identify the concepts related to its various forms. 11.1-I Various Types of Democracy In the modern age, the following types and the related concepts of democracy are universally acknowledged: 1. Political Democracy 2. Social Democracy 3. Economic Democracy 4. Moral Democracy 1. Political Democracy In the olden days, Political Democracy was called Subjective Democracy. However, in the modern age, the political Democracy originated in the western countries; hence, it is also called Western Democracy. The Marxists called it Capitalistic Democracy. The liberal thinkers discussed Political Democracy under two forms- Democratic State and Democratic 142

Rule. According to the theory of Democratic State, the sovereignty resides with the people. Hence, the people own the full and final power to form the government, to control and to dismiss it. Democratic rule is the developed and practical form of the theoretical concept of the Democratic State. Both these concepts associated with Political Democracy acknowledge the supremacy of political sovereignty over legal sovereignty. In brief, both the theories believe that political sovereignty should exercise control over legal sovereignty. As an organ of political democracy, the democratic rule is of two types: A. Direct and Pure Democracy B. Indirect and Representative Democracy In the modern age, two forms of the Representative Democracy are in vogue: (i) Parliamentary Democracy (ii) Presidential Democracy Some of the fundamental beliefs of all forms of Political Democracies are as given below: 1. Political Democracy believes in liberal constitutionalism. 2. It believes that the sovereignty resides with the people. 3. Democratic state is the theoretical aspect of Political Democracy while democratic rule is its practical aspect. 4. The government is appointed by the people. They control it and can depose it. 5. Political democracy is not an end in itself; rather it is a means to achieve democratic ends and values. 2. Social Democracy Social democracy means that there should be no discrimination in society on the bases of caste, creed, race, complexion, religion, language, sex, birth etc. All the people should be considered equal. According to Harnshaw, “Democratic society is one that strongly believes in the idea of equality and in which the principle of equality prevails.” The theory of social democracy lays emphasis mainly on social equality. All the people of the society must be respected equally. Two things are important to translate democracy into practice- (i) The system of privileges in society on the bases of religion, caste, race, language, sex, birth should be done away with. (ii) All the people should get equal opportunity to progress in society. 3. Economic Democracy Every citizen needs some job for livelihood i.e. to fulfill his basic requirements of food, clothing and housing. If there is economic disparity, the gulf between the rich and the poor increases, paving the way to revolution? Hence in order to strengthen the economy and to respect the right of every individual to seek job, the central government enacted Mahatma Gandhi National RuralEmployment Guarantee Act on 2 October 2009, in which workers get 100 day’s guaranteed work. 4. Moral Democracy Some scholars have acknowledged democracy as moral and spiritual philosophy of life. This is moral democracy. Moral democracy is nothing but all democratic philosophy in practice, in which the human values are the fundamental bases of society and the government. Moral democracy is best manifested itself in the French liberal democratic revolution of 1789 based 143

on liberty, equality and fraternity. Fraternity is the most important among these three because without it there can be neither equality nor liberty. Textual Questions-11.1 1. Give the meaning of democracy. 2. Name the various types of democracy. 3. Explain political democracy. 4. Explain social democracy.

11.2 Various Theories and Perspectives of Democracy Democracy is a comprehensive concept. The scholars are divided over the issue as to who enjoys the real power in democracy or which class enjoys real power, what are the relations between the ruler and the ruled and what should be the fundamental system of democracy. Because of such deliberations, various principles and perspectives of democracy have come up- (i) The conventional liberal principle and perspective of democracy. (ii) The pluralistic principle and perspective of democracy. (iii) The principle and perspective of the elitist class in democracy. (iv) The Marxist principle and perspective of democracy. (v) The socialistic principle and perspective of democracy. 11.2-I Conventional Liberal Theory and Perspective of Democracy This principle was developed by the western liberal political thinkers during the last three centuries. It is also called the western principle of democracy. Hobbes, Locke, J S Mill, T H Greene, Montesquieu, Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson, Herbert Spencer etc. are the major thinkers of the conventional liberal principle of democracy. All these scholars have expressed their views regarding the rights and freedom of individual. The fundamental beliefs and characteristics of this principle are as given below: (i) Man is a rational animal and can understand what is good or bad for him. (ii) All the people are fundamentally equal. (iii) The government should be formed according to a liberal and democratic system i.e. the principle of limited governance should be followed. (iv) The will of the people is the basis of the power of the government. Hence the government is only the trustee of political power. (v) The fundamental subjects of governance are as given below: (a) The government should be run by the elected representatives of the people. (b) The principle of the rule of the majority should be observed. (c) The government should be accountable to the people. (d) The welfare of the individuals should be the objective of the government. (vi) The individual should enjoy rights and freedom proper to a citizen, which must be protected by free and impartial judiciary. (vii) Free and impartial elections should be held at regular intervals of time and there should be more than one political party. (viii) The government should respect the public opinion. 11.2-II The Majority Theory and Perspective of Democracy The fundamental basis of the perspective of this principle is pluralistic ideology, which believes in the federal form of government. This principle of democracy was developed by H J Laski, Ernest Barker, Ms Follett, G D H Kaul, Digwi etc. after World War II, Robert Dahl too contributed to its 144 development. According to Robert Presthus, “The pluralistic principle of democracy is a socio- political system in which several private groups and welfare groups lend their contribution.” 11.2-III The Elitist Class Theory and Perspective of the in Democracy The center of the complete ideology of this principle of democracy is the elitist class. This principle was presented mainly by Robert Michaels, Mosco, Pairetto, Burkham, C Wright Mills etc. Robert Michaels is a German thinker and he has presented his thoughts in his book titled The Political Parties. Mosco is an Italian scholar who presented his thoughts in his work The Ruling Class. 11.2- I The Marxist Theory and Perspective of Democracy The Marxist principle of democracy presented a distinct form of democracy, which is characteristically Economic Democracy; however, the Marxists call it People’s Democracy. The basic concept of Marxist democracy is seen in the ideology of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels while its practical application was made by Lenin, Stalin, MaoTse-tung. 11.2-V The Socialistic Theory and Perspective of Democracy The socialistic principle of democracy is a reconciliation of the liberal principle and the Marxist principle. It aims to achieve together the ideals of liberal democracy and the Marxist democracy i.e. political freedom of the individual and economic equality respectively. The socialistic principle of democracy believes in progressive constitutional means rather than revolutionary and violent means. It believes that the political freedom of the individual can be safeguarded through liberal democracy of the parliamentary system. Besides it can also achieve the ideals of economic equality. Textual Questions- 11.2 5. Write the various theories of democracy. 6. What is the pluralistic principle of democracy? Explain. 7. Explain the socialistic principle of democracy.

11.3 Types of Democratic Governance 11.3-I Two major types of democratic governance systems have been acknowledged: (i) Direct or Pure Democracy and (ii) Indirect or Representative Democracy (i) Direct or Pure Democracy Under direct democracy, the people themselves directly wield sovereign power of the state. They take policy decisions, make laws and appoint administrative officers. According to Hearnshaw, “Democratic governance, in its real sense, is a type of governance in which the people themselves enjoy sovereign power with no representatives.” This opinion of Hearnshaw perfectly defines direct democracy. The system of direct democratic governance was found in the city states of ancient Greece and at present it is only found in the five cantons of Switzerland. Actually, the system of direct democratic governance is possible only in small states having small population. At present, most of the states are big in size and population; hence, direct democracy is not possible in them. (ii) Indirect or Representative Democracy In the modern age almost all the democratic states follow indirect or representative democracy. Under this system, the people themselves do not wield power; they rather enjoy sovereign power through elected representatives. According to J S Mill, “Indirect or representative democracy is a system in which all the people or the majority wields power through those representatives whom they elect from time to time.” Some of the other definitions of this system are as given below: According to Lord Bryce, “It is form of democratic rule in which the power of the state, legally, is vested not with a certain section or sections but with the whole society.” According to Dicey, “Democracy is a system of rule in which most of the nation is the ruler.” 145

According to Abraham Lincoln, “Democracy is a rule of the people, for the people and by the people.” From the definitions provided by various scholars we can deduce that democratic rule has its own distinct characteristics. 11.3-II Major Characteristics of Democracy (i) Rule of the people In a democracy it is rule of all the people. By people we mean each and every individual. In this sense it is not the rule of any particular section belonging to any caste, creed, race, language or culture. (ii) Rule by the people In a democracy, the government is formed by the people. The people elect their representatives, who form the government. (iii) Rule for the people The democratic system of government follows the principle of people’s sovereignty. Hence the government is responsible to the people. If the government deprives the people of their freedom or does not respect public opinion or does not work in public interest, the people can remove it from power. (iv)Democracy:A Developing System Democratic system of rule has passed through various stages up to the modern age. In its early stage it was a subjective democracy, which later switched to liberal democracy and at present it is concerned with the concept of public welfare state. Moreover now it also acknowledges the principle of social and economic equality. Thus democracy has developed quantitatively. (v)Democratic Rule as a Means Democratic rule is never an end in itself. Rather, it is only a means. Actually, democratic rule is a means to promote individual freedom and public welfare. In the modern world, the representative democracy appears in two major forms- Parliamentary rule and Presidential rule. The British adopted parliamentary rule while the United States of America adopted the presidential rule. Switzerland has adopted a mixed form of both the systems. Textual Questions- 11.3 8. Explain the types of democratic rules. 9. What do you understand by direct democracy? 10. How is the government run under representative democracy? 11. Write three characteristics of democracy.

11.4 Merits of Democracy 11.4-I Democracy has the following merits: (i) Promotes Public Welfare Democratic government is run by representatives of the people. They win elections with promises to promote public welfare and they have to fight elections again. Hence the people’s representatives rule with public welfare in mind. In a democracy, the government is responsible to the people. (ii) Efficient Administration Democracy is considered the most efficient administration. There are several reasons of its efficiency. For example- The government policies are made according to the public opinion. Hence the public support their implementation. Democratic rule is responsible to the people. So the government tries to maintain its work efficiency.

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(iii) Imparts Public Education Under democratic rule, the people express their opinion on public problems. Even common people express their opinion through means of building public opinion and through general elections. The common citizen is conscious of his rights and duties and learns to sacrifice matters of his personal interests to those of common interests. Hence Getail calls democracy a school to teach citizenship. (iv) Imparts Moral Education A democratic government also imparts moral education. According to Lowell, democracy strengthens the morality and purity of the individual. According to Bryce, in a democracy when a citizen holds political rights, he develops his personality and becomes dutiful. In a democracy an individual transcends his narrow domestic boundaries and thinks of matters of public interests and behaves with tolerance, liberality and with other citizens. (v) Development of Patriotism Democracy develops love towards the nation. In a democracy the state is not anyone’s personal property; it rather belongs to the people. It develops the feelings of love and affinity towards the nation among the people. In the words of Meel, “Democracy inculcates the feeling of patriotism.” (vi) Non possibility of revolution There is a possibility of revolution in states where the power vests in a particular class of society. In a democracy the government is responsible to the person, which dilutes the possibility of revolution. In a democracy all are free to express themselves and to fight elections. Besides, in case there is any discontent with the government on any subject, people are free to vote out the government. This dilutes the possibility of revolution. (vii) Rule based on equality and liberty Democracy acknowledges the concepts of equality and liberty of the individual. It does not discriminate individuals on the bases of caste, religion, language, gender etc. All the people are equal in the eyes of the law and provide them legal protection. (vii) Independent and Impartial Judiciary In a democracy, free and impartial judiciary is established, which protects the citizens against the unlawful decisions of the state and the executives and safeguards the freedom of the individuals. Such a judiciary motivates the individuals to raise their voice against the unjust policies of the government and forces the government to ensure its constitutional duties. (ix) Development of Art, Literature, Culture and Science Democracy does not impose any undue restrictions on arts, literature, culture or science: it rather wants to promote all these. In a dictatorship there is strict control over all these areas because there the people are not free in the matters of thought and action. Hence art, literature, culture and science get hampered in a dictatorship. (x) Faith in the Constitution Democracy has faith in the constitutionalism because it believes in the rule of law rather than the despotic rule of an individual. It acknowledges the freedom of the individual. It believes in limited rule rather than despotic one and approves decentralization of power. (xi) Supports World Peace The history of monarchy, aristocracy and dictatorship tells us that these types of regimes have always been threat to world peace. These regimes believe in militarism, rigid foreign policy and expansionism whereas democracy believes in world peace and solidarity. Democracy believes in peaceful co-existence rather than in militarism and wants to resolve mutual disputes among nations through dialogues, accords and international laws. 147

11.4-II Demerits of Democracy Democracy has the following demerits too: (i) Impulsive Individual Theory Democracy believes that the individual is a rational being. Hence he is given the right to vote so that he can take mature decisions on political matters. However the critics believe that an individual is basically impulsive and thus cannot decide prudently. In that case democracy becomes mobocracy. (ii) Indifferent Intelligentsia In a democracy the intelligentsia remains indifferent. In this system the number is valued more than the merit. The intelligentsia does not participate actively in society in this system. (iii) Fallacious Claim of Educational Development In a democracy an individual is imparted civil and moral education and the feeling of patriotism is inculcated. This claim is fallacious because in a democracy the political parties have their vested interests when they discuss national problems. They propagate their personal interests in the garb of national interests. They blame each other baselessly and provoke various classes of society in order to rope them in. (iv) Fallacious Democratic Equality and Freedom Democracy provides political freedom and equality to the individual; however, it fails to provide him economic freedom and equality. Political freedom and equality is meaningless without economic equality and freedom. In a democracy the rich fight elections and get elected by money power. When most of the legislatures hail from rich families, it is obvious that the laws shall be framed in the interests of the rich. Thus in a democracy political freedom and equality for the poor becomes insignificant because of economic disparity. (v) Malevolent Impact of Political Parties Political parties are indispensable in a democracy but the policies of the political parties are not without defects, causing perversion in democracy. Conceptually, all political parties are formed in the interest of the nation. They propagate various social and economic policies and programs for the development of the people. However all political parties give more importance to their parties instead of the nation. (vi) Irresponsible Ruling System Conceptually, democracy is accountable to the people. However, practically democracy appears irresponsible. . No party is ready to share the responsibility of the failures in a democracy. The governments declare the movements of the opposition parties responsible for the failures while the opposition parties blame the policies of the government. (vii) Wastage of Public Property and Money In a democracy during the general elections a lot of national money and time is wasted. The same happens in framing policies and laws. All the activities are conducted by various committees after long discussions in the government, and thus a lot of money and time is wasted. Democracy is an expensive system for a poor country and the pace of development is slow too. (viii) Indifferent and Inactive Voters Democracy is the rule of the people. However the voters take least interest in the elections. The percentage of voting is generally from 50 to 60. The people do not deem it to be their own regime. Consequently incompetent and opportunistic representatives are elected.

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(ix) Weak Government at the time of Crisis At war time and during the time of crisis, democracy proves to be a weak government and quick and confidential decisions are not taken. During the time of the Second World War, barring British all the other European democratic countries proved weak before the Nazi Germany. After the Second World War, the democratic states of the Eastern Europe proved to be weak before the communist Soviet Union. (x) Does not support World Peace In the opinion of the communist critics, the democratic state is capitalistic. Capitalism gives birth to war and imperialism. Hence, democratic states cannot be deemed to be in support of world peace. The democratic states like Britain, France, and Europe adopted war and imperialistic policies. Although at present the rich democratic states of Europe oppose war and political imperialism yet their policies bring forth a new kind of economic imperialism, which we call neo-colonialism. With the help of multinational companies and international funding agencies, these countries are trying to influence the economies of Asian and African countries. According to the communists, in the modern age too there is a nexus between democracy and capitalism, which is a threat to world peace. Textual Questions-11.4 12. Mention any three merits of democracy. 13. Democracy is a means to impart moral education. How? 14. Democracy supports world peace. Elaborate. 15. Describe any three major demerits of democracy.

11.5 Essential Conditions for the success of Democracy After the First World War, democracy was adopted by several European countries. However because of unfavorable conditions, democracy failed and it was replaced by autocracy. Scholars believe that the following conditions are helpful for the success of democracy: (i) Peaceful regime Domestic conditions of the regime should be peaceful for the success of democracy.There should be no threat of war or external aggression. In such situations the power remains decentralized and the individuals enjoy freedom. However when there is political instability and there are movements challenging the regime or there are external aggressions, the government centralizes power in order to maintain the integrity and safety of the nation and the freedom of the individuals is restricted. In these conditions democracy starts declining and it paves the way for autocracy. Hence peaceful conditions are essential for democracy. (ii) Strong National Economy The economy of the nation should be amply strong for the success of democracy. If the national economy is passing through industrial crisis, the democratic system stumbles down. After the First World War, the national economy of Germany and Italy stumbled, bringing an end to democracy and setting up of tyranny. Similarly, after the Second World War, democracy ended and communist regime was set up in the Eastern European countries due to economic disorder. In the modern age too, the failure of democracy in Latin American countries is mainly due to economic disorder. (iii) Economic Equality For the success of democracy, not only a strong national economy is essential but there should be economic equality as far as possible i.e. there should not be a great gulf between the rich and the 149

poor. This is possible when the number of middle class people is greater in number. In such conditions, the class struggle that weakens democracy can be checked. (iv) Social Justice For the success of democracy it is essential that there is no discrimination among individuals on the bases of religion, caste, creed, language, race, gender, birth etc. All the people should be deemed equal before law and the court should provide equal lawful protection to all. This promotes amicable relations among all and social democracy is established. (v) Educated and Public Awareness For the success of democracy it is essential that the people are educated and watchful. Only educated people can understand the process and success of democracy and can build a sound public opinion. Only watchful people can oppose the undemocratic policies and activities of the government. (vi) Building Public Opinion For the success of democracy it is essential that the means of building public opinion are free. This means that the government should not impose restrictions on press, literature, radio, cinema, doordarshan etc. When the means of building public opinion are free, the citizens unitedly and peacefully oppose undemocratic policies of the government and criticize its activities and thus help maintain the dignity and success of democracy. (vii) Moral and National Character of the Citizens If the citizens bear good moral and national character, democracy is successful. In such a society, the individual makes proper use of his rights and duties. People deliberate upon the problems with public interest in mind and are tolerant, liberal, compassionate, serving and loving towards their fellow citizens. They love their country. Indeed, democracy rests on the power of the people. (viii) Decentralization of Power Decentralization is the basis of power in a democracy. Only under decentralization do various section of society take part in the activities of the regime. Local self-rule is a good form of decentralization of democracy. Through self-rule does the common man take interest in the activities of the regime, which teaches him citizenship. (ix) Liberties of the Citizens Democracy believes in the principle of minimum governance, which means that the constitution should provide fundamental liberties to the citizens and this freedom should be properly safeguarded. The citizens should be free to express their thoughts, form unions, hold meetings and hold peaceful movements. The citizens should have the right to criticize peacefully and hold movements against the policies and activities of the government which are against common interest. (x) Written Constitution and Democratic Conventions The language of the written constitution should be simple and clear so that there is no confusion or misunderstanding. Besides, the procedure of amendment to the constitution should be complex so that taking advantage of the majority,the rulers do not turn democracy into autocratic rule, as was done by Hitler in Germany. Democratic conventions mean those laws and systems of behavior although not mentioned in the constitution yet they take forward democratic system and process and to which all parties unanimously consent. (xi) Independent and Impartial Judiciary In a democracy the government does not enjoy despotic power.Rather; it has to observe constitutional decorum and boundaries. Setting up of free and impartial judiciary is essential for 150

the success of democracy. The judiciary prevents the executive from violating laws and declares null and void unconstitutional laws framed by the government. Such a judiciary safeguards the freedom of the citizens. (xii) Competent and Impartial Employees The policies framed by the public representatives in a democracy are implemented by the officials and employees. For the success of democracy the employees should be efficient from the administrative point of view and should nourish the feeling of service to the people. They should rise above petty party politics. (xiii) Fair and Organized Party System Practically, democracy is party political system. Hence, the success of democracy depends on policies, programs and dedication of the political parties. Political parties should have strong foundation. They should not be organized on regional, linguistic and communal bases. They should rather have national interest in mind. The political parties should have national economic and political problems in view. There should be internal elections in the parties in due course of time. They should not give membership to indisciplined persons, criminals or turncoats. (xiv) Competent and Dedicated Politicians For the success of democracy the politicians should be competent, intelligent and faithful to democracy. Such politicians are capable of exploring peaceful and democratic solutions to national problems. If the politicians are corrupt, opportunistic, liars, greedy of power, believing in favoritism and provoking hateful feelings, they turn democracy into mobocracy and there is crisis of leadership in the country. (xv) National Plainings of Public Interests For the success of democracy in developing countries, the government should make such national programs which promote a balanced development of agriculture and industries. They should be helpful in raising national revenue as well as the living standard of workers and weaker sections of society. Textual Questions-11.5 16. What do you understand by sound national economy? 17. What is economic equality? 18. What are the means of building public opinion? 19. How is decentralization of power done? What you have learnt 1. The word ‘democracy’ is formed from ‘demos’ and ‘kratia’, which means power of the people or the rule of the people. At present, the liberal democracy is quite popular. Its wider meaning can be explained as given below: (i) It is a method to arrive at a decision. (ii) It is collection of principles to arrive at a decision. (iii) It is a concept concerned with ideal values. 2. “Democracy is a word that has several meanings.”- Burnes. 3. Democracy has four major forms. Political democracy has two forms- (i) Democracy in the form of state (ii) Democracy in the form of government. The concept of democratic state believes that sovereignty rests in the people. 4. The practical form of a democratic state is democratic rule, which is of two types: 151

(i) Direct Democracy (ii) Indirect or Representative Democracy 5. The fundamental features of political democracy are as given below: (i) It believes in liberal constitution. (ii) It believes in public sovereignty. (iii) Conceptually it is democratic state while practically it is democratic government. (iv) It is a means not an end. (v) It is a progressive concept. 6. The features of social democracy are as given below: (i) Social equality. (ii) All are given equal opportunity for social development. (iii) It is supplemental political democracy. 7. Economic democracy has three parts: (i) Subjective democracy which is purely capitalistic democracy. (ii) Marxist economic democracy as against capitalistic democracy is an economic egalitarian system. (iii) Liberal economic democracy, which believes in the concept of public welfare. 8. Moral democracy has the following features: (i) Emphasizes moral and spiritual values. (ii) Believes in the dignity of the individual. (iii) Inculcates the feelings of liberty, equality and solidarity. (iv) Believes in international ideology according to its nature. Answers to Textual Questions 11.1 1. The word democracy means the rule by the people. 2. The various types of democracy are- political democracy, social democracy, economic democracy and moral democracy. 3. Political democracy is also called subjective democracy. It is democracy in the form of state and in the form of government. It means democratic government, in which sovereignty vests with the people. 4. Social democracy means that there is no discrimination among individuals in society. All are considered equal. 11.2 5. The various principles concerning democracy are as given below: Conventionally liberal, pluralistic, elitist, Marxist social principle. 6. Pluralistic principle of democracy is a socio-political system in which several private groups and interests groups share the power of the state. 7. The socialistic principle of democracy believes in progressive and constitutional means rather than in revolution and violence. 11.3 8. There are two types of democratic rules- direct democracy, indirect or representative democracy. 9. In a direct democracy the people directly enjoy sovereignty. 10. In a representative democracy the people enjoy sovereignty through elected representatives. 152

11. The three features of democracy are- rule by the people, rule accountable to the people and progressive rule. 11.4 12. The three merits of democracy are-efficient rule, means of universal education, based on equality and liberty. 13. Democracy also imparts moral education because in a democracy an individual transcends narrow domestic boundaries and thinks of matters of universal interests. He is cooperative, tolerant, liberal and compassionate. 14. Democracy believes in world peace and cooperation. It wants to resolve disputes between nations by dialogue and accords. 15. The three major demerits of democracy are- malevolent influence of political parties, wastage of public property and time, weak at time of crisis. 11.5 16. Sound national economy is essential for the success of democracy. Without it the democratic system stumbles down. 17. Economic equality means that all the people have some or the other employment and there not much gulf between the rich and the poor. 18. The means of building public opinion are- press, literature, radio, cinema, doordarshan etc. The government should not exercise undue control over them. 19. The means of decentralization of power is local self-rule, which gives opportunity to common man to take part in activities of the government. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of these defined democracy as, “Democracy is a rule of the people, for the people and by the people.” (A) Lord Bryce (B) Dyce (C) Abraham Lincoln (D) J S Mill 2. When did the liberal democratic revolution take place in France? (A) 1780 (B) 1789 (C) 1815 (D) 1818 3. By whom is sovereignty enjoyed in direct democracy? (A) The representatives (B) The people (C) The MLA’s (D) The MP’s 4. Which of the following turned democracy into autocracy? (A) Hitler (B) Abraham Lincoln (C) Jawaharlal Nehru (D) Jefferson 5. What type of rule is found in Bharat? (A) Presidential 153

(B) Parliamentary (C) Idealistic (D) Conventional

Short Answer Questions 1. Explain the meaning of democracy. 2. Write about two kinds of democratic systems. 3. Explain social democracy. 4. Explain economic democracy. 5. What do you understand by equality? 6. What do you understand by moral democracy? 7. Explain the pluralistic principle of democracy. 8. Write three merits of democratic rule. 9. Write about three essential conditions for democracy to be successful. 10. Explain the elitist principle of democracy. Essay Type Questions 1. What do you understand by democracy? Describe its various forms. 2. What do you understand by democratic rule? Examine it critically. 3. Explain the difference between direct and indirect democracy. 4. Enumerate the points essential for the success of democracy.

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Chapter -12

The Making of the Constitution Introduction Constitution is a collection of the fundamental laws of the country. Through this the government is formed and the relations between the government and the citizens are ascertained. The constitution fixes the structure, powers and limitations of the three organs of the government viz. legislature, executive and judiciary. Besides it also fixes the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens. In a democracy, the power vests with the people. However, in the present times, the nations, being big in size, have adopted indirect or representative democracy instead of direct democracy. In this system, representatives, elected through adult franchise, run the government. The people can wield this power only when they have made a constitution for themselves. This constitution can be written and made or it may be unwritten, evolved. For example, the constitutions of Bharat and the United States of America are written and made while that of England is unwritten and evolved. Objectives After reading this lesson, you will be able to: 1. Understand and describe the Indian constitution. 2. Understand the formation of Indian Constituent Assembly. 3. Understand and discuss the features of the Indian constitution. 4. Know about the fundamental rights and duties of the citizens. 5. Understand the contribution of the Directive principles of the state policy for the development of citizens.

12.1 Opposition of the Foreign Rule in Bharat After the glorious and inspiring past of ancient times, Bharat has been victim of foreign aggressions since the middle Ages. These foreign invaders ruled over Indians remorselessly. Instead of satisfying the people, their main aim was to spread their religion and collect property. Later Bharat became victim of British colonialism. The East Bharat Company, which was formed for trade with Bharat in 1600, gradually started interfering with the political matters of Bharat. After the Battle of Plessey in 1757 CE and the Battle of Buxar in 1764, a greater part of Bharat was captivated by the Company. Then the question before the Company was through which laws it should rule over Bharat. So it requested the British government to make laws for administration on Bharat. The British parliament made laws for Bharat like Regulating Act, Pitts Bharat Act, Act of 1813 CE, Indian Administrative Acts of 1909, 1919 and 1935 etc. On the other hand, political awakening started arising in Bharat, inspired by the great thinkers like Swami Dayanand Saraswati, , Maharishi Arvind, VirSawarkar, BalGangadharTilak etc.Thus by the beginning of the 20th century demands for making constitution, granting freedom were being made. Mahatma Gandhi demanded making of the constitution in 1922 CE. All party meeting was held in 1925, in which resolution demanding making of constitution was passed. 12.1-I Formation of the Constituent Assembly When the Second World War started in 1939, the British government was in dire need of Indian assistance. So under August Resolution of 1940 CE, the British, for the first time, conceded to 155 the demand of the Indians to make constitution. In July 1945, the new government of the Labor Party came to power, which signaled granting freedom to Bharat and making constitution. In 1946, the British government sent a three member Commission, called Cabinet Mission, to Bharat. Indian Constituent Assembly was constituted at the instance of the Cabinet Mission, which made the Indian constitution. By Indian Administrative Act, legislative assemblies were constituted in the Indian states. Members to these legislative assemblies were elected and the Cabinet Mission gave power to these elected MLA’s to elect members of the Constituent Assembly of their respective states. One member was to represent ten lakh persons. Those days Bharat was divided into two parts-British state and Indian provinces. The criterion of population for the membership of the Constituent Assembly for the Indian provinces remained the same. However since there were no legislative assemblies in the Indian provinces, it was decided to nominate members from these states for the Constituent Assembly.Thus the Indian Constituent Assembly had both elected and nominated members. The total number of members fixed for the Constituent Assembly was 389, out of which 296 members were from the British states and 93 members were from the Indian provinces. Elections for 296 members were held in July 1946, in which the Congress won 208 seats while the Muslim League won 73 seats and the rest of the seats were won by smaller parties. On 3 June 1947, it was decided that the country would be partitioned on communal lines by the Mountbatten Plan. Conceding to the demand of the Muslim League, a separate country Pakistan was established. The Constituent Assembly was formally inaugurated in the Central Hall of the parliament at 11 o’clock on Monday 9 December 1946. About 211 members participated in the first meeting. Sachiddanand Sinha was selected as provisional chairman of the Constituent Assembly. On 11 December 1946, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected permanent chairman of the Constituent Assembly. B N Rao was made legal advisor. On 13 December 1946 Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru tabled the objective resolution of the Constituent Assembly, which was passed on 22 January 1947. Several committees were formed for the making of the constitution, chief among which was Draft Committee, constituted in August 1947. Dr. BheemraoAmbedkar, famous lawyer and law expert, was the chairman of the seven member committee. The Draft Committee had to draft the constitution, which was debated upon in the Constituent Assembly and was passed through voting. That is why Ambedkar is also hailed as the father of Indian constitution. After deliberating upon the proposals made by various committees, the Draft Committee published its first draft in February 1948. The people of Bharat were given eight months’ time to think over it and give suggestions. Taking into consideration those suggestions and amendments, the committee made a fresh draft and presented it in the Constituent Assembly in November 1948. This draft was read out three times in the Constituent Assembly. The constitution of Bharat was ready on 26 November 1949. The last meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 24 January 1950, when the members of the Constituent Assembly signed the constitution, which came into force on 26 January 1950. TheConstitution contained preamble, 8 schedules, 22 parts and 395 articles. At present there are 12 schedules. Besides making the constitution of Bharat, the Constituent Assembly did some other significant works too. The national flag was adopted in July 1947 and the national song and nation anthems were recognized in January 1950. Besides Dr. Rajendra Prasad Sharma was elected first president of Bharat. Thus Bharat arose as a republic state. Thus the Constituent Assembly completed the historical work of making the constitution of Bharat in 2 years, 11 months and 18 days. Textual Questions-12.1 1. When and how was the East Bharat Company established in Bharat? 2. When and how was the Indian Constituent Assembly constituted? 156

3. How was the number of the members of the Constituent Assembly fixed? 4. When was the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly held and who was the chairman? 5. How much time did it take to make the constitution of Bharat?

12.2 Features of the Constitution of Bharat The constitution of Bharat is unique in the world. Several of its features set it apart from those of other countries, which are as given below: (i) The Largest Constitution of the World The constitution of Bharat is the bulkiest in the world. The constitution describes the governance of the Union government along with that of the states. The constitution of the United States of America is comparatively small. The constitution of Bharat contains 12 schedules and 395 articles. (ii) Federal System Constitutions are of two types based on the mutual relations between the union government and the state government- federal and union. A federal government is a system of dividing up power between a central national government and local state governments that are connected to one another by the national government.Indian constitution specifies the distribution of legislative, administrative and executive powers between the Union government and the States of Bharat. The legislative powers are categorized under a Union List, a State List and a Concurrent List, representing, respectively, the powers conferred upon the Union government, those conferred upon the State governments and powers shared among them. Owing to the huge size, huge population and diversity of Bharat, federal form of government was adopted. (iii) Parliamentary System The government has three organs- legislative, executive and judiciary. Constitution can be parliamentary or presidential on the basis of the mutual relations between the legislative and the executive. Indian excutive i.e. the prime minister and the council of ministers is accountable to the parliament. This is called parliamentary system of government. (iv) Freedom of the Judiciary The judiciary is free from the legislative and the executive. The judiciary i.e. the Supreme Court has the right to interpret and safeguard the constitution. (v) Single Citizenship Federal form of government has generally dual citizenship- one of the country and the other of the state where one lives, as in the United States of America. Despite federal system in Bharat, there is a provision of single citizenship. We have no separate citizenship of the state we live in. We all are Indian citizens. We work for the unity and integrity of the Indian nation. Adult-Suffrage: All the citizens of Bharat have been granted universal adult franchise without any discrimination. Earlier the minimum age for voting right was 21, which has now been reduced to 18. In various countries of the world, people had to struggle long for adult franchise; however in Bharat, despite widespread illiteracy and little political experience, the Indian constitution grants this right to all the Indians. (vi) Fundamental Rights There can be no all-round development of the citizens in the absence of fundamental rights. Hence the constitution grants six fundamental rights to the Indian citizens- the right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to , cultural and educational 157

rights, right to constitutional remedies. Restrictions have been made to prevent misuse of these rights. (vii) Directive Principles of State Policy Directive principle of state policy includes those rights which are essential for the development of the individual but could not be included in the fundamental rights owing to paucity of resources. These are not enforceable by any court, but the principles laid down therein are considered irrefutable in the governance of the country, making it the duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws to establish a just society in the country. For example- welfare of the workers, health and maternity assistance to women, nutritional food to children, economic security, equal pay for equal work etc. (viii) Blended(Mixed) Constitution Several provisions of the Indian constitution are inspired by other constitutions. The concepts of fundamental rights and independent judiciary have been taken from the constitution of America. Parliamentary system, republic system and directive principles of state policy have been derived from the British, the French and the Irish constitutions respectively. (ix) Rigidity and Flexibility The Indian constitution is combination of rigidity and flexibility, which means some parts of it can be amended by the Parliament by a simple majority, whereas some parts require a two- third majority as well as not less than one-half of the state legislatures. Textual Questions-12.2 6. Why is the Indian constitution called the bulkiest in the world? 7. What do you understand by the independence of the judiciary? 8. Explain the meaning of single citizenship. 9. Why were the directive principles of state policy adopted?

12.3 Fundamental Rights in the Constitution Rights are essential for the development of the individual, which are granted by society and state. The rights described in the constitution and guaranteed by the judiciary are called fundamental rights. The description of the fundamental rights is the chief feature of the democratic constitution. One of the various committees constituted for the making of the constitution was concerned with fundamental rights. The section of fundamental rights was deliberated upon for 38 days, in which an attempt was made to safeguard the unity and integrity of Bharat along with the interests of the people. Fundamental rights have been described in articles 12 to 35 in part-3 of the constitution. Initially there were seven fundamental rights. However under 44th constitutional amendment of 1978, the right to property was turned into legal right from fundamental right. Hence now there are 6 fundamental rights as given below: (i) Right to Equality The constitution framers were conscious of the pervading inequality in society. They knew that the right to freedom was irrelevant till these inequalities were done away with. Hence they deemed right to equality the first fundamental right. The constitution guarantees that all people shall be equally protected by the laws of the country. No person shall be discriminated on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Every person shall have equal access to public places like public parks, museums, wells, bathing and temples etc. However, the State may make any special provision for women and children. Special provisions may be made for the advancements of 158 any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes. The State cannot discriminate against anyone in the matters of employment. The State may reserve posts for members of backward classes, scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not adequately represented in the services under the State to bring up the weaker sections of the society. The constitution abolished the practice of untouchability. Practice of untouchability is an offence and anyone doing so is punishable by law. The constitution prohibits the State from conferring any titles. However, Military and academic distinctions can be conferred on the citizens of Bharat. The awards of Paramveer Chakra, Mahaveer Chakra, Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan do not come within the constitutional prohibition. Thus, the constitution has emphasized social equality along with legal equality under right to equality. (ii) Right to Freedom The Constitution of Bharat contains the right to freedom with the view to guaranteeing the best individual development of the citizens. The citizens have been granted freedom of speech and expression, freedom to assemble peacefully without arms, freedom to form associations or unions or co-operative societies, freedom to move freely throughout the territory of Bharat, freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of Bharat, freedom to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business. An individual is an inseparable part of society. Hence, the citizens are free to the extent that they do not infringe upon the liberty of others. A person cannot be held guilty of offence till he has violated any prevailing methods. The right to freedom gives right to life, personal liberty and right to die with dignity. (iii) Right against Exploitation The right against exploitation provides for two provisions, namely the abolition of trafficking in human beings and Begar (forced labour), and abolition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories, mines, etc. Thus, the state or others have been prohibited from exploiting individuals. (iv) Right to Freedom of Religion Religion has been a sensitive issue in the Indian society. During the middle ages, the rulers used to enforce . Hence the constitution framers accorded right to religion and conscience a fundamental right. According to the Constitution, all religions are equal before the State and no religion shall be given preference over the other. Citizens are free to preach, practice and propagate any religion of their choice.Religious communities can set up charitable institutions of their own. However, activities in such institutions that are not religious are performed according to the laws laid down by the government. Establishing a charitable institution can also be restricted in the interest of public order, morality and health.The efforts to coax into conversion has been declared unconstitutional by the judiciary. The citizen have right to set up temples, monastery, gurudwara etc. A State run institution cannot impart education that is pro-religion. (v) Cultural and Educational Rights The Indian constitution has given right to the citizens to conserve their language, script or culture. All the sections of society shall have the right to set up and run educational institutions based on their religion and language. The state has made provisions to provide free and compulsory education to all the children from the age of six to fourteen. (vi) Right to Constitutional Remedies Right to constitutional remedies empowers the citizens to move to a court of law in case of any denial of the fundamental rights. The procedure of asking the courts to preserve or safeguard the citizens' fundamental rights can be done in various ways. The courts can issue various kinds of writs 159 protecting rights of the citizens. These writs are: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto and Certiorari. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar rightly declared Right to constitutional remedies as "the heart and soul" of Indian constitution. 12.3-I Directive Principles of State Policy The concept of Directive Principles of State Policy was borrowed from the Irish Constitution. While fundamental rights are means for individual development, directive principles of state policy are means to collective progress. Implementation of directive principles of state policy will bring about socio-economic development. The State shall need huge economic resources to implement these directives; hence the governments cannot be forced to implement them and the citizens cannot move to a court in case these are not implemented. These directives are the duties of the public welfare state. The State should make its policies in such a way that more and more directives can be implemented. The government has tried to implement some of the directive principles like- making industrial laws, holding welfare programs for workers, fixing of minimum wages, arranging programs to promote small and cottage industries. The government has taken steps for the welfare of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and backward classes, extended health and maternity assistance to women, guaranteed right to work under MGNAREGA scheme, providing mid-day meal to schoolchildren to raise their nutritional level. The government has started efforts to provide social and economic safety by linking people with the banking system by implementing Universal Insurance Program. However, the governments have yet to take heed to some of the directives like- ensuring equal pay for equal work, enforcing uniform civil code, banning private schools of different religions, banning killing of cows, calves and other milking animals, organizing agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific basis. 12.3-II Fundamental Duties of Citizens When the constitution of Bharat was enforced, fundamental rights and directive principles of state were incorporated but the duties of the citizens were not included in the constitution. The sense of duty had always been present in the Indian tradition, religion, system and samskaras. We have always felt the duty to maintain the unity and integrity of the nation. The fundamental duties of the citizens were incorporated in the constitution in the 42nd Constitution Amendment Act of 1976. It shall be the duty of every citizen of Bharat to: (i) Abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem. (ii) Cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom. (iii) Uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of Bharat. (iv) Defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so. (v) Promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of Bharat transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women. (vi) Value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. (vii) Protect and improve the natural environment including forests, , rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures. (viii) Develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform. (ix) Safeguard public property and to abjure violence. (x) Strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement. 160

(xi) Every Indian Parent or Guardian must ensure that their child or ward was provided opportunities for education between the ages of 6 and 14 years. Textual Questions-12.3 10. Enumerate the fundamental rights granted to the Indian citizens. 11. Describe briefly the right to equality. 12. Why isthe right to constitutional remedies significant? 13. When and why were fundamental duties incorporated in the Indian constitution? What you have learnt (i) Constitution of any country is the seminal and fundamental document determining ruling system of the country and the mutual relations between the center and the states. (ii) The constitution of Bharat was made by the planning of the Cabinet Mission. The Constituent Assembly had both elected and nominated members. The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9 December 1946. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the chairman of the Constituent Assembly. (iii) The Draft Committee was the most important among all the committees constituted for the making of the constitution. Dr. BheemraoAmbedkar was its chairman. He is called the father of the Indian constitution owing to his significant role in the making of the constitution. (iv) Indian constitution is the bulkiest in the world. At present, besides its preamble, it has 12 schedules, 22 parts and 395 articles. (v) The Indian constitution declares the country federal, parliamentary, democratic republic. (vi) The constitution makes provision for fundamental rights of the citizens, giving him right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. (vii) The directive principles of state policy act as moral duties to the state. Their implementation shall bring socio-economic welfare to the citizens and the state shall become public welfare state. (viii) The fundamental duties of the citizens were incorporated through 42nd amendment of 1976. At present they number 11. Answers to Textual Questions 12.1 1. The East Bharat Company was formed in 1600 to engage in trade with Bharat; Gradually it started interfering in the political matters of Bharat. 2. The Indian Constituent Assembly was constituted in March 1946. The British government sent a three member commission to Bharat, called the Cabinet Mission. 3. The membership of the Constituent Assembly was fixed to 389, out of which 296 members were taken from the British provinces while 93 members were taken from the Indian states. 4. The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9 December 1946. Sachiddanand Sinha was the provisional chairman. 5. The making of the constitution took 2 years, 11 months and18 days. 12.2 6. The Indian constitution is the bulkiest of the world because it has 12 schedules and 395 articles. 7. The judiciary has been made free from the legislative and the executive. 8. Single citizenship means that the citizenship is granted by the country not by the states. 161

9. The directive principles of state policy have been adopted with the sense of public welfare in view so that the citizens get opportunities for development. 12.3 10. The Indian citizens have been granted six fundamental rights- right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. 11. Equality means that no person shall be discriminated by the State on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. All citizens shall be provided equal opportunities. 12. An individual can move the Supreme Court in case of violation of his fundamental rights. Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. Mahatma Gandhi demanded making of the constitution in: (A) 1925 (B) 1920 (C) 1922 (D) 1935 2. Dr.Rajendra Prasad was made permanent chairman of the Constituent Assembly on: (A) 11 December 1946 (B) 15 December 1947 (C) 12 November 1946 (D) 15 November 1947 3. The constitution of Bharat came into force on: (A) 26 August 1948 (B) 26 January 1950 (C) 15 August 1947 (D) 25 January 1949 4. The minimum age for adult franchise is: (A) 21 years (B) 20 years (C) 19 years (D) 18 years 5. The Directive principles of state policy have been borrowed from: (A) France (B) Britain (C) Ireland (D) America

Short Answer Questions 1. How much time did it take to make the constitution of Bharat? 2. How many members were there in the Constituent Assembly? 3. When was the constitution of Bharat adopted? 4. What did Dr.BheemraoAmbedkar call right to constitutional remedies as? 5. How many articles are there in the constitution? 6. When were fundamental duties incorporated? 162

7. When was the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly held? 8. Explain the right to equality. 9. Comment on the right to freedom. 10. Describe briefly the fundamental rights. 11. Write three major features of the constitution. 12. What is the significance of the freedom of the judiciary? Essay Type Questions 1. Describe the Indian Constituent Assembly. 2. Throw light on the directive principles of state policy. 3. Describe the fundamental rights of citizens.

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Chapter-13

Local Self-Government (Rural and Urban)

Introduction Local self-government institutions have been established in Bharat in order to promote participation of the local people in the development at the local level. Local self-government is a powerful medium of democratic decentralization in the regime of the country. By 73rd and 74th constitution amendments, they were awarded constitutional status in 1992. Objectives After reading this lesson you shall be able to: (i) Identify the need to establish local self-governments in villages and cities. (ii) Understand the efforts of the people to strengthen democracy through local self- governments. (iii) Analyse the structure and activities of the local self-governments both in rural and urban areas. (iv) Analyse the modifications made through 73rd and 74th constitution amendments and appreciate the steps taken towards women empowerment. (v) Understand the need and significance of successful working of the local self-governments and the assistance of elected representatives to the office bearers of the local self- governments at various levels. (vi) Appreciate the role of the local self-government in your day to day life.

13.1 The Meaning of Local Self-Government Local self-government means the government at the local level which is run by the institutions elected by the people and being under the control of the central and state governments, enjoy certain rights and perform certain duties to fulfil the local needs of the citizens. The local people know best their needs and problems and can solve them adequately. According to the Britannia dictionary, local self-government means, “authority to determine and execute measures within a restricted area inside and smaller than a whole state.” Local self-government is addressed by different names in various countries- local self-government in Bharat, local government in France and Municipal government in America. For the success of local self-government, the public must uphold high moral character, honesty and responsibility toward public duties. The public must elect a candidate on the basis of merit. Local self-governments can be successful only when there is coordination between the control of the central and state governments and liberty of the local self-government institutions. 13.1-I Local Self-government System in Ancient Bharat There has been convention of local self-government in ancient Bharat too. The system of selecting five individuals by the local people was called Panchayat, which governed the local public. The influence of these institutions is still prevalent in some form or the other despite the rise and fall of rulers and changes in the socio-economic systems during the various periods of history. In ancient 164

Bharat there was republic system along with royal regimes. Those days there were small republics like Kashi, Kaushal, Ang, Kamboj, Kuru, Lichvi, Malla, Vaishali, Matsya, Virat, Shivi, Jangal etc. Local self-government was prevalent in the Vedic Age. The Rigveda mentions two institutions called Sabha and Samiti. In the Shantiparva of the Mahabharata, the state was divided into several separate units comprising one, ten, twenty, a hundred or a thousand villages. The village was the smallest unit which was managed by an official called Grameek. The officials of ten, twenty, a hundred and a thousand villages were called Dashap, Vishpati,Shatpaal and Sahastrpati respectively. The well planned system of roads and drains in the SindhuSaraswati civilization indicates that the cities were properly maintained by the local governments. Kautilya in his Arthshastra, endorsing decentralization of state for local self-government, divides the country administration into gram, sangrahan (10 villages), karyatik (200 villages), dronamukha (400 villages) and sthaniya (800 villages). Kautilya called the urban institutions pur and fixed the formation of local self-government with the coordination between institutional officials and gopa (sarpanch) of the rural area.In the southern Bharat of ancient times, the best example of local self- government could be found in the , where Nadu Parishads were working in the villages. Thus, has been the seminal idea of democratic decentralization in ancient Bharat. From the times of SindhuSaraswati civilization and the Vedic Age to times of the Mahabharata and the Arthshastra and in the states from north to south, local self-governments and republican systems have been prevalent in their respective areas to some extent. The structure of local self-government in Bharat is of two types- rural and urban. Rural local self-government is also called PanchayatiRaj system. Textual Questions-13.1 1. Name the smaller republics in ancient Bharat. 2. Name the institutions of local self-government in the Vedic Age. 3. Describe the structure of the local self-government according to Kautilya’sArthshastra. 4. Mention the two types of local self-government in Bharat.

13.2 Development of Local Self-government in Rajasthan The laws for the Panchayati Raj were framed by the native provinces of Rajasthan long before the modern Rajasthan came into existence- Bikaner (1929), Jaipur (1938), Sirohi (1943), Bharatpur (1944), and Karauli (1949). Rajasthan spearheads in the establishment of the Panchayati Raj. The United Rajasthan enforced Panchayati Raj Act in 1948. After the formation of Rajasthan in 1949 a discreet department of Rural Development and Panchayti Raj was created. The Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act 1953 was implemented on 1 January 1954. The Panchayats were reconstituted after that. The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee constituted by the central government regarding democratic decentralization recommended three tier programs. So Rajasthan PanchayatSamiti and ZilaParishadAct 1959 was implemented. Inaugurating the modern three tiers Panchayati Raj system at Nagaur, Rajasthan on 2 October 1959, the then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru called it a historic moment. Thus Rajasthan became the first state to implement Panchayati Raj.Rajasthan Municipality Act 1959 was made for the local self-governments in the urban areas of Rajasthan. Various committees were constituted in Rajasthan from time to time to give suggestions regarding improvement in the working system of the Panchayati Raj institutions. Some of the major committees are- HarishchandraMathur Committee (1963), Sadik Ali Committee (1963), Girdharilal 165

Vyas Committee (1975), Harlal Singh Kharra Committee (1990), Arun Kumar Committee (1996), ShivcharanMathur Commission (2000), GulabchandKataria Committee (2004) etc. In order to trail 73rd and 74th constitution amendments the Rajasthan government implemented Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act 1994 and amended Rajasthan Municipality Act 1959 and thus modified the local self-governments. This ensured more representation and cooperation of women and backward communities. At present for the local self-governments Rajasthan Municipality Act 2009 is in force. Textual Questions-13.2 5. When and where was the three tier Panchayti Raj system begun first? 6. When was the Panchayati Raj Ordinance implemented? 7. When was the present Municipality Act implemented?

13.3 Rural Local Self-government The rural local self-governments work at several levels, which have been described below: 13.3-I Gram Sabha Gram Sabha is an institution that embodies direct democracy. The group of all the adult citizens of the gram panchayat is called gram sabha. The entire citizens above the age of 18 enrolled in the voting list of the panchayat area are considered members of the gram sabha. By the 73rd constitution amendment, gram sabha was given constitutional validity. Chapter 2 (a) of Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act 1994 describes gram sabha in detail. Every gram panchayat shall have a gram sabha. The sarpanch shall preside over the meetings of the gram sabha; in his absence the up-sarpanch shall do that and in case both are absent, the present members shall elect the chairman for the meeting by majority vote. Ten percent of the total number of the members should be present in the meeting to complete the quorum. At least two meetings of the gram sabha shall be held in a year. The first meeting shall be held in the first quarter of the financial year and the following agenda shall be deliberated upon: (A) Annual statement of the accounts of the previous year. (B) The proposed program for the next financial year. (C) The last examined report and the replies given to it. The second meeting shall be held in the last quarter of the financial year and the following agenda shall be deliberated upon: (A) Statement of expenditure during the year. (B) Physical and financial programs held during the year. (C) Proposal regarding changes, if any, in the proposed programs of the first meeting. 13.1-II The Budget and Tax Proposals of the Gram Panchayat The meeting of the gram sabha can be called with a notice of 15 days by more than 10 percent of the total members of the gram sabha or by the panchayatsamiti or by the zilaparishad or by the state government. The development officer or his representative ought to be present in the meeting. The panchayat secretary shall write the minutes of the meeting and it will be read out at the end of the meeting and the members present shall approve and sign it. The gram panchayat is accountable to the gram sabha for its activities. Textual Questions-13.3 8. What do you understand by gram sabha? 9. What shall be the agenda for the first meeting of the gram sabha? 10. Who all can call the meeting of the gram sabha? 166

13.4 Gram Panchayat There shall be a gram panchayat for every panchayat area comprising a village or a cluster of villages as fixed by the state government. The gram panchayat is also called the executive committee of the gram sabha. According to Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act 1994, a panchayat having population of more than three thousand shall have a sarpanch and nine ward panchs. A registered voter of the panchayat area minimum 21 years old can fight for election of sarpanch and panch. The tenure of a gram panchayat is 5 years and Rajasthan has total 9945 gram panchayats at present. In the direct elections for the gram panchayat, seats shall be reserved on rotation basis for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes as per rules. The reservation for women shall be 50 percent in each category. Committees are formed to assist work in the gram panchayat. The permanent committees of the grampanchayats in Rajasthan are- administrative and establishment committee, finance and taxation committee, development and production program committee, education and social service committee, social justice committee etc. The elected representatives are included in these committees. To execute it works, the gram panchayat can hold meetings as required; however the panchayat must hold a meeting at a fixed place once a fortnight. The quorum fixed for the meeting is one third of the total members. The sarpanch shall preside over the meetings of the gram panchayat; in his absence the up-sarpanch shall do that and in case both are absent, the present members shall elect the chairman for the meeting by majority vote. In the meeting all the decisions are taken by the majority vote of the members present. In case there is a tie, the presiding sarpanch or up-sarpanch has authority to take decision. The sarpanch and the up-sarpanch can be deposed after two years of election through a no confidence motion, supported by three fourth majorities of the elected members. 13.4-I The Functions of the Gram Panchayat A brief description of the functions fixed for the gram panchayat in the first schedule of the Rajasthan Panchayat Raj Act 1994 is as given below: (i) General Functions-The gram panchayat shall prepare annual budget and annual plan for the development of its area. Besides it shall also perform work related to assistance during natural calamities, removing encroachment on public property, and prepare essential statistics of the village. (ii) Administrative Functions-Various administrative functions like the numbering of the panchayat premises, census, agricultural production and development programs, implementation of rural development plans, developing competent system of proper utilization of aid from center or state, control over granary, meadows and community land, data of unemployment, registration of birth, death and marriage, survey and maintain panchayat records. (iii) Other Functions-The other functions of the gram panchayat include agriculture and horticultural development, animal husbandry and dairy production, poultry farming and fishery, agroforestry, minor forest produce, fuel and hay, minor irrigation project, khadi and rural cottage industry, housing plan, roads and drinking water, rural electrification, poverty eradication program, education and library, cultural programs, hat bazaar and fairs, health and family welfare, woman and child development, garden and playground etc. Textual Questions-13.4 11. What do you understand by gram panchayat? 12. How is the election process done for the gram panchayat? 167

13. What committees are formed for the execution of the activities of the gram panchayat? 14. Describe briefly the functions of the gram panchayat.

13.5 Panchayat Samiti Panchayat samiti is the middle rung of the three tier structure of the Panchayati Raj. In Rajasthan the tenure of all the Panchayat Raj institutions, including panchayatsamiti, is 5 years. At present 295 panchayat samitis are working in Rajasthan. According to Panchayat Raj Act 1994, the state government can declare a local area within the district as a block, which shall have its panchayat samiti. Every panchayat samiti shall be a corporate body, whose perpetual succession shall be a general seal. The following shall be the members of each panchayat samiti: 1. Direct elected member of the state constituency. 2. All MLA’s representing the panchayat samiti area. 3. The sarpanchs of all the gram panchayats of the panchayat samiti area. According to the Act, a panchayat samiti with a population up to one lakhs shall have fifteen constituencies and two constituencies shall be added for every additional fifteen thousand population. In the elections of the panchayat samiti, seats for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes and women shall be reserved as per rules and they shall be allotted on rotation basis. The responsibility of the elections for the Panchayati Raj institutions vests with the state election commission. A panchayat samiti has a pradhan, an up-pradhan, a development officer, an extension officer and other employees. The voters of the said state constituency shall elect their representative each. The elected representatives of the panchayatsamiti elect their pradhan and up-pradhan.The elected representatives have rights to depose the pradhan and up-pradhan by bringing no confidence motion with ¾ majority. According to the provisions in the Act, the panchayat samiti shall hold a meeting every month to execute work, the quorum for which shall be one third of the members. The decision on all the matters in the meeting shall be taken by the majority of members present and those taking part in the voting. The minutes of every meeting shall be recorded in the book. 13.5-I Functions of the Panchayat Samiti The following major works shall be done by the panchayat samiti: (i) Prepare annual plan and annual budget for the panchayat samiti and consolidate annual plans of the subordinate panchayats. (ii) Expansion of agriculture and agricultural activities. (iii) Land reform and soil conservation. (iv) Minor irrigation and drinking water projects (v) Poverty alleviation programs. (vi) Animal husbandry, dairy and fishery. (vii) Rural housing projects. (viii) Education and library. (ix) Health, woman and child development projects. (x) Roads, haat bazaar and fairs. (xi) Statistics, calamity assistance, cooperatives etc. Textual Questions-13.5 15. How is a panchayatsamiti constituted? 168

16. Write about the election and tenure of a member of a panchayat samiti. 17. Describe the functions of the panchayat samiti.

13.6 Zilaparishad Zilaparishad is the highest unit of the local self-rule government or the Panchayati Raj System. Every district has a Zilaparishad. Zilaparishad performs the role of the observer of the execution of the rural development planning and programs. On the one hand, zilaparishad works as a link between the panchayatsamiti and the gram panchayat while on the other hand, it is also linked to the state government. Zilaparishad shall hold at least one meeting every three months and the quorum for the meeting shall be one third of the total members. The minutes of every meeting shall be recorded under the supervision of the chief executive officer. Zilaparishad is formed by the following four types of members: (A) The direct elected member from the fixed state constituency. (B) The MLA, MP of the zilaparishad area. (C) The Rajya Sabha member if he is a registered voter of the zilaparishad area. (D) All the pradhans(heads) of the panchayatsamiti area Among these the (B), (C) and (D) have right to vote on subjects other than electing or deposing zilapramukh or up-zilapramukh. In a zilaparishad area having population up to four lakhs, seventeen constituencies and for each one lakh or its part thereof two constituencies shall be added. For these constituencies, seats shall be reserved for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women on rotation basis. One representative is elected from each state legislative assembly constituency of the zilaparishad. Then the elected representatives’ elect zilapramukh and up-zilapramukh among them. They have the right to depose the zilapramukh and up-zilapramukhthrough no confidence motion by 3/4th majority. One chief executive officer, an additional engineer, an accountant and other employees execute work. The responsibility of the election for the zilaparishad vests with the state election commission. According to the ZilaParishad Act, 5 permanent committees shall be constituted for each subject groups. Committees for other subjects can also be constituted, if required. The state government can constitute 5 member vigilance committee for each zilaparishad, which shall supervise the activities and planning of the zilaparishad concerned. 13.6-I Functions of ZilaParishad According to the third schedule of the Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act 1994, the functions of the zilaparishad are as given below: (i) As a general function, prepare planning for the economic development and social justice of each district and consolidated execution of the planning concerned with the subjects included in further subjects. (ii) Promote developed agricultural methods and use of improved agricultural implements to increase agricultural produce. (iii) Organize programs for minor irrigation of land up to 2500 acres, conservation of land water source and water partitive development. (iv) Publish data related to the works of the zilaparishad and the panchayatsamiti and coordinate and use other information. (v) Promote electrification in rural areas and supervise and new connections and supply of the same. 169

(vi) Work for barren land development and plantation etc. for soil conservation and social forestry programs. (vii) Provide veterinary hospital, make efforts to prevent epidemic and other diseases and promote dairy industry, poultry farms, pig breeding and fishery (viii) Development of domestic and cottage industry organize training programs for artisans and supply raw materials. (ix) Construction and maintenance of rural roads and bridges.Construction and maintenance of office building. (x) Establishment and maintenance of community and primary health centers, immunization and vaccination programs, family welfare and maternity child health program. (xi) Provide scholarship, books, grants and educational facilities to all the children of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes. (xii) Conduct poverty alleviation programs and social service activities. (xiii) Setting up of primary and upper primary schools and extension of adult education and library facilities. (xiv) Efforts for the development of local self-government-the are setting up Atal Sewa Kendras and gram sachivalayas (village level secretariat) for the development of the gram panchayats. Textual Questions-13.6 18. How is zilaparishad formed? 19. On what basis are the constituencies of Zilaparishad formed? 20. What are the major functions of the Zilaparishad?

13.7 Urban Local Self-rule The 74th constitution amendment passed by the parliament in 1992 and enforced from 1 June 1993 grants constitutional status to urban corporate bodies. In the state of Rajasthan the fundamental spirit and features of the 74th constitution amendment were already present in Rajasthan Nagarpalika Act 1959, whose articles were amended and the Act of 1994 was implemented. 13.7-I Nagar Nigam Nagar Nigam is the highest urban corporate body. As desired by the 74th constitution amendment, nagarnigam is established in the bigger urban areas having population more than 5 lakhs. At present Nagar Nigams have been constituted in all the 7 divisional headquarters- Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota, Ajmer, Bikaner, Udaipur and B Indian haratpur. The biggest nagarnigam is in Jaipur. The internal organization of a nagarnigam has a mahapaur, up-mahapaur, chief executive officer, nigam commissioner and committees. The state government divides the nagarnigam into constituencies on the basis of the population. These constituencies are called wards. The seats of all the wards are reserved for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes on the basis of proportional populationand for those of women as per rules on rotation. Every ward elects a member direct through adult franchise. The chairman of the nagarnigam is called mahapaur and the vice chairman is called up-mahapaur. The mahapaur and the up-mahapaur are elected from among the elected members. The seats of mahapaur and up-mahapaur are also reserved. The mahapaur is the first citizen of the city and his tenure is 5 years. The seat gets vacated at his death, resignation or no confidence motion. For the rest of the tenure, the members reelect the mahapaur or up-mahapaur. The meetings of the nagarnigam are presided over by the mahapaur and in his absence by the up- mahapaur. 170

The state government appoints commissioner and chief executive officer to the nagarnigam, who prepares the records, documents, budget and minutes in the meetings of the nigam. They are responsible for the execution of the fixed policies, laws and byelaws. All the officers and employees work under his administrative control. There is a provision of constituting various committees in the Act for the smooth functioning of the nagarnigam. Committees like finance committee, health and hygiene committee, building and construction committee, laws and byelaws committee, slums reform committee, mitigation of hurdle committee, settlement committee etc. are constituted. Besides, other committees can also be constituted as required. 13.7-II Functions of Nagar Nigam A Nagar Nigam normally performs three types of functions-mandatory, optional and special: (i) Mandatory Functions The works essentially done by the nagarnigam are called mandatory functions, like management of pure drinking water, management of public electricity, construction and maintenance of drains and lavatories, construction of public roads, denomination and maintenance, cleaning of garbage, records of births and deaths, management and regulation of burial and cremation grounds, arrangement of primary education, safeguarding hazardous buildings, control over trade, supervision of theproperty of the nigam, regularization and control of eatables and eateries, and publication of annual reports etc. (ii) Optional Functions The works performed by the nagarnigam on the condition of availability of resources are called optional functions like construction and management of public parks, libraries, theater stage, gymnasium, organization of fairs and exhibition, plantation and maintenance of shady trees, assistance to the poor and the disabled and arrangement of music at public places etc. (iii) Special Functions Nagar nigam performs special functions in situations of emergency like famine relief work in case of famine, taking up preventive measures during epidemic cases, flood relief, fire services etc. The nagarnigam imposes various taxes for its efficient working like property tax, animal tax, occupation tax, entertainment tax, annual rent on land and buildings, duty on property transfer etc. Besides these, the nagarnigam also gets fixed grants from the state government. Textual Questions-13.7 21. How is nagarnigam constituted? 22. What are the committees in the nagarnigam? 23. Describe briefly the functions of nagarnigam. 24. What are the sources of income for the nagarnigam?

13.8 Nagar Parishad Nagar parishad is the second significant unit of urban self-rule. The state government constitutes nagarparishad in the urban areas having population between one lakh and five lakhs in Rajasthan. From the legal point of view, nagarparishad is a statutory body. At present there are 34 nagarparishads in Rajasthan. Besides district centers there are nagarparishads in Kishangarh, Beawar, Makrana, Gangapur city, Hindaun, Bhiwadi, Balotra and Sujangarh too. Nagar parishad is divided into constituencies on the basis of population, called wards. The elected members of the wards are called councilors (parshads). The numbers of wards are fixed through notifications issued from time to time. The parshads are elected by direct adult franchise through secret ballot. The MPs and the MLAs of the area concerned are also members of the nagarparishads. The provision for reservation 171 for all the seats is enforced as in nagarnigam. Nagar parishad constitutespermanent and ad-hoc committees to conduct its work. 13.8-I Chairman and Vice Chairman Nagar parishad has a chairman and a vice chairman. They are elected by the elected councilors from amongst themselves. Their tenure is of five years. In case of death, resignation or no confidence motion, the elected members reelect chairman and vice chairman for the remaining period. The chairman presides over the meetings of the nagarparishad and exercises control over chief executive officer and subordinate employees to oversee the implementation of the fixed policies. 13.8-II Functions of Nagar Parishad Nagar parishad performs all those functions executed by the nagarnigam, as mentioned earlier. Under 74th constitution amendment all the functions to be executed urban corporate bodies of the country have been enlisted in the 12th schedule of the constitution, which are as given below: (i) Regularization of land and urban planning. (ii) Planning for social and economic development. (iii) Construction and maintenance of roads and bridges. (iv) Water supply for commercial use and domestic industries. (v) Public health and hygiene campaign. (vi) Fire services. (vii) Urban forestry and environmental conservation. (viii) Development plans for slums. (ix) Poverty alleviation and safeguarding interests of the weaker sections, morons and handicaps. (x) Development of parks, playgrounds etc. (xi) Construction and maintenance of cremation grounds and electric crematoriums. (xii) Registration of births and deaths. (xiii) Electrification of roads. (xiv) Construction of parking for vehicles, bus stands etc. (xv) Regularization of mines and slaughter houses. Textual Questions-13.8 25. Describe the system through which nagarparishad is constituted and elected. 26. Throw light on the powers of the chairman. 27. Describe the functions of the nagarparishad. 28. What do you understand by a ward?

13.9 Nagar Palika In all the states of the country, the urban corporate bodies have been constituted on the basis of population. In Rajasthan too nagarpalikas have been established in small cities with a population less than one lakh. In the 74th constitution amendment the provision for constituting nagarpanchayat in small urban areas was made. However the government of Rajasthan constituted nagarpalika board in lieu of nagarpanchayat. At present total 146 nagarpalika corporate bodies are constituted in Rajasthan, out of which 13 are second class, 58 are third class and 75 are third class. The nagarpalika area has been divided into wards on the basis of population. The number of wards is fixed by the state government from time to time through gazette notification. The member 172 of the nagarpalika ward is elected direct by the public through adult franchise. A registered voter in the electoral roll of the nagarpalika aged more than 21 can fight for the elections to the nagarpalika. The seats of all the wards are reserved for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes on the basis of proportional population and for those of women as per rules on rotation. The reserved seats are fixed before elections through lottery system. The candidates belonging to reserved categories can fight elections from unreserved constituencies too. Every nagarpalika has to hold at least one meeting in two months to execute ordinary functions. 13.9-I Chairman and Vice Chairman Chairman and vice chairman are elected from amongst the elected members of the nagarpalika board. Urban administrative committees are formed for the urban area under the leadership of the chairman. The work is executed by the appointed executive officers and subordinates. The tenure, power and functions of the chairman and the vice chairman are the same as those of the nagarparishad. The seat for the chairman of the nagarpalika shall be reserved for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes and women on rotation basis as per the provisions fixed by the state government. Various committees like finance, health and hygiene, building and construction, laws and byelaws, slums reform, mitigation of offences, settlement etc. are constituted. Nagar palika can constitute other committees too as required. 13.9-II Functions of Nagar Palika Nagar palika too has almost the same mandatory, optional and special functions as those of the nagarnigam. Under 74th constitution amendment, all the functions to be performed by the urban corporate bodies are listed in the 12th schedule, which have been mentioned in the functions of the nagarparishad. 13.9-III Cantonment Board The word cantonment is used for military quarters. With the passage of time, civilians too have started living in the cantonment. The government of Bharat passed the Cantonment Board Act in 1924 to constitute the local institution to obviate local problems. It functions as the nagarpalika. A cantonment board is a civic administration body in Bharat under control of the Ministry of Defence. At present Rajasthan has only one cantonment board in Nasirabad (Ajmer). At present all the cantonment boards of the country are governed by the new law enforced in September 2006. The chief military officer is the chairman of the cantonment board. The cantonment board is constituted together by elected and nominated members.The vice chairman is elected from amongst the elected members. The term of office of a member of a board is five years. Like the functions of the nagarpalika, the cantonment board takes care of mandatory duties such as provision of public health, water supply, sanitation, primary education, and street lighting etc.Its financial resources come by levying tax on the people and the grants from the center. Textual Questions-13.9 29. How is the nagarpalika board constituted? 30. How is the chairman of the nagarpalika elected? 31. What functions are performed by the cantonment board? What you have learnt 1. We had a very good form of local self-rule during the Chola dynasty in the country. 2. Through 73rd constitution amendment 1992, the institutions for rural local self-rule like gram sabha, gram panchayat, panchayatsamiti and zilaparishad were granted constitutional status and uniformity. 173

3. Through 74th constitutional amendment 1992, urban local self-rule institutions like nagarnigam, nagarparishad, nagarpalka, cantonment board etc. were granted constitutional status. 4. Gram sabha is the legislature of the gram panchayat. It prepares the proposals for all the development plans of the panchayat area. 5. With a view to maintaining coordination between the panchayat raj institutions under three tier system, the sarpanch and the pradhan are made ex officio members of the panchayatsamiti and the zilaparishad respectively. 6. Elections for the panchayat raj institutions and urban self-rule institutions are held regularly in five years. 7. Rajasthan has 9945 gram panchayats, 295 panchayatsamitis, 33 zilaparishads, 146 nagarpalikas, 34 nagarparishads, 7 nagarnigams and one cantonment board. Answers to Textual Questions 13.1 1. The small republics in ancient Bharat were Kashi, Kaushal, Ang, Kamboj, Kuru, Lichvi, Malla, Vaishali, Matsya, Virat, Shivi, Jangal etc. 2. Local self-government in the Vedic age- Sabha, Samiti, Vashap, Vishpati, Shatpaal,Sahastrpatietc. 3. Kautilya divides the country administration into gram, sangrahan (10 villages), karyatik (200 villages), dronamukha (400 villages) and sthaniya (800 villages). 4. Locl self-government- (i) urban local self-government and (ii) rural local self-government. 13.2 5. AtNagaur in Rajasthan on 2 October 1959 6. The Panchayati Raj Ordinance was enforced by the United Rajasthan in 1948. 7. It was enforced in 1994 after amendment in the Rajasthan Nagar Palika Act 1959. 13.3 8. Gramsabha, all the adult citizens of the gram panchayat are collectively called gram sabha. 9. The agenda for the first meeting of the gram sabha- statement of accounts of the previous year, proposed programs for the next financial year. 10. The meeting of the gram sabha is called by the sarpanch. 13.4 11. Gram panchayat- the panchayat area of a village or a cluster of villages as fixed by the state government is called gram panchayat. 12. The public elect the sarpanch and ward panchs through direct voting for 5 years. 13. The executive committees of the gram panchayats are- administrative and establishment committee, finance and taxation committee, development and production program committee, education and social service committee, social justice committee etc. 14. Functions of the gram panchayat- general, administrative and others. 13.5 15. Constituting panchayatsamiti- direct elected members, the MLA concerned, the sarpanchs of the panchayatsamitis. 16. The voters of the said state constituency shall elect their representative each for 5 years. 17. The functions of the panchayatsamiti- preparing annual budget, expansion of agriculture, land reform, health, education, cooperatives etc.

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13.6 18. Constituting zilaparishad- direct elected members, the MLA and the MP concerned, the registered voter as Rajya Sabha member and the pradhans of all the panchayatsamitis. 19. Constituency of the zilaparishad- seventeen constituencies are formed for the population up to four lakhs and for each one lakh or its part thereof two constituencies shall be added. 20. Functions of zilaparishad- general, administrative and others. 13.7 21. Nagar nigam is an urban corporate body. It is established in urban areas having population more than 5 lakhs. 22. Committees like finance committee, health and hygiene committee, building and construction committee, laws and byelaws committee, slums reform committee, mitigation of hurdle committee, settlement committee etc. 23. Functions of nagarnigam- mandatory, optional and special. 24. The nagarnigam imposes various taxes like property tax, animal tax, occupation tax, entertainment tax, annual rent on land and buildings, duty on property transfer etc. Besides these, the nagarnigam also gets fixed grants from the state government. 25. The state government constitutes nagarparishad in the urban areas having population between one lakh and five lakhs in Rajasthan. The number of wards is fixed through notifications issued from time to time. The parshads are elected by direct adult franchise through secret ballot. 26. The chairman presides over the meetings of the nagarparishad and exercises control over chief executive officer and subordinate employees to oversee the implementation of the fixed policies. 27. The functions of nagarparishad- Planning for social and economic development, construction and maintenance of roads and bridges, public health and hygiene, development plans for slums, poverty alleviation, Development of parks, playgrounds etc. construction of parking for vehicles, bus stand etc. 28. The Nagar Parishad is divided into constituencies on the basis of population called wards. 29. The Nagar Palika board has been established by the state government in small cities with a population less than one lakh. 30. The chairman is elected from amongst the ward parshads of the nagarpalika board by majority vote. 31. The cantonment board takes care of the public health, water supply, sanitation, primary education, and street lighting etc. Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. By which constitution amendment were the urban local self-institutions made effective and powerful? (A) 44th (B) 74th (C) 42nd (D) 73rd 2. By whom is the gram sabha constituted? (A) The registered voters of the gram panchayat area. (B) All the people of the gram panchayat area. (C) By panchs, sarpanch and the up-sarpanch together. 175

(D) All the registered voters of the panchayatsamiti area. 3. Which of the following is not an urban self-government institution? (A) Nagar palika (B) Nagar panchayat (C) Nagar parishad (D) Nagar nigam Short Answer Questions 1. Which state of the Indian union implemented first the three tier Panchayati Raj System? 2. By whom is the sarpanch elected? 3. Which institution has a pradhan? 4. Which cities of Rajasthan have nagarnigams? 5. Describe the functions of the gram panchayat. 6. Which members constitute the zilaparishad? 7. Describe the cantonment board in brief. 8. Describe the role of the mahapaur. Essay Type Questions 1. How is panchayatsamiti constituted? Describe its functions. 2. Describe how nagarparishad is constituted and describe its functions. 3. “The development of the villages is not possible without the Panchayati Raj.” Give your opinion.

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Chapter-14

Constitution and Powers of the State Government

The constitution of Bharat has made provision for constituting a legislature in every state.Article 168 of the constitution says that every state shall have a legislature comprising two houses in some states and one in the others. The states having bicameral legislature shall havea legislative assembly and a legislative council. Every state has a house of representatives elected on the basis of adult franchise by the people. This house of the legislature is called legislative assembly. The states having bicameral legislature shall have an additional legislative council. The state shall be unicameral or bicameral is decided by the elected representatives of the state and the Indian Parliament. At present only seven states of the Indian union viz. Uttar Pradesh, Jammu Kashmir, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have bicameral legislature while the rest have unicameral legislature. The seven states having bicameral legislature have the following three organs- (A) Governor (B) Legislative Assembly or the Lower House (C) Legislative Council or the Upper House Objectives After reading this lesson you shall be able to (i) Explain the election, working and powers etc. of the legislative assembly. (ii) Understand the election, working and powers of the legislative council. (iii) Evaluate the role and powers and mutual relations between the governor and the chief minister under the Executive. (iv) Explain the constitution of the council of ministers, their working and powers. (v) Understand the constitution of the high court, its jurisdiction, working powers and eligibility of the judges.

14.1 Constitution of the Legislative Assembly The constitution has only fixed the minimum and maximum number of legislative members of the assembly (MLA’s). According to Article 170,a legislative assembly shall have maximum 500 and minimum 60 members. Every state is divided into constituencies on the basis of geographical conditions in such a way that every MLA represents at least 75 thousand people. The provision for reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and tribes in the legislative assemblies of the states has been made in the 95th constitution amendment 2001 till January 2020. After the election of the legislative assembly of the state, if the governor of the state concerned feels that the Anglo-Indian community is not aptly represented in the legislative assembly, he can nominate a member of the community to the legislative assembly.

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14.1-I Election Process The electorates elect all the members of the legislative assembly through a direct process. For the election, the process of adult franchise and combined election process and simple majority is adopted. All constituencies are one-member ones. 14.1-II Eligibilities The following eligibilities for the membership of the legislative assembly are essential: (i) He must be a citizen of Bharat. (ii) His age must be 25 years and above. (iii) The candidate must not hold an office of interest under the Government of Bharat or the state government. (iv) He must not have been declared insane or insolvent. (v) He must fulfil the conditions laid down by the parliament or the state legislative. 14.1-III Cessation of the Membership The membership of either of the two houses of the legislature will be ceased in either of the following two conditions: (i) If any person is elected for both the houses of the state legislature, he has to resign from either of the two houses. Similarly a person cannot be member of the state legislature and the Parliament simultaneously. (ii) If a member of the house loses the eligibility criteria for the membership. 14.1-IV Tenure The tenure of a state legislative assembly is 5 years. The governor can dissolve it earlier too. However if emergency has been promulgated, the parliament, through process of law, can extend the tenure of the legislative assembly, which shall be not more than one year at a time and in any condition not more than six months after the emergency has been lifted. 14.1-V Election of the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly The legislative assembly of every state has two main office bearers- Speaker and Deputy Speaker. Both of them are elected by the MLA’s from amongst them and their tenure lasts with that of the legislative assembly. Either of them can tender his resignation to each other earlier. Either of them may be removed from his office by a resolution of the Assembly passed by a majority of all the then members of the Assembly provided that no resolution for the purpose shall be moved unless at least fourteen days’ notice has been given of the intention to the concerned to move the resolution. 14.1-VI Powers and Functions of the Speaker (i) He presides over and conducts the meetings of the legislative assembly. (ii) His fundamental duty is to maintain peace and order in the house and for this hecan take any necessary action. (iii) Any member can address the house but only with his permission. (iv) He can order expunging any un-parliamentary ordisrespectful word from the proceedings of the house. (v) He can decide the order of the proceedings of the house with the advice of the leader of the house. (vi) He accepts the questions in the house and rejects in case they are against the laws. (vii) He declares the results after the voting. (viii) Generally he does not take part in the voting process but he casts his vote in case of equality of votes between those in favours and against the motion. 178

(ix) Only the speaker decides whether a bill is a money bill or not. (x) He gives his decision on petitions concerning defection. All these functions are transacted by the deputy speaker in the absence of the speaker. 14.1-VII Powers and Functions of the Legislative Assembly The constitution grants extensive powers to the state legislative assembly, which are as given below: (i) Legislative Powers The state legislative assembly has powers to enact laws on all those subjects that fall within the state list or the concurrent list. An ordinary bill can be introduced in either house of the state legislature; however it can be passed by the legislative assembly. In a State with a unicameral legislature the state legislative assembly alone performs all the legislative work. (ii) Financial Powers The legislative assembly controls the finances of the state.It passes the annual budget of the state. No money can be raised, no tax can be levied, and no expenditure can be incurred without the sanction of the state legislative assembly. The state can withdraw money from the treasury only after the appropriation bill has been passed in the legislative assembly. (iii) Executive Powers The legislative assembly controls the state council of ministers. The Chief Minister and the other ministers are collectively responsible before the legislative assembly. The state council of ministers can remain in office so long as it enjoys the confidence of the majority in the legislative assembly. The legislative assembly controls the ministry through several methods like call-attention motions, putting of adjournment motions, questions, censure motion, no-confidence motions etc.Each minister is individually responsible before the state legislative assembly in respect of the work of the department which is under him. The state legislative assembly can cause the fall of the council of ministers either by passing a vote of no- confidence against it or against the Chief Minister. (iv) Amendment Powers The state legislative assembly enjoys a role with regard to the amendment of the Indian Constitution. Some parts of the Constitution can be amended by the Union Parliament only when half of the state legislatures ratify the amendment. The state legislatives cannot propose amendment to the constitution. (v) Electoral Functions Elected members of the state legislative assembly take part in the election of the President of Bharat. One-third of the members of the legislative council of the state are also elected by the state legislative assembly. Textual Questions-14.1 1. Name any three states having legislative council. 2. Describe the electoral functions of the state legislative assembly. 3. What is the minimum and maximum number of members a legislative assembly can have? 4. What is the minimum number of people that a member of a legislative assembly represents?

14.2 Constitution of a Legislative Council Article 169 of the Constitution of Bharat provides for the establishment of a legislative council. If the majority of the members of a legislative assembly and two third of the present and voting members so propose, the parliament shall make laws to establish or abolish the legislative council in the state concerned. 179

The second or the upper house of the state legislature is legislative council. Provision has been made in the constitution that the number of members in a state legislative council shall not be more than one third of the members of the legislative assembly of the state concerned and the minimum number shall be 40. 14.2-I Election and Nomination of the Members In a legislative council 5/6 members are elected while 1/6 members are nominated. The members of the legislative council are elected indirectly according to proportional representation system by single transferable vote. Of the total number of members of the legislative council of a state- (a) One-third shall be elected by electorates consisting of members of municipalities, district boards and such other local authorities in the state; (b) One-twelfth shall be elected by electorates consisting of persons residing in the state who have been for at least three years graduates of any university in the territory of Bharat; (c) One-twelfth shall be elected by electorates consisting of persons who have been for at least three years engaged in teaching in such educational institutions within the state, not lower in standard than that of a secondary school; (d) One-third shall be elected by the members of the legislative assembly of the state from amongst persons who are not members of the assembly; (e) The remainder one-sixth members shall be nominated by the Governor from amongst persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as the following, namely:- literature, science, art, co-operative movement and social service. 14.2-II Eligibilities (i) He must be a citizen of Bharat. (ii) He must be at least 30 years old. (iii) He must not hold any office of interest under the Indian government or the state government. (iv) He must not have been declared insane or insolvent. (v) He must fulfil the conditions laid down by the parliament or the state legislature. 14.2-III Tenure The legislative council is a permanent house with almost 1/3rd of the members retiring every two years. Its tenure is of six years and it cannot be dissolved. 14.2-IV Office Bearers The legislative council elects a speaker and a deputy speaker from amongst its members. The legislative can even remove them from office. 14.2-V Powers and Functions of Legislative Council The legislative council has the following powers and functions: (i) Legislative Powers An ordinary or non-money bill can be introduced in either house of the state legislature. It is required to be passed by both the houses for becoming a law. If the bill is moved in the legislative assembly, it goes to the legislative council after having been passed by the assembly. According to article 197, if a bill passed by the legislative council is rejected by the legislative assembly or it makes some amendments, it can re-pass the bill as it is. In this case it goes to the council for the second time. It cannot delay the bill for more than one month for the second time. In the first instance the council can delay the bill for three months and in the second instance for one month. At the most the council can delay a non- money bill for a period of four months.Any bill passed by the legislative council can be rejected by the legislative assembly.

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(ii) Executive Powers The members of the legislative council can be members of the state council of ministers, which isresponsible to the legislative assembly alone and not to the legislative council. The members of the legislative council exercise some control over the state ministry by asking questions and supplementary questions to the ministers but it has no power to depose the ministers. (iii) Financial Powers In the financial sphere, the legislature council has little power. A money bill can be introduced only in the legislative assembly. After its passage, it goes to the legislative council for its consideration. The council is required to return it within 14 days.It can make certain suggestions, but it is for the assembly to accept these or not. After the expiry of 14 days the bill gets fully passed even when the council has not passed it. In other words, the legislative council can simply delay the enactment of a money bill for a maximum period of 14 days. 14.2-VI The Process of Constituting Legislative Council in Rajasthan and the Present Situation At present Rajasthan has unicameral legislature called the legislative assembly. The legislative assembly has passed the resolution of constituting legislative council and sent it to the central government for approval. The proposal lies with the centre at present. Hence the Rajasthan legislature is not bicameral. The process of its constitution shall be initiated after the approval by the central government. Textual Questions-14.2 5. What is the fixed number of members in the legislative council? 6. Describe the functions of the legislative council. 7. What is the tenure of the legislative council? 8. What are the eligibilities of the members of the legislative council? 14.3 State Executive- Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers The Governor acts as the nominal head whereas the real power lies with the Chief Minister and his/her councils of ministers. 14.3-I Appointment of the Governor The Governor is appointed by the President for a period of five years. However he can remain in office till his successor takes charge. The Governor can be removed from office by the President before the completion of his tenure or he may be transferred to another state. The Governor, if he so desires, can resign earlier too. 14.3-II Qualifications and Emoluments A Governor must be a citizen of Bharat, be at least 35 years of age, not be a member of the either house of the Parliament oreither house of the state legislature and not hold any office of profit. In addition to the monthly salary, the Governor is entitled to rent free official residence, free household facilities and conveyance. The Governor and his family are provided with free medical attendance, accommodation and treatment for life. 14.3-III Powers and Functions of Governor The constitution gives extensive powers to the governor. He has similar powers and functions at the state level as that of the President of Bharat at the Union level. He enjoys the same powers as that of the President except the diplomatic, military and emergency powers. The powers of the governor are as given below: (i) Executive Powers The executive powers of the state vest with the governor, which he enjoys himself or with the assistance of his subordinates. He appoints the Chief Minister and with his advice the other members 181 of the council of ministers. He also appoints the chairmen and members of various commissions. The President consults the Governor in the appointment of judges of the High Courts and the Governor appoints the judges of the District Courts. He enjoys his power on the subjects in the concurrent list with the approval of the President. He enacts laws regarding the working of the state government. He distributes portfolios to the council of ministers. He enjoys the right to call any information on all subjects from the Chief Minister regarding the governance. He may ask the Chief Minister to put an individual decision of a minister for discussion before the council of ministers. The Governor administers the oath of office and secrecy to the members of the council of ministers, accepts their resignations and can remove the Chief Minister from office. (ii) Legislative Powers The Governor is an integral part of the state legislature and has significant legislative powers. He summons the sessions of the state legislature assembly, adjourns it or dissolvesit. He inaugurates the state legislature by addressing it after the assembly elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year. A bill that the state legislature has passed can become a law only after the Governor gives assent. The Governor can return a bill to the state legislature, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. However, if the state legislature sends it back to the Governor for the second time, the Governor must assent to it. The Governor has the power to reserve certain bills for the president. When the state legislature is not in session and the Governor considers it necessary to have a law, then the Governor can promulgate ordinances. These ordinances are submitted to the state legislature at its next session. They remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the state legislature is reconvened unless approved by it earlier. On some subjects it is obligatory to the Governor to seek approval of the President before promulgating an ordinance. The Governor can nominate 1/6 of the members from amongst the persons in the field of art, literature, science, cooperatives and social service to the legislative council. In case of lack of proper representation in the legislative assembly, he can nominate one member from the Anglo-Indian community. (iii) Financial Powers He causes to be laid before the state legislature the annual financial statement which is the state budget. Further no demand for grant shall be made except on his recommendation. He can also make advances out of the contingency fund of the state to meet any unforeseen expenditure. Moreover, he constitutes the State Finance Commission. (iv) Judicial Powers According to Article 161 of the constitution the Governor of a state shall have the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law. He invites annual report from the state public service commission and that from the Auditor General regarding the income and expenditure of the state government and puts it before the legislature.Under Article 356 of the constitution of Bharat, in the event that a state government is unable to function according to constitutional provisions, he reports this to the President and recommends imposition of President’s rule in the state. The Governor acts as the Chancellor to the universities of the state and appoints Vice Chancellors to the universities. He can also remove them from office. (v) Miscellaneous Powers Article 163 (1) of the constitution describes matters on which the Governor is expected to act on his own discretion. The Governor acts on the advice of the council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister. The Governor is the nominal head of the state but there may be instances when he 182 has to act on his own discretion. For example-selecting a Chief Minister in special circumstances, deposing the council of ministers, seeking information from the Chief Minister, seeking approval of the President before promulgating an ordinance etc. Hence the Governor is not simply a nominal head but can play a significant role in the governance of the state. 14.3-IVAppointment of the Chief Minister The head of the state council of minister is called the Chief Minister. The de facto executive authority rests with the Chief Minister. According to Article 164, the Governor appoints the leader of the majority party in the legislative assembly to the office of Chief Minister. The Governor appoints other ministers with the advice of the Chief Minister. 14.3-V Powers and Functions of the Chief Minister The council of ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, is the most significant institution of the state government. The Chief Minister enjoys the powers as given below: (i) Formation of the Council of Ministers The first and foremost function of the Chief Minister is the formation of the council of ministers. The Chief Minister selects the ministers and submits the list to the Governor, who administers the oath of office to them. The Chief Minister forms the ministry on his own discretion. (ii) Distribution of Portfolios to the Minsters The Chief Minister distributes portfolios to his colleagues in the council of ministers. The Chief Minister can change the portfolios as required and even remove them from office of the council of ministers. (iii) Leader of the Council of Ministers The Chief Minister calls the meetings of the council of ministers and presides over the meetings. It is he who controls the agenda for the cabinet meetings. It is for the Chief Minister to accept or reject proposals for cabinet discussion. (iv) Co-ordinate the Working of various Departments The Chief Minister co-ordinates the working of the various departments of the government so that the council of minister works as a unit.He brings reconciliation in case there is difference of opinion among the members of the council of ministers. (v) Link between the Governor and the Council of Ministers The Chief Minister is a link between the Governor and the council of ministers. He informs the Governor of the decisions of the council of ministers and communicates the opinions of the Governor to the council of ministers. (vi) Leader of the Legislative Assembly The Chief Minister is the head of the government and being the leader of the majority party in the legislative assembly is also the leader of the house. As the leader of the legislative assembly, he has a significant position in enacting laws. The enacting of laws is at his own discretion. As the leader of the legislative assembly, he can advise dissolution of the house to the Governor. 14.3-VI Constitution of the Council of Ministers A council of ministers is constituted after the appointment of the Chief Minister. The other ministers are selected with the advice of the Chief Minister. The list of the portfolios of the ministers is submitted to the Governor. The number of members in the council of ministers is decided by the Chief Minister. According to 91st Constitution Amendment Act, the Chief Minister gives proper representation to all the areas and categories of the state while selecting from the members of the legislative assembly. Besides the Chief Minister generally makes selections from amongst the party members so that the council of minister works as a unit.

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14.3-VII Eligibilities All the members of the council of ministers must be a member of either house of the legislature. If a person is not a member of the legislature, he has to earn membership of the legislature within 6 months of the appointment. If he fails to do so, he has to give up the council of ministers. 14.3-VI Distribution of Portfolios The Governor distributes portfolios to the ministers with the advice of the Chief Minister. Generally only one major department is allotted to the minister; however sometimes he may be allotted more than one department too. 14.3-IX Swearing In Before taking the charge of the ministry, a minister has to take oath of office and secrecy. 14.3-X Ranking of Ministers There are three categories of the council of ministers in the state as given below: (i) Cabinet Minister or member of cabinet (ii) Minister of state (iii) Deputy Minister The members of the cabinet are the most important ministers and they collectively decide the policy of the government. The ministers of state come second. Some ministers of state can be given independent charge while some ministers of state assist the cabinet minister. Deputy Ministers assist the cabinet ministers. 14.3-XI Tenure The tenure of the council of ministers depends on the confidence of the legislative assembly. Generally the tenure of the council of ministers is 5 years as the tenure of the legislative assembly is also 5 years. 14.3-XII Collective Responsibility The council of ministers is collectively responsible to the legislative assembly. If the legislative assembly passes a no confidence motion against a minister or if a bill put up by a minister is rejected, the whole of the council of minister has to resign. 14.3-XIII Salaries and Allowances According to Article 164 (5) of the constitution, the salaries and allowances of ministers shall be such as the legislature of the state may from time to time by law determine. 14.3-XIV Working System The cabinet is the most important unit of the council of ministers. The cabinet takes decisions on all the major issues. The meetings of the cabinet are held generally once a week, although the chief Minister may call the meeting any time. The meetings are presided over by the Chief Minister and in his absence; the senior most minister presides over. There is no quorum for the meetings. There are two major rules for the proceedings of the cabinet- collective responsibility and secrecy. Generally unanimous decisions are taken in the meetings of the cabinet. In case of difference of opinion, decisions are taken reciprocally and this decision is deemed as joint decision of all. 14.3-XV Powers and Functions of the Council of Ministers According to Article 163 of the constitution, the council of ministers shall aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions but actually the powers of the Governance are enjoyed by the council of ministers. The council of ministers take all major decisions of the government. The Chief Minister briefs these decisions to the Governor.

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(i) Policy Decisions The most important work of the council of ministers is to take policy decisions. The policy decisions of all the departments are taken by the council of ministers. Besides the council of minister puts into effect those policy decisions. (ii) Appointments to Higher Posts According to the constitution, the Governor appoints the Advocate General and the chairman and members of the State Public Service Commission and higher officials of the other commissions and boards. However these appointments are made by the governor on the basis of the advice of the council of ministers. (iii) Representing the Government The council of ministers represent the government. Being present in the legislative assembly or the legislative council, they answer the questions of the members and support the policies of the government. (iv) Enacting Laws The council of ministers play significant role in enacting laws. It decides the order of presenting bills in the legislature (v) Preparing Budget The finance minister presents the annual budget of the state in the legislative assembly. This budget is prepared on the basis of the policies decided by the council of ministers. It is the responsibility of the council of ministers to get the budget passed. Textual Questions-14.3 9. Who appoints the Governor of a state? 10. Give any two qualifications of the Governor. 11. Describe the judicial powers of the Governor. 12. How is the Chief Minister appointed? 13. Write about the policy decisions of the council of ministers.

14.4 High Court Bharat has an integrated judiciary, the Supreme Court being at the highest level. At the state level the highest judicial institution is the High Court. According to Article 214 of the constitution, every state shall have a High Court. There can be a High Court for two or more states. The High Courts were first established in Bharat at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1862. Allahabad High Court was established in 1866. At present there are 24 High Courts in Bharat. 14.4-I Constitution of the High Court According to Article 216 of the constitution, every High Court comprises a Chief Justice and other judges, appointed by the President from time to time as he deems fit. Thus the number of judges in the High Court shall be fixed by the President. 14.4-II Appointment of the Judges Under Article 217 (1), every Judge of a High Court shall be appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of Bharat, the Governor of the State, and, in the case of appointment of a judge other than the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of the High court and the Governor of the state. 14.4-III Qualifications of the Judges A person shall not be qualified for appointment as a judge of a High Court unless he is (i) a citizen of Bharat and (ii) has for at least ten years held a judicial office in the territory of Bharat; or 185

(iii) has for at least ten years been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such courts in succession. 14.4-IV Tenure (i) He shall hold the office of the judge till he attains the age of 62 years. (ii) The judge can tender his resignation to the President. (iii) The judge can be removed from office by the President in the event of a resolution passed by both the houses of the parliament by 2/3rd majority. 14.4-V Oath or affirmation by Judges of High Courts According to Article 219 of the constitution, every person appointed to be a judge of a High Court shall, before he enters upon his office, make and subscribe before the Governor of the State, or some person appointed in that behalf by him, an oath or affirmation. 14.4-VI Transfer and Salary The President transfers the judges of the High Court after consultation with the chief Justice of the High Court. The Parliament fixes the salaries of the judges of the High Court by laws. At present the salary of the Chief Justice is Rs. 90,000 and that of other judges is Rs. 80,000 per month. 14.4-VII Freedom of the High Court The following provisions have been made to ensure freedom of the High Court: (i) A special process of appointments (ii) Fixed tenure (iii) No discussion on the conduct of the judges in the Parliament except on impeachment. (iv) The judge of a High Court shall not practise as advocate after retirement. (v) Detached with the executive 14.4-VIII Powers and Domain of the High Court The High Court shall have the following powers and domain: (i) Primary jurisdiction (ii) Writ jurisdiction (iii) Appellate jurisdiction (iv) Court of Record (v) Supervisory Jurisdiction (vi) Judicial review

(i) Primary Jurisdiction The High Court has primary jurisdiction (i.e. to hear in first stance) in matters that are as follows – Matters of admiralty, will, marriage, divorce, company laws and contempt of court.Any election dispute in relation to Parliament and state legislature; Disputes in relation to revenue matters; Enforcement of Fundamental Rights of citizens; Any matter in relation to interpretation of constitution pending in lower courts (ii) Writ Jurisdiction The constitutional writs such as Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto or Certiorari are tools for enforcement of Fundamental Rights and for any other purpose. The High Court has wider writ jurisdiction in relation to the Supreme Court (as the Supreme Court can issue writ only for enforcement of Fundamental Rights and not for any ordinary legal right as of High court). (iii) Appellate Jurisdiction The High Court enjoys wide appellate jurisdiction in cases: 186

(A) Civil Matters- Appeal concerning income tax, patent, design, inheritance etc. (B) Criminal Matters- Appeals from order or decision of session and additional session court judge lie to High Court if sentence of imprisonment is 4 years or death sentence. (C) Constitutional Matters- Appeal against any case or writ requiring interpretation of the constitution. (iv) Court of Record The judgement, proceedings and acts of High Court are recorded and enduring in nature. These records are treated as evidences and cannot be questioned when produced before any lower court. These act as legal references. (v) Supervisory Jurisdiction Every High Court has power of superintendence of all courts and tribunals which fall within its territorial jurisdiction, make and issue general rules and prescribe forms of regulating the practice and proceedings of such courts. The supervisory power of High Court extends to all courts or tribunals. It includes both administrative and judicial superintendence. It can transfer a case to another court for adjudication. (vi) Judicial Review The High Court has power of judicial review over all legislative and executive acts of central and state governments,if these acts are found in violation of provisions of the constitution or if they are in conflict with or violation of any of Fundamental Rights.Then they can be declared null & void by the High Court. This is called judicial review. Textual Questions-14.4 14. How is the Chief justice of the High Court appointed? 15. What is the tenure of the judge of the High Court? 16. What do you understand by Court of Record? 17. What does judicial review mean? What you have learnt (i) Constitution of the legislative assembly, number of members, reservation, election process, eligibilities of the members, tenure, powers and functions of the speaker and deputy speaker of the legislative assembly. (ii) Constitution of the legislative council, number of members, election and nomination of members, eligibilities of the members, tenure, permanent house, appointment of the speaker and deputy speaker. (iii) Powers and functions of the legislative council- enacting laws, executive, financial. (iv) Powers and functions of the legislative assembly- legislative, financial, administrative, constitution amendment, election. (v) State executive- Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers. (vi) The Governor is the constitutional head of the state, appointed by the President. (vii) Powers of the Governor- executive, legislative, financial, judiciary, miscellaneous. (viii) Powers and functions of the Chief Minister- formation of the council of ministers, distribution of the portfolios to the ministers, calling meetings of the cabinet, coordination between various departments of the government, link between the Governor and the council of ministers. (ix) Constitution of the Council of Ministers- appointment of the Chief Minister, selection of ministers, swearing in, ranks of ministers, tenure, collective responsibility. 187

(x) Constitution of the High Court- judges appointed by the President, tenure up to 62 years of age, oath or affirmation by the Governor, freedom of the High Court. (xi) Powers and functions of the High Court- primary jurisdiction, writ jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, court of records, supervisory jurisdiction, and judicial review. Answers to Textual Questions 14.1 1. Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Maharashtra 2. The elected members of the legislative assembly participate in the election of the President and members of the Rajya Sabha. Besides 1/3rd members of the legislative council are also elected by the MLA’s 3. The minimum number of members to legislative assembly is 60 and the maximum number is 500 4. An MLA represents at least 75000 people 14.2 5. The number of members to the legislative council shall not be more than the 1/3rd members of the legislative assembly of the state concerned and the minimum number shall be 40 6. Functions of the legislative council- enacting laws, executive, financial etc. 7. The tenure of the members of the legislative council shall be 6 years 8. Eligibilities of the members of the legislative council- citizen of Bharat, minimum 30 years of age, not holding any office of interest with either state or the central government, not declared insane or insolvent 14.3 9. The Governor is appointed by the President 10. Two eligibilities for the Governor are- must be citizen of Bharat, must be 35 years old or more 11. The Governor can reduce or suspend the sentence against a convict, can recommend imposition of President’s rule if the state government is not working according to constitutional provisions 12. The leader of the majority party is appointed Chief Minister by the Governor 13. The policies of all the departments are decided and put into effect by the cabinet 14.4 14. The Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the Governor of the state concerned. 15. The judges of the High Court can remain in office till they attain 62 years of age. 16. Every High Court is a court of records. The judgement, proceedings and acts of High Court are recorded and enduring. These records are treated as evidences by the lower courts. These act as legal references. 17. The High Court has power of judicial review over all legislative and executive acts of central and state governments,if these acts are found in violation of provisions of the constitution or if they are in conflict with or violation of any of Fundamental Rights.Then they can be declared null & void by the High Court. This is called judicial review. Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. The minimum population that an MLA represents is: (A) 85000 (B) 95000 188

(C) 1,10,000 (D) 75000 2. The minimum age of an MLA must be: (A) 35 years (B) 25 years (C) 45 years (D) 55 years 3. The tenure of the legislative council is: (A) 6 years (B) 5 years (C) 3 years (D) 2 years 4. The Governor is appointed by: (A) Parliament (B) The President (C) The Prime Minister (D) The Chief Minister 5. The Calcutta High Court was established in: (A) 1866 (B) 1868 (C) 1862 (D) 1864 Short Answer Questions 1. Till when the number of MLA’s shall remain unchanged? 2. Which states are bicameral? 3. How many members are nominated to the legislative council by the Governor? 4. With whose will does a governor remain in office? 5. What are the orders issued in extraordinary circumstances by the Governor called? 6. How many members are elected to the legislative council by the teacher electorates? 7. What oath has the Chief Minister to take before the Governor? 8. What are the three conditions when the membership of an MLA ceases? 9. Describe the functions of the speaker of the legislative assembly. 10. What procedure shall have to be adopted for the establishment of legislative council in Rajasthan? 11. What eligibilities are essential for the appointment of Governor? 12. Mention the qualifications for a High Court judge. Essay Type Questions 1. Describe the constitution, powers and functions of the legislative assembly. 2. Describe the constitution, powers and functions of the legislative council. 3. Comment on the appointment and powers of the Governor. 4. Describe the constitution and powers of the state cabinet. 5. Explain the organization and jurisdiction of the High Court.

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Chapter 15

Fomaton of the Central Government and it’s Powers

Introduction- Meaning and Definition of the Government State is an abstractive concept, which is an intangible and invisible institution. Government is the institution that makes it tangible. It is the government that expresses and puts into effect the collective will of the state. We cannot imagine a state without the government. The state makes laws to serve the people residing in its territory, executes those laws and punishes those who violate those laws. According to Garner, “Government is an agency or machinery, through which the collective will of the people, or state may be formulated, expressed and executed.” The government has three major organs- legislative, executive and judiciary. Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to: (i) Understand the difference between legislature, executive and judiciary (ii) Understand the constitution, election, eligibilities, powers and functions of the Lok Sabha (iii) Describe the constitution, election, eligibilities, powers and functions of the Rajya Sabha (iv) Describe the powers and functions of the President, The Vice President, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet under central executive (v) Discuss the constitution, jurisdiction, of the Supreme Court along with the qualifications and duties of the judges under judiciary

15.1 Legislature The legislature is the first and foremost among the three organs of the government. Legislature has been constituted at two levels in Indian regime- Union legislature and state legislature. Union legislature has been called Parliament. According to Article 79 of the constitution, the Indian Union shall have a Parliament having two houses viz. Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, created by the President. Hence, the Parliament comprises the President, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. 15.1-I Constitution of the Lok Sabha Lok Sabha is the first and lower house of the Parliament, whose members are elected direct by the people. The original constitution fixed the number of members of the Lok Sabha to be 500 but the number was increased from time to time. Now with the Goa, Daman and Diu Reconstitution Act 1987, the maximum number of members of the Lok Sabha can be 552. Out of these the maximum number of 530 can be elected from the states and maximum 20 members can be elected from the union territories. The President can nominate two members from amongst the Anglo-Indian community. 190

15.1-II ElectionThe members to the Lok Sabha are elected direct on the basis of adult franchise. Now the persons 18 years or older have been granted voting rights in Bharat. Each Lok Sabha constituency elects one member. 15.1-III Eligibilities (i) He must be a citizen of Bharat. (ii) He must not be less than 25 years of age. (iii) He must not hold any office of interest with the central or the state government. (iv) He must not have been declared insane or insolvent by any court of law. 15.1-IV Tenure The tenure of the Lok Sabha is 5 years but it can be dissolved earlier by the President with the advice of the Prime Minister. The Lok Sabha has thus been dissolved 9 times up till now. 15.1-V Session The sessions of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha are summoned and adjourned by the President. The duration between two meetings of the Lok Sabha should not be more than six months. 15.1-VI Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha According to Article 93 of the constitution, the members of the Lok Sabha shall elect a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker from amongst themselves. Either of them can be removed from office by a resolution passed by an effective majority of the house but the information regarding this resolution must be given 14 days beforehand. According to the constitution, the parliament shall fix the salary and emoluments of both the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker. 15.1-VII Powers and Functions of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha The Lok Sabha Speaker of Bharat has the same powers as enjoyed by that of the British Lower House. (i) He presides over all the meetings of the Lok Sabha and he maintains discipline and decorum in the house. (ii) He decides on the agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. He fixes the time for discussions on various subjects with the advice of the leader of the house. (iii) He is the ex officio chairman of some of the committees of the house. He appoints the chairmen of the select committees, which work under his directions. (iv) He decides whether a bill is a money bill or not. (v) The correspondence between the Parliament and the President is carried out through him. 15.1.1 Formation of the Rajya Sabha Rajya Sabha is the second and upper house of the Indian Parliament. It has fewer powers than those of the Lok Sabha. However it has its own significant contribution and value. twelve of its members are nominated by the President. They are experts or veterans in the fields of art, literature, sports or social service. 15.1.1-I Election Two hundred thirty three members are elected by state legislatures. They are indirectly elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes. 15.1.1-II Eligibilities The eligibilities for the Rajya Sabha members are the same as those for the Lok Sabha but a Rajya Sabha member should not be less than 30 years of age.

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15.1.1-III Tenure The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house, which is never dissolved. The tenure of a member is 6 years and one third of the Rajya Sabha member retires every two years. 15.1.1-IV Chairman and Vice Chairman The Rajya Sabha has two officials- Chairman and Vice Chairman. The Vice President of Bharat is the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and his tenure is 5 years. The Rajya Sabha elects Vice Chairman from amongst its members for a period of 6 years. 15.1.2 Powers and Functions of the Lok Sabha (i) Legislative Powers-According to the constitution, Indian parliament can enact laws on matters in Union list, concurrent list and other subjects besides those in the state list in specific circumstances. According to the constitution, ordinary bills and constitution amendment bills can be proposed in either of the two houses. They are sent for the signatures of the president only after they have been passed by both the houses. (ii) Financial Powers-The Indian constitution awards powers only to the Lok Sabha regarding financial matters. The position of the Rajya Sabha is lateral in this regards. The money bills can be proposed only in the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya Sabha. After the Lok Sabha passes the bill, it is sent to the Rajya Sabha, which has to return it within 14 days. The Rajya Sabha can recommend amendments in the bill but it is up to the Lok Sabha to reject them or to accept them. (iii) Control over the Executive-The Indian constitution has set up parliamentary form of government. Hence according to the constitution, Union executive is responsible to the Lok Sabha. The cabinet remains in power only till it retains the confidence of the Lok Sabha. (iv) Constitutional Amendment0According to Article 368 of the constitution, amendment to most of the part of the constitution is done by the parliament. With the help of the Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha can make amendments to the constitution. (vi) Electoral College Lok Sabha also works an Electoral College. Along with the members of the Rajya Sabha and the elected members of the state legislatures, the members of the Lok Sabha elect the President. 15.1.3 Powers and Functions of the Rajya Sabha The Rajya Sabha has the same powers as those of the Lok Sabha, which are as given below: (i) Legislative Powers Along with the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha too enacts laws. The constitution awards powers both to the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha regarding ordinary bills. (ii) Constitutional Amendment The Rajya Sabha has the same powers as those of the Lok Sabha regarding constitutional amendment. In case of disagreement between the two houses, the proposal for the constitutional amendment is dropped. (iii) Financial Powers The Rajya Sabha has some financial powers although the constitution has made the position of the RjyaSabha feeble in financial powers. According to the constitution, the money bills are to be proposed first in the Lok Sabha. After approval by the Lok Sabha, they are sent to the Rajya Sabha, which it has to deliberate upon in 14 days. The Rajya Sabha can give its recommendations to the Lok Sabha regarding money bills.

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(iv) Powers related to the Executive In the parliamentary form of government, the cabinet is responsible to the parliament. In Bharat too the cabinet is collectively responsible to the parliament. The members of the Rajya Sabha can ask questions, supplementary questions to the ministers and even criticize them but they have no powers to remove them from office through no confidence motion. (v) Miscellaneous Powers Rajya Sabha has some more powers which it can use jointly with the Lok Sabha (a) The elected members of the Rajya Sabha participate in the election of the President. (b) The elected members of the Rajya Sabha participate in the election of the Vice President. (c) Along with the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha can bring impeachment motion against the judges etc. of the Supreme Court. (d) The Vice President of Bharat is removed by effective majority of the Rajya Sabha and simple majority of the Lok Sabha. The resolution is passed in the Rajya Sabha and sent to the Lok Sabha. (e) A proclamation of emergency must be laid before both houses of parliament, and the state of emergency must be approved by both houses sitting and voting separately. (f) The Rajya Sabha can declare any subject in the State list to be of national significance by a 2/3rd majority of the members present. This empowers the parliament to enact laws on the subject in the state list. (g) The Rajya Sabha can empower the central government to establish fresh All Bharat Services by its 2/3rd majority. 15.1.4 Powers and Functions of the Parliament The constitution gives extensive powers to the parliament. The major powers of the parliament can be described as given below: (i) Legislative Powers The most important function of the parliament is to enact laws in the interest of the nation. The parliament is empowered to enact laws on subjects in the Union list and the concurrent list. Although the laws on the subjects of the concurrent list can be enacted by both the Union parliament and the state legislature yet in case the laws enacted by both are contradictive, the law enacted by the parliament shall be valid. The parliament can enact laws on the remaining subjects too. (ii) Powers on Constitutional Amendment The parliament has significant powers regarding constitutional amendment. The proposal for the constitutional amendment can be proposed only in the parliament and not in any state legislature. The amendment work is undertaken by both the houses of parliament. An amendment of the constitution can be initiated only by the introduction of a bill in either house of parliament. The bill must then be passed in each house by a majority of the total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that house present and voting. Foran amendment in some of the articles, it must also be ratified by the legislatures of not less than one- half of the states. (iii) Financial Powers The Indian parliament has full powers over national finance. The finance minister presents the annual budget of the nation in the Lok Sabha, where it is passed and sent to the Rajya Sabha. The Rajya Sabha has to return it within 14 days. The income and expenditure work is undertaken only after the budget has been passed. 193

(iv) Administrative powers The Indian constitution has established the parliamentary system. Hence according to the constitution, the Union executive i.e. the ministry is responsible to the parliament. The ministry remains in office only till it retains the confidence of the Lok Sabha. The parliament can exercise control over the executive through several means. (v) Electoral Powers Article 54 of the constitution grants electoral powers to the parliament. Only the elected members of both the houses of the parliament are part of the Electoral College constituted for the election of the President. All the elected and nominated members of both the houses of the parliament elect the Vice President. (vi) Miscellaneous Powers The parliament has some other powers too: (a) Both the houses of the parliament can pass impeachment motion against the President and depose him through a specified procedure fixed in the constitution. Similarly both these houses can pass a motion to depose a judge of the Supreme Court or the High Court on the imputation of corruption or incompetence. This proposal must be passed by two thirds majority of each house. The proposal to remove the Vice President must be passed by the Rajya Sabha and approved by the Lok Sabha. (b) The state of emergency proclaimed by the President remains effective when it is approved by both the houses of the parliament. The President’s rule is imposed for 6 months. It can be extended for six months further after approval by both the houses. Textual Questions-15.1 1. Name the three organs of the Union government. 2. Describe the election process for the members of the Lok Sabha. 3. What is the number of the members of the Rajya Sabha? 4. Why Rajya Sabha is called a permanent house? 5. In which house of the Parliament can a money bill be presented?

15.2 The President According to Article 52 of the constitution, Bharat shall have a President. The executive powers of the Union shall vest in the President. He shall enjoy these powers himself or through his subordinate officials. The President shall be the nominal head of the executive while the Prime Minister with the cabinet shall be the de facto head. The head of the executive of the Indian Union has been called President. Bharat has adopted parliamentary system of government, which has a nominal head (dejuro) and a de facto head. 15.2-I Eligibilities for the President The constitution sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. The President must be: (i) a citizen of Bharat (ii) of 35 years of age or above (iii) qualified to become a member of the Lok Sabha (iv) should not holdany office of profit under the government of Bharat or the government of any state 194

(v) should not be a member of the Indian parliament or legislatures of any state. 15.2-II Election of the President The election for the President is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote method. The President is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of parliament, the elected members of the state legislative assemblies of all states and according to the 70th constitutional amendment 1992, the elected members of the legislative assemblies of union territories. 15.2-III Single Transferable Vote Method The elected members of the Parliament and legislative assemblies of the states and the union territories elect President by single transferable vote method. The voting takes place by a secret ballot system. In order to be successful in the election, a candidate must obtain a minimum quota, which is calculated according to the following formula: Minimum Quota = Votes Cast ÷ 1000 The number of elected representatives 15.2-IV Removing from the post through Impeachment The President of Bharat is elected for a period of 5 years. However according to Article 61 of the constitution, the president may also be removed by the parliament before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the constitution of Bharat. The process may start in either of the two houses of the parliament. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the President. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one-quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the President and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made or shall appoint a committee for the purpose. If the second house also approves the charges made by special majority again, the President stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated his office from the date when such a resolution is passed. 15.2-V Powers and Functions of the President The powers of the President have been divided into two: (A) General duties (B) Emergency duties (A) General Duties The powers enjoyed by the President during ordinary times can be studied under following five points: (i) Executive Powers The executive powers of the Union shall vest in the President and he shall use these powers himself or through his subordinate officers according to the constitution. Hence all the work of the government shall be done in President’s name and all the decisions of the government shall be deemed as his decisions. (a) Powers pertaining to Appointments The President appoints several important officials of the Indian Union, for example, other ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister, Governors of the states, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, Auditor General, Chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission, ambassadors abroad etc. 195

(b) Governing Powers The President makes various laws for governing the state. He summons joint meeting of both the houses of the parliament and makes laws regarding appointments of officers and employees and powers of Comptroller and Auditor General. He distributes portfolios to the members of the cabinet too. (c) Powers in the field of External Affairs Being the constitutional head of the Indian Union, the President represents Bharat abroad. He appoints ambassadors and diplomatic representatives in Indian embassies abroad. He accepts credentials of ambassadors and political representatives of foreign countries. The accords and treaties abroad are also done in the name of the President. (d) Military Powers The President is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces but he can use these powers only as per laws. The parliament has powers to make laws regarding defence services, peace and war. Hence, the President can declare war or conclude peace on the approval of the parliament. (ii) Legislative Powers The President of Bharat is the constitutional head of the Union executive. He is an integral part of the Indian parliament too. Hence the President enjoys various powers in the legislative field. (a) Administration in the Legislative field The President enjoys various powers regarding administration in the legislative field. He summons the sessions of the parliament and announces their termination. He can dissolve the Lok Sabha before the expiry of the tenure on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Lok Sabha has been dissolved thus for 9 times up till now. The President addresses the joint meeting of both the houses of the parliament at the inaugural of the session. He can also address their meetings on other occasions. The general policies are announced in these addresses of the President. (b) Powers to Nominate Members The President appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. President may nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian community as Lok Sabha members. (c) Use of Veto on Bills Every bill passed by the parliament becomes law only after the approval of the President. He can return an ordinary bill for reconsideration, giving some suggestions. However if the bill is passed again with or without the amendments, the President is obliged to approve at the second instance. (d) Powers to Promulgate Ordinances When either of the two houses of the parliament of Bharat is not in session, the President can promulgate ordinances. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the parliament is convened. However if the parliament so desires, it can terminate these ordinances before this period. (iii) Financial Powers With the beginning of every financial year, the President lays the Annual Financial Statement, i.e. the Union budget, before the parliament.A money bill or demand for grant can be introduced in the parliament only with the President’s recommendation.

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(iv) Judicial Powers The constitution has adopted the principle of freedom of the judiciary. He appoints the judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts. The approval of the President is obligatory regarding laws made by the Supreme Court for the working of the courts. The President has a significant power of pardoning. He has power to pardon a convict or delay the execution of a sentence. (B) Emergency Duties and Powers The constitution empowers the President with special powers during the period of emergency. At present the constitutional provisions during the emergency are as given below: (i) War, External Aggression or Internal Turbulence According to Article 352 of the constitution, the President can declare emergency in case of war, external aggression, internal turbulence or threat to peace and order in the country or any part thereof. It shall remain in force for 2 months without the approval of the parliament and after the approval of the parliament it shall remain in force till the emergency conditions last. After the 44th constitutional amendment, such type of emergency can be declared only in case of war, external aggression or armed insurgency. Internal turbulence cannot be a cause for emergency. According to Article 352, emergency can be declared by the President only when the cabinet gives a written recommendation to him. The proclamation of emergency must be approved by the parliament with an at least two-thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months. (ii) Failure of Constitutional Machinery in the States If the president is fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the governor of the state concerned or from other sources that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the constitution, he can proclaim under Article 256 a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by both the houses of the parliament with simple majority within a period of 2 months. Such an emergency can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. (iii) Financial Crisis Under Article 360, if the President is satisfied that there is an economic situation in which the financial stability or credit of Bharat is threatened, he or she can declare financial emergency. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months. 15.2-VI Vice President- Election Article 63 of Indian Constitution states that "there shall be a Vice-President of Bharat."The Vice-President is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of the members (elected and nominated) of both houses of the Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote and the voting is by secret ballot. In order to be qualified to be elected Vice-President, a person must: (i) be a citizen of Bharat (ii) have completed more than 35 years of age (iii) must have the qualifications to become a member of the Rajya Sabha 15.2-VII Removal The tenure for the Vice President is five years but he can resign, if he so desires, before that period. The Vice-President can be removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabhapassed by an effective 197 majority and a simple majority of the Lok Sabha. But no such resolution may be moved unless at least 14 days' advance notice has been given. 15.2-VIII Powers and Functions of the Vice President The powers and functions of the Vice President are as given below: (h) Ex Officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha The Vice President is the ex officio Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha but he is not a member of the Rajya Sabha. Hence he has no right to vote. However he can cast his vote in case there are equal number of votes for and against the motion. (ii) In the Absence of the President The vice president acts as the President in any of the following situations: (a) Death of the President (b) The President resigns from his post (c) The President is removed by impeachment (d) The President being incapacitated Textual Questions-15.2 6. How is the President elected? 7. Write any two functions of the President. 8. How many members does the President nominate to the Rajya Sabha? 9. How is the Vice President elected?

15.3 Appointment of the Prime Minister Article 74 of the Indian constitution makes a provision for the post of Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. Under parliamentary form of government, the President is obliged to appoint the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha to the post of the Prime Minister. However in extra ordinary situations or in case of lack of clear cut majority, the President can use his own discretion. 15.3-I Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister Under parliamentary form of government, the Prime Minister enjoys extensive powers. (i) Formation of the Cabinet After assuming office, the Prime Minister, first of all, forms the cabinet. He selects the ministers and decides their number within legislative boundaries. (ii) Distribution of Portfolios and Making Changes The Prime Minister distributes portfolios with his own discretion. Generally no objections are raised on the distribution of portfolios by the Prime Minister. (iii) Functioning of the Cabinet The Prime Minister presides over the meetings of the cabinet. He administers all the workings of the cabinet. Only those matters that have been fixed in the agenda are discussed in the meetings. (iv) Coordination between Various Departments The Prime Minister brings about coordination between all the departments so that the whole government works as a unit.

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(vi) Leader of the Lok Sabha The Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha and all the law making is done under his leadership. All the bills are prepared as per his instructions. (vii) Facilitator between the President and the Cabinet The Prime Minister briefs the President of the decisions of the cabinet. He conveys the advice and suggestions of the President to the cabinet. Subjects of public interest can be deliberated upon with the President through the Prime Minister. (vii) Appointments to Various Posts The powers of appointing high officials granted to the President are actually done with the recommendations of the Prime Minister. 15.3-II Constitution of the Cabinet According to Article 74 of the constitution, the Union cabinet headed by the Prime Minister is appointed by the President of Bharat to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive. The constitution envisions a scheme of affairs in which the President of Bharat is the head of state with office of the Prime Minister being the head of council of ministers to assist and advise the President in the discharge of his/her constitutional functions. The executive powers of the Union shall be vested in the President, according to the parliamentary form of government adopted by the constitution. However the real executive powers are enjoyed by the cabinet. Under Article 75 of the constitution, the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister distributes the portfolios to the ministers. A minister must be a member of the parliament. If he is not a member, he has to become one within 6 months of the appointment, else he shall have to give up his post. The Prime Minister and all the ministers are required to make and subscribe in the presence of President of Bharat before entering office, the oath of office and secrecy. 15.3-III Tenure of the Cabinet The tenure of the cabinet is not fixed. The cabinet remains in office till it enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha. The tenure of the Lok Sabha is 5 years and generally the cabinet remains in office till then. 15.3-IV Salary and Allowances The constitution confers the parliament with the power to decide the remuneration and other benefits of the Prime Minister and other ministers. Besides they are provided residence, vehicles and other facilities free of cost. 15.3-V Ranking of Ministers There are three categories of the ministers: (a) Cabinet Ministers (b) Ministers of State (c) Deputy Ministers Cabinet ministers are ministers of the first rank and are members of the cabinet. This is the supreme unit of government in the parliamentary system of Bharat. They lead their departments. The ministers of state assist the cabinet ministers. The ministers of state are also given independent charge of their departments. The Prime Minister invites this category of ministers to cabinet meetings to discuss matters related to their departments.

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15.3-VI Powers and Functions of the Cabinet The cabinet is the supreme unit of the Indian government and the supreme decision-making body in Bharat. The executive powers of the President are enjoyed by the cabinet. They are called heart of the Indian government. (j) Deciding the National Policies The most important function of the cabinet is to decide national policies. The cabinet decides the policies to be adopted by various departments of the government and the policies of external affairs. (ii) Control over Law making In the parliamentary form of government, the cabinet leads the work of law making. The programme of law making is fixed after cabinet decides the policies. The important bills are prepared and presented in the house by the members of the cabinet. (iii) Control over the National Executive Nominally all the executive powers of the Union government are vested in the President. However practically all the executive powers are enjoyed by the cabinet. The members of the cabinet are chairmen of the various departments. They manage and supervise their departments. (iv)Financial Work The economic policy of the country is decided by the cabinet. For this purpose the prospective annual budget is presented by them in the parliament. The finance minister prepares and presents the budget on the basis of the policy fixed by the cabinet. It is the cabinet that presents other money bills in the Lok Sabha. (v)Deciding External Relations The relations of Bharat with foreign countries are decided by the cabinet. It makes announcements regarding peace and war. It decides what sort of relations the country shall have with other countries. (vi)Appointment of Officers The powers regarding appointment of officers granted by the constitution to the President are actually enjoyed by the cabinet. Textual Questions-15.3 10. How is the Prime Minister appointed? 11. Why is the Prime Minister called leader of the Lok Sabha? 12. How is the cabinet constituted? 13. What is the difference between the cabinet and the council of ministers? 15.4.The Judiciary Judiciary is the third organ of the government, which is also called Supreme Court. 15.4-I Constitution of the Supreme Court The Indian constitution makes provision of one Chief Justice and seven other judges. However according to the constitution, the number of judges in the Supreme Court, its jurisdiction, their salaries and allowances and service rules are fixed by the parliament. In 2008 the parliament increased the number of judges along with the Chief Judge to 31.The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President. Regarding appointment of the Chief Justice of Bharat, the President seeks advice of those judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts whom he deems fit. At present the appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts is made through 200 collegium system. Accordingly, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and four senior most judges propose names, out of which the judges are appointed by the President. 15.4-II Qualifications of the Judge (i) He must be a citizen of Bharat. (ii) He must have worked as a judge in a High Court or two or more courts for 5 years in a row. Or (iii) He must have worked as an advocate in a high Court or courts for 10 years in a row. Or (iv) He is an expert in legal laws (a distinguished jurist) in the opinion of the President of Bharat. 15.4-III Removal through Impeachment A Judge of the Supreme Court can remain in office till he attains 65 years of age. He can resign from office earlier too. The President can remove a judge on proved misbehaviour or incapacity when parliament approves with a majority of the total membership of each house in favour of impeachment and not less than two thirds of the members of each house present. 15.4-IV Salary, Allowances and other Benefits A judge of the Supreme Court draws a salary of ₹250,000 per monthwhile the chief justice earns ₹280,000 per month. The Indian constitution leaves it to the Indian parliament to determine the salary, other allowances, leave of absence, pension, etc. of the Supreme Court judges. 15.4-V Immunities The judges have been provided freedom from criticism on all of their works and verdicts. 15.4-VI Seat of the Court According to Article 130 of the constitution, the seat of the Supreme Court shall be in Delhi. 15.4-VII Restrictions A person who has retired as a judge of the Supreme Court is debarred from practicing in any court of law or before any other authority in Bharat. 15.4-VIII Functions and Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court The Indian constitution grants extensive jurisdiction to the Supreme Court, which can be studied in the following forms: (i) Prilimary Jurisdiction- The Prilimary jurisdiction of the Supreme Court can be divided into two groups as given below: (A) Exclusive Prilimary Jurisdiction It means those cases which can be heard only by the Supreme Court of Bharat. It extends to all cases between the government of Bharat and the states of Bharat or between government of Bharat and states on one side and one or more states on other side or cases between different states on constitutional matters. (B) Prilimary Concurrent Jurisdiction The fundamental rights granted by the constitution can be enforced by the Supreme Court along with the High Courts. Hence cases of violations of fundamental rights can be brought first to a state High Court or direct to the Supreme Court. (ii)Appellate Jurisdiction Along with original jurisdiction, the constitution also awards appellate jurisdiction to the Supreme Court. It can hear appeals against the verdicts of all the state High Courts. The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court can be divided into five groups.

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(A) Constitutional Matters According to Article 132 of the constitution, an appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgment, decree or final order of a High Court if the High Court certifies that the case involves a substantial question of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution. (B) Civil Matters The constitution makes provision that appeals can be made against cases from High Courts to the Supreme Court involving the disputed amount to be more than ₹20,000. However by 30th constitutional amendment, Article 133 was amended and the limit of more than ₹20,000 was removed and now it has been decided that appeal against all civil matters can be made in the Supreme Court. (C) Criminal Matters An appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgment, final order or sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court in the territory of Bharat if the High Court-has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of an accused person and sentenced him to death; or has withdrawn for trial before itself any case from any court subordinate to its authority and has in such trial convicted the accused person and sentenced him to death; or it certifies that the case is a fit one for appeal to the Supreme Court. (D) Special Cases According to Article 135 the Supreme Court shall also have jurisdiction and powers to appeal with respect to any matter to which the provisions of Article 133 or Article 134 do not apply if jurisdiction and powers in relation to that matter were exercisable by the Federal Court. (v) Special Leave to Appeal According to Article 136, the Supreme Court may, in its discretion, grant special leave to appeal from any judgment, decree, determination, sentence or order in any cause or matter passed or made by any court or tribunal in the territory of Bharat, except military court. There are no constitutional restrictions in this matter. (vi) Advisory Jurisdiction Under Article 143 of the Constitution, President can seek advisory opinion of the Supreme Court when it appeals to him that a question of law or fact has arisen, or is likely to arise, which is of such a nature and of such public importance that it is expedient to obtain the opinion of the Supreme Court upon it. The President is not bound to accept the opinion of the Supreme Court. The Court is not bound to give its advice. (v) Court of Record Article 129 of the constitution makes the Supreme Court a court of records. A court of record means two things. First, all of its verdicts shall be deemed as evidences and no question shall be raised regarding its authentication. Second, it shall have all the powers of such a court including the power to punish for contempt of itself. (vi) Safeguards Fundamental Rights The Supreme Court of Bharat safeguards fundamental rights of citizens.The courts can issue various kinds of writs protecting rights of the citizens. These writs are: Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto, and Certiorari. (vii) Judicial Review Judicial Review refers to the power of the judiciary to interpret the constitution and to declare any such law or order of the legislature and executive void, if it finds it in conflict with the 202 constitution of Bharat. Articles 131-132 give power to the Court to review the laws and rules of the legislature and executive in cases that come before them. The Court rejects that law or any of its part which is found to be unconstitutional or against the constitution. Textual Questions- 15.4 14. Who appoints the judges to the Supreme Court? 15. How can the impeachment motion be moved against the judge of courts? 16. Name the four divisions of the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. 17. What does a court do to safeguard the fundamental rights? What you have learnt 1. The parliament has three organs- The President, who heads the executive, The Lok Sabha, which is the first house or the lower house, The Rajya Sabha, which is the second house or the upper house. 2. The maximum number of members in the Lok Sabha can be 552. 3. The provision of reservation to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to the Lok Sabha and the state legislatures has been made since the implementation of the constitution. 4. The tenure of the Lok Sabha is 5 years. The President can dissolve the Lok Sabha earlier with the advice of the Prime Minister. 5. The Lok Sabha has two officials- the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker, elected by the Lok Sabha itself. 6. The Rajya Sabha can have 250 members, out of which 12 are nominated by the President. 7. The Rajya Sabha is a permanent house, which cannot be dissolved. The tenure of its members is 6 years. 8. The Rajya Sabha has two major officials- the Chairman and the Vice Chairman. The Vice President of Bharat is the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. 9. The Union executive comprises President, Vice President, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. 10. The President is elected indirectly through single transferable vote method of proportional representation. 11. The powers of the President are- during ordinary times and emergency times. 12. The constitution of the council of ministers- the President appoints the Prime Minister, the Prime Minister selects the ministers and distributes portfolios to them. 13. Three categories of ministers- cabinet ministers, ministers of states and deputy ministers. 14. Constitution of the Supreme Court- at present one Chief Justice and 30 other judges. 15. The President appoints the judges through recommendations received from the collegium of the Supreme Court. Answers to Textual Questions 15.1 1. The three organs of the Union government are legislative, executive and judiciary. 2. The members to the Lok Sabha are elected directly through adult franchise and secret ballot system. 3. The fixed maximum number of members to the Rajya Sabha is 250. 4. Rajya Sabha cannot be dissolved. One third of its members retire every two years. Hence it is a permanent house. 203

5. Money bills can be presented only in the Lok Sabha. 15.2 6. The President is elected by the elected members of both the houses of the parliament and the state legislative assemblies. He is elected indirectly through single transferable vote method of proportional representation by secret ballot. 7. The two powers of the President are- power during ordinary times and powers during emergency. 8. The president nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha, who are veterans in the fields of art, literature, science or social service. 9. The Vice President is elected by both the houses of the parliament. He is elected through single transferable vote method of proportional representation by secret ballot. 15.3 10. The leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha is appointed Prime Minister by the President. 11. The Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha. All types of bills are prepared and presented under the leadership of the Prime Minister. 12. The constitution of the council of ministers- the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the council of ministers shall be constituted by the President with the advice of the Prime Minister. 13. The cabinet comprises only the cabinet ministers while the council of minster comprises cabinet ministers, minsters of state and deputy ministers. 15.4 14. The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President through collegium system. 15. The President can remove a judge on proved misbehaviour or incapacity when parliament approves with a majority of the total membership of each house in favour of impeachment and not less than two thirds of the members of each house present. 16. The four divisions of the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are- constitutional, civil, criminal and special cases. 17. The courts can issue various kinds of writs protecting rights of the citizens. These writs are:habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari. Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. The Prime Minister is appointed by- (A) The Parliament (B) The Lok Sabha (C) The Rajya Sabha (D) The President 2. The ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha is- (A) The President (B) The Vice President (C) The Prime Minister (D) The Speaker of the Lok Sabha 3. The fixed number of the Rajya Sabhamembers is- (A) 250 204

(B) 275 (C) 325 (D) 545 4. The number of judges in the Supreme Court is- (A) 51 (B) 41 (C) 31 (D) 21 5. The meetings of the Union cabinet is presided over by- (A) The President (B) The Vice President (C) The Prime Minister Short Answer Questions 1. What is the method adopted for the election of the President? 2. What are the orders issued by the President during the time when the parliament is not in session called? 3. What do you understand by court of records? 4. Till what age can a justice of the Supreme Court remain in office? 5. Which original jurisdictions are enjoyed both by the Supreme Court and the High Courts? 6. Explain the election process of the Vice President. 7. Through which process can the President be removed from office? 8. Describe the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. 9. Explain the significance of judicial review. 10. What are the eligibilities to become a member of the Lok Sabha. Essay Type Questions 1. Describe the powers and functions of the President during ordinary times. 2. Describe the constitution and the powers of the cabinet. 3. Describe the organization, jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme Court.

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Lesson-16

Foreign Policy of Bharat

Introduction- From Past to the Present Bharat has had a long standing of relations with other countries of the world. In the ancient Indian literature the Indian society envisioned an inclusive development of the whole humanity and rejecting all natural differences, embraced the concept of universal brotherhood. अयं निजः परोवेनि गणिा लघुचेि साम । उदार चररिािां िे वसुधैव कुटु륍बकम । (This one is my brother and not that one- only narrow minded people think like that. For the magnanimous people, the world is a family) The Indian society prays for the welfare of all and not of oneself. सवे भवꅍिु सुनििःसवे सꅍिु निरामयाः । सवे भद्रानण प�यꅍिुमा कनिददुःिभा嵍भवेि् । (May all become happy,May all be free from illness.May all see what is auspicious,May no one suffer.) Later these higher values of life were adopted by Lord Buddha, Lord Mahavira, Ashoka, the great, Vivekananda etc., who spread love among mankind. Since independence, Bharat has tried to maintain cordial relations with other countries, which earned support from all over the world. During the freedom movement too, Bharat has reiterated its priorities and ideals from various forums. Bharat has had explicit thoughts on international matters. Bharat has always upheld the freedom and sovereignty of other nations. Besides it has supported all international organizations formed to uphold peaceful coexistence and universal interests. Bharat has elucidated its thoughts against imperialism. Thus even before independence, Bharat had manifested its objectives and ideals regarding its foreign policy. Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to (i) Understand the objectives of Indian foreign policy (ii) Comment on the determinants of Indian foreign policy (iii) Identify and describe the features of Indian foreign policy (iv) Understand the principles of Panchsheel (v) Evaluate the foreign policy of Bharat.

16.1 Objectives of the Foreign Policy of Bharat The foreign policy of Bharat has three fundamental pillars: (i) Peace (ii) Amity (iii) Equality 206

16.1-I The major objectives of Indian foreign policy are: (i) Making efforts for international peace and security (ii) Solving international disputes by arbitration (iii) Establishing deferential relations with all the states (iv) Having faith in international laws (v) Remaining detached from military alliances and alignments (vi) Opposing imperialism and colonialism (vii) Opposing racial discrimination and assisting nations fighting for freedom. (viii) Promoting and simplifying trade, industry, investment and technology with all the countries (ix) Assisting international community to explore solutions to the upcoming challenges (x) Strengthening her position in South Asia by amity and assistance. Textual Questons-16.1 1. Describe briefly the foreign policy of Bharat in ancient times. 2. What are the three fundamental pillars of the foreign policy of Bharat? 3. What are the major objectives of Indian foreign policy?

16.2 Fundamentals of the Foreign Policy of Bharat 16.2-I There were some extra ordinary circumstances and challenges at the time of independence in 1947. The following factors have been significant in determining the foreign policy that time: (i) At the time of independence the world was divided into two opposite groups. Hence Bharat decided to remain apart from factional politics. The first priority of Bharat was its economic and all round development. For this Bharat needed assistance from all the countries of the world. Hence the new concept of non-alignment was developed. (ii) Strengthening its security system and maintaining unity and integrity of the country were of utmost importance. (iii) The geographical factors have their own significance in determining the foreign policy of Bharat. On the one hand, Bharat is closer to erstwhile Soviet Union and communist China while on the other hand; the south eastern and south western parts of the country are bordered by sea. The interest of Bharat lies in its safety, peace and amity. (iv) The ancient culture of Bharat has influenced in determining its foreign policy. Universal brotherhood, world peace and humanism have been our inspiring values. The thoughts of the contemporary Indian leaders have also influenced our foreign policy. 16.2-II Main Features of the Foreign Policy of Bharat (i) Non-Alignment The whole world was divided into two factions at the time of independence of Bharat. One faction was led by capitalist America while the other was led by the Soviet Union. In order to maintain its intellectual establishment and interest, Bharat kept away from the mutual struggle between the two factions. Keeping away from factional politics and concentrating on its own development was termed as the policy of non-alignment. This policy expresses its thoughts freely and judiciously on the various problems of the world. Thus it is a creative and affirmative policy. Under non-alignment, a nation can maintain amiable and well-adjusted relations with both the factions in the national interest and work for its economic development. 207

The core element of non-alignment is to maintain independence in foreign affairs by not joining any military alliance formed by the USA and Soviet Union. This movement paved a new way for all the newly independent nations along with Bharat. Adhering to this policy, the newly independent nations opened new avenues of development for themselves. Besides, a third forum of judging international disputes without prejudice also emerged. The Indian Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Yugoslavian President Marshal Tito, Egyptian President Nasir and Indonesian President Sukarno played major roles in making non-alignment a movement.The movement became well organized during the fifth and sixth decades of twentieth century. The Belgrade summit held in 1961 stressed peace and disarmament. Its 16th summit was held in Tehran, the capital of Iran in 2012. Delegates from 120 countries participated in it. Atomic disarmament, human rights and regional issues were widely deliberated upon here. The purpose and relevance of non-aligned movement were questioned after the end of the cold war and disintegration of the Soviet Union. However, it remains significant in the efforts to solve the new problems and challenges. The movement has proved its significance by expanding itself to new avenues of neo-colonialism, human rights, environment, economic and regional social complexities. (ii)Principles of Panchsheel Panchsheel is a set of five principles of Buddhism formulated by Gautam Buddha.The word Panchsheel means five virtues of conduct. Their first formal codification in treaty form was in an agreement between China and Bharat regarding Tibet in 1954. Almost all the Asian countries adopted the principles of Panchsheel. These five principles are as given below: (i) Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty. (ii) Mutual non-aggression. (iii) Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs. (iv) Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit. (v) Peaceful co-existence. The principles of Panchsheel are symbols of moral power. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru once said that if all the countries recognize these principles, we shall be able to solve several problems of the modern world.Panchsheel was considered a great achievement of Indian foreign policy in the world but China proved that it was merely an illusion by attacking Bharat in 1962. It blew heavy dent in Bharat’s reputation in the world and to its foreign policy. It was criticized as a failure of Bharat’s diplomacy. However Bharat still has faith in the principles of Panchsheel. (iii)Peaceful Co existence Indian philosophy has always supported the concept of Vasudhaiv Kutumbakam (the world as one family). Bharat has adopted the policy of peaceful coexistence with countries of varying socio-religious systems. Peaceful coexistence is actually a part of the principles of Panchsheel. Through its foreign policy, Bharat has given the message of having cordial relations with countries following opposing ideologies. Bharat itself has made several friendly treaties and trade accords. This policy is based on ingenious development. Bharat has always opposed war and supported peace and disarmament. Bharat has arbitrated several times in case of imminent wars between nations. At present several countries possess nuclear 208

power. Peaceful environment is essential for the development of the developing and undeveloped nations. Indeed, peaceful coexistence strengthens international relationsand provides an effectual base. (iv) Policy of Resisting Imperialism and Racism Bharat has been a victim of imperialism. It has experienced its ill effects. Hence it opposes strongly any form of imperialism in any part of the world. After independence Bharat supported all the nations of Asia and Africa fighting for freedom. Bharat supports sovereignty of all. It deems imperialism and colonialism as means of exploitation. Opposition of imperialism and colonialism has been one of the primary ideals of Indian foreign policy, through which Bharat has worked to raise the morale of the nations fighting against exploitation since the beginning. Similarly resisting racism has been a feature of Indian foreign policy. Bharat has always supported the equality of all the races and ethnicity of the world and strongly resists racial discrimination. Racial discrimination is against the principle of equality that contaminates the international environment. It was because of the policy of resisting racism that Bharat had snapped relations with South Africa in the past.Bharat had openly supported Negroes of America and Africans living in Rhodesia. It supported imposing several types of restrictions on nations following the policy of racism. Bharat has kept up this policy through the United Nations too. (v)Support to the United Nations Bharat has been a primary member of the United Nations. It has supported the works and policies of this institution since its inception. The United Nations is an international institution established to maintain world peace, working in various fields. Bharat has always complied with its orders and international laws. On Indo-Pak dispute too, Bharat complied with the decisions of the United Nations. It proves Bharat’s devotion and commitment to this organization. Several Indians have raised the glory of the country by holding higher posts in the United Nations. In times of need Bharat has lent its peace army too. At present Bharat is one of the claimants of permanent membership of the Security Council. (vi) Nuclear Policy of Bharat Bharat started formulating its nuclear policy in 1960. It had become obligatory in national interest as during that time nuclear rich nations like America, Russia and China wanted to weaken Bharat in the name of nuclear disarmament. Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam, the ex-President of Bharat, is considered the anchor of the nuclear programme of Bharat. He said that Bharat is situated between two nuclear rich nations. Threat to security and crisis was clearly visible to Bharat. Hence it was the demand of the times to become self-dependent in nuclear weapons and missiles. Bharat has always been a peace loving nation and it has endorsed disarmament internationally. However the fast changing scenario of the world and divisive nuclear programmes has forced it to become self- dependent in this field.Being discriminatory, the conditions of nuclear disarmament and non- proliferation treaty, were not acceptable to Bharat. Bharat is following the fundamental policy in the matter of nuclear detonation. Bharat detonated its first nuclear devices at Pokaran in 1974 andthe second in 1998. The five nuclear rich nations strongly reacted to the nuclear policy of Bharat. Bharat has clarified that it is committed to its vision of a nuclear weapons free world. However Bharat shall possess minimum nuclear 209 weapons for its safety till other nuclear rich nations destroy their weapons. Bharat shall not sign the non-proliferation treaty (NPT) till it is universal and non-discriminatory. (vii) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is the regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union of nations in South Asia. It was founded in December 1985. Its member states include Afghanistan, , Bhutan, Bharat, , the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. This association stresses abatement of mutual conflicts and promotes harmony. These countries are known for poverty, lack of education, malnutrition and underdevelopment. So they need to tackle these problems with mutual assistance. Except Maldives, the rest of the countries are part of . Hence they are similar from historical and cultural point of view. SAARC has done efficacious work in the vital fields of agriculture, health, education, environment etc. Bharat has an influential place in the South Asian region. The borders of all the SAARC countries adjoin Indian borders in some way or the other. The rivers of all the SAARC countries flow through Bharat. Hence quite naturally, Bharat is looked at hopefully on all matters. The 14th summit of the SAARC countries was held in in April 2007. Afghanistan was made the eighth member in this summit. Besides, delegates from several countries of the world attended this summit as observers. This indicates the curiosity of other countries about SAARC. The 18th summit of SAARC was held in Nepal in November 2014. (viii) Problem of Terrorism The whole of humanity is suffering from the problem of terrorism these days. Not only the undeveloped nations and the developing ones, but also the rich and powerful nations have fallen in its trap. Taking recourse to violent means against the legally formed government and scaring the public is terrorism. A threat of violence, individual violent actions and terrorizing people is terrorism. The South Asian countries including Bharat are fighting against this problem; even America is not an exception. Terrorism is a serious challenge for Bharat. At present some 31 major terrorist organizations are active in Bharat. Some of them have made Pak occupied Kashmir (POK) and Afghanistan their stations. Besides, they have also made their stations at other places of Asia and the world. These terrorists cause disruptive activities in Jammu and Kashmir and in other parts of the country. In December 2001, the terrorists of Zaish-e-Mohammad and Lashkar-e-Taiba attacked the Indian Parliament. The proxy war sponsored by terrorists living abroad is a great problem for Bharat. Several nations of the world shelter terrorism and terrorist organizations openly for their vested interests. These organizations possess sophisticated weapons, explosives, money and other resources in large quantities. Terrorism still prevails as a problem despite several talks and deliberations in meetings. This has disrupted peace and mutual trust and has ruined economic resources in the countries. We wish these terrorist activities stop and the resources may be used for the development of the people. Textual Questions-16.2 4. Write the major features of the Indian foreign policy. 5. Comment on resistance to imperialism and racism. 6. What is the nuclear policy of Bharat? 7. Write a note on the problem of terrorism.

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16.3 Evaluation of the Foreign Policy of Bharat The foreign policy of Bharat has been generally successful in taking care of the interest of the nation. Indeed it is a glorious policy as it is based on high human values. Although it has been criticized for its military and economic interests yet modifications have been made in it according to the demands of the changing scenario of the world, making it incessant and dynamic. Bharat has started giving respect to its economic aspects. Bharat is serious about its strategies regarding trade and commerce. Indo-American relations have started improving expansively. The visits of the American President Barrack Obama between 2010 and 2015 have shown sign of improvement in the relations between the two countries. The role of Bharat in the leadership of the South Asian and the developing countries also indicates affirmative improvement in the Indian foreign policy. The detonations of Bharat have broken the monopoly of the western countries and China on nuclear power. It proves that the Indian foreign policy is not only committed to peace and harmony but it can also safeguard its interests. The Indian foreign policy has also expanded recognition to Indian culture abroad. Indian art, culture, fashions, eating habits are now being internationally recognised. Bharat has made economic and technological progress during the last twenty years. It is due to its dynamic foreign policy that Bharat has a major role to perform in the world politics. Textual Questions-16.3 8. Indian foreign policy is incessant and dynamic. Comment. 9. Evaluate the foreign policy of Bharat What you have learnt 1. The Indian foreign policy is an expression of the glorious tradition of Bharat since ancient times. The values of world peace, amity, universal brotherhood and cooperation are its fundamental pillars. 2. The major objective of the Indian foreign policy is to accommodate international interests with national interests. 3. The determinants of Indian foreign policy are influenced by contemporary situations, geographical factors and ideologies. 4. Non-alignment is a major feature of the Indian foreign policy. It means keeping away from the politics of the contemporary factions and taking care of the development of the country. 5. Bharat has propounded the principles of Panchsheel, which includes mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and cooperation for mutual benefit and peaceful co- existence. 6. Bharat resists discrimination on the basis of race or colour as it goes against the principle of equality. Hence Bharat resist racism and apartheid. 7. Bharat supports the international organization of the United Nations to maintain world peace and solidarity. 8. Bharat has modified its nuclear programme because of the changing scenario of the world and the discriminatory policy of the nuclear rich nations on nuclear disarmament. 211

9. The seven countries of South Asia founded the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in December 1985. At present there are eight countries in this association. 10. The problem of terrorism is a serious challenge to Bharat. Bharat has explicitly defined its stand and taken resolute actions. Answers to Textual Questions 16.1 1. In the ancient Indian literature the Indian society envisioned an inclusive development of the whole humanity and rejecting all natural differences, embraced the concept of universal brotherhood. 2. The foreign policy of Bharat has three fundamental pillars: peace, amity and equality. 3. The major objectives of Indian foreign policy are: solving international disputes by arbitration, remaining detached from military alliances and alignments, opposing imperialism and colonialism etc. 16.2 4. The features of the Indian foreign policy are- non-alignment, principles of Panchsheel, peaceful coexistence, resistance to imperialism and racism, support to the United Nations, SAARC, nuclear policy, problem of terrorism etc. 5. Bharat supports all the African nations fighting for freedom. Hence Bharat resists imperialism. Bharat supports equality of all human races and ethnicity of the world. It resists discrimination on the basis of race or colour. 6. Bharat is committed to a nuclear free world. However Bharat shall maintain minimum necessary nuclear weapons for safety till other nuclear rich nations destroy their nuclear weapons. 7. At present the whole of humanity is suffering from the problem of terrorism. No country is free from the threats of terrorism. The problem prevails despite several talks and deliberations in meetings. It has disrupted peace and harmony in the country and ruined economic resources. 16.3 8. The Indian foreign policy has been generally successful in taking care of the interests of the nation. It is a glorious policy as it is based on higher human values. It has remained incessant and dynamic as it has been modified according to the changing times and the changing scenario of the world. 9. The Indian foreign policy is committed to peace and harmony. Besides it is capable of safeguarding the interests of the nation. Bharat has made economic and technological progress during the last 20 years. Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. In which year was the Belgrade summit of Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) held? (A) 1963 (B) 1961 (C) 1953 (D) 1958 2. Whose philosophy are the five principles of Panchsheel based on? 212

(A) Mahavir Swami (B) Swami Vivekananda (C) Swami Dayananda (D) Gautam Buddha 3. In which year was Panchsheel implemented under Bharat-China accord? (A) 1950 (B) 1954 (C) 1955 (D) 1960 4. In which country was the 18th summit of SAARC held? (A) Bharat (B) Pakistan (C) Nepal (D) Bhutan 5. When did Bharat make its first nuclear test? (A) 1984 (B) 1974 (C) 1975 (D) 1980 Short Answer Questions 1. What are the fundamental pillars of Indian foreign policy? 2. What is the most important factor among the objectives of the Indian foreign policy? 3. Which leaders played major role in making non-alignment a movement? 4. Give the full form of SAARC. 5. Who is the anchor of the nuclear policy of Bharat? 6. Which international institution does Bharat support for world peace? 7. What do you understand by the policy of non-alignment? 8. How do the geographical conditions influence the foreign policy? 9. Describe the principles of Panchsheel. 10. What do you understand by peaceful coexistence? Explain. 11. Comment on the problem of terrorism in Bharat. 12. Discuss the role of Bharat with respect to the United Nations. Essay Type Questions 1. Describe the main objectives of the Indian foreign policy. 2. Describe the features of the Indian foreign policy.

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Chapter-17

Physiography of Bharat

Introduction:- Our country is known as Bharatvarsha “Bharat” for thousands of years. It was esteemed as Aryawart in Vedic Age. Boundaries of Bharatvarsh were described in the first verse 9 (1) of fourth chapter of Pancham Skandh of Shreemad Bhagwat Puran- mRrje~ ;r~ leqnzL; fgeknzs'pSo nf{k.ke~A o"kZe~rn~ Hkkjrauke Hkkjrh ;= larfr%AA That means Bharat is a sacred land. The Himalayas extend in the North and ocean in the south of it and all the people who lived here are Bharatiya (Indian). According to the 37th chapter of ‘SkandhPuran’ our country is named after Bharat, the son of Rishabhadev Nabhiraj. In the period of Mahabharat when Sanjay conversed to Dhritrashtra, he called this land Bharat in Bhishma- parva. That means this country was knows as Bharat even before Mahabharat period. Bharat is also known as Jambudweep, Aryawart, Bharatkhand, Hindustan etc. Bharat popularly known as Bharat since 4th century B.C. Greeks called it Bharat because of Indus River and it came into vague. That means this land of ancient culture and civilization is known as “Bharatvarsh” for thousands of year. The great arc of Himalaya is extended in the North. Patkoi, Luchai, and Chatgaon mountains are situated in its East and Suleman and Kirtharranges arelocated in the west of it. In the east Irawadi and Pleatueof Iran in the west marked its natural boundaries. Important rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Sharda and Kosi originate from the wonderful pinnacles of mountains of Himalayas. The plains dominated by Sindhu, Ganga and Brahmaputra originated from Himalaya encompass an area of 2400 km from the east to the west.Indus river originates from the west of Mansarover lake, situated in the south west of Tibet and Ganga originates from Gangoutri (Uttarakhand), these both rivers nurtured immature culture of Bharat. The drenched treasure of gems and minerals are located in Arawali of Rajasthan, of Jharknand, Lava plateau of Karnataka and in midst Vindhyanchal & Satpura. The Peninsular plateau- Extended in the south of to Kanyakumari. of the Peninsula are known as Sahayadri and Nilgiri. is well known in the . In the Peninsular Bharat, Eastern plains have gentle slope and Western Plains have steep slope. Hind, the great ocean is situated in the south of Bharat. The Bay of situated in the East was known as Gangasagar. The Arabian Sea extends in the west known as Sindhusagar. There are many ancient cities in Bharat, including Kashi, Kanchi, , Dwarika. Various types of local Dialects are prevailing. Hindi has become a common language of communication. Telgu,Malyalamand Kannad are spoken in the states of south Bharat. These languages consist of 50 to 60 % words from Sanskrit. Indian ancient texts had been written in Sanskrit. Hindi has its origin in Sanskrit. 214

Bharat is the country of youth; it has the largest youth population. At present about 36 crore, young people dwell here. Hindu, Sikh, Muslim, Christian, Yahudi, Persian all live harmoniously in Bharat. The culture of this country is alive for thousands of years. This is a matter of proud for us. In spite of diversity of physiography, difference of language, difference of religions our culture is united on the basis of the theory of non-violence of “live and let live”. Today the area of Bharat is 3287263 km2. There are 29 states and seven Union Territories in Bharat. RajasthanIs the largest & Goa is the smallest state of Bharat. Emerging as 4theconomic power Bharat is playing an import role to give a new direction to the world. Tropic of cancer 23030’N 1 passes almost middle it. The local time along 82 /20 E longitudes is taken as Indian standard Time. International Boundaries of Bharat– The Northern boundary of Bharat is attached with Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet (China). Myanmar in the North East and Bangladesh in the East make boundary. Pakistan in the west and Afghanistan and Russia in the North West forms boundary of Bharat. North boundary is known as Mac Mohan Line, it has the length of 3380 km. It touches J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim & . The western boundary of Bharat is attached with Pakistan. This boundary touched J&K, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat, which is 2912 km long known as Redcliff line. Myanmar marks the boundary of 1643 km which is connected with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, & Mizoram. The Boundary of Bangladesh touches West Bengal, Assam, & Tripura. It carries the length of 2545.57 miles i.e. 4096.70 km. The culture and mountainous boundary between Bharat and Nepal is 1690 km. The boundary with Bhutan of 699 km. touches Sikkim, Arunachal & Assam. The boundary between Shri Lanka and Bharat is within Hind Ocean which is an aquatic boundary and the land boundary is separated by the Strait of Palk. Maldweep is a small Iceland country which covers an area of 298 km2 and its population is 409163. Maldweep is the smallest country of Asia and has lowest population which is a friend country of Bharat. Aims:- After reading this lesson students will be able to know Physiography of Bharat. They will also come to know about features of these regions. Textual questions- 1. What is the name of the boundary attached with China? 2. What is the length of the boundary attached with Pakistan? Physical Divisions of Bharat:- Bharat is a vast country, covers the total area of 3287263km2. It is expanded from Himalaya to Kanyakumari North to South and from Porbandar to Patkoi Broom west to east. Its shape looks like a quadrangular Bharat is the land of diversity. In the north there are Himalayan ranges, Indus- Gangatic plains, and the most fertile land. In the middle Vidhyanchal and Satpura ranges are spread. The southern plateau is made of old iron rocks. Peninsular plateau is bordered by the Western Ghatsin the west and Eastern Ghats in the east. The Eastern Ghats extends in the east and the Western Ghats extends in the west up to plains. In Rajasthan ‘Thar Desert’ is located in the west of Arawali range, sandy dunes are spread here. On the basis of the varied physiographic features Bharat is divided into 5 divisions. Northern Himalayan 215 mountain ranges (10.7%), peninsular plateau (27.7%), plains (43%) and hills (18.6%) are extended in Bharat. 1. Himalayan Mountain Range. 2. Indus-Gangatic-Brahmaputra Plains 3. Peninsular Plateau 4. Coastal Plains 5. Islands 6. Western Deser

17.1 Himalaya Mountain Region The arc of Himalayan ranges extends 2400 km from Kashmir in the west to Patkoi Bhoom hills of Arunachal in the East. It has an average width of 150-400 km, expanded from the turn of Sindhu in the west to the turn of Brahmaputra in the East. Mount Everest is the largest peak of Himalaya, known as Sagarmatha. It has the length of 8848m situated in Nepal. The Pamir plateau is located in the North West of Himalayas. Hundreds of glaciers are there in the Himalayan range. The highest Mountain of Bharat is K-2; known as Godwin Austin, situated in POK (Pakistan occupied Kashmir). Kanchan Jungha is the highest peak of Bharat occupied land which has the highest of 8598m. Significant rivers like Sindhu, Ganga, Sutlej, Yamuna, Ghaghara, Sharda, Kosi originate from Himalayas. Himalayan range can be divided into 4 divisions. 1) Trans Himalayan Zone 2) Greater or Inner Himalayan Zone 3) Lesser Himalayan or Himachal Zone 4) The Shivaliks or Sub Himalayan Foothill Zone (i) Trans Himalaya: - This part is located in the Tibet region of Himalaya, also known as Trans Himalaya. It is 40 km wide. Relics of Tethys are still found on this mountainous region, i.e. oceanic and metamorphic rocks having fossils within them exist. (Himalaya uplifted from ancient Tethys). (ii) Greater Himalayas- Greater Himalayan range is the oldest range of Himalayas. The range uplifted about 60 million years ago. This range is called main Himalaya, Himadri or Greater Himalaya. Extended from the west to the east in 2400 km, has the breadth of 25 km , has the average height of 6000 m. in this range 40 peaks are more than 7000m. the important mountain peaks of this range are Mount Everest (8848m), Nandadevi (7818m), Makalu (8470m), (8073m), Dhoulagiri (8167m), Nangaparvat (8126m), Gousainath (8013m), Kanchanjungha (8595m). Burzil, Jojila, Shipkila, Baralachala, Lipu-lekhla, Nathula, Jojetala, Bomdila passes located here. Changla connects Laddakh to Tibet, Manadarrah connects Uttarakhand to Tibet, Nathula connects Sikkim to Lhasa. The passes to Pakistan are Burzil & Jojila. (iii) Lesser Himalaya- This range extends parallel to Greater Himalaya. Average width of this range is 80 to 100 km. The range has an average height of 3000 m. Many pinnacles are 4500 m. high.Here snowfalls in December, January and February. Rest of months are full of pleasure. Mountain forests are found. In this region majority of coniferous forest is found here. There aretrees of 30-40 m. height like Chid, Farr, Mahogany in these forests. Chief peaks of this region Dholadhar, Peer Panjal, MahabharatLekh, Churiya-Muriya, Mansuri famous ranges. There are some salubrious places like Shimla, Almoda, Mansuri, Nainital etc. Minor Grass plains are situated on slopes in this 216 region. These are called Marg in Kashmir (Gulmarg, Sonmarg), Bugyal and Payar in Uttarakhand. In the middle regionsvalleys are knows as Doon and Dwar.

17.1 Physical Divisions of Bharat (iv) Shivalik Himalaya- Shivalikranges are the last ranges of Himalayas, extends from Potwar Basin to Kosiriver. It has an average height of 1300 to 1500 m. and width of 40 to 50 km. It is also called outer Himalayas. These are the newest ranges of Himalayas and are 1.5 crore years old. It is also knownby local names. It is known as Doondwa ranges near Gorakhpura, Churiya-Muriya in the east. Tarai Vans (forests of marshy land) are attached with this range, which is marsh and forested. The valleys which separate Shivalik Himalaya from lesser Himalaya are known as Doon like- Dhehradoon, Katadoon, Chumbi, Potali, Kothari, Kathamandu. Mixyure of loam soils, sand and pebbles are found in this region. Textual Questions- 3- By which name the grass plain of Kashmir are known? 217

4- What is the other name of Shivalik? 5- What is the length of the greater Himalaya ranges? 6- What is the average height of the greater Himalaya ranges? 17.1.1 Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas or Regional Classification ofHimalayas- Geologist Sydney Burard divided the Himalaya ranges into 4 divisions- (i) Punjab Himalaya (ii) Kumayun Himalaya (iii) Nepal Himalaya (iv) Assam imalaya (i) Punjab Himalayas- Extends from Sindhu to Satluj in 560 km. The Himalaya is the widest in this range. In this division some areas of Kashmir, Himachal and Punjab are included. Karewas (lacustrine deposits) are found in Kashmir. Cultivation of saffron is done in this region. Pir- panjal, Joji la, Penci la, Saser la, Lanak-la, Jara la, Taska-la, Chang-la are some important passes. Karakorum, Laddakh, Zaskar, Pir-panjal, Dhoulagiri are important ranges. Kangda,Kullu-Manali, Lahul-Sfiti are 1ocatedin Himachal-Himalayas in this region. Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum &Vyas rivers originate from here. (ii)Kumayun Himalaya-Extends between Sutlej and Kali rivers. The range extends to the length of 320 km. Some important Ice-caps like Kamet, Nanda Devi, , Badrinath,Gangoutri, Badarpunch, are situated in this region. Ganga (Bhagirathi), Alaknanda, Yamuna rivers have their origin in this range. Gangoutri, Yamunotri, Badrinath, Kedarnath are significant shrines (Tirthsthals). and Niti passes connect to Lhasa (capital of Tibet). (iii)Nepal Himalaya- Extend from Kaliriver to Tista River. This division consists of Sikkim Himalaya, Darziling Himalaya in West Bengal and Bhutan Himalaya in Bhutan. Peaks are higher than 6000 metres. Mount Everest (8848 m.), Annapurna (8073 m.), Gosainath (8018 m.), Kanchanjungha, Makalu are important peaks. Nathula and Jojetala passes in Sikkim connect Gangtok to Lyasa. Coniferous forests of cedar (Cedrus deodara), pine, spruce, ferr are there in this division. This region is expanded in 800 km. (iv)Assam Himalaya- Extends from Tista to the turn of Brahmaputra. It has the length of 720 km. Chumanlahari, Kamru, Namachabarua, Dafala, Giri, Aka, Mishmi are major ranges. Bomdila, Debangare important passes. After crossing Arunachal Pradesh Himalayas turn towards the South. Arakanyoma ranges forms borders between Nagalandand Myanmar. 17.1.2 Major Passes of the Himalayas:- The major passes of Himalayas which are important are- Pass Connects 1. Baralachala pass Manali to Leh 2. Bomdila pass Arunachal to Lyasa 3. Changla pass Laddakh to Tibet 4. Burjil pass Himachal to Laddakh 5. Dehang pass Arunachal to Mandley (Myanmar) 6. Emisala pass Laddakh to Lyasa 7. Jojetala pass Sikkim to Lyasa 8. Jojila pass Sri Nagar to Leh&Kargil 9. Nathula pass Sikkim to Lhasa 10. Peer-Panjal pass Jammu to Sri Nagar 218

17.2 Physical Division of Himalaya 17.1.3 Importance of the Himalayas 1. Guard for protecting the boundary- The invasions on Bharat never occurred from North regions. At present in spite of air force army and technical arms no country has attacked on Bharat from the direction of Himalayan region. 2. Source of permanent rivers- Many permanent rivers starts from the glaciers of Himalaya. Sindhu, Satluj, Ganga, Yamuna, Kosi, Tista, Brahmaputra rivers in Bharat construct the North plain 219 region which is nurturing more than 50crore people. Several metro cities are situated on these rivers’ banks. 3. Effect on climate- Himalayan range falls in the way of monsoon winds. It causes rain affecting these winds due to its height. Prevents North Siberian cold winds and protects Bharat of tremendous cold. It also prevents Jet Stream currents and divides them into two parts. Consequently monsoon causes rain in Bharat viz. Himalaya affects Indian climate. 4. Source of Hydro-power- Hydro- power is beings produced by the water of Himalayan rivers.These hydro- power centresere located on the dame of rivers.important hydro- power projects are Bhakra Nangal,Salal duthasti,Tihari,Shrda and Kosi. 5. Huge Tea-Plantations and Fruits’ production-There are vast tea-plantations in Assam Himalaya and Himachal Himalaya. Tea that is produced here is of good quality. Apples, walnuts, almonds, peaches, pears, cherry, etc. are produced in Himachal, Uttarakhand and Kashmir. 6. Forests- There aredense forests in the Himalayan mountain region. Herbal plants of different types are found here. Many fruits’ trees grow. Coniferous forests, evergreen forests in Shivaliks, Merga grass plains in high mountain regions can be seen. 7. Tourism- Tourism is significant on Himalaya. Man Vaishneo Devi, Amarnath, Kailash- Mansarovar, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangoutri and Yamunotri are important tourism places in Himalaya. Famous Dargah Hajarat Bul is located in Kashmir. 8. Natural Beauty- Himalaya’s natural beauty charms people. Millions of people visit here. Tourists come here whether it is summer or winter. Significant places like Sri Nagar, Pahalgaon, Gulmarg, Dulhouji, Dharmshala, Shimla, Solan, Kangada, Kullu, Manali, Mansuri, Nainital, Darjeelin and Vaishno Devi are situated here. Textual Questions- 7. Which rivers originate from PunjabHimalaya? 8. From which Himalaya do Ganga and Yamuna originate? 9. In which state does Nathula Pass fall?

17.2 Sindhu-Ganga- Brahmaputra plain (Northern Plain) The great plain of the North is known as Sindhu-Ganga-Brahmaputra plain. It is the most fertile land of the world. The dense population of Bharat lives here. It extends from Punjab to Assam in 2400 km by Himalayan range. In the West this plain is 500 km wide and in the East at Assam the plain is 80-100 km wide. The plain is deeper in the West. Near Ambala in Haryana it has the depth of 8000m, while it is comparatively less deep in Assam and Bengal. The plain extends from the foothills of Himalaya to the Deccan Plateau. Its slope is very low. According to geologists it slopes 1-2 cm in every 1 km. 17.2 Physical Division- The soil of the plain is of different types. In tarai region it is marshy. Meanwhile, in the delta region newest alluvial soils deposit every year. So we can divide the plain in 5 parts- 17.2.1 Bhabar Plain- The plain is situated in the south of Shivaliks, extended from Jammu to Assam. The minor rivers that begin from Shivaliks carry pebbles and sand along with other deposits. Farming can’t be done in these plains. In these plains there are huge trees and small creepers. Rivers can be seen somewhere. 220

17.2.2 Tarai Plain- The plain is the form of a marsh land. Dense forests extendfull of creepers. The region is in the South of Bhabar. It has the average width of 15-30 km. By demolishing Tarai forest cultivation is being done. The plains extend in Jammu, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. 17.2.3 Bhangar Plains- The land or soil of this plain was originated in Plystocin Era. Now the water of flood can’t reach in these plains. We can call it older alluvial soils. These plains have majority of Humus, Forests are fertile and productive. The saline land is called ‘Reh’, ‘Kallar’ or ‘Dhud’. At present Bangar regions extend in Punjab, Haryana, rajsthan, delhi and western Uttar Pradesh. 17.2.4 Khadar region- The plains formed by newest alluvial soil are known as Khadars. During rainy new soils deposit here every year. Rivers consolidates Gad, sand, slimy soils and humus. These plains are very productive. Rice, wheat, sugarcane and beans types of crops are main crops of this region. It extends in U.P., Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. 17.2.5 Delta Region- The delta of Ganga is known as Delta. The plain is the greatest delta not only of Bharat but of the World too. Mangrove forests are found here which one the world’s greatest mangrove forests. The plain is extended in 1.9 lakh km2 from Bengal to Bangladesh. In this plain the upper land is known as Chais and nursery area is known as Beel. It is spreading due to gathering of new alluvial soil. Texual Question- 10. What is called Beel? 11. In which type of plain does Kallar land occur? 12. What are Khadar plains? 13. Under which range do Bhabar plains extend?

17.3 The Peninsular Plateau The Peninsular Plateau is a part of Gondwana land. In the Carboniferous age coal was formed in the basin of Son, Damodar, , Godavari rivers on thwe peninsular plateau. Due to blunder volcano erosion Deccan trap was formed in cretaceous age. There are ancient types of rocks of Kudappa, Vindhyan, Gondwana, Deccan trap in the peninsular plateau. The largest plateau of Bharat covers an area of 10lac km2. It extends from South East Rajasthan-Arawali to Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Maharashtra. Odissa, Karnataka and Tamilnadu, Physiographical Sub Divisions of the Peninsula- 17.3.1 Malwa Plateau- Its slope is towards North. The Vindhyanchal range on this plateau is a water divider between Ganga River and . In this plateau Mahadeo. Maikal, and Rajmahal hills are in the East. Vindhyanchal is older than Himalaya. Satpura hills are in the south of Vindhyanchal. The types of rocks are Bessalt and Granite. There is treasure of minerals in it. There are Amarkantak (1066m) and Panchmadi (1350m) in Mahadeo hills in it. Arawali range is in the West of Malwa plateau, extends south west to North east to delhi. 17.3.2 ChotanagpurPlateau-Chotanagpur is in the North East of Peninsular Plateau. The peak of Parshwanath is 1365m. It is the “Museum of the Minerals.” 60% mica, iron, tungsten, lime stone, coal of Bharat is found in the valley of Damodar and Son rivers. 17.3.3 Deccan plateau- The land consists of lava plateau of Karnataka, Western Ghat, Eastern Ghat and the Nilgiri hills. 221

17.3.4 Deccan trap- Extends from the South of Tapti to M.P., Maharashtra, and Karnataka. Thick layers of lava are in this region. Bababudan hills are famous for Iron in Karnataka. The region also includes Chattisgarh and Dandakaranya plateau region. 17.3.5 Western Ghats- The Western Ghats are expanded from Maharashtra to Kanyakumari in 1600km. The Ghats are 50 km wide in the north and 65-80 km in the south. Bheema, Godavari, Tungbhadra, Krishna, Rivers originates from this Western Ghats. (Maharashtra) has the height of 1438 m and of 1646m. Dodabeta (2670m) in the South of Nilgiri at Annamali hills Annamudi is 2695m high peaks. There is Plalaghat Pass which connects Eastern and Western Ghats i.e. the ‘Ghats’ of Kerla and Tamilnadu is Palaghat. Some important falls are Shivasamudra Fall (100m) of Karnataka, Garsopa fall (250m) of Shravasti, Yen Fall (183m) of Mahabaleshwar on Godavari. 17.3.6 Eastern Ghats- Eastern Ghats has the breadth of 190 km in the north and 75 km in the south. It extends in Orissa, Andhra, Telangana and Tamilnadu. Mahendragiri, Vishakhapattanam are important mountains. Mahanadi, Indrawadi, Pennar, Baigai, Saberi, Sileru and Irawadi rivers originate on this plateau. Nallamalai is a chief range in south which has the Length of 430 km and breadth of 30 km. Features-  The plateau is a part of Gondwana continent which was extended in the south of Tethys Ocean.  80% coal is gathered in Damodar, Barakar, Godavari Ghati and Satpura in this plateau.  Western Ghats has the most diversities of vegetation.  90% Iron of Bharat is located in Peninsular Plateau.  Narmada and Tapti flow towards the west and Damodar, Swarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Pennar, Vaingai, flow towards the east from the Deccan plateau.

17.4 Coastal Plains The plains of western coast are narrow and the plains of Eastern coast are broad. On the of Western Coastal plain has the most fertile land and coconuts are cultivated. Eastern coastal plain is a part of Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri rivers’ delta. 17.4.1 Western Coastal Plain- It is expanded from the Gulf of Khambat to Tiruanantpuram. Western Coastal plains are 80 km wide in Gujarat. There are estuaries of Narmada and Tapti. There are several “Lagoon” lakes on the Malabar Coast. The is famous here. The four sub- divisions of the Western Coastal plains are- Gujarat plain, Coastal Plain, Karnataka coastal plain, Malabar Coastal Plain. 17.4.2 Eastern Coastal Plain- The plain is 160-400 km wide. The lakes of Chilka and Pulikat of Orissa and Andhra region are important. The coast of Orissa and Western Bengal is called “UttariSarkar”, the coast of Andhra coast is called “Kakinada Coast”, and the coast of Tamilnadu is called “Koromandal Coast”. Significance- o Kayal lakes occur in the western coastal plain. 222

o The lakes of the eastern Coast are made of sand/ocean’s remaining part in which Pulikat, Chilka are important. o Rubber, Sinkona, Kehwa, Garm Masala (Spices), Coconuts are products in the Western coast. o Dense cultivation of rice is done in the eastern coastal plains. o Coconut, banana, rice, sugarcane, jute, tobacco are produced on a large scale in the eastern coastal plains. o The Gulf of Mannar of the eastern coast is famous for pearls. o 17.5 Islands Bharat occupies 247 islands- 204 in the Bay of Bengal and 43 in Arabian Sea. Lakshadweep, Minikaidweep, Damandweep are important in the Arabian Sea. Narkodam and Baren islands are Volcano Islands in the Bay of Bengal which are active. Andaman Nicobar is the most important island. It is the South boundary land of Bharat. The south point of Bharat- Indira point is situated in Great Nicobar.

17.6 Physiography of Rajasthan Rajasthan is situated in the NW of Bharat, whose area is 342239 km2. So diversity of relief is quite natural. With the geographical point of view Rajasthan is known as Maru Meru Mal. The desert of Rajasthan is considered as the remainder of Tethys. World’s oldest range of Arawali extends from SW to NE. It divides the state into 2 parts. There is the plain of Yamuna and its tributaries in the NE and Hadouti Plateau in the SE made of black soil. Geologists have divided Rajasthan physically into four sub divisions. 17.6.1 Western Desert Region: 61.11% 17.6.2 The Arawali Range and Hilly Region: 9.0% 17.6.3 The Eastern Plain: 23.0% 17.6.4 The South East Plateau: Region 6.89% 17.6.1 Western Desert Region This land is situated in the west of Rajasthan and covers 61.11% of the land part. Arawali land is situated in the east of this desert land. The land of this desert is expanded to Pakistan in the West. Rainfall is less than 50cm in this region. Temperature reaches at 45-48C0 in summer. It is the remainder of Tethys Sea. The most range of temperature of Bharat is found here. The slope of this land is east to west. Ghagghar River is in the East and Luni in the South. It can be divided into two subdivisions- 1) Sandy Arid Plain 2) Rajasthan Bangar or Semi-Arid Plain 1. Sandy Arid Plain- It is also called the “Thar Desert”. Receives rainfall less than 25cm. Occurs in Badmer, Jaisalmer, , Bikaner, Jodhpur and Western Churu. Dunes are spread on the 80% land. Blunder storms blow from March to June. Due to wind erosion these dunes move from one place to another. Dunes are known as “Barkhan” (crescent shaped dunes). Rocks near Jaisalmer are mutilated water, water gathers amongst them which are known as ‘Rans’. 223

2. Semi-Arid Plain- Extends right in the West of Arawali. It receives rainfall between 25 and 50 cm. In the north of the land there is the plain of Ghagghar, in the middle- Shekhawati or Inland region, Nagouri highland and Luni Basin in the South. Ghagghar Basin- In ancient times the river originated from Himalaya and flew here. At present it has dried. In the Vedic age it was known as Saraswati. Its plain is expanded in Ganganagar and Hanumangarh Districts. Inland Water Flow- This region is of minor rivers which are seasonal rivers, flow in rain and dry thereafter. There is SambharLake in this region. Mentha, Rupangarh, Khari rivers end in this lake. The natural dams of this region are called ‘.’ Nagouri Highland- Saline soils are found here. Minor Salt lakes like Deedwana, Degana, kuchman, Suzangarh are situated on this land. Luni Basin- TheRiver originated from Naga Hills of Aravali. Its catchment area is 34866 km2. Sukadi, Jojadi, Khari, Bandi and Jawai are its tributaries. It has older alluvial soils which are fertile. Sand of this land gathers in the Rann of Kaccha. Panchbhadra, Sanvarala, Kaprana are saline water lake. In this region cultivation is in a good condition.

17.3 Physiographical Divisions Rajasthan

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17.6.2 Aravali Range and Hilly Region- Arawali is the oldest mountain-range of the world, running approximately 692 km from Gujarat to Delhi, extends 550km in the state. The greatest peak of the Arawali range is Gurushikhar situated on Abu Plateau. In the North it is known as Alwar hilly Malkhet Hills in Sikar. Raghunathgarh peak has the height of 1055m in Sikar. Middle Arawali- It consists of Naga hills of Ajmer where Taragarh is 873 m high peak. Mewara Hills- Widespread in Rajsamand, Udaipur. It also extends in Bhilwara and Chittor. In these hills the Bhorath plateau is situated in the middle of Kumbhal and Gogunda. Jarga peak is 1223m on the plateau. The saucer-shaped hills that surround Udaipur are known as Girwa. Kothari, Banas pass in the East of Diwer and Sukdi, Jawai in the West. Mount Abu region- It is situated on the altitude of 1200m. It is 8 km wide and has the length of 19 km. Udiya plateau is situated on it and highest peak Gurushikhar is 1722m. This is the highest peak midst the Himalaya and Nilgiri. . Arawali range is the origin of Banas, Bedach, Luni, Kothari, Sukadi, Khari, Sabarmati and Banganga. . More than 60 types of minerals are found in Arawali region. . Arawali prevents desert spreading towards east. . Important lakes like Silisedh, Rajsamand, Jaysamand, Fatehsagar, Pichola, Anasagar are situated in the Arawali region. . It causes rain in Rajasthan by preventing the monsoon of Bay of Bengal. . There are about 3000 types of vegetation diversity in the region. 17.6.3 Eastern Plain- The plain is situated in the middle north of Rajasthan. The plain covers 23% land of Rajasthan. The plain is formed by Yamuna and its tributaries. This region can be divided into 3 parts which are as following- A. Banas-Banganga Basin- Banas originates from the Mewara hills near Khamnaur, runs 430 km. The plain is formed by its tributaries- Bedach, Gambhiri, Kothari, Khari. The north part of the plain is known as Malpura- Karauli plain, made of alluvial soils. B. Chappan Plain or Mahi Plain- The plain extends in Pratapgarh, Banswara and Dungerpur. Irrigated by the tributaries of Mahi, Son, Jakham, Chap, Moren and Anas. The northern Pratapgarh of the plain is known as Kanthal and the region of Banswara. Dungarpur is known as Bagad region. The plain of 56 villages in the middle of Pratapgarh and Banswara is known as “Chappan Plain”. C. Yamuna Plain- The plain is expanded in the North in the region of Bharatpur-Dholpur. Gambhiri Basin is situated here. The plain is fertile. The plain is made of alluvial and loam soils. 17.6.4 South East Plateau- This land of Rajasthan is a part of Vindhyan group. The land covers 6.89% land of Rajasthan. Slope is towards South West to North East. Chambal, Parwan, Kalisindhm are important rivers of this region. The Uparmal Plateau of Bojouliya is too included in it which extends from Bhainsrodgarh to Bijouliya. The plateau is made of black soil. The region is also known as Harouti Plateau. In this area Mukundara hills run in the SW of Kota. The Ravines of Chambal are also occur in this region which have had been Beehad. The type of rocks is quartz. Important facts related to physical division of Rajasthan-  Desert covers 61.11% land of the state, situated in the west of Arawali.  Shekhawati and Nagouri highland are Inlands flow.  Eastern plain is made by Yamuna, Banas and Mahi.  Arawali runs 550 km in the state of Rajasthan from SW to NE. 225

 Bhourath plateau is situated midst of Kumbhalgarh and Gogunda.  Mountains that surround Udaipur are known as Girwa.  Mukundara hills are situated in the Harouti region.  Sandy dunes of desert are called “Barkhan.”  The highest peak of the state is Gurushikhar (11722m) on Mount Abu. Answers of the textual questions- 1) Macmohan 2)2912km 3) Marg 4)Sub-Himalaya 5) 2400km 6)600km 7)Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Vyas 8) Kumayun 9)Sikkim 10)Marshy Land, in delta region 11)Bangad Plain 12)Made of newest alluvial soils 13) Shivalik range. What did you learn?  The area of Bharat is 3287263 sq. km.  Land of Bharat- 10.7%Himalayas, 27.7% Plateau, 43% Plains, 18.6% hilly regions.  5 physical divisions of Bharat- 1) Himalayas, 2) Ganga-Brahmputra plains, 3) Peninsular Plateau, 4) Coastal Plains, 5) Islands.  Himalayas run 2400 km.  Himalaya is the origin of Sindhu, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Ganga, Yamuna, Kosi, Sharda.  Palaghat pass connects the eastern and the western plain in Kerela.  90% of minerals of Bharat is obtained from peninsular plateau.  Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi, Indrawadi are major rivers of peninsular plateau.  There are 247 islands in Bharat.  Arawali range runs 692 km the whole and 550 km in Rajasthan.  Gurushikhar is the peak of the height of 1722 m, the heighest peak midst of Himalaya and Nilgiri. Questions for exercise Objective type questions- 1. The highest peak of Bharat is- a)K-2 b)Mount Everest c)Dhoulagiri d)Kedarnath 2. Badrinath and Kedarnath peaks are situated at- a) Jammu and Kashmir b)Punjab c)Uttarakhand d)Himachal 3. The length of the Himalayas from the West to the East- a)2400km b)2700km c)2800km d)2450km 4. Total area covered by Deccan Peninsular Plateau in Bharat is- a)42% b)38% c)43% d)27% 5. The origin of Godavari and Krishna is- a)Eastern Ghats b)Western Ghats 226

c)Vindhyanchal d)Arawali 6. What is called Khadarplain- a)Newest alluvial soils b)Loam soils’ plain c)Oldest alluvial soils d)Black soils’ plain

7. Koromandal Coast is- a)coastal region of Karnataka b)coastal region of Andhra c)coastal region of Orissa d)coastal region of Tamilnadu 8. The area of Rajasthan is- a) 342239 b)442239 c)542239 d)342250 9. Western desert covers the % land of Rajasthan. a)61.11% b)39.11% c)23.11% d)79.11% 10. The length of Arawali range in Rajasthan is- a)550km b)650km c)692km d)450km Short Answer type questions- 11. Which two rivers start from Kumayun Himalaya? 12. Write the extension of Shivalik range? 13. Write name of 5 major peaks of the Greater Himalaya? 14. What is called Khadar in the Northern Plains? 15. Write 3 peculiarities of Chotanagpur Plateau. 16. In which states does the Deccan Plateau extend? 17. Write the name of major peaks of Western Ghats. 18. In how many divisions does Eastern Plain can be divided? 19. Which are the three major peaks of Arawali range? 20. What is the inland drange area? Essay type questions- 21. Describe physical features of Himalayas by dividing in physical regions. 22. Elaborate Northern plains by doing Physical division. 23. Describe Arawali region of Rajasthan.

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Chapter-18

Rivers and Lakes of Bharat

Introduction River is the stream of water that gets water from tributaries and ends in a pond, lake or ocean. The structure from the origin of a river to its Delta, made by the river and its tributary streams, is called ‘Drainage Pattern’. The facts that affect drainage are: topography, structure, slope, tectonics and water suply. The path of flow of Sindhu, Chambal, Brahmaputra, Narmada and Tapti was established before Himalaya was uplifted in Bharat. They are called ‘Antecedent Rivers’. The stream that follows according to the slope of the land is called ‘Consequent River’. The two streams merge at a right angle are called ‘Subsequent River’. It is a rectangular shaped drainage pattern. In a ‘Radial Drainage’ pattern streams flow from a place to all directions; like Narmada, Son and Mahanadi originate from Amarkantak Hills. Aim In this chapter student will be able to know significance of rivers and also learn that rivers are the basis of development f Bharat. River Basins in Bharat:- There are total 113 rivers basins including all large and small streams in Bharat. The rivers that cover more than 20,000 km square catchment areas are called ‘Major River Basins’. The river that encompasses an area of 2000 km to 20000 kmsquare is called ‘Medium River Basin’ and the river that covers an area less than 2000 km square is called‘Minor River Basin’. Drainage system of Bharat- 18.1 The Arabian Sea drainage system 18.2 The Bay of Bengal drainage system 18.3 Inland drainage system 18.4 Major lakes of Bharat 18.5 Rivers of Rajasthan 18.6 Lakes of Rajasthan

18.1 Arabian Sea Drainage System Formerly the Arab Sea was called ‘Sindhu Sagar’. The rivers who discharge there water into it are- Sindhu River, originated form Himalaya; Narmada and Tapti, originated from Amarkantaka; Luni& Sabarmati, originated from Arawali in Rajasthan; 600 minor streams of the Western Ghats that flow towardsthe West. Maximum rivers of Kerla among them falls down in Arabian Sea. (i) Indus River System: - The river originates in Tibetan plateau from Chemayung Dung Glacier located in the west of Mansarovar, flows 320 km in Tibet and runs a course through the Ladakh range and Jaskar range in Kashmir. Its right bank tributary is Kabul and left bank tributaries are Sutlej, Vyas, Chenab and 228

Jhelum. Sindhu merges into the Arabean Sea near Karanchi. It flows 1134 km in Bharat. Its catchment area is 321284 km2 in Bharat; It is called ‘Singi Khambam’ in Tibet. Jhelum, one of its tributaries flows 400 km in Bharat. Chenab fiows 180 km in Bharat. Ravi River is the most minor river it makes a boundary between Pakistan and Bharat. Vyas River originates from Vyaskund and flows 465 km. Sutlej originates in the Rakshatal, Tibet and Bhakhara Nangal Dame is built on the river in Bharat. Vyas River merges in it at Harike and Harike Barrage is situated on it here. Canal starts from the Harike Barrage. The river flows 1050 km in Bharat. (ii) Narmada River:- The river rises from Amarkantak (Satpura ranges). It flows through/in M.P. and Gujarat. The river falls from the height of 23m near Jabalpur, the place is known as ‘Dhuandhar Falls’. The river runs in rift valley. The river discharges in the Arabian Sea near Bharunch forming estuary. It flows over a length of 1300km. (iii) Tapti River:- The river begins from Tapti in Betul district and flows 724 km in M.P. and Gujrat. It merges in the Gulf of Khambat near Surat and makes estuary. Mahi, Sabarmati, Luni rivers too merge in the ArabianSea. Bhadra and Shataranji rivers of Gujarat, Vaitarna river of Maharashtra, Kali river of Karnataka; Pennani (Bharat Pooja), , Pemba NetravadiChurni and Pratichi of are the rivers of the Arabiansea drainage system. Besides these river 600 minor rivers merges in the Arabian Sea. 41 rivers of Kerla those run more than 45 km fall in this sea.

18.2 The Bay of Bengal Drainage System (i) Ganga River- The River is known as “The Cradle of Indian Civilization”, rises from Gomukh near Gangoutri Glacier in Uttarakhand. Here it is known as Bhagirathi. There is the confluence of Alakananda and Bhagirathi at DevPrayag, after this joining this river is known as Ganga. It enters in plains at . Farakka Dam is built over it at Malda District of Western Bengal. Here it departs into 2 streams- one of them is known as Hooghly and Padma in Bangladesh. Kolkata port is situated on Hooghly. Its Delta is called Sundarbans Delta. It flows over the length of 2510 km and its catchment area is of 951600 km2. It left bank tributaries are Ramganga, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Bagmati rivers and right bank tributaries are Yamuna, Son, Punpun, and Damodar. Ganga’s Delta is the largest Delta in the world. It covers the area of 51300 km2. Yamuna is the major tributary of Ganga, originates from the hot spring of Yamunotri. It merges in Ganga near Prayag. Chambal and Kalisindha merge in it near Itawa. Betwa and Ken are its Southern tributaries. It flows 1370 km. is one of the tributaries that come from Malwa and runs 965 km. Betwa, South Tons, Swarnrekha are other important tributaries. Other main tributaries are- Ramganga, Kali(Sharda), Karnali(Ghaghara), Rapti, Gandak, Kosi or Koushiki. Kosi is the major tributary of Ganga. It runs 730 km, this river causes heavy flood. The river often changes its courses and that’s why is called the “Sorrow of Bihar” (bihar ka shok). (ii) Brahmaputra River System- Emerges near KailashMansarovar, known as Tsangpo in Tibet. After running 1100 km in Tibet, enters Araunachal Pradesh where it is known as Dehang. It is called Brahmaputra in Assam. Its north Tributaries are: Lohit, Dibang, Subansiri. ‘China’ dam has been built on this river in Tibet at costs 9764 crores. This project will produce 2.5 Arab kilowatts electricity. It is the largest hydro-electric power projectof China. It is the highest power-station of the 229 world. Due to constructing this dam flow of water have become slower. Arunachal Pradesh and Assam may have to face the problem of drought. For this purpose Bharat has expressed this problem to the world.

18.1 Main Rivers of Bharat After flowing in Bangladesh the river forms delta, merging with Padma & Meghna, which is knows as Ganga-Brahmaputra delta. It is the world’s largest delta. (iii) Rivers of Peninsular Bharat- Main Rivers who discharge in the Bay of Bengal are- Godawari, Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri, Pennar,Tungbhadra. Godavari- It is the second largest river of Bharat after Ganga. It starts from Triyambakeshwar at Nasik. It delta begins near Rajmandri where it is 2.75 km wide. It flows 1465 km Penganga, Veinganga and Manjari are its tributaries. Mahanadi- It emerges from Sihava at Raipur district in Chhattisgarh. Total length is 858 km. and makes Delta in Orissa. Krishna- It is the second largest river of the peninsular Bharat. It has its origin near Mahabaleshwar. Its major tributaries are- Panchganga, Doodhganga, Ghatprabha, Malprabha, Malprabha and Tungabhadra. It has the length of 1400 km. Pennar flows 576 km and makes Delta. Kaveri- It is known as the “Ganga of South”, flows 772 km, originates from Talaikaveri at Kurg. It has 50 tributaries. In Tamilnadu it is known as Ponni (i.e. Sona) .Kaveri is to connect with Mahanadi and Krishna. A canal is being constructed between Kaveri and Krishna which will be nearly completed. Tungabhadra- It originates from “Ganga MoolChoti” in the Western Ghats. It is originated by mergeof two rivers one of the Tunga and Bhadra at Kudali. It is one of the tributaries of Krishna. Crocodiles are found in this river with majority. 230

18.3 Inland drainage system Inland basin covers 50.7% land of Rajasthan.

18.4 Major lakes of Bharat Lake is a natural pit filled with water. Since ancient times lakes are found in drought areas and near hills. Volcano crater also makes the water body of lake. Lakes of Northern Mountain Region- Wooler Lake- Bharat’s largest lake of freshwater located in the valley of Kashmir. It receives water from Jhelum. The lake is situated in the middle of Soper&Bandipur. Dall Lake- The famous lake of Shrinagar, covers the area 18 square km, charmstourist, 500 shikare (temporary house) are situated in it. Bheemtal- This lake is situated in Uttarakhand near Nainital. Chandratal- It is high level lake situated in Lahoule Sfiti District. The lake is situated at an altitude of 4300m. Khechion Palari- The significant Lake of Sikkim. It’s a holy lake. This place is frequently visited by Buddhist and Hindu pilgrims. It is surrounded by the dense forests of . Ponpong- Situated in Laddakh near Leh. Changla Pass passes nearby it. Rupkunda Lake- Situated in Uttarakhand and not is visited so much by people. Western Coastal Lakes:- AshtamudiLake- Situated in the Kottyam District of the of Kerala, possesses unique wetland ecosystem and Ashtamukhi. Venwanand Lake- Catchment area-200 km2, situated on Malabar Coast, covers islands- Pallipuram and Perumbalam. BembanTatu- An important lake of Malabar Coastal area, 16 km far from , important for tourism,KunwaraKom bird sanctuary is situated by it. 18.4.2 Eastern Coastal Lakes - Koleru Lake- A fresh water lake of Andhra Pradesh, situated in the midst of the delta of Krishna and Godawari rivers. This lake is known as bona fide residence of 20 million birds. Pulikat- It’s an important lake of Koromandal Coast, situated near the island of Harikota, has a length of 60 km. 15000 swans come every year in this lake. Chilka lake- Lying near the bank of Orissa, extended in 1175 km. Beside these lakes many others lake have significant place. Textual Question- 1- Write names of two rivers that merge in the Arabian Ocean? 2- The largest river of the Bay of Bengal Drainage System. 3- On which coast the Ashtamudi Lake is located? 4- Write names of the two states in which Narmada River flows? 5- What is the area of the Delta of Ganga (in km2)?

18.5 Rivers of Rajasthan Inland Drainage System covers 50.77% area of Rajasthan. And 17.1% of the drainage system is the Bay of Bengal Drainage System. 231

Inland Basin- The 61.1% land of Rajasthan is desert. flows in this desert land to the Arabian Sea. The 50.71% is inland desert system. The desert land, extended from Ganganagar, Hanumangarh in the west of Arawali to Barmer, Jalore is inland drainage system basin. Sambhar, Deedwana, Panchbhadra, Kuchaman are some saline water lakes, situated in this inland drainage area. Ghagghar, Kantali, Mentha and Roopnagar Garh are some rivers of inland drainage system.

18.2 Major Rivers of Rajasthan The Arabian Sea Drainage System- Luni River- Originates from the Naga Hills at Ajmer, flows to 330 km, covers 34866 km2 area. The river flows on the 10.4% of the land of the state. It’s a seasonal river. Minor streams of Jojari, Mithari, Janwai, Leelri etc. are its tributaries. The river ends in the . - Emerges from Amroru at Jhabua District in the state of M.P. Travels through Banswara, Pratapgarhand Dungarpur in Rajasthan. It flows 171 kmin the state. The river ends in the Gulf of in Gujrat. It’s Basin (catchment Area) is called ‘Chhappan ka Maidan’ (the plain of chhappan).BaneswarDham is situated on the confluence of the rivers Mahi and Som. 232

Sabarmati- This River is originated from the western hills of Udaipur, flows 80km in the state. In the state of Rajasthan its catchment area is 1% of the land. It ends in the . Its tributaries are Vakal, Hathmati and Sei. (i) The Bay of Bengal Drainage System- Chambal- This River begins from the Janapau hill near Manpura in the south of Mahu District.It enters into Chittorgarh near Chaurasigarh, Bhainsrodgarh. Banas, Kalisindha, are its tributaries, flows 345 km in Rajasthan andbears the total lengthof 966 km. It’s a perermial River. Gandhisagar, (M.P.) RanaPratapSagar (), Jawaharsagar (Kota), Kota Bairajare made on it. Banas- Emerges from the hills of Khamnour near Diver at Rajsamand,travels480 km in the state. It merges with Chambl near SawaiMadhopur. It is the largest river of Rajasthan. Bedach, Kothari, Menali and Khari are its major tributaries. is projected on it, from where fresh water is being distributed to Ajmer and Jaipur cities. Bedach- Begins near Udaipur, flows 190 km, merges in at Triveni Mandalgarh. Kothari- Origin: in the Rajasmand District near Diver, length: 145 km, merges in the Banas river near Nandray. Parvati-Tributary of Chambal, originates at Devas (M.P.), ends in Chambal at Palia village after travelling in Baran and Kota in Rajasthan. Kalisindh- Emerges from the Baagali hills of , flows in Jhalawar and Kota, merges in the Chambal River at Nanera. Banganga- Starts from the Bairath hills in Jaipur. Ends in Yamuna at Fatehabad after running in Jaipur and Bharatpur. Gambhiri, Morel etc. are also important rivers of Rajasthan.

18.6 Lakes of Rajasthan There are fresh water lakes in the region of Arawali Range and saline (salt water) lakes in the inland drainage system region. (i) Fresh water Lakes- Rajsamand- Made by Maharana Rajsingh in 1662 AD near Kankroli Railway station. Gomati river ends in this lake,situated at 64 km North-East of Udaipur. Jaysamanda- Built by RanaJaysingh in 1685AD by building a dam on Gomati river. Also known as . Situated in the 51km North-East of Udaipur. It has the length of 15 km and width of 2 km. It covers the area of 55 km2. There are 7 islandsinit. The largest island is Baba Bagada and the shortest island is Pyari. Pichola Lake- Created in 14th century by a nomadduring the rule of RanaLakha. Created by building dam on the rivers- Sisarama and Bujhada. Length-7 km. Two islands- Jag Niwas and Jag Mandir are located midst the lake. These palaces are known as Lake Palace Hotal. AnaSagar- Situated in the North-West of Ajmer; created by Arnoraj, the grandfather of Prithvi Raj Chouhan, in the foothills ofNagas.Shahajahanbuilt ‘Barahdari’ on its bank. Silisedha Lake- Situated-12 km West from Alwar, catchment area- 10km2, situated in the heartof dark forest of Sariska Sanctuary. - Situated in the west of Naga Hills of Ajmer. The world famous temple of Lord Brahma is also there. Kolayat- Located in Bikaner, there is the hermitage of the sage Kapil. 233

Nakki Lake- These are Situated in Mount Abu, Foysagar in Ajmer, Udaisagar in Udaipur, Ramgarh in Jaipur, Navlakha in Bundi, Gaip Sagar in Dungar are other major lakes of Rajajsthan. (ii) Saline (salt water) lakes- Salt lakes are locatedin inland regions. Salt has been producedsince thousands of years but there is no lake salt. Sambhar- Sambhar is located in the 96 km South West of the city of Jaipur. It is a largest inland salt lake. Situated on 27.29’ N and 740 E. Mentha, Roopgharh, Khandela, Khari rivers merge in it. It’s Length is- 32 km. and breadth- 3 to12 km. Salt is produced by Hindustan Salt Limited. Deedwana- situated near the city of Deedwana at Nagaur Distict, 8 km. far from Deedwana. Salt produced from it, is used for industrial purpose. Panchbhadra in Badmer, Lunkaransar in Bikaner, Faloudi in Jodhpur,Kavod in Jaisalmer, Rewasa in Sikar, Kuchaman in Nagour are other lakes. What did you learn-? 1. Chief rivers of the Arabian Sea drainage system- Sindhu, Narmada and Tapti. 2. Kaveri is the main river of Karnataka and Kerala. 3. Godawari flowsin Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra. 4. Ganga runs 2510 km. 5. Triburaries of Brahmaputra-Lohit, Dibang and Subansari. 6. 50.7% land of Rajasthan is inland flow. 7. Ashtamudi Lake is on the coast of Kerala. 8. Chilka Lake is on the coast of Orissa. 9. LuniRiver empties in the Rann of Kutch. 10. Chambalis the only permanent stream of Rajasthan. Answers of textual Questions- 1. Narmada & Tapti 2. Ganga 3. Kerala 4. M.P. & Gujarat 5. 51300 km2

Questions of Exercise Objective type questions- 1. Chambal river flowsin the states of- A- Gujarat, Rajasthan B- Rajasthan, M.P. C- U.P., Gujarat D- Mararashtra, Keral 2. Two rivers, which are not the tributaries of Ganga- A-Yamuna, Kaveri B-Kaveri, Godavari C-Godavari, Krishna D-Yamuna, Kosi 3. Godavari originates from- A-Triyambakeshwar B-Mahabaleshwar C-Bheemashankar D-Amarkantak 4. Wooler lake is situated in- 234

A-J&K B-Himachal C-Rajasthan D-Gujarat Short Answer questions- 5. Write name of the rivers of the Arabian Sea Drainage System of Rajasthan? 6. Write mane of the 4 dams built on Chambal River? 7. Write name of thee fresh water lakes of Rajasthan? 8. How much area Rajasthan dose inland flow cover? 9. Write name of the tributaries of Ganga? 10. What is the importance of for South Bharat? 11. Which rivers are called Panchnad in Bharat? Essay type questions- 12. Write 10 sentences on the Brahmaputra River? 13. Describe 5 major lakes of Bharat with names? 14. Give some description about river Kosi of Bharat?

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Chapter-19

Climate of Bharat

Introduction The climate of Bharat is tropical Monsoon Climate. It is high temperature whole the year. Where in coastal region temperature always remains 20-25˚C, where in North Bharat and in Western Bharat the temperature reaches at 40˚C or more in summer. In the desert regions of Rajasthan temperature reaches at 45˚-48˚C in May-June. While in winter season, Himalaya protects Bharat from Siberian cold waves. Temperature reaches at very low scale in North Jammu-Kashmir, Himachal, and Uttrakhand. The temperature of Kashmir reaches -2˚ to -10˚C. Bharat gets 80% of total Rainfall by Monsoon in Rainy season from 15 June to 15 September. The eastern coastal regions especially Andhra and Tamilnadu get rainfall in winter season. It rains more than 1000 cm in at the hills of Meghalaya in N.E.Bharat. While in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan at Faloudi, Jodhpur it rains even less than 10 cm. That means dissimilar Temperature and unequal rainfall fill the climate with diversities. The fact that affects the climate of Bharat the most is- coastal regions. Because the Peninsular part of Bharat is influenced by the temperature & pressure of ocean. The other majorreason is Himalayas’ expansion from the west to the East in 2400 km. According to modern geographers Jet Streams also affect Indian climate. Jet Streams blow 4 to 5 km above of land and from low latitude to Himalayas in the North. These Jet Streams provokes tropical monsoon winds. In May June Himalaya too affects these Jet Streams. Consequently the speed of Jet Streams becomes slow and as their speed becomes slower rainfall begins to pour over the coast of Kerala and NE Garo-Khasi Hills-Meghalaya. I.e. Indian climate is Tropical Monsoon Climate. Aim- Students will be acquainted with the factors responsible for the climate of a place and with seasons and Jet Streams.

19.1 Factors Responsible for the Climate of Bharat (i) Tropical loction Bharat- The tropic of Cancer passes in the middle of Bharat. It is high temperature whole over the year. The extent of Bharat is between 8˚4’ N Latitude and 37˚6’ N Latitude (i.e. near the equator). That means 60-65% land of Bharat falls in Torrid Zone. 25% area falls in subtropics and 10% falls in HimalayanTemperate Zone. Because, due to the height of Himalayas, this area is covered by snow whole over the year. The climate is affected by latitudes. (ii) Distance from sea In the west of Indian Peninsula, the Arabian Sea; in the East the Bay of Bengal and in the south the Hind Ocean are located. Oceanic part surrounds it from three sides. So the position of sea controls the temperature of Indian Peninsula.While northern parts are far from the ocean. That is why there is excessive range of temperature due to Continental Conditions. It is diversity in rainfall. So distance from sea coasts affects the climate.

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(iii) Himalaya- According to modern geographers, Himalaya very much affects the rainfall in Bharat. Jet Streams fast the speed of monsoon by affecting them. And Himalaya slows these Jet Streams. So the Monsoon becomes slow reaching at Himalayas in Bharat. Consequently rainfall starts in June. And prevents the Monsoon from moving ahead. So it moves to NW side by side of Himalayas and Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Central Bharat get rain. We can say that the Himalaya helps to rain. And protects us from Northern Siberian cold waves. So the winter season can’t be too much cold. That means the Himalaya affects Indian Climate. (iv) Relief and Extent- The salient features of Indian relief are varied. For example: the Himalayas, Northern Plain, Peninsular Plateau, Desert etc. In desert region temperature is high and pressure is low, the range of temperature is too much while rainfall is the minimum. While at Himalayas, pressure is high and temperature is low, hence it is covered by snow always. Therefore, we can say that relief affects the climate. 19.2 The Cycle of Season in Bharat After reading the factors responsible for the climate of a place, we will study the circle of seasons in Bharat. If we study the Indian climate deeply, we will find that there is three seasons in the North Bharat while in the South in coastal regions weather (climate) remains always the same. The climate of the Peninsular Plateau is influenced by seasons. Indian MeteorologicalDepartment has divided Indian season into four parts. (i) Winter Season-  Cloudless conditions develop since October in Northern Bharat.  Dry winter season starts in November, which remains until December-January and February.  Centres of high pressure (more than 1000m) develop in North Tibet of Bharat and in NW Peshawar, Central Asia.  An isotherm of 180C develops from Tapi River to Mahanadi River. In its Northern Plain, temperature reaches at low degree while in the South in KanyaKumari the average temperature is 240-280C.  At night the temperature is 00C in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Western U.P. and sometimes it is -10 to 20 degree.  Due to high pressure centric Westerlies blow from Central Asia and Mediterranean Sea towards NW Bharat and China From midst of December to midst of January. These cause ‘Mawath’ (rainfall) in Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, and U.P. of Bharat. These winds are also called ‘Western Disturbance’. These very winds cause snowfall in North-West Himalayas.  In South Bharat these winds reach passing the Bay of Bengal. Here between 00-100 N doldrums exist. That is why when these winds come from NE to Tamilnadu coast, change into storms which cause rainfall at the scale of 30-40cm.  In the middle regions of South Bharat the weather is dry.  North Bharat remains under the influence of cols waves. In Rajasthan the temperature of Mount Abu, Faloudi and Churu comes down at- 20 C.

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(ii) Hot Summer Season-  In the north region of Bharat temperature starts to grow in March. The sun rays fall on the equator on 21 March. So in South Bharat temperature is high.  The sun enters in northern hemisphere in March. So temperature grows gradually and crosses the scale over 400C in May.  Centres of low pressure develop in NW Bharat. Heavy storms blow in N-W regions. Dusty and hot winds, which blow in May & June, are called “Loo” in North Bharat.  The temperature is more than 450 C in May & June in Rajasthan, Punjab, M.P., Gujarat, and Western U.P. In Rajasthan the temperature of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Ganganagar, Faloudi, i.e. in Thardesert reaches at 490 C. The centre of low pressure develops in Pakistan also along with NW Bharat. At this time, the temperature of Nagpur plateau is also 46-470 C.  S.E trade winds move towards North Bharat rapidly. These trade winds winds get speed from Jet streams.  There is no rain in the completely northern and central Bharat from March to May.  S-W Monsoon enter Kerala and N-E Meghalaya region in the first week of June.  Between 30 May and middle of June, pre monsoon Rains begins. (iii) Rainy Season- In Bharat rainy season is of four months from June to September. Monsoon branches reaches Kerala, Chennai and NE Hills of Meghalaya on 1st June. The Bay of Bengal Monsoon rains in Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura until 1 June. Mosinram (Maghalaya) is the place that gets most of the rain 1100 cm. Rain fall begins from 10-11 June in Kolkata, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhada. Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan get rain until 15 to 20 June. Bharat gets 85% of rain in rainy season. Arabian Sea Branch of monsoon reaches at Kerala till 1st June. Rains till 7 June in Western Ghats, Mumbai; rains in M.P. Chattisgarh, Maharashtra arriving by Narmada and Tapi valley. But when arrives at Rajasthan it moves side by side of Arawali and reaches Uttarakhand and Himachal. This causes heavy rain there. But Rajasthan gets a little rain. At this time, the Bay of Bengal faces tropical cyclones, which cause heavy loss of people and property in costal area. The burning hot of June becomes moderate. Temperature begins to low down and the whole country gets rain.

19.3 Distribution of Rainfall in Bharat The average of annual rainfall in Bharat is 100 to 120cm. Bharat gets 75% to 85 % oftotal rainfall from June to September by SW monsoon. Due to the period of four months it can’t be said that rain will start on right time. Sometimes rain starts on right time and sometimes it delays for 5-10 days that harms agriculture system. Farmers get worried and harvest production decreases. Distribution of rainfall in Bharat is dissimilar. NE region Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram get more than 500cm of rainfall; Assam, Arunachal get 300cm and Bengal, Bihar get 200cm of rainfall. Western regions of U.P. get 60-80cm of rainfall while Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan receive rain less 238 than 60cm and western Rajasthan gains less than 15cm of rainfall. Middle Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh get 80-100cm rainfall. Malabar and Konkan get more than 300 cm of rainfall. While Kuchha gains less than 60cm of rain. That means distribution of rainfall in Bharat is unequal due to diversity of relief. Coastal regions receive heavy rainfall. Himalaya and NE regions also get adequate rainfall but western areas receive much little rainfall due to presence of the desert land.

19.4 Thoughts about Origin of Monsoon- (i) Traditional Thoughts-Sun rays fall on the Tropic of Cancer in summer seasons. Consequently, centres of low pressure develop in NW Bharat and Nagpur Plateau region. While in southern parts, there are high pressures in low latitudes. So winds run from southern latitudes to northern latitudes. These winds cross oceans and absorb water vapour. When, these winds enter Bharat, part into two branches. One crossing the Arabian Sea and the other crossing the Bay o f Bengal and reach at Himalayas and cause heavy rainfall. That is known summer season monsoon.

19.1 Average distribution of Rainfall in Bharat (ii) Modern Theory of Jet Streams and Origin of Monsoon- The winds that run swiftly in the upper layer of troposphere and in the lower layer stratosphere are known as Jet Streams. The winds blow 6 to 12 km above fromsurface, from the West to the East. These streams are effective in the northern hemisphere. In winter season Westerlies are active in all latitudes due to cold cyclones that come from poles. It is notable that the streams are unaffected of land based high or low pressure. Due to anti-cyclones of Northern Pole, eastern waves blow towards low pressure of the Equator in summer season 239

(iii) Theory of P. Koteshwar- He told that the origin of monsoon is related with Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan Plateau is situated at an altitude of 4-5km from sea level. Here temperature increases in summer. The temperature is 20- 30C more than that of other regions. Consequently, the centre of low pressure develops on the Tibetan Plateau. Due to which swift waves blow clockwise on the southern plateau at the highest of five km of troposphere. Because after getting hot on the heated Tibetan Plateau the displaced waves set down after being cool coming in the south. And blows towards Northern Bharat from S-W direction. It causes heavy rain.

19.2 Position of Mansoon in Bharat 240

Because of it, anti-cyclonic conditions set up around the plateau with the flow of Jet Streams on Tibetan Plateau. Consequently, from the plateau, the first sub-tropical Jet Streams blow in the west and the other towards the Equator. Notable Points- 1. Increased temperature of the Tibetan Plateau stimulates Jet Streams. 2. Cyclonical conditions set up on a definite height in down sphere on Tibetan Plateau, hence from this very place, sub- tropical western Jets set up towards the North and the Eastern Jet Streams set up in the south. 3. Eastern Jet Streams are especially helpful in the origin of monsoon. 4. Really the south-western Indian monsoon is a flow of low land-based which originates due to longitudinal movement. 5. The impact of Jet Streams is effective from Eastern China to the coast of Gini. 6. In the summer season, eastern Jet Streams are as much effective as the increasing temperature of Tibetan Plateau. 7. In the winter season, Tibetan Plateau is covered with snow. So the Jet Streams remain ineffective. Textual Questions- 1. What is the type of Indian climate? 2. Which state gets the most of rainfall in Bharat? 3. What is the rainfall caused by westerlidisturnbence in Bharat? 4. In which month does Tamilnadu coast get most of the rainfall?

19.5 Climate of Rajasthan- 61.11% land of Rajasthan is desert. High temperature and dry conditions are peculiarities of the land. Due to sandy desert, the range of temperature is excessive. It have extreme climate. The climate is hot and dry in the region. Northern plain in the east of Arawali have hot and semi-arid climate. S-E and southern part of the state have hot and humid climate. The climate of Rajasthan can be called hot-dry climate. The average of rainfall in the state is 55-60cm. However, in the west of Arawali 61% of the land gets less than 50cm of rain. Hence, the climate is hot and dry. Most of the rain falls due to monsoon. The Arabian Sea monsoon passes parallel to Arawali. The Bay of Bengal Branch of monsoon causes 80-85% rainfall. Factors Responsible for the Climate of Rajasthan- (i) Location of Arawali from S-W to N-E- Arawali affects the climate of Rajasthan. SW |Arabian Sea monsoon passes parallel to Arawali. Hence, the state gets inadequate rainfall. (ii) Desert condition- 61.11% land of Rajasthan is desert, which causes lack of flora and fauna and high temperature. Due to dry conditions, the state gets 15-30cm rainfall. Thus, the climate of the state gets influenced. (iii) Distance from the Equator Laitudional Position- The Tropic of Cancer passes from the south of Rajasthan i.e. sun rains fall all along the year. Hence, due to high temperature conditions continue so topical condition affects the climate of Rajasthan. 241

(iv) Distance from Sea-The state is situated 400 km. far from the sea level, resulted in continental climate. The land soon gets cold and hot. 61% of the land is desert, which causes preponderant range of temperature that means due to far distance the state remain unaffected of Sea. It means Arawali, relief and latitudinal situation influence more the climate of our state.

19.6. Seasons Cycle in Rajasthan (i) Winter- The winter season starts in Rajasthan from November but it is effective really in December, January and February. Cold waves blows in Northern region and from NW regions. This causes cold in the state. In the month of January temperature of Mount Abu, Churu, Ganganagar, Faloudi i.e. in the western Rajasthan and in Mount Abu Aravali comes down at 00 C or become lower. Westerlies arrive in January in the state, which causes rainfall. This rain is called “Mawath”. Cold waves affect the state. Temperature of western Rajasthan reaches at the scale of 5-10 cm. (ii) Summer season- Sunrays fall straight on the tropic of cancer on 21 June. It is responsible for extreme heat in the northern hemisphere period of the summer season in the state is from 21st March to 21st June. During this period, hot and dry waves blow in May and June. These waves are known as “Loo”. 31.7 million hectare part of the state is desert land, where fiery (swift) storms are found. The region is situated in the west of Arawali. Wind-erosion is found mostly, that’s why sandy dunes moves from one place to another. It is burning hot in May. Temperature arrives at 45-480C. Somewhere the temperature is 490C. Speed of winds is 30-60km per hour. There are extreme conditions in this region. The average temperature in eastern and south east parts is 350-400C. But loo waves blow in entire state. So the summer season is hot and dry. Diurnal range of temperature is also high in the state. Centres of low pressure develop in N-W regions. (iii) Rainy Season- The period of rainy season in the state is from mid-June to September. The average rainfall of the state is 55 to 60cm. The Bay Bengal monsoon causes 80-85cm rainfall in the state. Rainfall starts in the state on mid 15-20 June. The Arabian Sea monsoon causes adequate rainfall in Banswara, Sirohi and Udaipur. Other districts get inadequate rainfall. Arawali extends from SW to NE in the state and the direction of the Arabian Sea monsoon is too similar. Hence, the monsoon passes parallel to Arawali. Jhalawar and Banswara get the most of the rainfall in Rajasthan. They get 100cm of rainfall. Arawali is the representative of 50cm rainfall line. In the West of Arawali the rainfall 19.3 Average Distribution of Rainfall in Rajasthan 242

is less than 50cm. As the monsoon goes ahead towards West, it loses its humidity. Hence, Jaisalmer gets only 10-15cm of rainfall. The average of rainfall increases towards the west to the east. The eastern plains get 60-65cm and SE plateau gets more than 75cm rain. Distribution of the rainfall in the state is unequal and alternately in 4 years the state faces awful drought. The rainfall continues for 32 days in the SW plateau. Jaisalmer get rainfall only for 12 days. Jet streams also affect the monsoon of the state and the rainfall caused by Westerlies is called Mawath, falls in January.

What did you learn?- 1. The climate of Bharat is tropical climate. 2. The Himalaya affects Indian climate the most. 3. N-W disturbance causes maimum rain in Tamilnadu. 4. The dusty hot winds that blow in the NW desert are called “Loo”. 5. ‘Mosinram’ gets the most of rainfall in Bharat. 6. Jet Streams blow 6-12km above from the earth’s surface. 7. gets the most of the rainfall in Rajasthan.

Answers of Textual Question- 1. Tropical mansoonic 2. Meghalaya-Mosinram 3. Mawath 4. December

Questions for Exercise Objective type questions- 1. The average rainfall inBharat is- (a) 100-120cm (b)150-160cm (c) 70-80cm (d) 140-150cm 2. When does the rainfall start at Malabar Coast (Kerela)? (a)1 June (b)10 June (c) 15 June (d)25 June 3. The region that gets most of the rainfall in Bharat is- (a)NE region (b) The Himalayas (c)Plains (d) Desert 4. Jet Streams blow on the height of- (a)6-12km (b)2-3km (c)5-8km (d)3-7km 5. The average of rainfall in Rajasthan is- (a)70cm (b)60cm (c) 55cm (d) 75cm

Short type questions- 6. Which three states get the most of the rainfall in Bharat? 243

7. What do you know about Jet Streams? 8. Write three peculiarities of rainfall in Rajasthan. 9. What causes of Mawath Rain in Rajasthan? 10. Describe the conditions of summer season in Coastal region. Essay type questions- 11. Himalaya affects the climate of Bharat. How? 12. What is Jet Stream? How does this affect the climate of Bharat?

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Chapter 20

Natural Vegetables and Soils of Bharat

Trees are the basis of Environment. Nature i.e. water, air, soil, forest, animals and animates & inanimate is considered as deity in the culture of our country. To protect nature as mother, we worship sacred (peepal), phyllanthus emblica (amla) and basil (tulsi) not only from now a day but for thousands of years. The scientific reason behind this is to conserve or save environment. At present many countries in the world are releasing toxic gases by producing the most. It causes global warming. Due to too much emission of carbon marine organism are dying, glaciers are melting, Ozone layer is depleting. That means we ought to save the environment. We must save the trees. Sometime ago United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Paris in 2014. Bharat decided to reduce emission of carbon 33 to 35 % till 2030. In this conference, it has been decided to reduce increasing emission of carbon on the “earth” to save environment and to stop climate change. According to the environment policy, 33% land of the world should be covered with forests. There are 21.34% of forests in Bharat as per Forest Survey, 2015. Forests have expanded extended to 5081 km2 since 2013 to 2015. Forests cover an area of 7,01,673 km2 in Bharat as per Bharat State of Forest Report 2015. That means 21.34 % of the total land is covered with forest. Forest-covered areas

Area (km2) Percentage Very dense forest 85,904 2.61 Moderately dense forest 3,15,374 9.59 Open forest 3,00,395 9.14

Total forest-covered land 7,01,673 21.34

Scrub 4111,362 1.26

Forests land with scrubs 74,3,035 22.50

Total forest cover is extended in 7,94,245 km2. Aims:- To make students acquainted with benefits of natural vegetation and with natural vegetation, forests and forest regions of Bharat. So that students can ponder why the conservation of woods is necessary and grow trees. What is the use of soil? How will we be able to grow crops without soil? That means all types of harvests grow in the soil. Hence, it is important to save soil. The aim of the 245 lesson is to inform students about forests and soils of Bharat and to inspire them to love & take care of nature.

20.1 Types of forest in Bharat The classification of Indian forests is as follows- (i) Tropical Evergreen Forests- These forests occur in the coastal regions of the Western Ghats, Malabar Coast, Western Region, Himalayas, Tarai of Himalaya, East Himalaya, Nilgiri, Anna Malai, Karnataka, Andaman Nikobar, coast of Orissa, Assam, Arunachal, Meghalaya, Manipur. These forests are dense and evergreen. These forests occur in the areas receiving more than 200 cm of rainfall. Trees reach great heights up to 40 to 60 metres. These trees have black and hard wood. Some of trees found in there forests are: rubber, mahogany, ebony, wild , apple, nahor, gurjan, tad (Palmyra palm), bamboo, reeds. The forests occupy about 16.71% of the land surface of Bharat. (ii) Tropical Moist- Monsoon Forest- These are also known as Deciduous Forests. These forests are 19.73% and are found in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Maharashtra, S-E Rajasthan, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Mostly , sal, kusum, bamboo, palas, tendu, myrabolans, amla, anjan, bamboo, black-berry, simoom and red-white sandalwood, , eugenia etc. trees are found in these forests The wood of these monsoon forests is important for trade. These forests are found in the areas where precipitation is 100-200 cm. Trees reach the height up to 20 m.to 40 m. (iii) Tropical Dry forest- In these forests precipitation is 50-100 cm. These trees have the average height of 6-9 metres. These trees have deep roots, which help to absorb deep ground water. These trees have dry and pointed leaves. The trees scattered in tropical dry forest are thorny bushes, khejra, acacia, khair (capparis decidua), amla, reetha (sapindus mukorossi), kumtha, thuhar, oak, palm, banyan, peepal etc. These types of forest are found in S-W Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan S-W Uttar Pradesh and in Andhra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra of the Peninsular Plateau. The wood of sisom, roheda (tecomella undulate), teak, acacia and neem (azadirachta indica) is useful. Main trees found in these forests are kair, khair, (senegalia catechu), khejra, sangri, khuskhus(vetiveria ziziniodes) and karonda (Carissa carandas). Tropical Thorn Forests are also found along with Dry Forests. The percentage of the Tropical Dry Forest is 2.25 in Bharat. (iv) Mountain Forests- These forests are found in high regions of Himalayas and mountainous area of peninsula. Alpine vegetation is found at higher altitudes in Himalaya. Increasing altitude in Himalayas leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation. Oaks and chestnuts are found between heights of 1000 and 2000 metres. Between 2000 and 3000 metres Wet Temperate Forests containing coniferous broadleaf trees like oaks, chestnuts, chir (Pinus roxburghii), fir, spruce and deodar are found and they cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Between 3000 and 4000 metres silver fir, junipers, chir, birches etc. are found. In the regions of Nilgiri, , Trayambakeshwar, Bheemashankar, Mahabaleshwar in southern peninsula, evergreen forests are predominant. These forests are 4.79% of total. 246

(v) Tidal or Mangrove forests- These vegetations are found in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Trees are evergreen forests. In these forests herotoria, coconuts, tad (Palmyra palm), reeds, , sundari (Heritiera fomes ) are predominant. The coasts of Ganga, Andhra, Tamilnadu and the deltas of Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari are covered by such vegetation. Most of the mangrove vegetation is found in the Sunderban region. These forests cover the area of 47,400 km2 in 12 coastal states and union territories. Thus, various types of vegetation are found in Bharat. Benefits of Forests- 1. Pericious woods- Teak, Sal, Sisom, Mahua, Sandalwood, Myrabolans, Arjun, Palas etc. herbal trees are found in forests. 2. Indirect benefits- Shellac, Rubber, Paper-Pulp, Gum, Guggul (mukul myrrh), Mahua etc. are indirectly beneficial.

20.1 Vegetables in Bharat 247

Fruits- Bail, Amla, Tamarind, Mango, Black-Berrry, Custard Apple, Timru (zanthoxylim), Apple, Mahua, Chironji (Buchanania Latifolia), Walnut, Chilgoza (the seeds of the himalyan pine), Water-Chestnut, Karonda, Munga, Mulberry, Molava (vitex parviflora) etc. are found in forests. 3. We also get benefits of catechu, Tanning materials, herbal plants, Bamboo, Reads like trees from forests.

20.2 Diversity of Vegetation in Bharat. (i) Wildlife of Bharat- Bharat is natural home to a variety of animal life because of its diversity of reliefs and climate conditions. 81251 types of wild animal species are found in Bharat which are 6.7% of the world. Due to the variety of wild animals, we can divide Bharat into 6 bio-geographical regions- 1. Himalayan Region, 2.Northern Plain, 3.Thar Desert, 4.Peninsular Plateau,5. Malabar coast 6.Nilgiri. Natural habitats of wildlife are decreasing due to increasing population and decreasing forests density. That’s why the Indian Government declared its Wildlife Conservation Policy in 1992. 1438 wildlife sanctuaries have been established in Bharat to protect and save wild life. According to the census of 2010 there are 92 national parks and more than 500 wild life sanctuaries in Bharat and other bird sanctuaries are also there. Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand), Kanha National Park (Madhya Pradesh), Kaziranga (Assam)-famous for one-horned Rhinos in the world, (West Bangal), (Gujrat-Sourashtra), (Kerala), Bandipur (Karnataka), Palamu (Jharkhand) are predominant National Parks of Bharat. Sariska (Alwar), Ranthambore (Sawai-madhopur), (Bharatpur) are situated in Rajasthan. There are 39 National tiger reserves and 513 National Parks in Bharat. (ii) The policy of protecting wildlife- The National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) was established in 1992. A policy has been formed to conserve forest regions, lands near forests, national parks, sanctuaries and along with other referenced regions to protect Western Ghats’ eco-system. Within the Afforestation Programme to grow bamboo & herbal plants and biofuel is the chief aim of 10th plan. In the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 2002 to hunt wild animals and their trade has been declared illegal, its bitter provisions fear to criminals. This act is guiding forest department to organize seminars, conferences, workshops and exhibitions for National Parks & Sanctuaries to aware people of wild life.

20.3 Soils Introduction Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock particles/debris and humus which develop on the earth surface and support growth of plants or having fertility. The size of soil’s particles decides its fertility. There are many forms of soils. Soils bear sand particles, alluvial soil or saline soil. Alluvial soils are found in the plains of Bharat. While mountain soils in Himalaya and Black-Regur soils are found on the peninsular plateau. In the western regions of Bharat especially in Rajasthan sandy soils are found.

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Soils of Bharat- According to the Council of Indian Agriculture Research the classification of Indian soils is as follows- 1. Red soils, 2. Black soils, 3. Laterite soils, 4. Alkaline Soils, 5. Light Black and Marshy soils, 6. Alluvial soils, 7. Sandy soils, 8. Forests soils. The newest alluvial soil covers an area of 1012 lac hectare in Bharat. 594 lac hectare land is covered with black soils, desert soils covers 146 lac hectare of the land and Red-Yellow soils cover an area of 498 lac hectare. There are Laterite soils on 465 lac hectare and mountain soils on 117 lac hectare in Bharat. That means there are various types of soils. The soils of Bharat have been divided physically according to the physical divisions.

20.1 Distributions of Soils in Bharat 249

(i) Soils of the Mountain Regions- Mountain soils are found on the 2.04 crore-hectare land of Bharat. The layer of these soils is thin and these soils depleted easily due to mountainous slope. This soils contains more fossils. There is lack of phosphorus, potash and lime in the soils. These soils are appropriate for plantation crops. Stony soils are found in the south of Himalayas in the area of 13,300 km2. Lime and iron are present in this soil and these are acidic soils. Soils containing lime and dolomite are found in lower parts of snow line in Himalayas. Somewhere volcano soils are also found.

(ii) Soil of Plains or River Borne Alluvial Soils- 30-35 % soils of Bharat are spread in the catchment area of rivers. These soils are widespread in the Northern Plain, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal and in the deltas of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri in the south Bharat and in Western and Eastern Coasts. In the middle region this soil is also found in the valleys of Narmada and Tapi. (A) The Oldest Alluvial Soils- These soils are known as Bangad. Somewhere the layers of hard stony soils are found in this soils. It is known as ‘Reh’. This soil is also called alkaline soil in Punjab. This soil is found in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, N-E Rajasthan and in the upper region of the Eastern Coastal areas. (B) New Alluvial Soils- These soils are formed of fine particles and are more fertile. These soils can hold more water than Bangad soils. The soils do not need fertilizers because of new deposits. These soils are found in the Eastern and Delta regions of the Northern Plains and in the river valleys of southern plateau. (C) The Newest Alluvial Soils- These soils are found in the deltas of Ganga, Sundarban, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Kaveri. These soils are salty and marshy. The soil is rich in potash, lime, magnesium, phosphorus and fossils. These are the most fertile soils. Grains, jute, fruits, spices are produced on a large scale in these soils. (iii) Soils of the Southern Bharat - The soils of this region are ancient. These can be divided into- black, red, yellow and laterite soils. 1. Black Soils- These soils are mature. These soils are found in Tamilnadu, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa, Talangana, S-E Rajasthan and Bundelkhand. Texture: dark black, dense and delicate particles. These soils have high water retaining capacity. The soil is rich in lime, potassium, magnesium, aluminium and iron. It is extremely fertile. Cotton and wheat are cultivated manly in this type of soil. 2. Red-Yellow Soils- These soils are relics of ancient transformed rocks. Its colour is red because of ferric oxide. It is reddish brown on some places yellow. These soils are porous, friable and fertile. Iron, aluminium and lime are present in this soil. These soils are found in the regions of Narmada, Tapi, Chota Nagpur Plateau- Santhal Pargana, Meghalaya, Garo-Khasi-Jayantiya. At Arawalli & S-E Rajasthan. Rubber and coffee are cultivated in this type of soils in Tamilnadu and Karnataka. 3. Laterite- This soil is a type of red soil. Iron, silica, aluminium, phosphorus, lime are present. This soil becomes so soft when wet and so hard when dried. It is also known as “Balui”(sandy). This type of soil is found in Karnataka, Western Maharashtra, and mountainous area of Tamilnadu.

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(iv) Other Soils- Desert Soils- This soil is found in Western Rajasthan, Northern Gujrat, south Hariyama and western U.P. The desert soil is expanded in 1.42 crore hectare. This sandy soil is found in Jaisalmer, Badmer, Bikaner. This soil is not fertile. Acidic and Alkalin Soils- These soils are found in dry, semi-dry and marshy lands. Soil becomes alkaline due to extreme irrigation in dry land. When the rain water remains stopped for a long time in a particular land the alkaline elements of that soil uplift and cause alkaline soil. These soils are also known as Bhood, Usar (sterile), Kallar, Reh, Chopan. Mostly found in U.P., Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab. Marshy Soils- These soils are found in Orissa coast, Sunderban, Northern Bihar and Kerala coast. Soil Conservation- The soil is losing its fertility day-by-day. Rivers and wind cause soil erosion. Water erosion is active in 187.8 million hectare in Bharat. According to I.C.A.R.60% is affected by soil erosion. Wind erosion is found in jodhpur, Bikaner, Sikar, Jaipur of Rajasthan and in Haryana & Punjab. Soil erosion should be stopped by-  Tree plantation on hills  Rotation of crops  Obstruction (medbandi)  Building check dams  Making water sheds  Ploughing against slope of the field  The only way to prevent wind erosion is- tree plantation. Wind erosion of the sandy dunes can be stopped by growing trees n sand dunes. Textual Questions- 1. How many national parks are there in Bharat as per 2010 survey? 2. Which national park is famous for “Rhinos” in Bharat? 3. How much area is forest-covered in Bharat? 4. The tropical evergreen forest cover what %of the land in Bharat? 5. Where are the tidal forests found in Bharat?

20.4 Vegetation of Rajasthan Only 9.59% land of Rajasthan is covered with vegetation according to the Forest Report of 31.03.2015. Dry and semi-dry vegetation is found in the western Rajasthan i.e. in the west of Arawalli. Dense vegetation is found in the slopes of Arawalli range, eastern Rajasthan and in W-E in Baran, Kota, Jhalawar, Chittor, Banswara. Mostly the plants of “Dhokra” are found in Rajasthan. There are 38.02 % reserved forests, 53.48% protected forests and 8.50% unclassified forests in Rajasthan. Types of Forest in Rajasthan- Various types of vegetation are there in Rajasthan due to diversity of reliefs, climate, soils and dissimilarity of rainfall.

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(i) Tropical Thorn Forest These types of forest are found mostly in the 60% of the land of West Rajasthan. Since in this region precipitation is 25-50 cm, that’s why, less lengthy & thorny plants and shrubs are found in these forests. Khejri, roheda, ber, jal, thorny acacia are mostly found in these forests. These trees have long and thick roots to absorb deep underground water. The State Tree of Rajasthan is Khejri. It is also called “Thar ka Kalptaru”. (ii) Boswellia Serrata or Salar Forest- These forests are found in Alwar, Jaipur, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Chittor, Rajsmand, and Udaipur (in the East of Arawalli hills). These forests extended from Alwar to Udaipur. These forests are found in the regions that get 50-100 cm of rainfall. These trees reach the height up to 2-5 metres. (iii) Dry Deciduous Forests- These tropical forests are found in Udaipur, Banswara, Rajsamand, Pratapgarh, Chittor, i.e. in the South Rajasthan. The trees of this region are- dhokda, tendu, acacia, banyan, acacia catechu, neem, baheda, dhaman, khirni, samul, timru, bamboo, oak, karonda. Mostly Dhok forests are found in Rajasthan which is very useful. Many products are made by these trees like- catechu, toys from khirni. smoking sticks from tendu leaves. (iv) Mixed Deciduous Forests- These are found in Mukandara hills, Chittor, Kota, Bundi and in the Mewada hills of Arawalli where precipitation is 75-100 cm. Mostly Mango, Acacia, Black-berry, Banyan, Cluster fig (Gullar) are found in these forests. are also found somewhere. (v) Dry Teak Forests- These trees are found mostly in Banswara. These trees are also found in Chittor, Pratapgarh, Udaipur and Baran where precipitation is 75-100. These trees reach height up to 12-13 metres. These forest are significant forests which are useful for making furniture, doors, window etc. and are long lasting. Bomboos are also there along with these forests. (vi) Sub-Tropical Evergreen Forests- These forests cover an area of 32 km2 around Mount Abu, which gets 150cm of rainfall. Babmoo, Mango, Black-berry, Roheda and creepers are also found in these forests. (vii) Dhokda Forest- These deciduous forests are found the most in Rajasthan. These trees reach the height up to 12 metres and somewhere in river valley up to 20 metres. (viii) Acacia Catechu khair- Catechu forests are also found with Dhokda forests in Baran, Kota, Jhalawar, Alwar, Sawaimadhopur, Chittor. Some notable facts about forests- The State Tre of Rajasthan is “Khejri”. It is also known as “Janti” in western Rahasthan. It is called “Shami Vriksh” in Indian “Vangmaya”. It is called “Kalpvriksha” in desert area. Tendu, Catechu, Bamboo, Honey, Gum, Mahua, Amla, Shellac etc. which are important for our economy, so it becomes important to conserve forests. There are little forests in Rajasthan so it is very important to grow trees. The state government is playing an important role for forest development. Rajasthan Government’s Schemes for Afforestation- 1.Arawali Development Programme- Since 1992,2. Afforestation Project in Aravalli Hills- since 1992 in the partnership of Japan, 3. Vaniki Vikas Yojna -since 1995, 4. Desert Afforestation Programme- since 1978, 5. Operation Khejri- scheme 1995, Green Rajasthan- since 2009.In 2016, Forest cover land increased 85 km2. 252

28 lac trees have been planted in the ‘Mukhyamantri Jal Swavalamban Yojna’ in the session of 2015-16.

20.5 Soils of Rajasthan There is diversity of soils in the expanded land of Rajasthan due to diversoty reliefs. There is sandy soil in western Rajasthan which get low rainfall and high temperature. Brown and mountain soils in middle Arawali region, loam-alluvial soil in N-E plains, loam soil in southern plains and black soils in the S-E plateau are found in the state. Soils of Rajasthan (i) Sandy Soil- There is sandy-soils in the western desert land. Wind Erosion and deposition is found here due to low rainfall, high temperature, and lack of vegetation. Due to thick particles it has low water-retaining capacity. This soil is rich in phosphate and calcium and poor in organic and nitrogen. This type of soils is found in Badmer, Bikamer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jalore and Churu. Sorghum, pearl millet etc. are cultivated in this soil. (ii) Brown and Sandy Soil- This soil is found in the semi-desert region of Rajasthan, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Nagour, Pali, West Sirohi and eastern Jalore. The sand is made of fine particles and is fertile because of Nitrogen and phosphate (3-4%). The precipitation is 25-50 cm in these regions. Grains, Pulses are cultivated. Alkaline soils are also found somewhere in Nagore and Sikar. (iii) Brown Soil- There soils are found in the eastern part in Bharat Arawalli and nearby regions- Ajmer, Bhilwara and Sawaimadhopur. This soil is poor in nitrogen, phosphate and calcium. Maize and sorghum are cultivated. (iv) Medium Black Soil- This soils is found in the S-E plateau i.e. Hadouti Plateau in Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar and Baran. The soil is rich in potash and calcium. This soil is fertile for cultivation and is found in thick layers. Wheat, Cotton and Spices are cultivated. (v) Red-Loam Soil- The soil is red due to presence of iron particles. The soil is formed by metamorphic and quartz rocks. It have high water retaining capacity. This soil is found in Udaipur, Dungerpur, Banswara, Chittorgarh and Prtapgarh. Maize, Wheat, Cotton are cultivated. (vi) Mixed Red and Black Soil- This ordinary soil is also found in the form of sandy-loamy soil. This soil is found in Chittor, Dungerpur, Banswara, Bhilwara and eastern Udaipur. Maize, Cotton are cultivated in this soil. (vii) Alluvial soil- The soil is expanded in the regions of eastern and middle river basin- Jaipur-Dausa, Bharatpur-Dolpur, Sawaimadhopur, Karauli, Bhilwara and northern Kota. The soil is extremely fertile and rich in nitrogen. It is the Bagad of eastern Plains. (viii) Brown-Sandy-Alluvial Soil- The soil is found in Alwar and northern Bharatpur. It’s a fertile alluvial soil and useful for Rabi & Kharif crops.

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20.6 Soil Erosion The formation of 2-3 cm thick layer takes 200 years. Soil erosion should be stopped effectively. Some remedies for soil conservation are- (1) By afforestation (2) By using rotation of crops (3) By developing meadows (4) By increasing fertility of soil (5) By obstruction of farms. What did you learn? 1- There are 21.34% of the forests in Bharat. 2- Mangrove forests are found in the deltas. 3- There are 81251 types of vegetation and wild life. 4- Red-yellow soils are found in Maharashtra. 5- Mostly, Dhonkda forests are found in Rajasthan. 6- Black soil is found in the S-E plateau in Rajasthan.

Answer of Textual Question- 1- 92, 2- Kaziranga (Assam), 3- 21.34%, 4- 16.7%, 5- In the regions of Deltas and in coastal areas. Questions for Exercise Objective type questions- 1. According to the Forest Report, 2015 the percentage of forests in Bharat is- (A) 21.34% (B) 34% (C) 22.50% (D) 23% 2. Which state has the maximum of forest land-? (A) M.P. (B) Gujarat (C) Maharashtra (D) Tamilnadu 3. In which region the coniferous forest are found-? (A) Himachal Pradesh (B) On the bank of the rivers (C) Huge plains (D) Delta region 4. The State Tree of Rajasthan is- (A) Dhokda (B) Khejri (C) Rohida (D) Teak 5. What is the type of forest in the region of Delta in Bharat-? (A) Mangrove (B) Deciduous (C) Sal (D) Alpine 6. In Rajasthan Black soil is found in- (A) New alluvial’s plains (B) River deltas (C) Bengal region (D) Khadar region Short Answer type question- 7. Where in Bharat, The newest alluvial soils are found? 8. In which state the coniferous forest are found in Bharat? 9. Where the tidal forests are found in Bharat? 254

10. Why is the conservation of forest necessary? Write three reasons. 11.Which region of Rajasthan does have the most of vegetation? 12.Whhich is the “State Tree” of Rajasthan? Essay type questions- 13. Classify the forests of Bharat. 14. What are the benefits of forest? 15. What types of forest are found in Rajasthan?

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Chapter-21

Water Resource Multipurpose Projects, Water Conservation, Water Management and Self-Reliance.

Introduction- ‘Water is life’. Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface. Our body contains 70 % of water and there is 70% of water in the universe. Water is an important part of life. Water is necessary for fishery, farming, hydro-power, construction, transport etc. Only 3% water of the earth is pure fresh water. It is considerable that water of lakes, ponds, rivers, seas etc. is polluting. Rivers are drying. Lakes’ and ponds’ water is being polluted. We do not pay attention to ancient traditional water sources like- Bawadis, Tankas, Khadins etc. Ground water is being consumed by tubewells from the depth of 500-1000 m. People are selling water in bottles. Many places are declared dark-zone due to lack of water. So it has become very important to save and to conserve water. We have to save water to save environment. Let’s take a resolution that we shall not waste even a drop of water.

Aim- After reading this lesson students will come to know about- - What is the importance of water for life? - Water is a fundamental need of development. - What are multipurpose projects? - What is the importance of multipurpose projects in India? - What were the traditional means for water management? - Why the water conservation is necessary? - Utility of Rivers, Lakes, Ponds are of much use. - Moreover, they will be able to point out the major multipurpose projects of India in map. - 21.1 Multipurpose River Valley Projects- Huge dames and artificial lakes are constructed on rivers within multipurpose projects in India. These are helpful in control of floods. Multipurpose river valley project are designed for the development of irrigation, fishery and hydro-power, meadows afforestation, transport. These projects prevented soil erosion, which means these projects proved helpful for long-lasting development of river valleys.

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21.1 Multipurpose Projects of Bharat Major Multipurpose River-Valley Projects in India- (1)Damodar Valley Project, (ii) Kosi Project, (iii) Hirakund Project, (iv) NagarjunSagar, (v) Bhakda- NangalProject (vi) Chambal Valley Project (vii) Project etc. (i) Damodar Valley Project- Damodar vally Project is located in Jharkhand and West Bengal. It is designed on the lines of the Tennessee River-Valley Project of USA. originates from Chandwan village, Palamau District of Chota Nagpur plateau from the height of 630 m. This river runs 530 km in Jharkhand and 257

West Bengal and ends in Ganga river. This river was called the “Sorrow of West Bengal”. Dams are constructed on its tributaries Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Balpahad. Damodar Valley Corporation was formed in 1948. - Three dams on Damodar River and five dams on its 4 Tributaries (2 on ) are constructed. It has a network of canals (2500 km.) - Hydro-electric power of 533 mw is being produced. - 8 lac hectare of land is being irrigated. - The catchment area of Damodar is 24235 km2, extended in Jharkhand and West Bengal. - This river-Valley project has proved helpful to prevent flood. - It is the first multipurpose project of India. Textual Questions- 1. In which two states is the Damodar River Valley Project situated? 2. How much area is being irrigated by this project? (ii) Hirakund Project It is an important multipurpose project of the state of Orissa. Hirakund dam is built across the Mahanadi River in Sambalpur in the state of Orissa. Its length and height is respectively 4.8 km. and 61 m. - It is the longest dam of India. Its construction began in 1948 andcompletedin 1957. - It is about 15 km from Sambalpur. - A hydroelectric power house is situated at Chiplima which produces 24000 KW hydro- power. - It has three major canals- Borgarh Canal is right canal and Sason & Sambalpur are its left canals. - 8 lac hectare of land is being irrigated. - The land of Sambalpur, Bolan, Gir, Puri, Katak districts is being irrigated. - This project provides power for Raurkela Steal Plant. - 347.5 Mw hydropoweris being produced by this project. - Its construction cost was 1.01 billion Rs. in 1957. - Sambalpur is called the “Bowl of Rice” of Orissa. - This project makes water available for coalmines and industries of Sambalpur and Jaduguda. - The dam regulates the flood in Katak and Puri and canals are useful for irrigation. - The project developed irrigation industries, hydro-power, wild life sanctuaries and prevented flood. Textual Questions- 3. On which river is the Hirakund Dam constructed? 4. Which is the longest dam of India and in which state it is situated? (iii) BhakdaNagal Project BhakdaNagal project is one of the important projects of India. It is a joint venture of the government of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. 1. Bhakhda is the highest dam of the world. It is situated at an altitude of 522m. This dam is built at a gorge named Bhakhada, 20 km. N from Ropad District of Punjab. It is a concrete gravity dam having the length of 88 Km. and width of 8 Km. This dam is also known as GovindSagar Reservoir. 2. Nangal Dam- The Nangal Dam has been constructed at Nangal about 13 Km. south of the Bhakda Dam. It has the height of 29 M, length of 315 M and breadth of 121 M.  Its construction began in 1948 and completed in 1963. 258

 It is the second highest dam of India after Tihari Dam.  1325 MW power is generated.  The dam provides irrigation to 40,000 km2 of land of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.  The state of Rajasthan has partnership of 15.2%.  341 villages displaced due to this project.  All major canals start from Nangal Dam. (iv) Nangal Hydro-Power Canal This right canal of Nangal Dam is 64 km long and 8 meters deep. Power stations are established on this canal at Ganguwala, Kotala and Ropad which provides hydro electricity. Major Canals- 1. Bakhada Canal- Starts from Ropad and extended to Tohna (Hisar). After running 173 km, the canal divides into two parts. Bhakhada Canal has the length of 1050 km. Its branches are 3360 km long. The land of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana is irrigated. 2. Bista-Do-Aab Canal- The canal starts from Nova and is 145 Km. long. Four lac hectare land of Hoshiyarpur and Eastern Punjab is being irrigated. 3. Sarhind Canal- It has an average water flow of 12000 cuseq. Irrigation is provided for eastern Punjab. 4. Nangal Canal- It is 64 km. long. This canal provide irrigation for Ambala, Patiyala, Nabha, Ludhiyana, , Firojpur of Punjab; Hisar and of Haryana and Northern Rajasthan. 5. Narvana Sakha Canal- Karanal District of the state of Haryana is irrigated. Hydro-power stations situated on this canal are producing 6 lac KW. Electricity. The canal provides irrigation to 15 lac hectare land.

Textual Questions- 5. What are the major canals of Bhakhada Nangal? 6. How much power is being produced by Bhakhda Nangal Project? 7. Which is the highest dam of India? (v) Kosi Project- Kosi River is also known as the “Sorrow of Bihar”. This river often changes its course. The river changed its course in 2009 due to heavy flood and cause heavy loss of wealth, people, animals and vegetations. It caused heavy flood in Purniya Districts. The Kosi project is an outcome of the joint agreement between the government of Bihar (India) and Nepal. The dam is built on Kosi River in 5 km. near Nagar in Nepal. An embankment is made at the length of 240 km. on the bank of this dam. The Kosi Canal controlled the flood of an area of 29000 km2. It is provide in irrigation to 6 lac hectare land of Saptari District of Nepal and Purniya, Madhopur, Saharsa of Bihar. It western levee is extended from (Hanuman Nagar) to Bhamta (Bihar) in 110 km. The Kosi Canal in the east of the dam beings from Bhimnagar which is divided into 4 Branches- 1. Supoli branch, 2.Purniya branch, 3 .Pratapgarh branch and 4. Arttiya branch. Kosi canal is situated in the west of the dam which is 120 km long. This Canal provides irrigation to 12000 hectare land of Bihar and Nepal. The chief object of this project is flood control in Bihar. (vi) Nagarjun Sagar Project-  The dam is built across the Krishna River, which is the largest project of Andhra. 259

 The dam is constructed near by Nandi Konda village in Guntur District which is 92 m tall and 1.69 km long.  9 lac hectare land of Andhra Pradesh is being irrigated.  It controls the flood cause by Krishna River.  The dam was constructed during 1955 and 1967. At present, irrigation is being provided to Prakasam, Guntur, Krishna, Kamath, West Godavari and Balgonda.  Its catchment area is 285 Km2.  The hydroelectric plant has a power generation capacity of 816 mw.  The right canal is 203 km long and irrigates the land of Guntur and Prakasam districts.  The left canal is179 km long and irrigates the land of Nalgonda, Krishna, West Godavari.

Textual Questions- 8. Kosi River is called the “Sorrow of which state ? 9. Which is the important joint multipurpose river valley project of Nepal and India? 10. Which multipurpose project is based on Krishna River in Andhra? Along with all these projects Tungbhadra project (Karnataka), Gandak project (Nepal, U.P., Bihar), Mayurakshi project (Jharkhand and West Bengal), Rehand project (, U.P.) are other important multipurpose project.

21.2 Multipurpose Projects of Rajasthan (i) Chambal Valley Project- Chambal is a tributary of Yamuna River. It’s a joint project of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. The chief objects of this project are development of irrigation, to generate hydroelectric power and to control flood. The river enters Rajasthan at near Chaurasigarh. Here it has a falls which is known as Chulia Falls. Four dams are built on this river: 1- (Chittorgarh, on the Boundary of Bundiand Kota), 2-Jawaharsagar Dam (Kota), 3- (Kota), 4- (at Bhanpura, Nimach District, M.P.). In the state of Rajasthan, the River flows through a deep gorge in Chittor, Bundi, Kota, SawaiMadhopur, Karauli and Dholpur District. This river valley is more ancient than Himalaya. The river originates at Janapav, South of Mhow town, near Manpur, Indor on the south slope of from the in M.P.  Irrigation is provided for 5.6lac hectare of land by this Chambal project.  We have got success to prevent flood.230MW Hydroelectric power is being produced by Gandhisagar, RanapratapSagar and JawaharSagar Dam.  The dam have prevented flood and dacoits of Chambal Beehad have been ended.  It is the most important river valley project of Rajasthan. (ii) Indira Gandhi Project- Rajasthan is the land of hot dry sandy desert. This project is extended from Ganganagar to gadra Road (Badmer) in this desert in 649 km. The main canal is 445 km long, expanded from Masitibali head to Gadra Road (Badmer). It starts from the Harike Barrage at Punjab. The Rajasthan feeder canal is 204 km long from Harike Barrage (Punjab) to Khargaon- Masitawala (Tibbi block of Hanumangarh). The area of Hanumangarh, Ganganagar, Churu, Bikaner, Jaisalmen, Badmer, Jodhpur districts are irrigated by this canal. 260

At present irrigation facilities are available over the area of 16 lac sq. hectare. Drinking water is being supplied by this canal to approximately more than 1100 villages of Hanumangarh, Churu, Jodhjpur, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Badmer district. 37-40 lac ton food grain and 1.5 lac cotton bumps are being produced due to this canal. Miner power plants are producing 13 MWhydro-electric-power. 8 Lift Canal are as follows- 1. Kanwar Sen lift Canal (Bikaner) to rejuvenate Lunkaransar. 2. Gandheli-Sahib lift canal- (Choudhary Kumbharam Yojna, Churu) - It is providing irrigation for 1.2 lac hectare land of Ganganagar and Churu. 3. Gajner lift Canal (Panna Lal Barupal) (Bikaner) 1.2 lac hectare land of Bikaner is being irrigated. 4. Kolayat lift Canal (Karni Singh lift)- (Bikaner) 2.1 lac hectare land of Bikaner is being irrigated. 5. Faloudi lift Canal (Guru JambheshwarYojna) (Jodhpur)- 1.4lachectare land of Jodhpur is being irrigated. 6. Pokran lift Canal (Jay Narayan Vyas)-(Jaisalmer) 23000 hectare land of Jaisalmer is being irrigated. 7. Bangadsar lift Canal (Veer Teja canal)- Thousands of hectares are being irrigated. 8. Jodhpur Lift Canal (Rajiv Gandhi Lift Canal)- Drinking water is being supplied by this canal in Jodhpur.

9 streams, 21 Sub Streams and 8 lift canals have been constructed in 10000 km in this project. Evaluation of this project- 1. Desert- diffusion have been controlled- Indira Gandhi Canal project developed irrigation, which made sand dunes permanent and prevented from displacing. Afforestation and development of meadows stopped desert’s diffusion. 2. Increment of food grain production- Due to development of irrigation 40 lac tons of food grains are being produced. Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts have important place in which production of wheat in the state. 3. Enhancement in Animal Husbandry- The land of Rajasthan has been nourishing pedigree cows, camels, horses, buffaloes and goats. Due to adequate accessibility of water, Bikaner has established as the biggest producer of milk. It has become the largest market of cattle. The most of cattle are in the western Rajasthan. 4. Growth of Population Density- The Indira Gandhi Project caused growth in the density of population. Agriculture based industries have been developed in the irrigated regions and development of farming and animal husbandry caused enhancement of population density especially in Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Bikaner, Jaisalmer. 5. Regulation over Drought- There was little rain in desert. The perennial canal of Indira Gahdhi project gave a new life to it as Bhagirathi and restricted droughts. Due to adequate availability of the desert land has changed into the bowl of grain. 261

Indira Gandhi Canal is providing drinking water to thousands of villages and several cities of Jodhpur, Bikaner, Churu, Jaisalmer and Hanumangarh. Indira Gandhi project is playing an important role in national security. Textual Questions- 11- How many dams have been constructed in Rajasthan within the Chambal River Valley Projects? Give names. 12- Which river is called the ‘Maruganga’ of Rajasthan? 13- How much of land is provided irrigation by Indira Gandhi Project? 14- Which lift canal is providing water to Jodhpur within the Indira Gandhi project?

21.3 Water Conservation Aim- To make students aware of why water conservation is important for future. Introduction You surely have seen or heard the slogan- “Bund Bund Pani Ki Bachat, TabhiHogaBhavisyaSurakshit” That means to save future we have to save even a drop of water. Government systems and NGO’s are working over it. All developed and developing countries are accepting to save the nature. We will have to save water- earth-wood and animals to survive. You surely should see a “died” river. Have you ever thought why it is happening? Unbounded dirt is being discharged into rivers, why? Their water is of no use. In cities as well as in village tubwells are being made. We are trying to suck the Amrit (nectar) like water from 1000m depth many regions of Rajasthan and Bharat are facing the problem of water. Rivers are drying. The major reason of all this is the misuse of water. We are the people will consider the reality of theslogan-“Jal He ToJivan He”. That’s why water conservation is important. (i) Water on the Earth- Water covers 3/4 of the Earth’s surface, but 97% of the water is salty. Only 3% of total water is useful for human beings. Small portion of this water occur in the glaciers (2%) and 1% is used by human beings. That we get by rainfall. This very water occurs is ground water and found in rivers, ponds and lakes and is useful for us. If we waste it carelessly, we will have to face dangerous calamity. (ii) Water Conservation, why? Water pollution as well as necessity water for per person is increasing due to increasing population, urbanization, industrialization and changed form of cultivation and water sources are insufficient. Rivers are polluted. Ground water is ending. Hence, water conservation is necessary. ‘World Water Day’ is organized on 22 March every year in the world. Its aim is to make people aware of water conservation.

21.4 Domestic ways to save water 1. Turn off tap while washing utensils and use small shaped tap. 2. Instead of shower use buckets to take bath. Reuse this water for toilets. 3. Turn off tap while shaving and brushing your teeth. 4. The water of RO/aqua guard should be kept in jug or bottle. 5. The water discharged by RO or aqua guard should be used for plants. 6. Simple water should be used for animals. 7. We should mop the floor with bucket and wipe car from cloth to conserve water. 8. 262

21.5 How to save water in farming 1. By making obstruction of fields. 2. By using drip irrigation system. 3. By using sprinkler irrigation system. Govt. provides subsidy for it. 4. Instead of using traditional ways, green houses should be made. Farmers can take more produces. Govt. is giving subsidy for it. Farmers should take benefit of this subsidy. 5. To recharge ground water recharge pits should be made near tube well. 21.6 Water Conservation in Industries- 1. Industries should build RO Waste Water Collection Plant and reuse its treated water. 2. Industries should be established in villages so that water treatment plant can be built and we will bearable to get unpolluted water. 3. Administration should make industries firmly follow the rules made for environment and polluted water should be treated.

Do not waste water Some days ago the owner of Ratan Tata industries described a incident of wasting food by a German couple in a restaurant. Then the workers of restaurant said them that the food is possession of whole country, they ought not to waste it. Thuh like food water is also the possession of whole nation. We waste water, wash floor by pipe, discharge pure water in drains and discharge industrial waste in rivers. We should learn a lesson from above mentioned incident. If we save water; humans, birds, animals, woods etc. would remain alive otherwise, we should face danger.

21.7 Water Management In the reference of Rajasthan- Water is considered as deity since Vedic age. Rivers, Ponds, wells are described in Puranas. Human civilizations developed near riverbanks in the period of Indus- Saraswati civilization. Chandragupta Maurya made a lake in Junagarh. Due to uneven rainfall in India, water management plans developed. The gets sufficient water from Himalayan rivers. Whereas Rajasthan gets little rainfall. Hence, people used the water management methods according to the Geographic conditions of Rajasthan. To save every drop water the people of Rajasthan made religious Talais, Kudis, Ponds, Nadis, Johad dams, Sagaras, Bawadis, Kundas etc. It is necessary to take care of traditional means because only 1% of water is drinking water. (i) Talabs (Ponds)- It is used to store rainwater. Generally, Talabas were made at the upper land of village so that water could remain pure. Kuiyas and Bawadis were made near these ponds which were useful for drinking water. Same ancient famous ponds of Rajasthan are-Ranthambour, PadminiTalab- Chittor, Hemwas- Pali, Kirti Moti Bundi, Parwati pond- Bharatpur, Gadadisar- Jaisalmer. (ii) - It is like a Pokhar (small pond). Nadi is constructed in every house of West Rajasthan. Nadi is a water reservoir system having depth of 3 to 12 meters. It contains water for 10-12 months. Nadis are the most important source of water in Jaisalmer, Badmer, Nagore and Jodhpur in Rajasthan. Initially Rao Jodha made Nadis in 1520 A.D. in Jodhpur. At present, these Nadisare left carelessly. (iii) Bawadis- Bawadis in Rajasthan- The bawadis are a fine example of architecture. These ware built according to stairJhalra were made side by side and were made to the deepest bottam, so that it 263 would be easy to get water. Bawadis are found in entire Rajasthan. Bawadis are described in Meghdoot. These were made near temples or forts to keep them pure and holy. They were useful for drinking water and irrigation. But at present these bawadis have been emptied due to tubewells. No one gives attention towards their maintenance. (iv) Tankas- It is the best method to reserve water in the desert. These were useful for drinking water. It’s a minor means to store ground water. At present cemented tankas are made. There is salty water in desert due to saitinity of desert soil. Hence, tankas are made in every house of villages to store rain water. It is 30-40 feet deep, steps are made. Tankas are covered by a tower-shaped Dhekli (cape). Tankasare mostly found in Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur districts. (v) Khadins- Mostly Khadins are made in . There are more than 500 Khadins in Jaisalmer. These are made on the slope. It is providing irrigation to 1300 hectare land of Jaisalmer. It was approximately 5 to 7 Km 2 to 4 m height of sandary (Pal) ‘Kuiyas’ or wellsare made in its lower part. It was made y scientific method, contains water round the year and were useful in agriculture also. (vi) Jhalaras- These were holy places to take bath constructed near rivers. These got water from river or ponds. Changing rooms were also made inside these Jhalaras. (vii) Johad- Johadare built in Shekawati region having the length 1-2 km. The flows of water were ceased by constructing pals and on the slope near Pal minor well were built. These were used for irrigation. (viii) Berris/Kuiyas (minor well)- Berris were constructed near ponds. It was 10-12 meters deep and covered with wooden slides. Minor wells were constructed mostly in western Rajasthan to get water entire year. Traditional water management sources are relevant at present too. It is very necessary to save these ancient scientific water reservoirs. Actually, these sources can solve the problem of water in villages. What did you read 1. Damodar River runs in Jharkhand and West Bengal. 2. Hirakund Project is based on Mahanadi River in Orissa. 3. Bhakhda-Nangal Project is a joint project of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. 4. Kosi River is called the “Sorrow of Bihar”. 5. Nagarjun Sagar project is based on Krishna River in Andhra. 6. Indira Gandhi Project provides irrigation for 16 lac hectare land of Rajasthan. 7. Khadins found mostly in Jaisalmer district. Answers of Textual Questions 1- Bihar and West Bengal 2. 24335 km2 3. Mahanadi 4. Hirakund Dam in Orissa. 5. Bakhda Canal, Dist-Do-Ab Canal 6- 1325mw hydro-power 7- BhakhdaNangal 8- Bihar 9- Kosi 10- NagarjunSagar 11- Four- Gandhi Sagar, MaharanaPratapSagar, JawaharSagar, Kota Barrage. 12- Indira Gandhi Canal 13- 16 lac km2 14- Rajiv Gandhi Lift Canal. 264

Questions for Exercise Objective type Questions- 1- Which river the Bhakhada Nangal project is based on? (a) Satluj (b) Vyas (c) Ravi (d) Chenab 2- In which state and on which river is the Nagarjun Sagar project built. (a) Karnataka, Krishna (b) Maharastra, Krishna (c) M.P., Narmada (d) Orissa, Mahanadi 3- Chambal River Valley Project is a joint project of two states, which are- (a) Rajasthan, M.P. (b) M.P. Uttar Pradesh (c) U.P., Gujarat (d) Gujarat, Rajasthan 4- Where does the Indira Canal Project start from? (a) Haride Barrage in Ropad district (b) Bhimashankarin Maharashthra (c) Anand in Gujarat (d) Maow in M.P. 5- Kosi Project is the project of- (a) Bihar (b) West Bengal (c) U.P. (d) Orissa 6- Damodar Valley Project is situated in- (a) Jharkhand &W.Bengal (b) M.P.& Rajasthan (c) Gujarat &Maharashtra (d) Rajasthan & Gujarat Short Answer type Questions- 7- Give names of the dams based on Damodar Valley. 8- Why does Kosi River Change its course? 9- Give names of 8 lift canals of Indira Gandhi Project. 10- Which dams are built on Chambal River? 11- Which dams are built within the Damodar Valley project? 12- What does you understand by multipurpose river valley project? 13- What were the traditional means to reserve water in Rajasthan? 14- Write four benefits of Indira Gandhi Project. Essay Type Questions- 15- Describe Damodar River Valley Project. 16- “Indira Gandhi Project is a boon for Rajasthan”. Clarify it. 17- Describe Narmada Valley Project. 18- Why we should save Bawadis and Jhalaras?

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Chapter-22

Population:-Distribution, Growth and Density

Introduction The fundamental element for the development of any region is its population or human resources. Balanced natural and human resources are responsible for the balanced development of a country. At present humans resources have proved that the countries which have tittle natural resources can be distinguished economies by developing technology and growth of population, like- Japan, Switzerland, Korea, Vietnam etc. The great democratic country of the world The population of India is 126 crore. India have the most of youth population 35.6 crore in the world. These youths are doctors, scientists, professor or other professional. More than 5% Indian people of the world contribute in the G.D.P. of India. Aim You will understand growth, density and rural-urban distribution of population. Reliefs affect the distribution of population in India. There is more density near sea-coastal areas than Himalayan region. North plains have the most of density of population. The problem of slums, unemployment is increasing in urban areaswith the constant growth of population. To balance human and natural resources Indian Government should form a common population policy to create balance between human and national resources. The aim of this lesson is to teach all these facts. 22.1- Human Resources in India

(i) Population India is the land of development of Vedic civilization and Indus-Saraswati civilization. Chapters of world’s composition were written here.

The population of India was 13 crore in 1750, 15 crore in 1850 and 25crore in 1871 (it was the first counting). There was decrease in population during the period of 1911-21. After 1921, the population growth increased rapidly. The population of India had been 27.90 crore in 1931, 31.87 crore in 1941, 36.11crore in 1951, 43.92 crore in 1961, 54.82 crore in 1971, 68.33 crorein 1981, 84.64 crore in 1991, 102.87 crore in 2001 and 121.08 crore in 2011. Population growth (in percentage) in India was- 11.0%during 1921-1931, 14.22% during 1931-1941, 13.31%during 1941-51, 21.64%during 1951-61, 24.80% during 1961-71, 24.66%during 1971-81, 23.87% during 1981-91, 21.54% during 1991-2001 and 17.64% during 2001-2011. Textual Question- 1. Which decade holds the most of population growth in India? 2. Which decade holds the decrease in population in India? 22.2 Factors responsiblefor the growth of population- (i) High Birth Rate- Every year, an Australia takes birth in India i.e. 2 crores of population increase. The population of India is increasing due to high birth rate. The birth rate in our country is more than that 266 of the world with, which is as follows- 13.31% during 1941-51, 24.66% during 1971-81, 23.87% during 1981-91, 21.4% during 1991-2001 and 17.64 during 2001-2011. There is more birth in India comparing the world. Population of Bharat Comparative Tabe

(ii) Medium Education Status- There are people that are more uneducated in India comparing with the world. 27%of the population in 2011 were uneducated. In many districts, 40% of the population are uneducated in rural area. Educated people play important role in family planning. Uneducated population causes high birth rate bears problems for our county. (iii) Climate- The climate of India is appropriate for procreation. Man and women become mature at an early age due to this tropical climate. Early marriage causes early breading. (iv) Lack of Family-Planning- Refusal to family planning methods is the major problem of our traditional society. The conception that it is God in the appearance of children is also a major reason of population explosion. (v) Population Policy- Population policy must be applied firmly. There should be a policy of - “one nation one child”. Though India have a good population policy yet it is not being applied firmly which is responsible for population explosion. 22.3 Density of Population. Population density means the total number of people per unit of area. Population density is uneven in India. There is highest density infertile plains and coastal plains while desert and snow 267 covered mountains have lower density. Factors affecting density of population are natural conditions like hot desert, tundra cold region; economic and industrial condition; fertile plains; geological location etc. The desert of Rajasthan and the state of Arunachal Pradesh have the lowest record of population density having just 17 per km2 whereas the state of Bihar has a statistics of 1106 per km2. Bombay, Delhi, Chennai,Kolkata, Bangalore, Pune, Allahabad, Lucknow, Patna, Hyderabad etc. possess the population density more than 10,000 km2. Density of Population in India Year Population Density

1901 77 1911 82 1921 81 1931 90 1941 103 1951 117 1961 142 1971 177 1981 216 1991 267 2001 324 2011 382

Forms of Population Density in India (i)Higher Density- Northern plain of India have the highest of population density, Including Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Chandigarh, Bihar and Bengal, having the statistics of more than 800 per km2. The state of Kerala in southern Malabar Coast also has the same density. (ii) High Density- The states of Punjab, Haryana, Jharkhand and have the population density of 500-800 per km2. (iii) Medium Density- Eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Andhra, Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, Assam and Tripura of India have the population density of 100-400 per km2. (iv) Low Density- Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim in the north-east of India and the desert of Rajasthan possess low population density having the statistic of less than 50 per km2. “The highest, medium and lower population density of India is found respectively in plains & coasts, middle Bharat and mountains & deserts.”

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State Wise Population Density, Sex Ratio, Literacy Rate and Population Growth 2011 Sr. State Density Growth Sex-Ratio Literacy No. 2011 Rate2001-2011 2011 Rate2011 1. Jammu-Kashmir 124 23.6 889 67.2 2 Himachal 123 12.9 972 82.8 3 Punjab 551 13.9 895 75.82 4 Uttarakhand 189 18.8 963 78.8 5 Haryana 573 19.90 879 75.62 6 Rajasthan 200 21.3 928 66.1 7 Uttar Pradesh 829 20.3 912 67.1 8 Bihar 1106 25.4 918 61.8 9 Sikkim 86 12.9 890 81.4 10 Arunachal 17 26 938 65.4 11 Nagaland 119 0.6 931 79.6 12 Manipur 115 18.6 992 79.2 13 Mizoram 52 23.5 976 91.3 14 Tripura 35 14.8 960 87.7 15 Meghalaya 132 27.9 989 74.4 16 Assam 398 17.1 958 72.2 17 West Bengal 1028 13.8 950 76.3 18 Jharkhand 414 22.8 949 66.4 19 Orissa 270 14.6 979 72.9 20 Chhattisgarh 189 21.8 991 70.03 21 Madhya Pradesh 236 20.30 931 69.3 22 Gujarat 308 19.3 919 78.0 23 Maharashtra 365 16.0 929 82.3 24 Andhra Pradesh 308 11.0 993 67.6 25 Karnataka 319 15.6 973 75.4 26 Goa 394 8.2 947 88.7 27 Kerala 860 4.9 1084 94.0 28 Tamil Nadu 555 15.60 996 80.1 Union Territory 29 Chandigarh 9258 17.2 818 86.0 30 Delhi 11320 21.2 868 86.2 31 Daman and Diu 2191 53.8 618 87.1 32 Dadar and Nagar 700 55.9 774 76.2 33 Lakshadweep 2049 6.3 946 91.8 34 Pondicherry 2447 28.1 1037 85.8 35 Andaman and 46 6.9 876 86.6 Nicobar Islands 36 Average of India 382 17.7 943 73.0

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Population Dencity in Bharat Map 22.1

Textual Questions- 3. Which state does have the highest population density according to the census of 2011? 4. Which geographical region has the highest of population density? 5. Write name of four states having low population density.

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22.4 Sex Ratio

Sex ratio is an important structure of population. Meaning- Thesociety with less women’s population has to face many problems like women’s exploitation and motherhood of children. Hence, it is important to know about sex ratio. The sex ratio of population is determined by the number of females per 1000 males. Sex ratio affects marriage, population growth and social structure. Sex Ratio in India 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 972 964 955 950 945 946 941 930 934 927 933 943

Sex Ratio in Bharat

Ratio Year 22.4 Geographical Analysis of Sex Ratio- Population sex Ratio in India as per census of 2011 is 943 females per 1000 males. Only the state of Kerala has higher sex ratio. “13 states of India have higher sex ratio than national average.” The population sex ratio of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala is more than 960 females per 1000 males. The population ratio (sex ratio) of Kerala is 1084 females per 1000 males. The population ratio of Pondicherry is more than thatof national average. (i)Average Sex Ratio- The average population ratio of India is 940-960 females per 1000 males, Including West Bengal, Jharkhand, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, 271

U.P., Bihar,Sikkim, Nagaland, M.P., Gujarat, Maharashtra have that lower population ratio than of national average. Union territories of Andaman Nicobar, Dadar Nagar Haveli, Daman Diu, Delhi and Chandigarh also have lower population them that of national average. (ii)5 States having the highest Population Ratio- 1.Kerala (1084), 2.Andhra Pradesh (993), 3.Manipur (992), 4.Chhattisgarh (991) and 5.Meghalaya (989). (iii) 5 States having the lowest Population Ratio- 1-Haryana (879), 2-Jammu Kashmir (889), 3-Punjab (895), 4-U.P. (912) and Bihar (918). (iv) Union Territories having lowest Population Ratio- 1-Daman Diu (618), 2-Dadar Nagar Haveli (774), 3-Chandigarh (818), 4-New Delhi (868) and 5- Andaman Nicobar (876). (v) Reasons responsible for low Population Sex Ratio in India- 1- To consider boys more worthy then girls, 2- Untimely death during labour because of child- marriage, 3- Poor social conditions of women, 4- A little contribution of women in decision making. Textual Questions- 6. Which state does have the highest sex ratio? 7. Which Union territory does have the lowest sex ratio? 22.5 Literacy Rate Educated people are the foundation of the development of country. Any country with educated population can advance even without natural resources like- Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Switzerland. Educated people affect all aspects of social, political & economic areas. Highly educated population is the symbol of the development of its country. Initially India learned about knowledge in the world. Vedas have proved it. But Indian people left backward in getting education for some period than the world. The census of 2011 states the literacy rate of the population of India is 73%. Indian educationist, scientists, engineer are providing their services to the world based on their knowledge. Literacy Rate in India

Year Percentage 1951 18.33 1961 28.30 1971 34.45 1981 43.57 1991 52.21 2001 64.84 2011 73.00

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Literacy Rate in India (1901 - 2011)

^ Literacy Rate

Spatial Distribution of Literacy Rate (percentage) in India 06-65 65-70 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 Bihar Jammu Meghalaya Chandigarh Himachal Chandigarh Rajasthan Assam Uttarakhand Sikkim New Delhi Uttar Orissa Haryana Maharashtra Mizoram(91.3) Pradesh Madhya Chhattisgarh Nagaland Tamil Nadu Tripura Pradesh Andhra Manipur Daman Diu Pradesh Arunachal W .Bengal Goa Pradesh Gujarat Lakshadweep Dadar Nagar Kerala Haveli Karnataka Pondicherry Punjab Andaman-Nicobar 273

(i) Areas having the highest literacy rate (more than 85%)-Kerala have the highest literacy rate (94%) in India. The states having the literacy rate more than 85% are- Andaman Nicobar,Pondicherry, Lakshadweep-in ; Mizoram and Tripura-in N-W region; Chandigarh and Delhi- in North India and Daman-Diu. (ii) States with high literacy rate (80-85%)-The states of Himachal, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Maharashtra (from Bombay to Vidarbh in middle Bharat) and the Eastern coastal Tamil Nadu have high literacy rate. (iii) Average to high literacy rate (75-80%)-Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana in the North India; Nagaland and Manipur in the NE India; Gujarat and Dadar Nagar Haveli; and Karnataka in the south India have 75-80% of the literacy rate. (iv) Average literacy rate (70-75%)-The states of Meghalaya, Assam, Orissa and Chhattisgarh have an average of the literacy rate of India. (v) Low literacy rate (fewer than 70%)-The states with higher population like- Bihar, U.P., M.P., Rajasthan, North Jammu & Kashmir, North Arunachal Pradesh, Chota Nagpur plateau i.e. Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh have lower literacy rate. Many schemes are being programmed in these regions to high literacy rate. Textual Question- 8. Which India state does have the highest literacy rate? 9. What is the literacy rate of India as per census 2011?

22.6 Young India Today Russia, China, U S A and European nations are anxious due to growing old age population. Russia, USAand China have the population of respectively 14 crore, 31croreand 135 crore. The population of India is 121 crore. But the youth population is increasing in India. There are more than 35.6 crore young educated people in India that means India have the highest youth population in the world. About 3.5 crore young Indian doctors, professors, engineer or professional are working in many countries. Indian youth is providing their services in the world because of their prestige and devotion. Age composition- Age groups in India as per census of 2011 0-4 10.3 5-9 10.2 10-14 10 15-19 9.7 20-24 9.2 25-29 8.6 30-34 7.6 35-40 6.8 40-44 3.1 45-49 5.6 50-54 4.5 54-59 3.9 More than 60 7% 274

It means the most of India population is youth population.

Youth Population of India 0-14 years 30.5% 15-40 years 41.95% 40-6 years 20% More than 60 years 7.55% That means India will remain a young country in future too. Young people determine the progress of country. India will remain the leading country on the basis of human resource. India will emerge as the young supreme power in the world due to population ratio of youths.

22.7 Rural and Urban Population The Urban and Rural distribution is 31.06% and 68.84% respectively Year Rural Population Urban Population 1951 82.7 17.3 1961 82 18.0 1971 80.1 19.9 1981 76.7 23.3 1991 74.3 25.7 2001 72.2 27.8 2011 68.84 31.6  Urban population is increasing in India.  An urban area includes Municipality, City Council, City Corporation.  Cantonment (Chavani) Board and notified urban areas.  75%male population of urban areas is engaged with non-agricultural jobs.  The area having at least the population density of 400 per km2is taken as an urban area. There were 55cities having the population more than 10 lac in India as per census of 2011. The cities with dense pooulation are as follows- Bombay (1.84 crore highest), Delhi (1.63 crore),Kolkta 1.4 crore, Chennai 86 Lacs Banglore (85.20), Hyderabad (76.77) and Ahamdabad (63.57 lacs). Major cities of Rajasthan as per census 2011 were Jaipur (30,46,123), Jodhpur (1137815), Kota (1001365)and Bikaner, Ajmer, Udaipur, Bhilwara, Alwar, Sikar and Ganganagar etc.

Textual Questions- 10-What is the youth population of India as per census of 2011? 11-What is the urban population of India as per census of 2011?

28.8 Population of Rajasthan Rajasthan is the India’s biggest state in terms of region. The current population of Rajasthan contributes to 5.66% of the India Population. The population of Rajasthan is 6.84 (684.48 lac) as per census of 2011. The state of Rajasthan has uneven distribution of population. The density of population is 200 per km2 in Rajasthan. But Jaisalmer have the density of 17 per km2 whereas Jaipur 595 per km2. The population growth of Rajashan was 28.41%and 21.44% respectively during 1991- 275

2001 and 2001-2011. The state of Rajasthan is still backward in the fields of education, health and fundamental facilities. Hence population growth is high. (i)Literacy Rate The census of 2011 states the literacy rateof the population of Rajasthan is 67.06%. During 1951to 2011the literacy rate was as follows- Year Rajasthan India

1951 6.87 16.67 1961 16.12 24.02 1971 22.57 29.46 1981 30.11 26.27 1991 38.55 52.21 2001 60.4 62.8 2011 67.00 73.00

Female and male literacy as per census of 2011 was respectively 52.66% and 80.15%. It meansthat Rajasthan is a very backward state in the matter of female education than that of India (65.5%). Districts having the highest male and female literacy rate are respectively Jhunjhunu (86.9%) and Kota (65.9%). While the first and the second districts with highest literacy rate are a respectively Kota (77.48%) and Jaipur (76.44%). has the lowest literacy rate of 55.58%. The literacy rate of tribe-dominated districts is as follows: Dungarpur-60.78% and Banswara- 57.02%. As pre census of 2011- Four districts having the highest literacy rate- Kota, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Sikar. |Four districts having the lowest literacy rate- Jalore, Sirohi, Pratapgarh, Banswara. (ii) Density of Population in Rajasthan-2011 The population density of the state is divided into two parts by Arawalli region. In the west of Arawalli, ten districts situated in semi-desert and desert region have the density less than 200 per km2.Wereas the ten districts situated in the N-E of Arawalli have the highest density. The middle southern districts of Dungarpur, Banswara, Udaipur, Rajsamand,Sirohi, Ajmer &Pratapgarh extended nearby Arawalli, have the density of 200-400 per km2. Chittor-Bundi-Baran,Kota and Jhalawar situated in the S-E plateau region have the density respectively of 175-200, 374 and 227 per km2. Jaipur and Bharatpur of the eastern plain have the highest density respectively of 598 and 503 person per Km.

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Literacy Rate in Rajasthan- 2001 2011 Literacy rate 2011 Male Female 0 Rajasthan(average) 60.41 67.06 80.51 52.66 1 Ganganagar 64.74 70.25 79.33 60.07 2 Hanumangarh 63.5 68.37 78.82 56.61 3 Bikaner 57.36 65.92 76.09 53.77 4 Churu 67.59 67.50 79.95 54.25 5 Jhunjhunu 73.04 74.72 87.88 61.15 6 Sikar 70.47 72.98 86.66 58.76 7 Nagore 57.28 64.08 78.09 48.63 8 Jodhpur 56.67 67.09 80.46 52.57 9 Jaisalmer 50.97 58.64 73.09 40.23 10 Pali 54.39 63.23 78.16 48.35 11 Sirohi 53.94 56.02 71.09 40.12 12 Jalore 46.49 55.58 71.83 38.73 13 Badmer 58.99 57.49 72.32 41.03 14 Alwar 61.74 71.68. 85.08 56.78 15 Bharatpur 63.58. 71.16 85.07 54.63 16 Dholpur 60.13 70.14 82.53 55.45 17 Jaipur 69.09 76.44 87.27 64.63 18 Dousa 61.81 69.17 84.54 52.33 19 Sawaimadhopur 56.57 66.19 82.72 47.08 20 Karauli 63.04 67.34 82.96 49.18 21 Tonk 51.97 62.46 78.27 46.01 22 Ajmer 64.68 70.46 83.93 56.42 23 Bhilwara 50.71 62.71 77.16 47.93 24 Chittorgarh 53.94 62.51 77.16 46.98 25 Pratapgarh 48.25 56.03 70.13 42.4 26 Rajsamand 55.73 60.78 74.66 46.98 27 Udaipur 59.77 62.77 75.91 49.1 28 Dungarpur 48.57 60.78 74.66 46.98 29 Banswara 45.54 57.02 70.08 43.47 30 Bundi 55.75 62.31 76.52 47.00 31 Baran 59.05 67.38 81.23 52.48 32 Kota 73.52 77.48 87.63 66.32 33 Jhalawar 57.32 62.13 76.47 47.06

Factors Affecting Density of Populaltion in the state- 1. Relief The desert of Rajasthan has uneven circumstances for human life. 50.71% of the land of Rajasthan is inland region having no river, which results in the lowest population density. Whereas agriculture and industries developed in Eastern Plain. Hence,this region have the highest population 277

Population Density in Rajasthan S.No District Dencity

1 Alwar 361 2 Bharatpir 503 3 Dausa 3989 4 Dholpur 476 5 Jaipur 598 6 Ajmer 305 7 Tonk 198 8 Sawaimadhopur 297 9 Karauli 264 10 Bhilwara 230 11 Rajsamand 302 12 Udaipur 242 13 Sirohi 202 14 Banswara 399 15 Dungarpur 368 16 Pratapgarh 211 17 Chittorgarh 193 18 Bundi 193 19 Baran 175 20 Kot 374 21 Jhalawar 227 22 Ganganagar 179 23 Hanumangarh 184 24 Jodhpu 161 25 Nagore 187 26 Pali 165 27 Jalore 172 28 Jhunjhunu 361 29 Sikar 346 30 Churu 146 31 Bikaner 78 32 Badmer 92 33 Jaisalmer 17 Rajasthan (average) 201 density. The population density decreases nearby Arawalli. There is high density in the Mahi Basin of the southern agriculture region due to abundant canals and harvest production. The region of Hadouti-Plateau has middle density. That means relief affects population density. 2. Climate Precipitation decreases towards the East to the south, in the state. SE Jhalawar andBanswara get 100 cm of the rainfall, whereas middle areas get 75 cm of the rainfall. While the rainfall decreases in the west of Arawalli. The precipitation in Faloudi-Jaisalmer is only 15-20 cm. Naturally agriculture is nurtured by rainfall and industries get developed by agriculture which affect 278 population-density. The extreme (45-480C) temperature of the western desert land make people’s life arduous. 3. Development of Industries Urbanization has increased in the districts having of developed industries, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota, Bikaner, Bhilwara and Alwar developed rapidly in the state because of industrial development. The capital of thestate is Jaipur. Millions ofpeoples migrate here from villages due to industries like handicraft industry, diamond cutting industry, Bandhej industry and ball bearing industry ofSanganer. Jaipuris the first city of Rajasthan having population more than 30 lac. Industrial development like Bhivari industrial area in Alwar, textile industry in Bhilwara, wool industry in Bikaner, food preservation and tire-tube industry in Kota causes population growth. 4. Facilities in Cities Not only in Rajasthanbut in all India the facilities of higher education, residence, higher medicaltreatment, transport especially Air-transport fascinated people towards cities. Immigration is increasing in cities due to facilities of urbanisation. Meansof livelihood i.e. employment are easily available incities. Hence, people are shifting towardscitiesand affecting populationdensity.

Density of Population in Rajasthan

Spatial Distribution of Density of Population in Rajasthan- The average density in Rajasthan as per census of 2011 is 200 per sq. km. 279

The average density of N-E Agri-Industrial region is 363 per sq. km. The population density in Jaipur, Bharatpur, and Dholpur is respectively 598, 503 and 398. The average density in the 6 districts of Middle-Southern Arawalli Region (Rajsamand, Udaipur, Sirohi, Banswara, Dungerpur, Pratapgarh) is 288 per sq. km. The average density in the 5 districts of S-E plateau region (Chittor, Bundi, Baran, Kota, Jhalawar) is 233 per sq. km. Kota has the highest density of 374 per sq. km. The average density in Canals’ Region of Semi-Desert (Ganganagar&Hanumangarh), Shekhawati (Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Churu) and Luni or Bagad region (Jodhpur, Nagore, Pali, Jalore) is respectively 182, 285 and 172 per sq.km. The population density in Jhunjhunu and Sikar is respectively 361 and 346. Thar Desert: The average density of Bikaner, Badmer and Jaisalmer is 63 per sq.km. but the lowestdensity is 17 per sq.km. inJaisalmer. Spatial Distribution Of Density-2011 Geographical region Density per sq.km. N-E Agri-Industrial region 363 Arawalli 288 S-E Plateau Region 233 Northern Canals region 182 Shekhawati 285 Luni Basin 172 Thar Desert 63 (iii) Population Growth Rate in Rajasthan The Population Growth has decreased and remained only 21.3% during 2001-2011, which was 28.4% during 1981-91 and 28.41% during 1991-2001. The population growth of India was 17.64% in2011. The population growth of Rajasthan ismore than thatofIndia. Badmer (32.57) and Jaisalmer (31.8) have the highest and Ganganagar(10%) has the lowest of population growth as per census 2011. Kota has the highest urban population (60.30%) in the state of Rajasthan. The 5 districts with highest population growth- Badmer(32.5), Jaisalmer (31.80), Jodhpur (27.70), Jaipur (26.20), Banswara (26.50). The 5 districts with lower population growth- Ganganagar (10), Jhunjhunu (11.70), Pali (11.9), Bundi (15.40) and Chittor (16.10). Chief reasons responsible for the growth of population in Rajasthan are- 1. child marriage, 2. illiterate people, 3. poverty-economically backwardness, 4. hot climate, 5. difference between birth rate and death rate. (iv) Population Sex Ratio The average population sex ratio of Rajasthan (928 females per 1000 males) is less than that ofIndia (943 female per 1000 males). Many districts have lower ratio. Dungarpur has the highest sex ratio of 994 in the state. While Dholpur has the lowest ratio of 846.Government is trying to increase ratio by sloganeering of “Beti Bachao, Parivar Bachao”, inspiring birth of girl child, banning female foeticide etc. Despite of all these programmes 15 districts of the state has less population sex ratio than that of India.

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Population Sex ratio 2001 2011 In the state of Rajasthan 921 928 The highest ratio 1022 (Dungarpur) 990 (Dungarpur) The lowest ratio 821 (Jaisalmer) 846 (Dholpur)

The western districts of Rajasthan–Badmer, Jaisalmer, Ganganagar and the eastern districts- Dholpur, Bharatpur and Alwar have the population ratio of less than 900 females per 1000 males. It is considerable that lower ratio causes social-malpractice and family problems. Population Sex Ratio in Rajasthan Year Ratio 1951 921 1961 908 1971 911 1981 919 1991 910 2001 921 2011 928 We must increase the sex ratio in rural and urban region. Because equal population ratio in the basis of our family and healthy society. Hence, we should prevent female foeticide. Spatial population Sex Ratio in the state Western Desert Region Ganganagar 887 Hanumangarh 906 Bikaner 903 Churu 938 Jodhpur 915 Jaisalmer 849 Badmer 900 Jalore 951 Nagore 948 Pali 987 Sikar 948 281

Jhunjhunu 950

N-E Agricultural-Industrial Region Alwar 894 Bharatpur 877 Dholpur 845 Dousa 904 Jaipur 909 Sawaimadhopur 894 Tonk 949 Ajmer 950 Karauli 858 Bhilwara 969 Arawali Region Rajsamand 988 Udaipur 958 Dungarpur 990 Banswara 979 Pratapgarh 982 Sikar 938

S-E Plateau Region Chittorgarh 970 Bundi 922 Baran 926 Kota 906 Jhalawar 945 Average 933

- Kota District has the lowest sex ratio in the S-E plateau region. - Jaisalmer District has the lowest (849) sex ratio in the Western Desert region. - Sirohi District has the lowest sex ratio (938) in Arawalli region. - Dungarpur District has the maximum sex ratio of Rajasthan. 282

- Dholpur district has the lowest (845) sex ratio of the N-E agricultural-Industrial region and in the state too. Population Ratio in Metropolitan Cities Jaipur 909 Jodhpur 915 Kota 906 (v) Rural and Urban Population- There are 297 cities in Rajasthan as per census of 2011. ‘City’ can be defined as- which have the population at least 10,000, 75% of the population are engaged in non-agricultural occupations and has the population density of 400 per sq.km. 24.89% of the population of Rajasthan was urban population as per census of 2011. 12 major districts of Rajasthan having higher urban population are as follows: 1- Kota (60.30), 2-Jaipur (52.51), 3-Ajmer (40.09), 4-Jodhpur (34.30), 5-Bikaner (33.95), 6-Churu (28.24), 7-Ganganagar (27.20), 8-Sikar (23.65), 9-Jhunjhunu (22.91), 10-Pali (22.56), 11-Tonk (22.36), 12- Bhilwara (21.29). 5 major districts with higher rural population: 1-Dungarpur (93.61), 2-Banswara (92.89), 3- Pratapgarh (91.74), 4-Jalore (8.30), 5-Badmer (7.0). Majority of rural population (93.00%) resides in tribal area of Dungarpur, Banswara and Pratapgarh. Badmer and Jalore districts in the West Rajasthan are not industrialized. Hence, even today the majority of population resides in villages. Urban and Rural Population in Rajasthan (%): 2011 Year Urban Rural 1951 18.50 81.50 1961 16.28 83.72 1971 17.62 82.37 1981 21.05 78.51 1991 22.88 77.12 2001 24.89 75.61 2011 24.89 75.16

Urbanization causes many problems. Farm-land is converting into colonies due to increasing migration from country sides to cities. Slums are increasing. Alwar had the highest urban population growth (50.93%) during 2001-2011. The urban population growth in Dausa and Baran was respectively 49.24% and 47.91%. Dungerpur had the lowest growth (9.80%) of rural population. Higher growth of rural population in Jaisalmer, Badmer, Banswara was respectively 34.95%, 33.12%, 27.19%. While the lower growth of rural population of Kota, Ganganagar and Jhunjhunu was respectively 6.05%, 7.32% and 8.62%. Textual Questions- 12. What is the literacy rate of Rajasthan as per census of 2011? 13. Which districts do have higher population growth as per census of 2011? 14. Which geographical area does have the highest population density? 283

15. Which are the three metropolitan cities of Rajasthan? 16. Which districts do have the highest and the lowest literacy rate in Rajasthan as per census of 2011? 17. Which districts do have the highest urban population? 18. Write names of the districts having the highest and the lowest population sex ratio. 19. What is the population density of Rajasthan as per census of 2011? (vi) Problems of Population in Rajasthan- 1. Population Growth- The state of Rajasthan ranks third after Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in population growth decadal population growth of Rajasthan is 21.44% which is more than that of India (17.64%). It should be controlled. 2. Problem of drinking water due to dense population- More than 250 blocks are included in dark zone. The problem of drinking water is increasing due to frequent droughts. Water is being supplied by Bisalpur Project and Indira Gandi Project for many villages and cities of Jaipur, Ajmer, Biawar, Kishangarh, Jodhpur, Churu, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and Badmer. The problem ofdrinking water is increasing continuously due to growing population in the western Rajasthan as well as in the eastern Rajasthan. Therefore controlling of population growth is must. 3. Problem of Unemployment- Villagers are migrating towards cities in search of livelihood. There is lack of water for drinking and farming in country sides which results in unemployment. Unemployment is available only for 6 months due to rainwater-based farming.But due to sufficient jobs available in cities, people are moving towards cities. Unemployment is increasing in the state. During 2004 and 2005, percentage rateof unemployed people was 5.25. 4. Increasing Poverty- Poverty increases along with growing population. Due to poverty, people can’t get the basic need of employment, shelter and food. According to C. Rangrajan Committee’s Economic Survey Report 2012, an urban person needs 2090 calorie daily while a rural person needs 2155 calorie daily. A person who can spend 32/- and 47/- respectively in village and in city daily is not consider as poor. (vii) Poverty Ratio Poverty Ratio of India was 29.5%and 38.2% during respectively 2011-12 and 2009-10. There are 363 million (36.3 crore) poor people total in India. 15%of population are below poverty line as per census 2011-12.Hence, it has become very important to control population. Rajasthan Government’s schemes for abolishing poverty are as follow- 1- Aam Adami Bima Yojna- Since 14.Dec.2014 2- Deendayal Antyodaya Yojna 3- Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya GraminKaushalYojna 4- Khadhaya Suraksha Yojna 5- Shahari Ajiivika Mission Yojna 6- Rashtriya Gramin Ajivika Mission Yojna. What did you read 1. The population of India is 121.80 crore as per census of 2011. 2. The density of population is 382 per sq.km. as per census of 2011. 3. Northern Plains and Coastal Plains have the highest density. 4. Kerala has the highest Sex Ratio (1084). 5. The literacy rate of India was 74.04% as per census of 2011. 284

6. India has the most of youth population in the world. 7. Rajasthan has the population of 6.84 crore as per census of 2011. 8. There are three metropolitan cities in Rajasthan-Jaipur, Jodhpur and Kota. 9. Dungarpur has the highest sex ratio of 990 as per census of 2011. 10. As per 24.89% of the population of Rajasthan is urban population. Answers of Textual Questions- 1. 1961-1971 2. 1911-1921 3. Bihar 4. North plain 5. (1)Arunachal Pradesh, (2) Tripura, (3) Mizoram, (4) Sikkim. 6. Kerala 7. Daman Diu 8. Kerala 9. 74.04 10. 35.6 crore 11.31.6% 12. 67.06% 13.Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Badmer 14. N-E Agricultural-Industrial region 15.Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota 16. Kota, Jalore 17. Kota 18. Dungarpur and Dholpur 19.201 per sq.km. Exercise Objective Type Questions- 1. What was the population density of India in 2011? (a)117 (b) 324 (c) 388 (d) 382 2. Which region has the highest density in India- (a) Coastal plains (b) Deltaof Ganga (c) Lava plateau (d) Northern plain 3. Two states with highest density as per census of 2011 in India are- (a) Kerala, Tamil Nadu (b) Punjab,Haryana (c) Bihar, W.Bengal (d) Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh 4. Which union territory has the highest population growth-? (a) Chandigarh (b) Delhi (c) Lakshadweep (d) Dadar and Nagar Haveli 5. Which sate has the highest population growth rate during 2001 to 2011? (a) Bihar (b) Uttar Pradesh (c) Karnataka (d) W. Bengal 6. Which district has the highest population as per census of 2011-? (a) Jaipur (b) Jodhpur (c) Kota (d) Bikaner 7. Two states of India having highest density are- (a) U.P., Bihar (b) West Bengal, Bihar (c) Punjab, Haryana (d) Uttar Pradesh, Kerala 8. Population growth of India during 2001 and 2011 was- (a) 11.41% (b) 17.64% (c) 21.44% (d) 28.10% 9. States having the highest sex ration in India are- (a) Kerala, Tamil Nadu (b) Rajasthan, Gujarat (c) Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu (d) Bihar and West Bengal 10. Which two states have the highest population growth during 2001 and 2011 in Bharat? 285

(a) Bihar, U.P. (b) Bihar, Rajasthan (c) Gujarat, U.P. (d) Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh 11. What was the literacy rate in India in 2011- (a) 68.3 (b) 74.04 (c) 64.83 (d) 67.4 12. What was the ratio of urban and rural population of India in 2011-? (a) 31 & 69.6 (b) 24 & 76.2 (c) 31.19 & 68.81 (d) 27.8 & 72.2 13. Which district ofRajasthan has the highest density? (a) Jodhpur (b) Jaipur (c) Bharatpur (d) Kota 14. What was the literacy rate of Rajasthan as per census of 2011-? (a) 65.5% (b) 67.6% (c) 68.06% (d) 74.06% Short Answer questions- 15. Which are the four states of India having highest sex ratio? 16. What are the most responsible factors for population density in India? 17. What are the reasons behind lower sex ratio in India? 18. Write names of 4 metropolitan cities. 19. Which geographical region has the highest density as per census of 2011 in Bharat? 20. Which two states of India do have the lowest density as per census of 2011? 21. Which three states of India have the lowest literacy rate? 22. Which states of India do have the highest urban population? 23. Which four sates of India do have the highest sex ratio? Essay Type Questions- 24. Describe the factors responsible for population density in Rajasthan. 25. “India has Youth Population”. Elaborate. 26. What are the factors that affect population density of India? 27. Describe literacy rate of India. 28. Control over population is necessary for India. Signify with examples. 29. Urbanization causes many problems in India. Clarify it.

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286

Lesson-23

Agriculture in Bharat

 Importance of Agriculture  Crops  Recent Trends  Organic Farming  Problems of Agriculture- Solutions Introduction and Importance of Agriculture  Important aspects of Indian agriculture –our pride.  Indian economy is based on agriculture.  52 percent of working people are attached to agriculture.  The Green Revolution of 1965 in Bharat increased crop production greatly.  Bharat is a highest producer of sugarcane, millet, jute, castor, mango, banana, peas, and ginger in the world.  Bharat ranks first in milk production.  Indian cultural festivals are attached to agriculture.  There were 12.73 farmers in Bharat in 2001. The number reduced to 11.87 in 2011.  The contribution of agriculture to GDP in Bharat reduced to 14 percent in the year 2013-14.  Bharat has fertile land spreading over from Punjab to West Bengal.  The milk production in Bharat increased by 4.4 percent, bringing it to the highest in the world.  Besides agriculture, livestock contributes 4.1 percent to the GDP.  In 2013 the per capita food grain availability was 186.4 kilograms.  Bharat is the second highest producer of wheat and rice in the world.  9.1 percent of the total export of the country is from agricultural produce.  Indian agriculture is still dependent on monsoon rains.  The food grain requirement is totally fulfilled by the Indian agriculture. We are self- dependent in food grains.  The country imports more than 67 percent of edible oil, out of which palm oil is the highest.  159.7 million hectare of land is agricultural.  Bharat is the second highest in agricultural production area after America. 159700000 hectare land is agricultural, which is 47.48 percent of the total land of the country. Objectives  Giving knowledge about agricultural methods in Bharat.  Describing major crop producing areas in Bharat.  Describing areas producing fibre crops. 287

 Explaining major crops through maps.

23.1 Types of Indian Agriculture (i) Subsistence Farming Agriculture withTraditional methods is called substance farming. The whole family works on the farm with the help of bullocks. They mainly produce food grains.This type of farming is divided into two parts: (A) Primitive Subsistence Farming (B) Intensive Subsistence Farming (A) Primitive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is done in the following two methods: (a) Shifting Agriculture (b) Permanent Agriculture (a) Shifting Agriculture In this type of agriculture, a patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling and burning, and crops are grown. After 2-3 years the fertility of the soil begins to decline, the land is abandoned and the farmer moves to clear a fresh piece of land elsewhere in the forest as the process continues. This type of farming is done in the North East Bharat, Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh. It is called Jhumming in north-eastern Bharat, Bewar in Chattisgarh and Valara in Rajasthan. (b) Permanent Agriculture While the land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and soil fertility and biomass is restored. After a decade or more, the farmer may return to the first piece of land. Livestock rearing is also done along with farming. This is called permanent farming. The shifting agriculture and permanent restored farming is done only for the family. (B) Intensive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is popular in greater plains and coastal plains. Rice is the main crop. Wheat is grown in areas where irrigation facilities are available. The use of machinery is increasing gradually. (a) Intensive Subsistence Farming of Rice This farming is done in the lower Gangetic plains comprising eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Chattisgarh, eastern Madhya Pradesh, and peninsula plateau areas of Maharashtra, eastern and coastal areas of Karnataka. (b) Intensive Subsistence Farming of Other Crops This farming is popular in the north western parts of Bharat viz. Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, western Madhya Pradesh and the plateau regions. The major crops are wheat, cotton, millet, pulses, sugarcane etc. (C) Commercial Agriculture In a commercial based agriculture, crops are raised in large scale plantations or estates and shipped off to other countries for money. Machinery, high quality seeds and fertilizers are used. This systemis common in areas such as Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Maharashtra. (D) Dry Land Farming This type of farming is done in areas of western Rajasthan recording less than 50 centimetres of rainfall. Millet, sorghum, gram, barley and in some areas wheat are grown. This is common in western Rajasthan, Gujarat, Telangana and Maharashtra. 288

(E) Extensive Farming In this type of farming efforts are made to obtain maximum production because we have small plough lands. More than one crop is grown. Textual Questions 1. Where is Jhumming farming done in Bharat? 2. Where is intensive subsistence farming of rice done in Bharat?

23.2 Major Crops (i) Rice Rice is the foremost food crop of Bharat. 75 percent of people have rice as their main food. Bharat is the second largest producer of rice in the world. Temperature: It is a tropical plant. It requires temperature of 20˚-27˚ centigrade. Rain: It requires more than 100 centimetres of rainfall. The roots of the plant must remain under water for 25 days.

23.1 Rice Production in Bharat 289

Soil: The major soil groups where rice is grown are riverine alluvium, loamyand black soils. Cultivating Regions: The regions cultivating this crop in Bharat is distinguished as the western coastal strip, the eastern coastal strip, Assam and states like West Bengal, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Andhra Pradesh and . Irrigation has made it feasible even for Punjab and Haryana to grow rice. 40 percent of rice is grown through irrigation. Rice farming demands labour. The plants are transplanted from nurseries to fields one by one. Thus it is a labour intensive cultivation and requires large supply of labour for its successful cultivation. Os, Aman and Bodo are the three main varieties of rice crop grown in Bharat. 62 percent of rice grown in Bharat is of Os variety. These varieties grow during the rainy season. Rice is grown in 4.2 crore hectares of land in Bharat. Bharat grows 20 percent of the world’s total production.

23.2 Wheat Production in Bharat 290

(ii) Wheat Wheat is the second important crop after rice in Bharat. Evidences have shown that wheat was produced even during the SindhuSaraswati civilization. Bharat produces 11.7 percent of the world’s total production. Wheat is grown in 23 percent of the total agricultural land in Bharat. Temperature: It requires temperature of 20˚-28˚ centigrade. Rainfall: Ideal rainfall for wheat is 50-75 centimetres. Wheat crop needs irrigation facilities. Soil: Well drained fertile, friable loams and clay loams are the best suited soils for wheat cultivation. It also grows well in the black soil of the Deccan plateau.Wheat cultivation is an extensive type of farming which is highly mechanized and requires comparatively less labour. Time of Cultivation: The sowing of wheat crop begins in November and the harvesting runs from March to May.KalyanSona, Sonalika, Sharbati, Sonera, Heera, Shera, Champaran etc. are some of the varieties of wheat. Wheat growing areas in Bharat: Main wheat producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Bihar – the northern plains. Punjab produces 17.7 percent while Madhya Pradesh produces 15.9 percent of wheat. Per hectare production of wheat in Bharat has risen to 2872 kilograms. The per hectare production in the country increased after the green revolution, making the country self-dependent in food grain. (iii) Millet (Bajra) This crop is grown in areas having 30 to 50 centimetres of rainfall. Milletis generally grown as mixed crops, the other crop grown with them being usually one of the legumes. It grows in parts having high temperatures and low rainfall. It can also be grown in sandy soil. Millet producing areas in Bharat: It is produced in semi-arid zones of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh,Telangana, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh. Millet production is the highest in Rajasthan. Thirteen districts of Rajasthan grow millet- Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Churu, Bikaner, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, Jalore, Sirohi, Jaisalmer, Barmer. It also grows in Jaipur and Bharatpur. The chapatti of millet along with bean dal is highly delicious. (iv) Maize/ Corn (Makka) Maize is grown in 4 percent of the agricultural land in Bharat. Rainfall: Maize is sown in parts having 50 to 80 centimetres of rainfall. Temperature: Temperature between 25˚and 30˚ centigrade is considered ideal. Soil: Well drained clay loam to sand loamy to black cotton soil is ideal for growing maize. Time: The crop ripens generally by July, August, September, and October. The production is done in the rainy season and where the temperature is high it is done in winter. Maize is also grown in southern Bharat. Maize producing areas in Bharat: It is mostly grown in south-eastern Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Telengana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. During 2014-15, Andhra Pradesh produced 17.9 percent, Karnataka 16.5 percent, Maharashtra 9.3 percent while Rajasthan produced 5 percent of the total maize production.

23.3 Cash Crops (i) Tea Tea is the main cash crop of Bharat. Tea is grown in 16 states of Bharat. Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala together produce 95 percent of total tea in Bharat. 291

Rainfall: Rainfall must be more than 150 centimetres. Regular rainfall is required but it should be well drained. Temperature: The temperature must be between 22˚and 34˚ centigrade. Soil: Generally tea grows in the sloping land so that extra rain water drains away. The soil must be deep and containing sulphur. Tea is a labour intensive crop and requires abundant supply of cheap and skilled labour, especially at the time of plucking the tea leaves. This is a tedious process which requires skilled manipulation of fingers for plucking two leaves and a bud at a time.For this purpose, women labourers are employed in large numbers. Tea cultivation areas in Bharat: The average tea production is 1800 kilograms per hectare. In Assam it is 1537 kg. per hectare, in West Bengal it is 1411 kg., in Tripura it is 623 kg., in Tamil Nadu it is 2002 kg., in Karnataka it is 1886 kg. while in Kerala it is 1484 kg. per hectare. The north eastern Bharat produces 70 percent of total tea. The southern Bharat produces 25 percent while 5 percent is produced in other areas. Tea is sown between October and November. Tea cultivating areas can be divided into two parts: (a) Northern and North-eastern Bharat: this area includes Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, Sikkim, Arunanchal Pradesh, Nagaland etc. (b) Eastern and Southern States: Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka can be counted in this area. Assam is the largest producer of tea. It is produced in Brahamaputra valley and Surma valley. Assam contributes 52 percent of the total tea production of Bharat. West Bengal- Tea estates are situated in the districts of Darjeeling, Koochbihar, Jalpaiguri, and Puraliya. 20 to 22 percent of tea is grown here. Tamil Nadu- High quality tea is grown in the Nilgiris hills situated in the western part of the state. Tea is grown in the districts of Nilgiris, , Coimbatore, Kanyakumari, Annamalai and Tirunelveli. 11.64 percent of reproduction is from Tamilnadu. Kerala produces 8.5 percent of tea of the country. Karnataka produces high quality tea. Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal produce high quality fragrant tea. Tea is produced in the districts of Dehradun, Garhwal, Kumaun, Nainital, Mussuroie, Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli etc. Bharat exports tea to more than 80 countries of the world including Britain, Germany, Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Afghanistan, Iran, Canada, Netherlands, Australia, the USA, the UAE, Iraq, Kuwait, New Zealand, Turkey etc. Tea is exported from the ports of Kolkatta, Mumbai, , Chennai and Mangalore. Bharat has to compete with China, Indonesia, Bangla Desh and Sri Lanka in tea export. 11 percent of tea of the world is exported from Bharat. (ii) Sugarcane Bharat is the largest producer of sugarcane in the world. Brazil and Cuba stand at par with Bharat in sugarcane production. Temperature- Sugarcane requires temperature from 20˚to 30˚ centigrade. Rainfall- Sugarcane is grown in parts having 100 to 200 centimetres of rainfall. Irrigation is required in areas receiving less rainfall. Soil- It can grow on a variety of soils including loams, clayey loams, black cotton soils, brown or reddish loams and even laterites. In fact, sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soils are ideal for its growth.It is a labour intensive cultivation requiring ample human hands at every stage. The coastal climate is the best for sugarcane production. Hence its production has increased in the coastal areas of Bharat. 292

Time of Cultivation- The sowing is done during December- March and the harvesting is done during December- March. A plant once sown yields crop for three years. More than 50 percent of production is grown in northern Bharat. Per hectare production of sugarcane is more than in southern Bharat. Sugarcane cultivating areas of Bharat- The three states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka produce 73 percent of the total sugarcane of Bharat. These three major states produce 38.5 percent, 22.8 percent and 11.7 percent respectively. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of sugarcane. (a) The lowland districts of Rampur, Bareilly, , Sitapur, Lakhimpur, Muradabad, Gonda, Ayodhya, Azamgarh, Jaunpur, Basti, Baliya, Deoria and Gorakhpur are major producers of sugarcane. Gorakhur and Devariya are centres of sugar mills. (b) Sugarcane also grows in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab area extending from Meerut to Varanasi, including Meerut, Saharanpur, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Muradabad and Allahabad. Maharashtra- Maharashtra is the second largest producer of sugarcane in Bharat. Most of the sugarcane is grown on black lava soil inAhmednagar, Kolhapur, Pune, Nashik, Solapur, Sangli, Satara, Osmanabad and Aurangabad. Karnataka- Karnataka is the third largest sugarcane producing state of Bharat. Most of the sugarcane is grown with the help of irrigation in the regions of Cauvery and Tungabhadra. , Mandya, Mysore, Bijapur, Shimoga and Chitradurga are important producing districts. Andhra Pradesh- Most of the cultivation is done in the coastal areas having fertile soil and suitable climate. West Godavari, East Godavari, Vishakhapatnam, Krishna, Srikakulam and Nizamabad are important producers. Tamil Nadu- Coimbatore and Ramnathpuram are the major producers of sugarcane in this state. Sugarcane is also grown in Haryana, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Textual Questions 3. Which is the major rice producing state of Bharat? 4. What percentage of wheat of the world is produced by Bharat? 5. Which state of Bharat is the largest producer of maize/corn?

23.4 Fibre Crops Cotton and Jute are the major fibre crops. (i) Cotton This crop needs temperature from 20˚to 30˚ centigrade. Rainfall: Cotton grows in areas having rainfall from 50 to 100 centimetres. It is successfully grown in areas of less rainfall with the help of irrigation.Cotton is a Kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Soil: Cotton cultivation is closely related to deep black soils (regur) of the Deccan and the Malwa Plateaus and those of Gujarat. It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-Ganga Plains and red and laterite soils of the peninsular regions.Picking is a crucial period from the labour point of view. A lot of cheap and efficient labour is required at this time. 293

Cultivation Areas: The cultivation of cotton extends from Mekhla, south central Gujarat to Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh. In the northern Bharat it is grown in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan.

23.3 Cotton and Jute Production in Bharat

294

Gujarat- Accounting for 31 per cent of the total production of the country, Gujarat is the largest cotton producing state of Bharat.The production comes from the Gujarat plains including , Surendemagar, Vadodara and Ahmedabad districts. Mahesana, Kheda, Sabarkantha, Surat, Amreli and Panchmahals are other major producers. Maharashtra- Maharashtra produces 19.8 per cent of the total cotton of Bharat. The production comes from Khandesh, Vidarbha and Marathwada regions comprising the districts of Yavatmal, Nanded, Amravati, Parbhani, Wardha, Jalgaon, Akola, Buldhana, Nagpur, Dhule, etc. Madhya Pradesh- It grows in the districts parallel to the Narmada and the Tapi rivers, which have black soil. The production also comes from Malwa where there are vast tracts of lava soil. Karnataka- The North Karnataka plateau having black soil is the main area of cotton cultivation. Dharwad, Raichur, Bellary and Gulbarga are the main producing districts. Tamil Nadu- Here cotton is grown both in summer and winter. Coimbatore, Salemand Madurai are the major districts producing cotton. Andhra Pradesh- Cotton grows in the districts of Godavari, Krishna, Kadapa and Anantapur. It also grows in doabs of the Godavari and the Krishna. Cotton grows in north canal areas of Ganganagar and Hanumangarh of Rajasthan, the Malwa region in Punjab, north western Haryana, and Ganga-Yamuna doabs of Uttar Pradesh. The use of BT cotton has increased, which is a GM crop. Jute In Bharat, jute is mostly produced in West Bengal, Bihar and Assam. The three states produce 77.9 percent, 13.1 percent and 6.9 percent respectively. The state of Odisha also produces some amount of Jute. The crop takes 10 to 11 months to mature. The water should remain stagnated for 6 to 7 months. West Bengal: This is the largest producer of jute in Bharat. Jute is sown in 85 percent of land in the districts of Nadia, Murshidabad, 24 Parganas, Coochbehar, Jalpaiguri, Hugli, West Dinajpur, Bardhaman, Maldah and Medinipur. Here more than 250 centimetres of rainfall coupled with alluvial, loamy soil provide the par excellence conditions for the growth of jute. Bihar: Jute grows in lowlands of Bihar. 16.7 percent jute is grown in Bihar. Assam: The main concentration is in the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. 6.4 percent of jute grows here. Besides these states, jute is also grown in Maharashtra, Odisha, lowlands of Uttar Pradesh, Visakhapatnam and Shrikakulum in Andhra Pradesh, Tripura, and Manipur etc. In 2014-15, Bharat exported jute products worth Rs. 2242 crores.

23.5 Agriculture Innovations-Recent Trends (i) Grapes: Bharat ranks first in viniculture. Grapes are produced in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. (ii) Banana: 23 percent of world’s banana is grown in Bharat. Banana is grown in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Karnataka is the highest producer of banana. Bharat is a major producer of banana in the world. (iv) Lemon, Orange: The farming of lemon and orange is done in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttrakhand, Kerala, Karnataka and all of southern Bharat. 295

(v) Horticulture: The Indian government prepared 4.86 lakh hectare land for horticulture in the year 2001-02. These plantations are situated in Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand. (1) Green Revolution Intensive agricultural development was started in Bharat under the leadership of Dr. M S Swaminathan in 1964-65. This led to an increase in food grain production- wheat 4 times, rice 3 times, maize 3.5 times and millet 5.5 times. High yielding variety seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and fertilizers were used per hectare production. (2) White Revolution Increase in milk productivity is called white revolution. Intensive livestock development was started in the country in 1964-65 causing increase in milk productivity. National Dairy Development Board was constituted in 1970. At present Bharat is the highest milk producing country in the world. It also ranks first in livestock resources. (3) Blue Revolution Efforts made for intense growth in the aquaculture industry in Bharat is called blue revolution. At present Bharat is the second largest producer of fish in the world. (4) Yellow Revolution Efforts made to make the country self-dependent in the production of oil seeds and edible oil is called yellow revolution. (5) Organic Farming Organic farming is being specially promoted by the Union government of Bharat. At present Sikkim is the state that has become a complete organic farming based state in the country. Organic farming is being specially stressed in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Various medicines, vegetables and other food are being produced on the basis of organic farming. Organic farming was done in 4200 hectares agricultural land in 2004-05 which increased to 11 lakh hectares in 2010. Bharat is the largest producer of organic cotton in the world. In organic farming NADEP fertilizer, vermicomposting, green manure, biogas slurry, pot manure are used. What you have learnt 1. 52 percent of the population of Bharat is engaged in agriculture related jobs. 2. 186 kilogram per capita food grain is available in Bharat. 3. Jhumming farming is done in north eastern part of Bharat. 4. A large quantity of rice is grown in the coastal areas of Bharat. 5. Wheat is grown in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and eastern Rajasthan. 6. Sugarcane grows in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. 7. Gujarat is the largest producer of cotton in the country. 8. Jute grows in West Bengal, Bihar and Assam. 9. White revolution means increasing milk productivity. Answers to Textual Questions 1. Assam 2. Great Northern Plains 3. West Bengal 4. 11.4 percent 5. Uttar Pradesh 296

Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. What is the percentage of people in Bharat engaged in agricultural jobs? (A) 52 (B) 54 (C) 65 (D) 60 2. What of these makes Bharat the largest producer in the world? (A) Mango, banana (B) Wheat, cotton (C) Mung bean, fenugreek (maithi) (D) Sugarcane, cotton 3. What percent of edible oil is imported by Bharat? (A) 50 (B) 65 (C) 67 (D) 70 4. Which of the following states are the first and the second largest producers of rice respectively? (A) West Bengal, Bihar (B) West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh (C) Punjab, Haryana (D) Uttar Pradesh, Bihar 5. Which of the following are the two major rice producing states in Bharat? (A) Uttar Pradesh, Punjab (B) Punjab, Haryana (C) Uttar Pradesh, west Bengal (D) Gujarat, Rajasthan 6. Which of the following states of Bharat is the largest producer of tea? (A) Assam (B) Himachal Pradesh (C) Karnataka (D) Tamil Nadu Short Answer Questions 7. What do you understand by Green Revolution? 8. What are White Revolution and Blue Revolution? Essay Type Questions 9. Describe the various forms of farming popular in Bharat. 10. Describe the wheat producing regions of Bharat. 11. Describe the major tea producing states of Bharat.

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Lesson 24

Minerals and Energy Resources

Introduction In order to fulfil human needs, several chemical and physical materials are required. These materials make human life easy, comfortable and pleasure giving. Minerals are chemical and physical materials dug up from earth through mining. This lesson intends to give you information about various forms of minerals. Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to: (i) Understand the meaning of minerals (ii) Compare metallic and non-metallic minerals (iii) Know about energy resources in Bharat (iv) Understand the meanings of organic and solar energy (v) Know about mineral and energy sources of Rajasthan (vi) 24.1 Meaning of Minerals All those natural materials obtained through mining are called minerals. For example- iron, copper,gold, silver, marble, Kota stone, coal, petroleum etc. A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and they have specific structure which are not produced by life processes. A mineral has one specific chemical composition like carbon and diamond, whereas minerals like sulphur or iron are an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids. Minerals are the most valuable and the most important free gifts among all natural resources. Minerals like salt and iodine are life giving elements for man. Machines are made from metallic minerals while buildings are built of non-metallic minerals and mineral fuels give power to run machines. Minerals also provide raw material to industries. Hence minerals are the fundamental pillars for a country to bring about its social, economic, industrial and scientific progress. The Indians have had knowledge of minerals since ancient times. Copper Age and Bronze Age are evidences. At the time of independence 22 types of minerals were mined in Bharat. At present the number has risen to 125. Out of these 35 minerals are economically greatly significant. Man has knowledge of 1600 minerals. In the matter of self-dependence, the USA is the first while Bharat is the second and Russia is the third. Minerals in Bharat can be divided, on the basis of physical and chemical properties, into the following two groups: 24.1-I Metallic Minerals Minerals that have some metal in them are called metallic minerals. These can be further classified into two groups. For example, iron metal is found in iron ore and on the basis of the predominance of a metal. (a) Iron predominance- Those that have predominance of iron in them. For example iron ore, chromite, pyrite, tungsten, cobalt etc. (b) Non-iron predominance- Those that have no iron in them. For example gold, silver, copper, zinc, bauxite, tin, magnesium etc. 24.1-II Non-metallic Minerals- These are minerals that have no metals in them.For example, lime stone, dolomite, mica, gypsum etc. 24.1-III Energy Minerals-These minerals provide heat or power. These can be classified into two groups: 298

(a) Fuel Minerals- These are used as fuels. For example coal, petroleum, natural gas etc. (b) Atomic Power Minerals- This includes uranium, thorium, beryllium, ilmenite etc. Textual Questions-24.1 1. Where are minerals obtained from? 2. How many types of minerals are there on the basis of their physical and chemical properties? 3. What type of mineral is gold? 4. Name the atomic power minerals. 24.2 Major Minerals of Bharat

Major Minerals of Bharat

24.2-I Iron Ore The fundamental pillar of the present day industrial economy is drawn from igneous rocks. Bharat has the second largest deposits of iron after Russia. Five types of iron ore are found in Bharat- 299 magnetite, hematite, limonite, siderite and laterite. Bharat has 2300 crore tons of iron deposits, which amounts to 20 percent of the world’s share, out of which magnetite (iron content between 60 and 70 percent) is 8%and hematite (iron content between 70 and 80 percent) is 85% and remaining types are 7%. The details of production and distribution of iron in Bharat are as given below: Orisha Odisha has 30 percent of the total deposits and 28 percent of production in the country. The hematite type of iron ore is found in the districts of Mayurbhanj, Sundergarh and Keonjhar. The iron ore from here is sent to Vishakhapatnam and Pradip port exported to Japan and other countries. Karnataka Karnataka has 25 percent of the total deposits and 26 percent of production in the country. The hematite type of iron ore is found in in the districts of Bellary, Chikmangalur and Shimoga and Chitradurga. This iron ore is refined in the steelplant of Bhadravati and Vijaynagar. Chattisgarh Chattisgarh has 16 percent of the total deposits and 15.02 percent of production in the country. The hematite type of iron ore is found in in the districts of Bastar, Durg, Dantewada, Bilaspur and Rajnandgaon. The iron ore is refined in the factory of Bhilai steel plant and the remaining iron ore is exported from Vishakhapatnam seaport to Japan. The Bailadila mines are the biggest iron ore mines in Asia. Goa Goa produces 13.15 percent of the total production of the country. Here limonite and siderite are found mixed with lower quality iron, manganese. The iron ore deposits are located in the areas of Pirna Wale aneda, Kadnem surla, Tosilla, and Begadore. All of the iron is exported from Mormugoa sea port to foreign countries. Jharkhand Jharkhand produces 10.10 percent of the total production of the country. The mines of hematite and magnetite type of iron ore are situated in the districts of Singhbhum and Palamu. They are found in Noamundi, Gua and Daltonganj areas of these districts. Iron ore is refined in the steel plant of Kulti. This is the first state to do iron mining. Among the other states, iron ore is found in Telangana, district Salem of Tamil Nadu, Udaipur, Jaipur, Bhiwara and Alwar in Rajasthan and Mahendragarh in Haryana. Iron ore is the third major export commodity, exported to Japan and European countries. 24.2-II Non-iron Minerals- Copper Copper has made a significant contribution in the development of human civilization. In ancient times copper was used in making utensils and coins. Hence an era in history has been named Copper Age. At present copper is used in making wires, electric equipment (electric motors, transformers, generators etc.), pipes, and utensils. Pure copper is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is used as metal alloy in gold and silver jewellery. It can be purposefully alloyed to other metals. For example, copper and aluminium make brass, copper and tin make bronze, copper and nickel make German silver and copper and gold make rold gold. At present 60% of copper is used in electrical industries in the world. Copper found in the world is barely sufficient. Hence the use of aluminium as alternative has increased and the use of copper has relegated to second position after aluminium. Bharat has a meagre depositof copper, approximately 71.25 crore tons. The quantity of mineral in copper ore is between 0.8% and 8%. Major Copper Producing States in Bharat Madhya Pradesh- This is the first copper producing state of Bharat, producing 56.86% of copper. The major copper producing districts are Balaghat and Betul. Here the deposits of copper are 848 lakh tons, out of which 10.06 lakh ton pure copper is present. 300

Rajasthan- Jhunjhunu (Khetri and Singhana) is the major district producing copper. Here Hindustan Copper Corporation, Khetri mines and refines copper ore. Anotherdeposits have been found in Sikar, Udaipur, Banswara and Bhilwara. Copper deposits have also been found in Dausa. Jharkhand- Here 4.0 lakh ton of copper ore of Bharat is produced. The major districts producing copper are Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Parana, Manavbhumi etc. Approximately 4% of copper of Bharat is mined here. The mining of copper in Jharkhand has been being done by Indian Copper Corporation since 1924. Copper sheets have been being made by this corporation since 1930. Other Areas- Deposits of copper are also found in Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Manipur, Jammu and Kashmir etc. 24.2-III Aluminium (Bauxite metal) Bauxite is the main source of aluminium. Alumina is made from bauxite and from alumina is made aluminium. Bauxite is not a specific mineral; rather it is a pink coloured mineral, which looks like mud. Bauxite has metal content of 84%. It is light, brittle, soft and a good conductor of electricity. It does not go rust. Uses- Aluminium is used in making electric wires, ballistic missiles, aeroplanes, bottoms of ships, tools, domestic utensils, doors for buildings, windows, weather boarding, shutters etc. Bharat has a huge deposits of 303.7 crores of aluminium. Odisha- Odisha is the largest producer of Bauxite in Bharat with a production of 50.16% (49.04 lakh tons). The major bauxite producing districts are Kalahandi and Sambalpur. The production is increasing in the plateaus of Bolangir and Korapur. The quantity of Bauxite found here is 62.5%. Gujarat- The major producing districts are Halhar, Kheda, Sambhar Kanta, Jamnagar, Surat, , Porbandar, etc. The deposits is about 5 crore tons. The quantity of bauxite is 58% to 60%. Jharkhand- Jharkhand is the second largest producer of bauxite with a production of 11.87% (11.61 lakh tons). The major bauxite producing districts are , Palamu, Girdih, Gumla, Shaheganj and Lohardaga. Jharkhand has deposits of 8 crore tons of high quality bauxite. The metallic content is 50 to 63%. Maharashtra- The bauxite producing major districts of Maharashtra are Kolhapur, Colaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara and Pune. The estimated deposits of bauxite in Maharashtra are 8.05 crore tons. Maharashtra is the fourth largest producer of bauxite in Bharat with a production of 9.64 lakh tons. Chattisgarh- Chattisgarh ranks fifth in the production of bauxite with the production of 6.18% (6.04 lakh tons). The highest deposits of Bharat are found here. There are high quality deposits of 30-35 crore tons. The major districts producing bauxite are Surguja, Raigarh, Mahasamund, Korba, Rajnandgaon, and Bilaspur. The metallic content is 62%. Tamil Nadu- Tamil Nadu ranks sixth with a production of 2.74% (2.64 lakh tons). Bauxite is found in the districts of Salem, Madurai, Nilgiris and Coimbatore. The bauxite content is 45% to 60%. Madhya Pradesh- Madhya Pradesh ranks seventh with the production of 2.35% (2.30 lakh tons). The major districts are Shahdol, Mandla, Balaghat, Katni, Jabalpur and Seoni. Karnataka- Bauxite is found in Belgaon, hills of Baba Budan and South Kanara districts. The estimated deposits are 50 lakh tons. Andhra Pradesh-Telangana- Here bauxite is found in the districts of Vishakhapatnam, Vijaynagar and Srikakulam. The estimated potentialdeposits are 3.5 crore tons. Other States- Bauxite is also found at Punch of Udhampur in Jamu, Banda district in Uttar Pradesh and Goa. 24.2-IV Mica Bharat is the largest producer of mica in the world. Bharat produces 70 to 80% of mica of the world. Mica is found in igneous and metamorphic rocks and it is dark green in colour. It is found in small pieces in some long and 3 centimetres to 1 metre thick vessels. Mica is ductile, light weight, bright, transparent, layered, insulating and hardand has high dielectric breakdown. Being insulator and capable of withstanding high voltage, it is largely used in electric and electronic industries. 301

Besides it is also used in making medicines, aeroplanes, telephones, radio, TV, motor, wireless, eyeglasses, decoration items and bricks. Mica in Bharat Andhra Pradesh- Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of mica with a contribution of 72.56% (883 tons). The major districts producing mica are Vishakhapatnam, Krishna, East Godavari, West Godavari, Khammam and Anantpur. Green coloured mica is found here. The mica of Nellore is world famous. Rajasthan- 15.61% (190 tons) mica of the country is produced in Rajasthan. The major districts are Bhilwara, Udaipur, Ajmer and Rajsamand. Besides mica is also found in Tonk, Alwar, Bharatpur and Dungarpur districts. Mica found in Rajasthan is light green and pink. Jharkhand- With a production of 11.83% (144 tons) of the country, Jharkhand ranks third. The major mica producing districts are Hazaribagh, Gaya, Koderma, Bhagalpur, Munger, Santhal Pargana. Here high quality light red mica, called Bengal Manika, is mined. Some mica is also mined in Singhbhum and Palamu. Tamil Nadu- The major mica producing districts are Tiruchirappalli, Tirunelveli, Coimbatore and Madurai. Other States- Nayyanur, Punalur, Alleppy and Quilon in Kerala; Dhenkanal, Sambalpur, Koraput, Cuttack, Ganjam in Odisha; Hassan and Mysuru in Karnataka; and Midnapur in West Bengal and Gurugram in Haryana. 24.2-V Graphite and Zinc This mineral is found in the form of galena ore in the layered sedimentary rocks of the Aravali range of Bharat. Zinc is used for making chemicals, dry batteries and for rust roof works while graphite is used for making brass, military stuff, railway engine and other things. 95% of the deposits and production of graphite and zinc in Bharat is done in Rajasthan (Chittor, Rajsamand, Bhilwara and Udaipur). Other deposits in Bharat are in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha and Tamil Nadu. Graphite and zinc are refined in Hindustan Zinc Limited, Udaipur, which is a public sector company. Textual Questions- 24.2 5. Where does Bharat rank in the world from the point of view of iron ore deposits? 6. Name the first two states of Bharat that have copper mines. 7. What is the main source of aluminium? 8. In which industry is mica widely used? 9. Which state of Bharat has monopoly in graphite-zinc production?

24.3 Energy Resources The present age is based on energy power. Energy is an essential and significant resource for over-all development of the country. The more a country produces energy the more developed it is. Man and animals are biological resources. Energy obtained from them is limited; hence its use is also already limited. Coal, petroleum, gas, hydroelectricity, atomic energy, wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy are all artificial energy resources. A great deal of energy is obtained from them. These biological and artificial matters from which energy (power) is obtained are called energy resources. Requirement and Significance Energy resources contributed significantly in the development of human civilization. In the earlier times, man and animal power were primary sources of energy. At present coal, petroleum, gas, hydroelectricity, atomic energy, wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy are significant sources. We cannot imagine the development of human civilization without the energy resources. The following reasons explain the requirement and significance of energy resources: (i) For the economic development of the country. (ii) For increasing industrial production. 302

(iii) For fulfilling the needs of increasing population. (iv) For increasing national GDP and per captia income (v) For domestic work, agriculture, transportation, communication and space research.

Classification of Energy Resources 24.4 Conventional Energy Resources Energy resources being used since ancient times are called conventional energy resources. For example, coal, mineral oil, natural gas, hydroelectricity etc. Except hydroelectricity all the other conventional energy resources are limited and depleting. 24.5 Non-conventional Energy Resources The energy resources that came in vogue in the modern age are called non-conventional energy resources. For example, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal power, biogas and atomic power. Conventional energy resources being limited, development of unlimited and unceasing energy resources is being promoted. In future these resources shall be the only alternatives for us. Except atomic power all the other non-conventional resources are unlimited and unceasing. 24.5-I Coal Coal has been the foremost energy resource of the modern industrial revolution. Being capable of providing high heat, it is chiefly used for the production of thermal electricity and for smelting iron ore. Besides being energy and power resource, coal is also a significant raw material. While preparing coke from coal, several by products are also obtained. For example, colour, perfumes, medicines, pesticides, manures, artificial threads, coaltar, ammonia etc. Coal can be classified into four groups on the basis of carbon, vapour and water content in them: (i) Anthracite Coal It is the highest ranking of coal. The carbon content in it is between 80% and 95%, water content is between 2% and 5% and vapour content is between 25% and 40%. It is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic lustre.Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short, blue, and smokeless flame. (ii) Bituminous Coal It is the second ranking coal. The carbon content in it is between 60% and 80%, water content is between 20% and 30% and vapour content is between 25% and 40%. It leaves black colour on the hand. It gives some smoke while burning. Coke is made from bituminous coal. In Bharat mostly medium type of bituminous coal is found. (iii) Lignite Coal It is the lowest rank of coal. Some lignite coal is black in colour. The carbon content in it is between 45% and 55%, water content is between 30% and 55% and vapour content is between 35% and 50%. It gives a lot of smoke while burning. It is mostly used in producing thermal electricity. In quality it is between bituminous and pit coal. (iv) Pit Coal It is the fourth ranking coal. The carbon content in it is between 15% and 35%. It is the first stage of coal making. It gives more smoke than heat while burning. Coal Producing States of Bharat Bharat ranks fourth in coal deposits in the world after the USA, Russia and China. According to the department of the Geological Survey of Bharat, the coal deposits in Bharat are 86.42 hundred crore tons. The coal layers are 1.2 metre thick and lie 600 metres below ground level. Coal is found in sedimentary rocks. According to the Coal ministry of Bharat, up to below 12000 metres, there are coal deposits amounting 293.5 hundred crore tons. 98% of coal deposits in Bharat are located in 5 crore years old rocks of the Gondwana Age and from there 1% of production is obtained. Chattisgarh- 12.71 crore tons of coal is produced here. Major coal producing areas are Surguja, Chirimiri, Lakhanpur, Sonhat, Sendurgarh, Jhilimili, Korba, Bisrampur, Raigarh, Tatapani, Ramkola and Rampur. These areas have 17% of coal deposits. 303

Jharkhand- This is the main coal producing state. Here 11.30 crore ton of coal is produced. 25% of the total reserved deposits are collected here. The major coal producing areas are Jharia, Darla, Bokaro, Faspur, Girdih, Ramgarh, Daltonganj and Rajmahal. Odisha- 11.29 crore tons of coal is produced here. Talchar is the main coal producing area. 75% of the coal reserves of the state are found in Talchar. Other major coal producing areas are Rampur and Himgiri. Madhya Pradesh- 7.58crore ton coal is obtained here. It is obtained in the Singhrauli area of the districts of Umaria, Shahdol and Sidhi. Andhra Pradesh- 5.04 crore ton coal is obtained here. The major coal producing areas are Adilabad, Western Godawari, Kareemnagar, Borangal, Khammam etc. Maharashtra- 3.72 crore ton coal is obtained here. The major coal producing areas are Nagpur, Wardha, Ballarpur, Yavatmal, Warora, Chandrapur etc. West Bengal- 2.8 crore ton coal is obtained here. The major coal producing areas are Raniganj, Asansol, Bankura, , Virbhumi, Darjeeling and Jalpaigudi. Uttar Pradesh- 1.47 crore ton coal is obtained here. Sonbhadra is the major coal producing district. Among the other states, 57 lakh to coal is obtained in Meghalaya and Assam yields 6.6 lakh tons of coal. Nevilli in Tamil Nadu, Kutch area in Gujarat, and Barmer (Kapoordi, Jalia, Shiv), Nagaur (Merta, Kuchera) in Rajasthan have lignite coal deposits. Use of Coal Most of the demand for coal in Bharat comes from industries and thermal power stations. The demand from the railways is falling fast. In 2012 out of the total produce of coal in the country, 69% was used for electricity generation, 29% in the industries and 2% coal was exported. Coal Production in Bharat Production Year Production (10 lakh tons) 2012-13 556.40 2013-14 565.77 2014-15 612.44 2015-16 447.48 Source- (i) Inventory of coal resources of Bharat, Ministry of Coal (ii) Production & Supply, Ministry of Coal, Government of Bharat 22/1/16 24.5-II Mineral Oil (Petroleum) Mineral oil is a liquid found in sedimentary rocks and a mixture of hydrocarbons in gaseous state. It is deposited in the sandy fossilized sedimentary rocks in the same way as water does in the sponge. A large quantity of flora and faunaremain held down under river valleys and seas for crores of years. With the effect of geological heat, pressure, chemical reaction, microbes, chemical transformation takes place and mineral oil is formed. The topmost part has natural gas, below is oil and at the bottom is water. In Bharat oil wells are dug 1500 to 5000 metres deep. Because of its rarity and varied uses, petroleum is called liquid gold. Mineral oil is the most important energy resource. Despite being lighter than coal, it has several times more power to give heat than does coal. Even no residue is left after consumption.It is a unique source of internal combustion in motor vehicles, aeroplanes and railway engines. Hence it is mineral oil that is used in various means of transportation. The consumption of mineral oil in Bharat comes next to coal.

Exploration and Production of Mineral Oil in Bharat Explorations done by Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) has shown that there are potentials of finding oil in 27 sedimentary basins. Exploration of oil was started in Bharat at Digboi (Assam) in 1860; however, production could only be started in 1882. This is the oldest oil reserve in Bharat. 304

The area of oil reserves in Bharat is 16.7 lakh square kilometres. Out of this 15.6% are off shore areas and the rest are overland with sedimentary structures. According to international geological surveys, there are 620 crore tons of oil reserves in Bharat. These areas are spread over rocky areas of the Tertiary Age, which are mainly in Assam and Gujarat. There is potential of finding oil in the rocks spread over other areas. At present, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Assam are major oil producing states. The coastal areas of the Arabian Sea have become major off shore oil reserve areas. Recently, oil production also began in the Krishna, the Godawari and the Kaveri basins. There are oil reserves in Gujarat from Surat to and Kutch. These areas are popularly known as Ankleshwar area, Khambhat or Lunoz area, Ahemadabad and Kalol area. In Assam, the oil reserve areas are Digboi, Surma valley, Naharkatia, Moranhat and Rudrasagar Lakhawa. Limited oil reserves are also found in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Arunanchal Pradesh.

Gas and Natural oil Reserves in Bharat 305

. Oil Reserves in Rajasthan This area was identified in 2004 and the production started in 2007. It is believed that there are oil reserves in an area of 5000 square kilometres. Mineral oil is found here in sandy rocks. 87.83 lakh ton was obtained in Rajasthan in 2014-15. Rajasthan ranks first in Bharat in oil reserves. The details of oil reserve areas are as given below: Jaisalmer Oil Reserve 8 oil wells have been dug 3500 metre deep around Manihari Tibba and Ghotaru, out of which oil was explored successfully in 7 wells. The major oil wells are Baghewala, Kalekhala and Tabrimala. Oil wells are dug 1200 metres deep to draw oil. Barmer Oil Reserve Good quality oil reserves have been explored in Gudamalani area here. 100 to 150 crore barrel mineral oil reserves have been found in Vijaya and Bhagyam of Jogsaria area. An oil refinery is proposed to be built in Barmer under Rajasthan Refineries Limited. A pipeline is being spread from here to Mundra harbour of Gujarat to transport oil. The oil transported shall be sent here through this pipeline. The oil reserve areas of Barmer are called as Saraswati, Rageshwari, Mangla, Aishwarya, , Bhagyam, Guda, NI etc. Production and Trade The production of mineral oil in the country is much less than the requirement. 2.6 lakh ton of mineral oil was produced from indigenous areas in 1950-51. This increased to 3.24 crore ton in 2000, which was only 30% of the country’s requirement. In 2012-13, overland areas produced 2.00 crore ton oil and off shore areas produced 4.23 crore ton oil, which amounted to the total of 4.23 crore ton Production of Petroleum in Rajasthan Year of Production crude oil (MMT) natural gas (BCM) 2010-11 37.684 52.21 2011-12 38.090 47.559 2012-13 37.862 40.679 2013-14 37.788 35.407 2014-15 37.461 33.656 2015-16 37.046 35.28 Source- (i) Indian Petroleum and Natural Gas Statistics 2013 Ministry of Petroleum, Bharat (ii) Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.

24.5-III Electricity The production of electricity is the most essentially important convenient and clean environmental feeling. We cannot imagine modern existence without electricity. The uses of tube lights, bulbs, ACs, fans, TV, computer, mixer, cooler, heater, geyser, electric motor, electric charger, battery charger are just the pressing of a switch away. Most of the trains are run by electricity. Electrical appliances are small, noiseless, pollution free and with larger capacity. Hence coal, wind energy, natural gas and energy resources are mostly used for the production of electricity. At present, the percentage of production of hydroelectricity, atomic power and wind power is increasing. However the actual increase in the production of electricity has taken place from thermal power. Hydroelectricity- There is no depletion of water in the production of hydroelectricity. Hence this water can be reused for drinking, day to day works, industries, irrigation etc. The dams recharge with water every year. Hydroelectricity is completely pollution free. The technique of the production of hydroelectricity is quite simple. Fewer appliances are required. It takes less time and money for the production. Once a plant is installed, there is no production cost involved other than maintenance and salaries. Hence hydroelectricity is thecheapest, unceasing and pollution free energy resource. The 306 first power plant in Bharat with 20 kilowatt capacity was installed in Darjeeling (West Bengal) in 1897. The second plant with 4500 kilowatt capacity was installed at Shivasamudram (Karnataka) on the Cauvery in 1902 and the third one with 4200 kilowatt capacity was installed at Mohra in Jammu and Kashmir in 1907. Major Hydroelectricity Projects in Bharat Agriculture and industry were given more importance in the earlier five-year plans of Bharat. Power

Major Hydroelectricity Projects in Bharat 307

was needed for their development. Hence in these five-year plans, hydroelectricity stations were established on the dams of multipurpose river valley projects. The state wise major hydroelectricity projects are as given below:

(i) Andhra Pradesh- The major hydroelectricity projects are Sri Sailam (1670 megawatt), Nagarjuna Sagar (816 megawatt), Madykund, Nizam Sagar, Inchampalli, Polavaram. (ii) Karnataka- Krishnarajsagar and Shivasundaram on the Cauvery, Mahatma Gandhi on the waterfall of the Sharavathi, Shamash on the Shamash, a tributary of the Cauvery, Tungbhadra on the Tungbhadra are major hydroelectricity projects. (iii) Maharashtra- Koyna (1960 megawatt), Tata Hydroelectricity Project, Purna and Vaitarna are major hydroelectricity projects. (iv) Madhya Pradesh- Indira Gandhi Sagar, Gandhi Sagar, Pench, Bargi etc. are the major hydroelectricity projects. (v) Punjab- Bhakra Nangal Dam on the Sutlej (1500 megawatt) is the second highest dam in Bharat and Pong dam on the Beas are major hydroelectricity projects. (vi) Himachal Pradesh- Nathpa Jhakri (1500 megawatt), Mandi, Miribanta, Chamera, Vastra on the Sutlej, Padoh on the Beas and Shimla electricity power station are the major hydroelectricity projects. (vii) Uttrakhand- Tehri dam is highest dam of Bharat and the tenth highest dam in the world. Tehri dam on the Bhagirathi is the highest hydroelectricity producing centre of Bharat. Its capacity of hydroelectricity generation is 2400 megawatt. The other major hydroelectricity projects are Chibro, Dhakrani and Dhalipur. (viii) Odisha- Hirakund on the Mahanadi (307.5 megawatt), Bhimkund, Balimela are major hydroelectricity projects. (ix) Tamil Nadu- Pykara, Metar, Papanasam, Periyar, Moyar, Khodiyar, Parambikulam, Sholaya are the major hydroelectricity projects. (x) Uttar Pradesh- There are 13 power projects on upper Gangnahar from Haridwar to Aligarh. Besides Khara, Matatila, Rihand (300 megawatt) and Ramganga are major hydroelectricity projects. (xi) Kerala- Idukki (780 megawatt), Kuttiyadi, Sawargiri, Sholayar, Mananthavady, Chalakudy, Puyankutti lower Periyar, Pallivasal, Sengulam, Mangalam Pargal, Kuddu are major hydroelectricity projects.

Others- Sardar Sarowar Dam (1450 megawatt) on the Narmada, Ukai and Kadana in Gujarat, Salal in Jammu and Kashmir, Rana Pratap Sagar, Jawahar sagar and Bajaj Sagar in Rajasthan are other major hydroelectricity projects. Besides, there are hydroelectricity projects in Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, Arunanchal Pradesh, Manipur and Assam.

Production and Consumption Production- Bharat stands seventh in the world in the hydroelectricity generation and third in the number of dams. National Hydroelectricity Corporation was established in the country in 1975 to generate hydroelectricity according to the demand. In the year 2011-12, the total production of electricity was 66.30% thermal power, 19.24% hydroelectricity, 2.35% atomic power and 12.1% other powers (solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biomass, power from urban and industrial waste).

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Electricity Power Generation Capacity (megawatt) in Bharat from 1898 to 2011-12 Year Thermal Hydroelectricity Atomic Others Total Power Power 1897 - 0.02 - - 0.02 1902 - 4.22 - - 4.22 1907 - 8.72 - - 8.72 1950-51 600 1100 - - 1,700 2001-02 74,429 26,201 2,720 1,567 1,04,917 2011-12 1,34,635 39,060 4,780 24,503 2,02,978

Consumption- In 2010-11 in Bharat the power consumption was- 36.5% in industrial sector, 25.2% for domestic use, 10.4% in business sector, railways 2.2% and others 5.2%. Despite so much consumption 96.7% villages are electrified. There was no electrification in 19704 villages of Bharat till 2015. 416 villages in Rajasthan are still un-electrified. The Union government had plans to electrify all the villages by May 2018. (Source- STTP II community data govt. un-electrical village Bharat 31.5.15) Textual Questions- 24.3 10. What were the sources of energy in the early ages of human civilization? 11. Name some conventional energy resources. 12. How many types of coal are there? 13. Which districts of Rajasthan produce mineral oil? 14. What was the target of the Union government regarding electrification of all the villages?

24.6 Conventional Energy Resources 24.6-I Atomic Power Atomic power is also called nuclear power. Atomic power is a miraculous discovery to fulfil the energy requirements of the modern age. The splitting of one kilogram of uranium yields energy equal to what burning of 25 lakh kilogram (2500 tons) of coal yields.Scientific and technological efficiency is required to develop atomic power. Bharat possesses capacity and technique to produce power from atomic minerals. Atomic power is produced by two methods: (i) Nuclear Fission- In the fission method one larger atom is broken into two smaller atoms. (ii) Fusion Method- In the fusion method two smaller atoms change into one bigger atom. Fission and fusion methods produce infinite energy from the nuclei, which is called nuclear power. Atomic power is a significant source of energy besides being operational energy. Its use for welfare purposes brings progress to mankind while its destructive use can destroy human civilization. Just as, on 6 and 9 August 1945, the USA, during World War II, threw atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki of Japan and destroyed them. We can still observe its ill effects to the environment there. Atomic Energy Minerals and Producing Areas (i) Uranium- Pitchbend is the major mineral from which 50 to 80 percent of uranium is obtained. Uranium is found in round and various shaped lumps. It is of dark black colour. It is found in Jharkhand (Jaduguda 40 lakh ton deposits), Rajasthan (Udaipur, Bhilwara), Karnataka (Yedpur-Bengaluru), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore), Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. (ii) Thorium- It is obtained mainly from three minerals: 309

(A) Thorianite- It contains 38 to 90% thorium. It is not found in Bharat. (B) Monozite- It contains 18% of thorium. It is found in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. (C) Ilmenite- It contains 3% of thorium. It is found in the sandy coastal areas of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra and West Bengal. (iii) Beryllium- It is obtained from granite and nise rocks. It is mostly used as alloying element and as explosive. It is found in Rajasthan, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh. (iv) Zircon- It is obtained from zirconium ore and is alloyed with other minerals. In it zircon content is up to 7%. It is found in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Origin and Development of Atomic Power in Bharat- The origin and development of atomic power in Bharat took place owing to the efforts of Dr.Homi Jehangir Bhabha with the establishment of the first atomic kiln at Trombay near Mumbai in 1955. Besides being source of operational power, atoms are significant source of energy. Hence atomic plants were established. At present 22 atomic power plants are working in the country. All of these are run by Nuclear Power Corporation of Bharat Limited (NPCL). 2 plants in Rawat Bhata, Rajasthan, 2 in Gujarat and 1 in Tamil Nadu are under construction. Atomic Power Plants of Bharat and their Capacity S. No. State Power production Total plants capacity (megawatt) 1. Maharashtra 1400 4 2. Tamil Nadu 1440 3 3. Rajasthan 1180 6 4. Karnataka 880 4 5. Uttar Pradesh 440 2 6. Gujarat 440 2

Source- www..npcil.nic.in (Nuclear Power Plant in India, Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited) 24.6-II Organic Energy The energy generated from living resources is called organic energy or biogas. It includes producing biogas from cow dung, energy from decantation techniques of urban waste, excreta, dirty waterand forest- agricultural waste. The capacity of organic energy generation is approximately 19500 megawatt. 3500 megawatt can be generated from sugarcane bagasse. At present 100 sugar mills are generating 95 megawatt electricity and the capacity of 912 megawatt is being developed. (i) Biogas from Cowdung- Cowdung is the best means of producing biogas energy. Inflammable gas is produced by cow dung through a special technique. Biogas contains 60 percent methane, 30 percent carbon oxide and some amount of hydrogen and nitrogen gases. 20 percent of the animals of the world live in Bharat. Cow dung is available in abundance in the rural areas. Hence in the rural areas and in cow sheds pollution free energy in the form of biogas can be easily produced through indigenous resources. Biogas units are set up in rural areas of Bharat with 50 percent grant from Khadi and Village Industries Board. Hence their number is continuously increasing. After generating gas from cow dung, the remaining slurry can be used as manure. Hence cow dung fulfils the requirements of both biogas and manure. Biogas can be used to produce LPG and light can be produced by running internal combustion engine. (ii) Energy from Urban Waste- The urban areas of Bharat produce 5 crore ton hard waste and 600 crore ton liquid waste annually. This can produce 2900 megawatt electricity. It was targeted to raise it to 5600 megawatt by 2017. At present the production capacity of 310

the eight working projects based on hard and liquid waste is 22.50 megawatt. Three projects are working in Surat (Gujarat) with the capacity of one megawatt each. (iii) Energy from Industrial Waste- The industrial waste in Bharat can produce 1300 megawatt electricity. At present water treatment plants have been installed in all the 200 liquor factories. Biogas produced from it can generate 200 megawatt electricity. At present the work on projects producing energy from waste with 35 megawatt capacity is near completion. 24.6-III Wind Power Approximately 45000 megawatt energy can be produced by installing windmills in windy areas of Bharat. According to a study made by the World Bank, 4 lakh windmills can be installed in Bharat. Windmills run by new techniques can produce power equal to 5 kilowatt electricity. 2008 spots in Bharat have been identified for the development of wind power. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency are working together for the development of wind power. A windmill can save 1.28 ton of diesel every year. Production- At present 13000 megawatt electricity is being produced by wind power in Bharat. In wind power generation, Bharat comes fifth after Germany, the USA, Denmark and Spain. Here, 45000 megawatt electricity can be produced from wind power. The biggest wind power plant in Asia is located in Mandvi in of Gujarat. Then comes the wind power plant of Muppandal in Tamil Nadu. Wind power is being generated in Maharashtra, Kerala, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh too. The present wind power production in megawatts in the states of Bharat is as given below: Tamil Nadu (3873), Maharashtra (1756), Gujarat (1253), Karnataka (1011) and Rajasthan (539). The government has given special grant and tax rebate to the private sector to establish wind power units in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rajasthan and Gujarat. 24.6-IV Solar Energy Nature has granted ample ideal conditions for solar energy in Bharat. Gujarat and Rajasthan have more potential for the development of solar energy. Except northern mountainous regions, all the regions of Bharat receive ample amount of sun. Thus 20 megawatt per square kilometres electricity can be produced by sunbeams in Bharat. Bharat has made much progress in the development of solar energy technology. It is easy to produce, cost effective and environment friendly. Solar energy is 7 percent more effective than coal or mineral based plants and 10 percent more effective than atomic power plant. Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaicand solar thermal energy. Solar energy is used in solar heaters, water heaters, solar lantern, solar dryer, cooking, generating electricity etc. By 31 December 2016, the capacity of electricity generation had reached 9012 megawatt. What you have learnt (i) Mineral means mining materials having physical and chemical properties. Those which are useful for man are called mineral resources. (ii) Minerals in Bharat are divided into metallic or non-metallic resources on the basis of their physical and chemical properties. (iii) Iron is obtained from igneous rocks. Bharat is second largest nation after Russia in mineral deposits. (iv) Copper is a mineral found as ore in the metamorphic rocks of the Aravali Mountain ranges. (v) Bharat is the largest producer of mica in the world. Here Muscovite (ruby mica) and biotite (pink mica) are drawn from igneous and metamorphic rocks. (vi) 95 percent of zinc and graphite deposits are found in the districts of Chittor, Rajsamand, Bhilwara and Udaipur in Rajasthan. (vii) Bharat imports 70 percent of its mineral oil requirement. 311

(viii) Those biological and artificial materials that are used to produce energy are called energy resources. (ix) Men and animals are biological energy resources. Coal, petroleum, water, electricity, atomic energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy etc. are artificial energy resources. (x) Energy is necessary for the economic development of the country, increase in the national GDP and increase in industrial production. (xi) Energy resources have been divided into two groups: (A) Conventional Energy Resources- Coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydroelectricity etc. Except hydroelectricity, all the other conventional resources are depleting. (B) Non-conventional Energy Resources- Solar energy, biogas, atomic power, wind power, tidal energy, geothermal energy etc. Except atomic power all the other energy resources are unceasing. (xii) Coal is classified into four groups according to the quantity of carbon in it: (A) Anthracite (B) Bituminous (C) Lignite (D) Pit (xiii) 49 percent of coal produced in Bharat is from the rocks of the Gondwana Age while 1 percent is produced from the rocks of the Tertiary Age. (xiv) The major coal producing states in Bharat are Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. (xv) The major over land mineral producing states in Bharat are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Arunanchal Pradesh. (xvi) The major off shore mineral producing regions in Bharat are Mumbai High, off shore regions of Gujarat, Cauvery basin. (xvii) Uranium, thorium, monazite, beryllium, limonite and zircon are major atomic energy minerals. Bharat has 22 atomic power plants where 5780 megawatt electricity is produced. (xviii) The Tehri dam (Uttarakhand) on the Bhagirathi is the highest dam in Bharat and tenth largest in the world. It is the greatest hydroelectricity power station with the capacity of 2400 megawatt hydroelectricity. Answers to Textual Questions 24.1 1. By digging the earth. 2. Non-iron predominance. 3. Uranium, thorium, beryllium, ilmenite. 4. 3 types- metallic, non-metallic and energy minerals 24.2 5. Second. 6. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan. 7. Bauxite. 8. Electric and electronic industry. 9. Rajasthan’s 95%. 24.3 10. Man and animal power. 11. Coal, mineral oil, natural gas and hydroelectricity. 12. Four types- anthracite, bituminous, lignite and pit. 312

13. Jaisalmer, Barmer 14. By May 2018 Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of these is an example of metallic mineral? (A) Iron (B) Mineral oil (C) Uranium (D) Lime stone 2. In which district of Rajasthan have deposits of mineral oil found? (A) Jaipur (B) Dausa (C) Ajmer (D) Barmer Short Answer Questions 1. Name two metallic minerals found in Rajasthan. 2. What do you understand by energy resources? 3. Which are the conventional energy resources? 4. Which are the non-conventional energy resources? 5. How have the Indian minerals been classified? 6. Which type of iron ore is found in Bharat? 7. What percentage of does Bharat import to meet its domestic needs? 8. Which mineral are Mumbai High and basin areas related to? 9. Differentiate between biotic and artificial energy resources. 10. Why do we need energy resources? 11. Which are pollution free energy resources? 12. What is solar energy? What are the major methods of its use? 13. In which areas of Bharat is bauxite found? Essay Type Questions 1. Describe the types of coal on the basis of carbon content. 2. Describe the conventional energy resources in Bharat. 3. Write a detailed note on non-conventional energy resources in Bharat. 4. Classify coal and describe the coal producing states of Bharat. 5. Describe the production and development of hydroelectricity in Bharat. 6. Throw light on the contribution of minerals to the Indian economy.

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Lesson 25

Economics and Economy

Introduction Man has infinite needs but the means to fulfil these needs are limited. Man performs various activities in his life time from birth to death and from dawn to dusk in his daily routine. All these are called human activities. In this lesson we shall understand economic activities. Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to: (i) Understand the meaning of economics. (ii) Differentiate between economic and non-economic activities. (iii) Compare types of economies. (iv) Understand the characteristics and merits and demerits of capitalist, socialist and mixed economies. (v) Analyse fundamental beliefs on economics in ancient Bharat. Meaning of Economics Human activities are of two types- (i) Economic activities and (ii) Non-economic activities. Economics is the study of the economic activities of man and society. In other words, “economics is the study of human activities performed by man.”

25.1 Economic Activities The activities performed by man that can be measured in terms of money are called economic activities. A peasant does farming, a labourer serves an industry, a teacher teaches a class, etc. are all economic activities, which man performs with an objective to earn his living. Various economic activities can be divided into the following parts: (A) Production The transformation of raw materials into finished goods in order to fulfil human needs is called production. In other words, creation of utility is production. A person who produces goods or services with an objective to earn profit is called producer. For example, farming done by the peasant- here the peasant is a producer while farming is production. (B) Consumption Enjoying goods and services for direct satisfaction of needs is called consumption. The person enjoying goods and services for fulfilment of needs is called consumer. For example, in the case of Mohan buying note book and pen- Mohan shall be the consumer and note book and pen shall be purchase consumption. (C) Exchange If a person gives the goods and services produced by himself to others and in turn receives goods and services from others, it is called exchange.In other words, the marketing of goods and services done by consumers and producers is called exchange. For example, an employee renders his services to the company and in return receives salary from the company. Similarly, a consumer buys wheat from the market and in return makes the payment- this is exchange. 314

(D) Distribution A producer requires various means of production. There are five means of production- land, capital, labour, management and enterprise. Goods are produced by consolidated efforts made with all the means of production. Division of the production among various means of production is called distribution. In other words, the division of the profit earned by the exchange of the produce into the various means of production is called distribution.

25.2 Non-Economic Activities Activities performed inspired by social and religious duty, bodily need, patriotism, love, and other such feelings are called non-economic activities. Such activities cannot be evaluated in monetary terms. For example, children play games, a housewife does her household chores, people worship in temple, social service done by a man etc. Textual Questions-25.1 1. What does man do to fulfil his needs? 2. How many types of human activities are there? 3. Into how many parts can economic activity be divided? 4. Give one example of non-economic activity. 5. 25.3 Means of Production Production is a significant economic activity. Production of a commodity passes through various stages. Various means of production are required to execute production process. The produced quantity of a commodity depends on the quantity of the means of production used. We can divide these means of production as given below: (A) Land In economics, land does not mean earth or ground. Besides earth, the idea of land includes natural resources, climate, vegetation, hills, water, mines etc. The availability of land is stable. Land is an immovable part of production because land cannot be transferred from one place to another. Land can be categorized on the basis of its fertility or utility. The payment to a feudal lord of a portion of a serf's harvestis called lagan. (B) Labour The efforts done by man to produce goods or services is called labour. Efforts done with the purposes of love, solidarity or amusement is not considered labour from the economics point of view. Only those efforts are considered labour which are taken for the purpose of production and which brings monetary benefits. For example, the services of a housewife shall not be considered labour whereas the services of a servant are labour. Labour is a means of production which is directly connected to man whereas other means are not directly connected to man. Labour is a dynamic means of production. All labour is not productive i.e. it is not necessary that labour brings production because efforts in the production process do not always bring desired results. What the labourer gets in return to his labour is called wages. (C) Capital All goods and human capabilities useful for the production of commodities or services that earn money are called assets. Some part of the assets remains unutilized while some part is used to produce more assets. Capital is that part of man’s assets which is used to make further production. Capital is a part of production that is earned with the use of natural resources. Capital can also be called human instrument of production. Machine, instruments, factories, transportation etc. are examples of capital. The person invests his capital and what he gets in return is called dividend. 315

(D) Enterpreneurship The person who makes land, labour and capital dynamic in the production process is called an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur makes proportionate use of all the means for the purpose of production. The entrepreneur takes risks to produce something. This is called enterprise. There can be no production without taking risks. Hence an entrepreneur has to initiate production and take risks. That part which remains as balance after paying for all the means of production is the entrepreneur’s reward. The entrepreneur might earn profit or incur loss in the production process.

25.4. Economy Every person in the country is busy with various economic activities to earn his livelihood. A peasant, a labourer, an industrialist, a shopkeeper, a teacher, a doctor – all are working to earn their living. We need a well-organized system to execute various activities by various economic classes. This system is called economy. To conclude, we can say that economy is a system through which people earn their livelihood. Economy is a structure which gives birth to coordination between producers of various goods. Economy is a system in which economic activities like production, consumption, exchange and distribution are unceasing. In general terms we can say that economy is a system in which economic activities are conducted in a particular field. For example, a sugar mill produces sugar. To produce sugar, the producer obtains sugarcane from the peasants, machines and implements from industries and electricity from power house. In order to transfer the produced sugar to various parts of the country, he needs means of transportation (railways, Lorries, ships etc.). This structure of coordination and adjustment between various producers for the production of sugar is economy. The study of economic activities of all the natives of a village or a town, economy of a village, the study of the people living in the state of Rajasthan, the economy of Rajasthan, the study of the economic activities of all the people of the country- all of these studies are done under the economy of Bharat. Textual Questions- 25.2 6. What is given in return of the use of land? 7. What do you understand by wages? 8. Who is an entrepreneur? 9. What is the meaning of economy?

25.5. Types of Economy How the various economic activities like production, consumption, exchange, distribution are conducted in the country depends on the form of economy. To what extent can the state interfere with the economic activities? What shall be the basis of ownership of the means of production? What shall be the objectives of the economic activities? On the basis of all these questions, we can divide various economies of the world into the following three categories: (A) Capitalist Economy (B) Socialist Economy (C) Mixed Economy 25.5-I Capitalist Economy Capitalist economy is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. The government makes no interference of any sort on the management of the economic workings. 316

Capitalist Economy is also called Free Market Economy, Market Economy or Free Economy. This economic system originated in the world during the time of the industrial revolution between 1760 and 1820. At present, capitalism in its pure form is not found in any country of the world. However, on the basis of conduct and control of economic activities the USA, Germany, Canada, Italy, Japan, France and Australia have capitalist economy. Characteristics of the Capitalist Economy The major characteristics of the capitalist economy are as given below: (i) Right to Private Property In capitalist economy, the factors of production like land, mines, factories, machines etc. are owned by private people. The owner of these means is free to use them as he wills. He has full freedom to possess, add and use them as he wishes. (ii) Freedom of Choice to Consumers In a capitalist economy, the consumer enjoys sovereignty i.e. the producer produces goods as per the demands of the consumer. This is called the sovereignty of the consumer. In this economic system, the consumer is free as he wishes to spend according to his income. As the consumer is supreme, he is called ‘the king of the market’ in this economic system. (iii) Freedom of Enterprise Every person can run any economic activity as he wishes. He is completely free to produce anything, use any technique or set up any industry.The government has no interference. Hence the capitalist economy is also called ‘free enterprise economy.’ (iv) Competition The sellers continuously compete with one another in order to sell their produce or goods and the buyers too are free to choose the goods they desire on competitive prices. This is good for the market. The sellers take recourse to advertisements, free gifts, discounts etc. to compete with one another. (v) Objective of Personal Interest and Profit In a capitalist economy, a person takes decisions to do anything or to produce anything solely with the objective of earning profit. His sole concern is what and how much the profit he will earn. Similarly the consumer too consume goods for their personal needs. (vi) Class Struggle In a capitalist economy, the society is divided into two classes. The person who sets up industries and takes risks is called capitalist. This class of society is rich and resourceful. The workers of the industries are called labourers. This class is devoid of resources. There is a clash of interests as the capitalists want to earn more and more whereas the workers want to save themselves from exploitation. (vii) Unequal Income Because of unequal distribution of property in a capitalist economy, the disparity between the rich and the poor keeps on increasing.We can analyse capitalist economy on the basis of the following merits and demerits: (A) Merits (i) Increasing production capacity and efficiency (ii) More satisfaction of the consumers (iii) Most favourable use of means (iv) Technical development (v) High standard of living (vi) Economic freedom (vii) Development of research and invention 317

(B) Demerits (i) Disparity of income and property (ii) Regional inequalities (iii) Economic instability (iv) Creation of monopolies (v) Misuse of productive resources (vi) Undignified consumption (vii) Fall of moral values 25.5-II Socialist Economy Meaning: Socialist economy means an economic system in which all the means of production are owned by the whole society through the government and all the economic activities are conducted by the central power with the objective of universal interest and welfare. Socialist economy is also called ‘Equal Economy’ or ‘Centrally Planned Economy’. Inspired by the socialist ideology developed by Karl Marx, the Russian revolution took place in 1917 and socialist economy dawned there. After Russia, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, China, Vietnam etc. also adopted this economic system. However, at present except China and North Korea, most of the other countries have given up this system. Characteristics of the Socialist Economy The following are the characteristics of the socialist economy: (i) Collective Ownership of the Means In this economy, the tangible means of production i.e. land, factory, instruments etc. are owned and controlled by society or the government. Consequently, economic activities are not conducted for private interests or profit. (ii) No Freedom of Choice to the Consumer Goods are produced as per instructions from the government. Hence the consumer enjoys sovereignty only on those goods. The quantity of consumption is also fixed by the government. (iii) Central Planning or Economic Planning In a socialist economy, the socio-economic targets are fixed and achieved by the central power. Important economic decisions like what is to be produced and how something is to be produced are taken by the central power. (iv) Objectives of Social Interests In a socialist economy, all sorts of economic decisions are taken with the objectives of maximum social and collective interests. No private interest is kept in view. (v) Economic Equality Socialist economy works on the principle of equal pay for equal work. This economic system ends class struggle. There is no scope for earning private capital. Hence there is little economic inequality.Socialist economy can be analysed on the basis of the following merits and demerits: Merits (i) Equal distribution of money and income (ii) Equal opportunities (iii) Planned economy (iv) No class struggle (v) Economic stability (vi) Right to work (vii) Assurance of minimum standard of living to the people Demerits (i) Bureaucracy and red-tapism 318

(ii) Restricted individual freedom (iii) Fall in production (iv) Lack of economic inspiration (v) No freedom to the consumer (vi) No right to private property 25.5-III Mixed Economy Meaning: This economic system is an effort to consolidate the ideal characteristics of both capitalism and socialism as per the requirements. In other words, this system is a middle path of capitalism and socialism. In a mixed economy, private and public sectors coexist. It supports private enterprise and private interests but at the same time it also considers the existence of the government significant for safeguarding the interests of the whole society. In a mixed economy, it is desirable that both private and public sectors work together in such a way that economic welfare of all classes of society are taken care of and potentials of progress and development in the country are explored. Bharat adopted this system after independence. Characteristics of the Mixed Economy Some of the significant characteristics of the mixed economy are as given below: (i) Coexistence of private and public sectors Coexistence of private and public sectors is the most significant characteristic of the mixed economy. The government has monopoly over socially significant industries e.g. Drinking water, electrification, power, internal and border security etc. In this economic system, heavy and infrastructure industries are run and developed by the government while cottage industries, agriculture etc. are in the purview of private sector. Besides joint sectors are also set up. (ii) Administered Price In a mixed economy, prices of goods are fixed by dual system. Prices of the goods produced by the private sector are fixed freely but in the case of some of the essential items used by common man are controlled by the government. For example, in Bharat the prices of petrol, diesel, LPG etc. are fixed by the government. (iii) Economic Planning Mixed economy is a planned economy in which the government frames well planned social and economic policies. Social welfare works are undertaken according to these policies. For example, river valley projects are developed for the benefit of society like drinking water, irrigation, fishery, production of hydroelectricity etc. (iv) Regional Balance The government has control over socially significant sectors. It carries out the planning process in such a way that development of all the areas attract equal attention. For example, the development of education, medical facilities, roads, transportation, drinking water etc. (v) Individual Freedom In a mixed economy, the private sector enjoys freedom of production, consumption, exchange and distribution. However, it is to be kept in view that this freedom does not go against social interest or welfare. Hence the government controls this freedom to some extent. For example, smoking and drinking are prohibited at public places. Similarly, child marriages, death feasts, opulent wedding celebrations are also prohibited. The mixed economy can be analysed on the basis of the following merits and demerits: Merits (i) Consolidated merits of both capitalism and socialism (ii) Protection of individual freedom 319

(iii) Less class struggle (iv) Less disparities among classes (v) Control over economic swinging (vi) Balanced development of developing countries Demerits (i) Lack of coordination (ii) Temporary gains (iii) Medium pace of economic development (iv) Less production efficiency Textual Questions-25.3 10. What is the economic system of private ownership and control called? 11. Which economic system gives birth to class struggle? 12. Who owns the means of production in the socialist economy? 13. Which type of economy takes care of regional balance?

25.6 Ancient Indian Economic Thoughts Increasing exploitation of natural resources in the name of economic development, undignified and unrestrained consumption of goods and services, environmental crisis born out of rapid industrialization, degeneration of human values and morality to fulfil growing needs-all these have forced the world to explore an alternative economic system other than capitalism and socialism. In such a situation, the study of Indian economic thoughts and conventions has paved the way to explore solutions to the economic problems. Ancient Indian economic thought summarises all those economic thoughts mentioned significantly in ancient Indian treatises. We come to know of the glorious past of Bharat through these treatises. That is why Bharat had been felicitated with the title of ‘world leader’ (vishwa guru). Let us study some of the significant theories of ancient Indian economic thoughts: Sources of Ancient Indian Economic Thoughts The Vedas- 4 (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samveda, Atharvaveda) The Upanishads- Total 1131, available 108 SmritiGranthas- 20 The Puranas- 18 Epics- 2 (the Ramayana, the Mahabharata) NitiSahitya- 41 The terms like economics, economic activities have not been used in ancient Indian economic thoughts. Rather, they carry comprehensive connotations. Economics, political science, theology and ethics are all interrelated. There are a number of treatises describing ancient Indian economic thoughts and the thoughts have been expressed comprehensively. Fundamental Beliefs and Theories of Ancient Indian Economic Thoughts (i) Unified Human Philosophy On the one hand, the capitalist economic system presents man as purely an economic man, always thinking of making more and more money and property while on the other hand, the socialist system deems man as machine, working as a tool of production. On the contrary, Indian economic thoughts present man as a unified human being, according to which man is a unified whole of body, mind, heart and soul. All round development of human life is based on the comprehensive development of all these four factors. Ancient Indian thoughts have presented four duties of manhood (purusharthas) for the balanced development of these four factors of personality- dharma, 320 artha, kama, moksha. Hence, it is clear that the ancient Indian economic thoughts stress physical development of man along with his moral and spiritual development so that there could be an all- round development of man. (ii) Overall Reasonableness The capitalist economic thought considers man as economic reasonable man and stresses that a person as producer produces those goods which bring maximum profit. A consumer should consume those things which brings maximum satisfaction to him. In other words, a man should take his economic decisions with purely selfish ends in his mind. Ancient Indian economic thoughts stresses the thought of overall reasonableness. Accordingly, our economic system should be such that a person may be inspired by freedom and self-interest while taking economic decisions but at the same time there should be social and moral control over him. In other words, moral values and statutory laws also turn man to public interests. (iii) Theory of Restrain and Co-consumption Ancient Indian economic thoughts inspire man to spend only his self-earned money. The Vedic literature mentions that a person should make minimum and restrained use of his self-earned money to fulfil his needs. The Atharvaveda mentions that a man should earn only that much that can support him and his family. Collecting more money than required makes a man liable to punishment. The Indian thoughts also mention that a man should earn money through honest means. According to Kautilya (Chanakya), restrained consumption keeps a man healthy. Ancient Indian economic thoughts also mentions those things which are consumable and those which are not consumable. Man should deem goods and services as gifts of God and consume these things in such a way that he should be able to spend his life in the welfare of society. He should not think that he has a right on goods and services. According to the Vedic literature, a man should share things with society and should not consume them all. It means that consumption should be based on equality and welfare. The Rigveda mentions that a person is a sinner who fills his own belly, without serving the hungry, the friend, the guest and birds and animals. On the one hand, the western economic system believes that maximum consumption is a symbol of maximum satisfaction, while on the other hand, Indian economic thoughts believe that maximum satisfaction can be achieved by earning by the sweat of the brow and sharing it with others liberally. The persons who follow the line ‘this is mine and that is yours’ belong to the lowest category. Persons of high moral character believe that the whole world is their family. The Indian culture believes that service and welfare of all is the universal duty of man. In the present context when we see that the chasm between the rich and the poor is on the increase owing to unequal distribution of wealth, the ancient Indian economic thoughts can assist establish equality by rightful distribution in society and promote social welfare through the theory of restrain and co- consumption. (iv) Perspective regarding Needs Thousands of years ago, Indian thoughts mentioned that man’s need are infinite while means of fulfilment are limited. Consequently, non-fulfilment of some of the needs makes a man gloomy. The Kathopnishad says that a man can never be satiated even with the huge amount of wealth that he has earned. Just as even after eating his fill, a man’s craving remains. Similarly the craving for more and more never ends. Ancient Indian literature says that man’s needs are not only infinite but when one need is fulfilled another is born. Man should earn his living by knowledge and hard work so that there is no poverty or scarcity in society because in poverty one cannot fulfil his needs. (v) Four Purusharthas (duties of manhood) 321

Ancient Indian literature envisioned contentment of body, mind, heart and soul called four dimensional contentment (chaturvidhsukh). For the attainment of this contentment four duties of manhood (purusharthas) have been mentioned- dharma, artha, kaam, moksha. In the ancient Indian thoughts these four duties have been compared to a river. Arthaand kama are the current of the river while dharma and moksha are the two banks of the river. (A) Dharma (Righteousness) In ancient Indian literature, dharma does not mean external ostentation. Rather, it is a comprehensive term. Dharma is virtue and it is concerned with purity of livelihood. To become noble, dharma is sustainable and bearable. Dharma is based on moral principles and good conduct. Hence dharma keeps the society well-organized. (B) Artha(finance) The scriptures believe that dharma is the basis of man’s peace and contentment and artha is at the root of dharma. The Vedas consider assets, currency and property as wealth. The ancient literature considers knowledge, land, gold and silver, livestock, grains, metallic implements etc. to be artha. (C) Kama (Eros) According to ancient Indian literature, kama keeps the world going. Kama is the doer of all. The nature of a man’s kama propels his deeds. According to the Atharvaveda, various desires of man are manifestations of kama, which is cause and origin of man’s activities. (D) Moksha (salvation) According to ancient economic thoughts, money is a means not an end in itself. One has to free himself from desires and from the fetters of attachment. This is moksha. Moksha is necessary to liberate the soul from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Textual Questions-25.4 14. Name the three sources of ancient Indian economic thoughts. 15. How many Vedas are there? 16. What do you understand by co-consumption? 17. What are the four purusharthas (duties of manhood)? What you have learnt 1. The subject of economics studies economic activities of man and society. 2. The activity performed by man that can be measured in terms of money is called economic activity. 3. The creation of utility is called production. 4. The use of goods and services to fulfil needs is called consumption. 5. There are five means of production- land, capital, labour, management and enterprise. 6. The system under which economic activities are conducted in a certain area is called economy. 7. The economic system in which the means of production are owned and controlled by private people is called capitalist economy. 8. The economic system in which the means of production are owned by the whole society in the form of government is called socialist economy. 9. The economic system in which both the private and public sectors coexist is called mixed economy. 10. The ancient Indian economic thoughts summarize all those economic thoughts which occupy significant place in all ancient treatises. 11. The unified human being means unified form of body, mind, heart and soul. 322

12. Four Purusharthas- dharma. artha, kama and moksha- are mentioned in the ancient Indian economic thoughts for the attainment of the four dimensional contentment (chaturvidhsukh)- the contentment of body, mind, heart and soul. Answers to Textual Questions 25.1 1. Performs activities 2. Two types- economic and non-economic 3. into four parts- production, consumption, exchange and distribution 4. Worship like performed in temple. 25.2 5. Lagan 6. It is the reward received by the worker in return of his labour. 7. The person who invests land, labour, capital and takes risks in setting up industry. 8. A system in which people earn their livelihood. 25.3 9. Capitalist economy 10. Capitalist economy 11. Collective ownership or of society 12. in mixed economy 25.4 13. The Vedas, the Upanishads, Smriti, Kathakavya, Niti-sahitya 14. Four-Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samveda, Atharvaveda 15. Sharing with other people of society before consuming 16. Dharma, artha, kama, moksha Lesson End Questions 1. The use of goods and services for direct fulfilment of needs is called- (A) Production (B) Consumption (C) Exchange (D) Distribution 2. One of the examples of non-economic activities is- (A) Buying a pen (B) Getting the hair cut from the barber (C) Taking tuition (D) Praying Short Answer Questions 1. Define economics. 2. What do you understand by distribution? 3. What do you understand by unified human philosophy? 4. What are capital and labour means of? 5. What do you understand by economy? Essay Type Questions 1. Explain the characteristics of capitalist economy. 2. Describe the merits and demerits of socialist and mixed economy. 3. Explain the theory of restrain and co-consumption. 4. Write an essay on ancient Indian economic thoughts. ------323

Chapter -26

Forms of Economy

Introduction Income is very important in our lives. Income is a significant factor of livelihood and welfare. Income reflects the economic condition of a person, family or the nation. Income is earned through performing economic activities. In order to understand these, they are categorized into various groups, based on some significant parameters. These groups are called sectors of economy. We shall make a detailed study about them in this lesson. Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to: (i) Understand the sectors of economy. (ii) Understand the meanings of national and per capita income. (iii) Compare economic growth and economic development (iv) Understand economic planning of Bharat. We keep ourselves busy in various activities. As student your primary duty is to study. Some of you might be doing some extra work in order to earn something while some others may not be earning now but would certainly think of doing something in future to earn money. Hence earning of income, spending and saving are very significant activities. These are called economic activities. They can be understood through various categories called sectors of economy. Types of Occupations adopted by People People are involved in various activities based on their education, skill, convention in their families etc. in order to earn their livelihood. We can divide them into three sectors of economy: (i) Primary Sector (ii) Secondary Sector (iii) Tertiary Sector 26.1 Primary Sector This sector includes all those activities related to production direct from the utilisation of natural resources.The villagers mostly grow crops and work in farms. They are called either agriculturists or agriculture labourers and this profession is called agriculture. For example, wheat farming. To grow wheat crops, we mainly depend on natural factors like rainfall, sunlight and climate. Hence the production of wheat is a natural produce. Similarly, poultry farming, dairy farming, fisheries, mining, livestock farming and forestry, in which building wood and firewood and medicinal herbs are included. The primary sector is also called agriculture and associated agriculture sector.

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26.2 Secondary Sector The secondary sector of the economy produces finished goods from the raw materials extracted by the primary economy. All manufacturing, processing, and construction jobs lie within this sector. Manufacturing Manufacturing units are called factories and industries. They include production units using raw materials. They are divided into small scale and large scale industries based on their size and expenses involved. Examples of small scale industries are- shoe making factories, cloth making units, printing, furniture etc. Large scale industries include iron industries, motor vehicles and aluminium industries. Skilled workers are employed in manufacturing industries. Construction This activity includes residential and non-residential buildings, roads, parks, bridges, dams, airports etc. It is a regular activity in urban areas. The works associated to irrigation, water and electricity supply are also included in this sector.

26.3 Tertiary Sector The tertiary sector involves economic activities different from those involved in primary and secondary sectors. The activities of this sector assist production and development in the primary and secondary sectors. They do not produce goods. Rather, they assist the production process. People in the present age are rapidly associating themselves with this sector. This sector is also called service sector, in which the following services are provided: (i) Trade, hotels and restaurants (ii) Transportation, storage and communication (iii) Financial services like banking, insurance etc. (iv) Public administration (v) Real estate and professional services (vi) Other services The service sector also includes those services which do not produce goods directly. These include services provided by teachers, doctors, washer men, barber, cobbler, lawyers, administrative and accounts works.Various new activities based on information technology like internet café, ATM, call centres, software companies have become significant. Textual Questions- 26.1 1. Give some examples of economic activities. 2. What economic activity is performed in the primary sector? 3. Say whether the primary sector is associated with rural or urban areas. 4. What are the major professions in the primary sector? 5. Give examples of three economic activities associated with the service sector. 6. Which sector is widely recognised for employment in the present age? 7. Banking and insurance is associated to___ (A) Primary Sector (B) Secondary Sector (C) Tertiary Sector (D) All the three sectors 325

Agriculture has been the primary occupation since independence and it is the major contributor in the national income. Besides, it has played major role in generating employment opportunities and providing food and raw materials. Agriculture progressed with the times. With the increase in technology and population, unemployment in this sector increased and people started working in other fields. The number of technicians and traders increased. Marketing activities increased manifold. Besides people started associating themselves with army, transportation, administration and service sector. Nevertheless, most of the goods are produced in the primary sector. Most of the people obtain employment in this sector. With the new systems of manufacturing coming in vogue, factories were constructed, where the people of the primary sector started working. Factories produced goods at cheap rates, resulting in total production and employment. Consequently, the secondary sector became the most significant. The industrial sector has made significant contribution in providing employment opportunities to the growing population of Bharat. These days the roads, high ways, railways and air services have made travelling to distant places easier. The development in infrastructure has assisted economic development. During the last 100 years, the secondary sector has moved to the tertiary sector in the developed countries. The tertiary sector has become more significant from the point of view of total production and employment opportunities. The Growing Significance of Tertiary Sector in Production The service sector is spreading rapidly in Bharat. There has been an unprecedented increase in the number of railway trains carrying goods and passengers. Besides the other means of transportation like bus, car, truck etc. are carrying people from one place to another by roads. This indicates that the transportation services have increased with the times. Now more and more people have got access to means of communication like telephone and cell phones. A number of schools have been built in the country to provide education. The number of study centres under open school system has increased so that more and more people can be benefited by education. The hospitals and health centres provide health services to people. The banks have opened their branches so that people can open their accounts, withdraw money as required and take loans to buy house, car, scooter etc. Hotels and restaurants have been opened at public places to provide boarding and lodging services. These all are examples of various services. Although the share of the three sectors in the GDP of Bharat has changed, yet there has been no significant change in employment opportunities. There has been no adequate employment creation in the secondary and tertiary sectors. Hence employment has not transferred from the primary sector. Consequently, half of the workers of the country are employed in the primary sector, mainly agriculture. Textual Questions- 26.2 8. Which occupation contributed the most to the national income at the time of independence? (A) Agriculture (B) Industry (C) Transportation (D) Services 9. Why are the people shifting from the agriculture sector? 10. Which sector are transportation, roads, electricity generation related to? 11. An educated Indian student moved to America for job. Which production sector is this student related to? 326

26.4 National Income We utter the word ‘income’ several times during the day. Income is a useful factor to know the prosperity level of a person or a family. Income is not all and all in life yet it is one of the powerful factors determining the welfare of a person or a family. The income of a person explains the material and social condition, economic progress of a person or family to a large extent. Income of a nation can also be determined as that of a person and a family. The comptation of the national income is significant for an economy from the following points of view: (i) The national income indicates the economic condition and economic progress of a nation (ii) It indicates elements of economic progress (iii) It assists framing economic policies. (iv) We can compare economies of various countries on the basis of national income. National Income is the total value of all final goods and services produced by the country in certain year (One financial year: In Bharat it is from 1 April to 31 March). In other words, the total amount of income accruing to a country from economic activities in a year’s time is known as national income. It includes payments made to all resources in the form of wages, interest, rent and profits.From the modern point of view, national income is defined as “the net output of commodities and services flowing during the year from the country’s productive system in the hands of the ultimate consumers.” The owners of the resources contribute in this net output. The resources are rewarded as per their contribution. For example, land earns lagan, labour earns wages and the entrepreneur earns profit. It means that the payment received by the resources of production of a nation- the production made by all the resources of the nation. In simple words, the production done by the resources is the income of the resources of production. Thus the Gross National Product is equal to Gross National Income of a country. In a given financial year, all the resources of a country contribute to the production process. The income accrued as a result of this contribution is called national income. In other words, National Income= domestic Income + Net Income from Abroad Domestic income means income accrued from production within the boundaries of the country. National income has various forms, called national income concepts. For example, Gross Domestic Product, Net Domestic Product, Gross National Product, Net National Product etc. Despite being conceptually different, they indicate the income of an economy. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is mainly used to calculate national income. The total value of all final goods and services produced within the boundary of the country during a given period of time (generally one year) is called GDP.

26.5 Per Capita Income The population of a country keeps changing. The national income does not accommodate the effect of the changing population. Per capita income can be calculated by including the effect of this change. Per capita income = National income Population With the help of per capita income the economic welfare and economic progress can be accurately measured.

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26.5-I Calculation of National Income in Bharat Before independence, Bharat had no government agency to calculate national income. The first accounting of national income in Bharat was done by DadabhaiNaoroji in 1868 CE. Later several economists made speculations. After independence, the Indian Union government constituted National Income Committee under the chairmanship of Shri P C Mahalnobis in August 1949. The committee submitted its final report in 1955 CE. The committee assigned the task of accounting national income to Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), which has been accounting national income of Bharat every year since 1955. Textual Questions- 26.3 12. Which of the following factors indicate the economic progress of a nation? (A) Per capita income (B) National income (C) Population (D) Domestic Product 13. On what basis can the economic condition of different countries be compared? 14. What do you understand by a financial year? 15. Who was the first to calculate national income of Bharat? 16. Which committee was presided over by P C Mahalnobis? 17. 26.6 Economic Development and Economic Progress When the average income (per capita income) is more, the demand for the satisfaction of human needs shall increase. More demand leads to increase in production, resulting in increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and ultimately increase in national income. The countries having more national income are considered more developed countries than those having less national income. However the population of the nations varies. Hence the average income is a better tool than national income for comparison. The more average income of a country, the more shall be the national income. Increase in income is deemed as economic progress with times. National income is very useful in measuring development level while average income is useful in measuring welfare. However income is not an adequate measurement of the development level of a country. When we look at individual wishes and targets, we find that people do not merely wish for better income, they also want their safety, behaviour of respect, freedom and equality from others. Thus merely income is not significant for the welfare of a nation. Only money cannot achieve developed social structure and environment. Earlier people believed that money can earn peace of life; however, gradually it was felt that life can be qualitatively lower despite higher income. Along with economic progress, there should be improvement in social, political and all dimensions of life. An increase in affirmative changes in all areas is called real development. 26.6-I Economic Progress When there is increase in individual income and the national income, it is called economic progress. The real production and income of a nation increases with times. When there is economic progress, the size of the national economy also changes. By increasing the quantity and skilful use of natural, material, human and capital resources of a nation, production can be increased and higher level of income is increased. This process is called economic progress. Economic progress is a long term quantitative change. There is no qualitative 328 dimension in economic progress. This progress does not take care of changes in the social, political, institutionalconditions. 26.6-II Economic Development Economic development is a more comprehensive concept than economic progress. Economic development is a process through which there is a long term increase in the actual national income of an economy. Economic development refers to all those measures adopted targeted to improve the economic condition and standard of living of the masses. Development is seen as increase in income and production. Gross domestic product of a nation increases with economic development. Besides there is also qualitative improvement in the standard of living of the people. Economic development in an economy is acceptable when there is qualitative improvement both in income of the people and in their standard of living. Besides an increase in the actual per capita income of a nation, if there is qualitative improvement in life, alleviation in poverty and starvationor increase in literacy and life expectancy, the increase in per capita income indicates economic development. In the development process, besides increase in per capita income and national income, there is improvement in social perspective, cultural quality, institutional structures, and techniques of production and structure of the economy.

26.7 Consistent Development This is the most popular concept in the present times. It takes care of the interests of the future generations. Accordingly, it stresses that the natural resources should be exploited in such a way that it does not lay adverse effects on the development of the future generations. Its main characteristic is to ensure proper utilization of the resources.

26.8 Inclusive Development It emphasises inclusiveness of the deprived sections of society in the mainstream development. It supports equality of income, equality of income opportunities and at the same time equal human rights at all stages of life.Such a development ought to reach all sections of society. The advantages of economic development should reach all sections of society irrespective of gender, language, regional differences and physical disabilities. Textual Questions- 26.4 18. In case of increase in average income, what shall be the effect on the national income? (A) Economic decline (B) Economic increase (C) Ineffectual (D) Remain the same 19. What do you understand by real development? 20. If the population of a country increases more than its Gross Domestic Product, is economic development possible? 21. What is the theory of consistent development? 22. What is inclusive development?

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26.9 Planning in Bharat Man tries to utilize his time, money and other resources in such a way that his wishes are fulfilled through limited resources. Whenever we wish to celebrate an occasion in our family, we design its outlines and then try to utilize the resources available with us so that the function is celebrated in a good way. Just as we try to celebrate an occasion in the family in a proper way, in the same way a nation has to use its resources to achieve several of its targets. Planning is a technique through which a nation uses its available resources as required to achieve its targets. First, the targets and objectives are determined. Secondly, the available resources are estimated. Thirdly, those resources are adequately distributed to achieve various targets. Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It combines forecasting with preparation of scenarios and how to react to them. It is one of the most important project management and time management techniques. It is preparing a sequence of action steps to achieve some specific goal. Planning process has prevailed since the advent of human civilization. The enterprise of planning has become an intimate life partner in the type of economic, social and political environment we are living in. If we want to make collective efforts effective, we need to know the working people. This can be done only through planning. Several changes take place in the professional field that not only open paths for development and progress for enterprise but also give birth to risks and uncertainties. The form of modern trade has become quite complex owing to changes in competition, technology, government policies, economic activities, labour supply, raw materials and social values and beliefs. In such a changing environment, professional success can be hoped for only on the basis of planning. In the process of economic planning, important decisions are taken by the central authority. The central authority determines pace, direction, management and allocation. The technique of economic planning at the national level was adopted first by the Soviet Union. The concept of economic planning has greatly influenced the Indian scholars and intellectuals. In the decade of 1930s, various Indian scholars put several proposals of planning and supported the path of development by adopting them. The first attempt of economic planning in Bharat was made by Sir M Vishweshvaraya. After independence, the Indian government constituted Planning Commission in March 1950 to formulate five-year plans.Its main function was to make an assessment of resources of Bharat and investigate the possibilities of augmenting them and make plans for their effective and balanced utilization. In August 1952, the Indian Government established National Development Council. Its main objective was to include Indian states and Union territories in the planning formulation and implementation. In a way, it was a sort of decentralisation of the planning process. Objectives of Economic Planning in Bharat Planning has been adopted as a significant tool for the development of the country. Planning was adopted in order to realize the dreams of the country envisioned before independence. Several significant targets were decided and efforts were taken to achieve them in every five-year plan. The major objectives of planning in Bharat are- (i) To make skilful use of available resources and create employment opportunities (ii) To achieve targets of economic development (iii) To solve the problem of poverty (iv) To alleviate inequality in income 330

(v) To become self-reliant in all fields (vi) To modernize the conventional Indian economy (vii) To expand education and health services and to improve social status (viii) To achieve economic stability (ix) To expand rural development, social and community services (x) To dissolve regional differences

26.10 Five-Year Planning in Bharat Under economic development in Bharat, twelve five-year plans have been formulated until now. Adverse conditions in Bharat – war with Pakistan, price rise, continuous famine- have spiked the wheel of the planning process.Three annual planning were formulated between 1966 and 1969. This period is known as plan holiday. Owing to change in the government at the centre, the fifth five- year plan was ceased in 1978 before time and a fresh plan was imposed for the period of 1978 to 1983 but later the Congress government ceased it in 1980 and declared the sixth five-year plan for the period from 1 April 1980 to 31 March 1985 The term of the twelfth five-year plan was from 1 April 2012 to 31 March 2017. Its target was to achieve annual economic development at the rate of 8 percent. The vigilant targets were alleviation of poverty, mitigation of unemployment, expansion of education and health services.

26.11 NITI Ayog (National Institution for Transforming India) It is a new institution constituted by the Government of Bharat to replace the Planning Commission. It was proposed by the cabinet of Prime Minister Shri NarendraModi in January 2015 This institution shall serve as the think tank of the government, established with the aim to achieve Sustainable Development Goals and to enhance cooperative federalism by fostering the involvement of State Governments of India in the economic policy-making process using a bottom-up approach.The role of states in the planning commission era was limited. The states annually needed to interact with the planning commission to get their annual plan approved. They had some limited function in the National Development Council. In NitiAyog states are expected to have greater role and say in planning/ implementation of policies. NITI Ayog shall develop reliable machinery at the village level and shall gradually raise its level.At the root of the establishment of the NITI Ayog, there are two centres- Team India Hub and Innovative hub. Team India works to bring about involvement of the state governmentswith the central government. NITI Ayog is the best platform to enable all the states to work collectively in the interest of the nation. At present, the chairman of the NITI Ayog is Hon’ble Prime Minister Shri NarendraModi, Vice-chairman is Dr. Rajiv Kumar and the Chief Executive Officer is Shri Amitabh Kant. Textual Questions-26.5 23. When was the Planning Commission established in Bharat? (A) 1930 (B) 1947 (C) 1950 (D) 1952 24. By whom are important decisions taken in the process of economic planning? 331

25. Which country was the first to adopt economic planning technique? 26. When was NITI Ayog established? 27. Who is the chairman of the NITI Ayog? What you have learnt 1. Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced annually. 2. National income measures the monetary value of the flow of output of goods and services produced in an economy over a period of one year. 3. Per capita income or the average income is calculated by dividing the national income by the population of the country. 4. National income in Bharat is calculated by the Central Statistical Organisation. 5. The land accrues lagan, the labourer earns wages, the capital earns interest and an entrepreneur gets profit. 6. The activities concerned with agriculture come under the primary sector. 7. Manufacturing and construction activities come under the secondary sector. 8. The tertiary sector is also called service sector. This sector pertains to production of services. 9. Economic progress means that per capita income and national income are increasing. 10. In economic development, besides increase in income, there is improvement in the structure of the economy, institutional structures, technique and social perspective. 11. Proper use of available economic resources in an economy to achieve desired goals is called economic planning. 12. The Planning Commission formulates plans. At present the twelfth five-year plan is undergoing in Bharat. 13. NITI Ayog was established on 1 January 2015, replacing the Planning Commission. 14. The NITI Ayog formulates various policies and programmes for the government and advises the government. 15. The concept of consistent development keeps in view the needs of the future generation and makes proper use of resources for development. Answers to Textual Questions 26.1 1. Doing a job, doing business, setting up industry etc. 2. Agriculture, livestock farming, forestry etc. 3. From rural areas 4. Agriculture 5. Financial services, trade, hotel etc. 6. Fields based on information technology. 7. C 26.2 8. A 9. Owing to unemployment 10. Tertiary sector 11. Service sector 26.3 12. B 332

13. On the basis of the national income 14. From 1 April to 31 March 15. By DadabhaiNairoji 16. National Income Committee 26.4 17. B 18. Besides income, qualitative improvement in standard of living 19. Not possible 20. Utilizing natural resources keeping in view the interests of the future generation 21. By emphasising inclusiveness of the deprived sections of society in the mainstream development 26.5 22. C 23. By central authority 24. The Soviet Union 25. Sir M Vishweshvaraya 26. January 2015 27. The Prime Minister

Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is an example of the Primary Sector? (A) Construction of roads (B) Livestock and forestry (C) Transportation (D) Public administration 2. The national income in Bharat was first calculated by___ (A) Mahatma Gandhi (B) Jawaharlal Nehru (C) Subhash Chandra Bose (D) DadabhaiNairoji Short Answer Questions 1. Into how many sectors has economy been categorized? Name them. 2. Describe the role of the secondary sector in the mobility of the economy. 3. The tertiary sector (service sector) has a strong contribution in the production process and employment. Explain. 4. Evaluate the contribution of the three sectors to the process of economic development. 5. Define national income and write three of its significant features. 6. What are the five means of production? Describe their contribution to the process of economic development. 7. Define Gross Domestic Product and name the theories of national income. 8. Throw light on the method of national income accounting in Bharat.

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Essay Type Questions 1. Economic development includes economic progress. Explain this statement. 2. What were the objectives behind the establishment of the Planning Commission in Bharat? 3. Explain the difference in the working of the Planning Commission and the NITI Ayog. 4. Describe the contribution of the Five-year plans in moving forward the economic development of Bharat.

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Chapter 27

Characteristics of Indian Economy

Introduction After independence there have been remarkable changes in the Indian economy. Several of the new decisions taken have steered the Indian economy fresh. There has been a remarkable increase in the national income and per capita income. Now the country is included among developing countries. In this lesson we shall acquaint ourselves with the characteristics of the Indian economy and several new trends of economy. Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to: (i) Understand per capita income and national income (ii) Understand the concepts of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation (iii) Understand the concept of swadeshi (iv) Understand the skill development programme Economics is a branch of social sciences that makes a study of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services. In other words, it is a study of the economic activities of man. At the time of independence, the Indian economy was in a pitiable condition. During the colonial rule, the British brought irredeemable harm to Indian agriculture, trade and industry. The British wanted to take raw materials from Bharat to their own country for production. After independence, the greatest challenge before the Indian economy was to expedite economic development. The fast pace of efforts brought extensive improvements. The decisions taken during 1950’s laid the foundation of economic development. Economic reforms during in the 1990’s gave new direction to the economy. At present Indian economy is a developing economy but it still has some traces of an undeveloped economy.

27.1 Indian Economy as Less Developed Economy Indian economy is mainly based on agriculture. It is a mixed and less developed economy. National Income of Bharat is quite less and per capita income is also lower. Hence it is called less developed economy. Our economy has the following traces of a less developed economy: 27.1-I Lower Per Capita Income Indian per capita income is quite low, which makes it a less developed economy. According to the World Bank and the UNO, the per capita income of Bharat in 2015 was 1590 American dollars. Bharat stands 170th in the world in the per capita gross national income. Per capita real income in Bharat is lower than those of America, Canada, Australia, and Western Europe and even than those of the neighbouring countries like China and Srilanka. When per capita income is lower, the standard of living also remains lower. 27.1-II Lower Human Capital The level of human capital in Bharat is low. Education and health are the chief determining elements of human capital. If there is no qualitative improvement in these, the income of a person is meaningless. An individual becomes capable of utilizing his income if these two dimensions are 335 higher. According to the census of 2011, the rate of literacy in Bharat was 74.04 percent. One fourth of the population is still illiterate. Besides, the lower the health level, the lower shall be the life expectancy. In 2014, the life expectancy was 68 years, which was lower than those of Japan and China. 27.1-III Higher Level of Unemployment and Underemployment Hidden unemployment is found in agriculture in Bharat. Labour power is not being exploited skilfully. The level of capital and labour power is found lower in less developed countries. Hidden unemployment is found in Bharat owing to too much dependence on agriculture and slow pace of development in industries and the service sector. Although unemployment is rampant in Bharat yet the problem of structural and hidden unemployment is the most here. Hidden unemployment means that although a person is seemingly employed yet his contribution to production is very low. For example, the whole of an Indian family is engaged in agricultural work although half of the members can easily accomplish that work. They could be easily employed for some other economic activity. 27.1-IV Too Much Dependence on Agriculture With the development in the Indian economy, people are becoming less dependent on agriculture and they are becoming more dependent on industries and the service sector. However the pace is slow. At the time of independence, almost 72 percent of the population was dependent on agriculture, which has come down to 49 percent at present- the people dependent on agriculture and associated activities. Too much dependence on agriculture makes the Indian economy less developed. 27.1-V The Problem of Poverty Like all less developed and developing nations, Bharat too is facing the problem of poverty. Poverty is a state in which a person fails to fulfil his basic needs. Poverty is a great challenge to the Indian economy. No doubt, there is development in Bharat but the lower and weaker sections of society are not able to enjoy its fruits. Almost one fourth of the population is trapped in the vicious circle of poverty. This again makes the Indian economy less developed. 27.1 VI Birth rate Index The birth rate in Bharat is quite higher. Maternal mortality rate and infant mortality rate are higher too. The rate of population growth is also higher. This situation makes the availability of labour power more than the demand. The increase in population hampers the qualitative improvement in human capital. Poor public health services also play a major role in making the economy less developed. 27.1-VII Poor Techniques Although there is expansion of techniques in Bharat yet its quality remains poor.The country which uses poor quality techniques cannot think of achieving higher level of development. It cannot exploit the natural resources in a proper way. Absence of new techniques brings slower economic development in Bharat. The country spends very less on new techniques. The pace of development in Japan is due to its technical know-how.

27.2 Indian Economy as a Developing Economy We have just studied that the Indian economy is a less developed economy. However moving fast on the path of development, Bharat is becoming a developing economy. The effective social reforms during the past decades are transforming Bharat in a positive way. Economic activities are steadily changing and by making coordination with the world economy and economic reforms, the per capita income and national income are steadily rising. Thus we can say that the Indian economy 336 is not a less developed economy. It is rather a developing economy. We can elaborate on this through the following points: 27.2-I Steady Growth in Per Capita Income and National Income The continuous rise in per capita income and national income in Bharat gives traces of a developing economy. At present, the Indian economy is one of the fastest growing economies of the world. The improvement in the growth rate in Bharat started in 1980’s although a remarkable development was seen after the economic reforms in the 1990’s. The Indian economy is moving forward at a fast pace owing to the efforts and reforms undertaken by the present government. Between 1950 and 1980, the growth rate in Bharat was 3.5 percent. During 1980’s it rose to 5 percent. Between 1991 and 2011, the average rate per year had been 6.8 percent. During the Eleventh Five-year Plan (2007-2012), the growth rate in Bharat was 8 percent. During the period from 1950 to 1990, the per capita income has grown with an average rate of 1.6 percent per year. Similarly, after 1990-91, the per capita income was 5 percent per year, which grew to 6.2 percent in 2015-16. From the above data it is clear that Bharat’s economy is a developing economy. 27.2-II Changes in the Structure of the Economy With the development in Bharat, the sectors of economy are also changing. As the economy develops, the part of the primary sector moves towards the secondary sector (industries) and the service sector. During 1950-51, the contribution of agriculture to the national income was more than 50 percent, which fell to 15 percent in 2015-16. It is clear that there has been a huge rise in the contribution of the industrial and service sectors to the national income. At present, 60 percent of the part of the national income is from the service sector. These facts explicitly state that the contribution of the primary sector is steadily becoming less while the contribution of the secondary and tertiary sectors is growing steadily. There is a limit of employment in the service sector but the potential of employment growth is more in the industrial (secondary) sector. Lack of development in this sector is causing the problem of unemployment in Bharat. 27.2-III Reform in the Economic and Social Structures Bharat has once been primarily an agriculture-based country. However the new data shows that the country has moved forward greatly on the path of development. There has been a propensity of the contribution of secondary and tertiary sectors to the Gross Domestic Product in the economy. We have a powerful manpower pool. Almost 3 crore Indians are working abroad. Bharat is one of the greatest providers of software engineers to the world. The small scale industries are a backbone of the Indian industry, under which 15 percent of the units are working. In the electricity generation, the capacity of Bharat has grown 100 times during the last 65 years. The length of the roads of 4 lakh kilometres at the time of independence has risen to 50 lakh kilometres. 18.3 percent of literacy rate in 1950 has risen to 74 percent in 2011. Thus the economic development in all the sectors, including life expectancy and health, is moving forward. 27.2 IV Other Factors The population growth rate in Bharat has come down. It was 24.8 percent between 1961 - 1971, which has come down to 17.64 percent in 2011. There have been positive changes in the foreign trade structure and foreign exchange reserves. Well-disposed traces are coming forth in employment generation and reforms in taxation system. Textual Questions-27.1 1. Fill in the blanks: (A) The Gross National Income of Bharat in 2015 was ______American dollars. (B) As compared to those of America, Canada and Western Europe, the per capita actual income in Bharat is ______. 337

(C) The life expectancy in Bharat in 2014 was ______years. (D) The fast pace of development rate in Japan is because of their ______knowledge. 2. What do you understand by hidden unemployment? 3. What is the effect of less per capita income on the standard of living? 4. What was the state of the Indian economy at the time of independence? 5. What was the growth rate in Bharat between 1950 and 1980?

27.3 Economic Reforms After moving on to the path of development, Bharat had ensured the situation of food security by steady agricultural production. However, owing to inept management, the economic condition reached uneasy levels. The government collects revenue in order to run its administration and to implement its various policies. When the expenses are more than the income, the government has to resort to taking loans from banks, public and international monetary institutions. Thus it manages its fiscal deficit. We have to import crude oil from abroad and we have to pay in dollars. Despite less revenue, the government has to spend more than its revenue to meet problems of unemployment, poverty and welfare activities. When the government has to spend a part of its resources on social sectors and security, there are no immediate results. In such a condition, the government must spend its revenue reasonably. The public sector industries were earning revenue but it was less than the expenses. So the government had to spend through loans from international institutions and foreign countries. Thus the unnecessary expenses shook the foundation of the economy. By 1990, the expenses of the government grew so much that despite loans, the condition became imbalanced. The cost of several essential goods rose rapidly. Imports grew more than the exports. In such a condition, the foreign currency reserve became so less that it was difficult to pay for the imports of 15 days. The adverse effect was that the foreign investors were hesitating to make investment in Bharat. In this emergency situation, Bharat was forced to take loan from The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Monetary Fund. Bharat got a loan of 7 billion dollars but the conditions laid were like abolition of restrictions on the public sector and adopting liberalisation. Besides, there should be less governmental intervention in other sectors. Moreover, Bharat should abolish restrictions on foreign trade. Bharat complied with these conditions and declared New Economic Policy. Comprehensive economic reforms were included in the new policy so that adequate trade environment could be built. The hindrances of the firms from entering into business and their growth had to be removed. These measures were essential to control balance of payment and inflation.

27.4 Balance of Payment The balance of payments is a statement of all transactions made between entities in one country and the rest of the world over a period of one year.

27.5 Inflation Inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. The government adopted three policies of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation to maintain foreign exchange reserve in the Indian economy, to control the rising prices and to withstand competition at the international level. We shall study these three policies in detail:

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27.6 Liberalisation The rules and regulations made in Bharat after independence became impediments to growth. Liberalisation was the policy adopted to remove these restrictions and to free various sectors of economy. Although liberalisation in industrial licencing system, import-export policy, technological development, fiscal and foreign investment policies had already started in 1980’s, yet the reform policies started in 1991 were more comprehensive. More attention was paid to the industrial sector, financial sector, tax reforms, market of foreign exchange, trade and investment sectors in 1991 and after. As a result of the process of liberalisation, the Indian economy moved from socialist mixed economy to capitalist mixed economy. The Indian economy is pacing fast to free market economy. The structural strength of the economy weakened. Hence it can be said that removing governmental hindrances in the economic sectors and policies and simplifying trade and production procedures in the economy is liberalisation. Before liberalisation, there was licencing system, in which a firm could be opened or closed with a licence from the government official. After 1991, licencing system was terminated except in business related to alcohol, cigarette, hazardous chemicals, industrial explosives, aviation and medicines. The financial sectors include financial institutions like commercial and investment banks, stock exchange and foreign exchange market. These institutions are controlled by the Reserve Bank. The reform policies opened gateways to the Indian and foreign banks in the financial sector. The foreign capital share in banks was raised to 50 percent. Besides, foreign institutional investors (FIIs) and commercial banks, mutual funds and pension funds were allowed to invest in Indian financial market. Taxation system was reformed. Taxation system comes from fiscal policy. Direct taxes are imposed on individual's personal income and the profit earned from business while indirect taxes are imposed on goods and services. Both direct and indirect taxes were reduced. Besides, reforms were made in foreign exchange and trade and investment policy. Import licencing system was abolished.

27.7 Privatisation This is one of the concepts of capitalist economy. Accordingly, it promotes the role of individuals and the private sector in the economy. Before 1991, the public sector enterprises like Corporation Limited had a major role to play in the production activities. The public sector enterprises are those that are established with the assistance of the government and the ownership vests directly or indirectly with the government. After 1991, the government transferred the production process of the public sector to the private sector. Earlier the private sector could not grow owing to several restrictions. Consequently, there was unnecessary expansion of the public sector and production came down. Lack of financial discipline made the public sector burden on the government. The industrial policy of 1991 almost terminated industrial licencing and the number of public sector enterprises was greatly reduced. This system opened the gateways of development for the private sector. The government also expected to improve the condition of the public sector through private capital and management. For this some of the private sector enterprises were partly transferred to the private sector. The main objective of privatisation was reforming financial discipline and providing facilities for modernisation. The governmental intervention in these was gradually reduced and the private sector, based on motivation and competition, was promoted.A burden on the exchequer, the unprofitable government concerns were surrendered to private ownership and control through disposal or disinvestment. In order to ensure efficient management, participation of private investors in the government concerns was 339 increased and the private sector was given priority while establishing new commercial and industrial concerns. The following are the major elements of the government policy in privatisation: (i) To reduce governmental share to 26 percent or even less in non-military public enterprises. (ii) To reconstitute and rejuvenate public enterprises having potential of improvement. (iii) To close those public enterprises that have no potential of rejuvenation. Now the shares of government concerns except railways and security sectors are being sold to the private investors.Some sectors have been opened for foreign investors with cent percent investments. The gateways of insurance and banking have also been opened for the private sector. The central government is expediting the process of privatisation to make good its fiscal deficit.

27.8 Globalisation Globalisation is the process of interaction and integration of the country’s economy worldwide. Its objective is to make the countries of the world dependent on and integrated with one another. Several developed companies seek services from the Indian companies. One country can traffic goods, services, capital and intellectual property with another country without any indictment. This is called globalisation. Globalisation has made positive impacts on the Indian economy. It terminated restrictions on Indian trade and promoted foreign trade. Globalisation created conducive environment for free flow of capital in Bharat. The new techniques brought qualitative improvement in production and also reduced cost of production. After independence, several restrictions were imposed on foreign trade and investments in order to safeguard domestic production. In 1991, the government decided that it was time the Indian producers competed with those of the world so that there can be improvement in the performance of the industries and the quality of their produce. The multinational companies (a multinational company is one that is headquartered in one country with operations and investments in two or more host countries) are playing a major role in the process of globalisation. The revolution in the communication sector has made the a village. The impact of incidents happening miles away can be clearly visualised in Bharat. The expansion of information technology has made these services a special form of economic activity. The modern means of communication like internet etc. can propagate the writings, audios and videos connected with these services not only within the country but also beyond the continents. Thus the work is executed properly and at a very low cost. It is due to globalisation that several Indian companies are outstretching themselves in foreign countries. The world was amazed when the TATA tea company took over the Tetley Company of England in 2001. In 2004, the Tata Steel acquired the Net Steel of for Rs. 1245 crores and Tata Motors acquired the heavy vehicle plant of Daewoo in Korea. The International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the World Trade Organisation have played significant role in successful implementation of this process of globalisation. The World Trade Organisation was established on 1 January 1995. It deals with the global rules of trade between nations. It implements and controls multilateral trade accords.it provides a fair platform to its member nations for deliberations. It also resolves trade disputes between nations. Textual Questions- 27.2 6. Fill in the blanks: (A) Bharat has to pay in _____ for her imports. (rupees/dollars) (B) The ______system was in vogue in Bharat before independence. (licencing/ free) 340

(C) The process of privatisation is a concept of ______economy. (capitalist/socialist) (D) The Indian Petroleum Corporation belongs to the ______sector. (public/private) 7. What do you understand by balance of payment? 8. Explain the meaning of ‘inflation’. 9. What is globalisation? 10. What do you understand by multinational companies? 11. 27.9 The Concept of Swadeshi The concept of swadeshi was a successful strategy and philosophy of the Indian freedom movement. ‘Swadeshi’ means ‘of our own country’. At the time of the freedom, a movement was started to boycott the goods made in Britain. and to promote maximum use of Indian goods so that employment opportunities could be created for the Indian people and the flow of the Indian capital could be stopped. In this era of globalisation, swadeshi produce means goods and services produced by the Indian companies. At present Indian companies like Tata, Godrej, Hero, Baja, Patanjali etc. are producing swadeshi goods. The spirit of swadeshi is related to the nation, causing national unity. At the time of independence, the same spirit had made the whole of the nation united, shaking the very foundation of the British rule. Mahatma Gandhi used swadeshi as a weapon in the freedom movement. The country had suffered the ill effects of foreign traders and companies in the past. The concept ofswadeshiis quite significant with the objective of making Bharat self-reliant. In the phase of economic reforms, the concept of swadeshi had lost its significance but during the process of globalisation, the developing nations observed that the developed countries were not paying heed to the rules of trade. These countries were turning a blind eye to the rules made by the World trade Organisation and were not honest in the observance of the policy of free trade. No doubt, the developing countries did make some gains but their losses were much more. Under the pressure of the competition in globalisation, several industries closed down or were at the threshold of getting closed down. The problem of unemployment became more complex. Owing to international laws and accords, our government is not being able to wrest control on the foreign companies effectively. On globalisation not being equitable, the concept of swadeshi started gaining significance. The growing spirit of nationalism in the present times made swadeshi more meaningful. The spirit of swadeshi is socially and economically revolutionary. For example, the products of Patanjali are becoming more and more popular. The very word ‘swadeshi’ awakens patriotism and devotion to the country. Some of the advantages of the concept of swadeshi are as given below: (i) The demand for goods made in Bharat shall increase, which shall promote Indian industries. (ii) It shall raise Gross Domestic Product and national income. (iii) The Indian companies are more labour oriented than the foreign companies. It shall increase employment opportunities. (iv) The foreign companies take away the profit while the profit earned by the Indian companies shall remain in Bharat itself. (v) More industries in Bharat shall mean more self-reliance. (vi) The swadeshi industries follow the Indian culture. Their love for the country shall prevents them from exploiting natural resources indiscriminately. (vii) The spirit of nationalism awakens patriotism. The spirit of nationalism is an effective element for the development of the country. 341

To conclude, we can say that in the garb of economic liberalisation, the natural resources must be exploited discriminately so that the coming generations may also survive in a conducive environment.

27.10 Skill Development Among the five means of production, labour is the most significant means. When the labour is made skilful by imparting education, health and training, it is called human capital. Bharat has adequate work force although the human capital has not yet been shaped adequately. When the work force is trained by healthful technical knowledge, both quantity and quality of production shall increase and shall reduce unemployment. Skill enhances labour productivity. Performing a work with better ability and capacity is called skill. When the production level in an economy is higher, it raises employment opportunities and quality. The evaluation of profit, productivity and welfare is determined by skill. At present 65 percent of the population of Bharat is engaged in labour. If this work force is productive, it shall be good for the country; else, it might bring great harm to the country. When there is skill development of a youth or the work force, it raises the ability, productivity and quality of life of the youth or the work force, which further contributes to the development of the nation. Skill and development are the two motivating forces for the social and economic development of a nation. In the present globalised environment, only those countries are capable of confronting the challenges of the upcoming economies that have achieved a high level of skill development. The skill development programmes focus mainly the youth of the country.The conditions in our country are quite favourable in this regard. A large part of our population is in the productive age group. It is a golden opportunity for Bharat but it also brings challenges. Our economy can gain only when our youth are healthy, educated and skilful. Bharat has incomparable youth population, which shall certainly promote socio-economic development. Some 60.5 crore of our people are below 25 years of age. By acquiring adequate skill for employment, these youth shall transform the economy. Recognising the special significance of skill development in the progress of the country, the Union government embarked upon skill development mission on World Youth Skills Day on 15 July 2015. The main objective of this mission is to achieve the target of Skilful Bharat through skill development training programmes. The head of this mission is Hon’ble Prime Minister Shri NarendraModi. It was for the first time that Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship was constituted in order to make the youth employable through skill development plan. Pradhan MantriKaushalVikasYojana is the flagship scheme of the Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship. The objective of this Skill Certification Scheme is to enable a large number of Indian youth to take up industry-relevant skill training that will help them in securing a better livelihood.The youth shall also be trained on good conduct and social behaviour. Some 24 lakh youth will be reined in for training.The skill development training will be held according to the parameters fixed by National Skills Qualification Framework and industry. The prospective demands will be evaluated through deliberations of the central and state governments with industrial and commercial houses. The Pradhan MantriKaushalVikasYojana shall focus on youth entering the labour market for the first time, particularly school drop outs of class 10 and 12. A total of Rs. 1120 crore shall be spent to train 14 lakh youth. This work is nothing short of a mission. Three institutions are working under Skill Development Mission. From the skill development for prospective markets to developing 342 human resources, the Pradhan MantriKaushalVikasYojana shall certainly benefit our economy. It shall embark upon a new era of development of human resources and industry. Textual Questions-27.3 12. Fill in the blanks: (A) The concept of swadeshi shall ______of indigenous goods. (increase/decrease) (B) The culture of swadeshi industries is ______to the conditions of the country. (agreeable/disagreeable) (C) By promoting swadeshi industries ______opportunities in Bharat shall increase. (D) When the labour is made capable by education, health and training, it is called _____. (E) At present ______percent of the population of Bharat is engaged in labour. 13. What do you understand by swadeshi? 14. Name any two swadeshi companies. 15. When was the concept of skill development implemented in Bharat? Who is its head? 16. How many lakh youth will be trained through KaushalVikasYojna? What you have learnt 1. The investment in education raises human capital. This increases the productivity of human capital. 2. Investment in education, workplace training, health and information are sources of human capital. 3. Most of the poor live in rural areas and are employed in irregular and unskilled jobs. 4. The economic reform policies were adopted in the Indian economy in 1991because of dearth in exchange reserves, irregular export and import and higher inflation. 5. In order to improve the workability of the public sector, disinvestment policy was adopted to restrict its role and to give opportunities to private entrepreneurs to enter into it. 6. The objective of the World Trade Organisation is to create a regular economy in which the resources of the world could be exploited to the maximum. 7. The traces of rapid and steady increase in national income and per capita income of Bharat indicate that it is a developing economy. 8. Making drastic changes in its development strategy, Bharat declared economic reforms in 1991. 9. By terminating undesirable controls and restrictions and assigning the government the role of the facilitator is liberalisation. 10. Privatisation means all those policies that promote the role of the private sector in the economy and restrict the role of the government. 11. Globalisation is the process of integration of the domestic economy with the world economy. 12. By adopting swadeshi goods, Bharat shall gain a number of social and economic advantages. By adopting the concept of swadeshi, the Indian economy shall become more and more self- reliant. 13. Labour becomes more productive by skill development. Answers to Textual Questions 27.1 1. (A) 1590 (B) lower (C) 68 years (D) technical 2. An individual seems to be employed but his contribution to production is less. 343

3. The standard of living is lower. 4. At the time of independence, the Indian economy was in pitiable condition. 5. 3.5 percent 6. (A) dollars (B) licencing (C) capitalist (D) public 27.2 7. The balance of payments is a statement of all transactions made between entities in one country and the rest of the world over a year. 8. Inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. 9. Globalisation is the process of integration of the economy worldwide. 10. A multinational is a company headquartered in one country with operations and investments in two or more countries. 27.3 11. (A) increase (B) agreeable (C) employment (D) human capital 12. of one’s own country 13. Patanjali, Bajaj 14. 15 July 2015. The Prime Minister 15. 14 lakh youth Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. Indian economy is ____ (A) Developed (B) Undeveloped (C) Resource less (D) Less developed 2. At the time of independence, the Indian economy was based on_____ (A) Industries (B) Services (C) Agriculture (D) Transportation Short Answer Questions 1. Throw light on the characteristics that indicate developing nature of the Indian economy. 2. Indian economy is a less developed economy. Comment 3. What type of economy will it be called if the national income and per capita income of a country are rising? 4. What do you understand by structural changes in an economy? 5. What do you understand by economic reforms? Essay Type Questions 1. How will the process of globalisation help the development of the economy? 344

2. How will the awakening of the spirit of nationalism help by adopting the concept of swadeshi? 3. How will the skill development plan help in creating employment for the youth? 4. Explain the over dependence of the Indian economy on agriculture. 5. What do you understand by human capital?

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Lesson-28

Challenges before the Indian Economy

Introduction At the time of independence the Indian economy was in a pitiable condition. During the colonial times, the British had brought irredeemable harm to the Indian agriculture, industry, trade etc. When Bharat became independent, the Indian economy had to face the greatest challenge to steer the country to the path of progress. In this lesson, we shall study the challenges before our economy and the solutions thereof.

Objectives After reading this lesson, you shall be able to: (i) Understand the meaning of inflation (ii) Understand how inflation is measured in Bharat (iii) Know about measures taken to control inflation (iv) Understand the causes of poverty and measures taken for its alleviation (v) Understand the purport of various types of unemployment At present, Bharat is one of the rapidly growing economies of the world and its growing economic power is universally acknowledged. However, along with its development, the Indian economy has to face a number of challenges. Among all the challenges, the gravest ones are inflation, poverty and unemployment. The interrelation between these problems has been unwaveringly present since independence. It will not be an exaggeration to say that poverty and unemployment the major socio- economic problems of the Indian economy. These problems not only are detrimentto the economy but also cause great loss to society. In order to understand these problems as challenges to the Indian economy, we need to have the basic knowledge of the meaning, form,causes, consequences and measures for their abatement.

28.1 Inflation We buy several types of goods and services from the market to fulfil our needs and for our maximum satisfaction. While buying things, we generally observe that most of the things are costlier than before. This scenario of rising prices is called inflation. Inflation is the term in economics for price rise or dearness in common language. Cost- In monetary economics, cost of a commodity or service is the number of units of currency exchanged for purchase of of the commodity or service. By definition, the condition of steady increase in the general cost level is inflation. It tells the average increase in the cost of a type of commodity. It is possible that you buy vegetables from the market at higher prices but newspapers tell you that inflation has come down. Contrarily, it is also possible that you find some of the things 346 in the market being sold cheaper but the newspapers calling it a condition of higher inflation. In an economy, inflation is related to the increase in the average level (general cost level) of several commodities (collection of commodities) and not merely to the cost or increase of one commodity. General cost level means the average cost level of several commodities or a collection of commodities. Hence the general cost level does not tell us the cost of one commodity. Rather it tells us the average cost of a particular collection of commodities. 28.1-I Measuring Inflation (Dearness) We need to measure inflation in order to keep back its detriments and maintain effective control over it. Hence all economies prepare different types of cost indexes to measure inflation. Among these indexes, the major ones are wholesale price index, consumer price index and national income disinflation factor. These indexes measure the average changes in the prices of a particular collection of commodities. Inflation measures the proportional change or percentage change along with that at the designated time of the index. An index describes the average of measurable units on different scales. It summarises movements in a group of related variables. 28.1-II Dearness (Inflation) in Bharat A common man feels that owing to inflation he has to pay more than earlier. Inflation creates a series of detriments both to the individual and the nation. It brings down the value of the currency. Because of inflation, the same amount can buy fewer articles and services than it could do in the earlier years. The steady increase in inflation brings down the value of currency rapidly. The value of currency means the purchasing power of the currency, which tells the capacity of the currency to purchase goods and services. Inflation is detriment to the section of society having fixed salary or wages. For this section the value of the same amount of currency for the same amount of goods and services falls. Inflation is unjustifiable as the value of the savings fall while a debtor gains by inflation because he has to pay back the currency of less value. Inflation also affects rate of economic development, poverty, unemployment, income and distribution of wealth. In brief it can be said that inflation stifles the advantages of development. Hence it must be kept in control. 28.1-III Causes of Inflation There are no fixed and clear causes of inflation. It is a combined result of several causes. Some of the major factors responsible for inflation are as given below: (i) Rapid increase in the Supply of Currency Several economists of the world believe that the most significant cause of inflation is more than required supply of currency. In an economy when the supply of currency increases more rapidly than the production of goods and services, then more currency runs after comparatively few goods. In that case the aggregate demand is more than the aggregate supply at the given price level and the prices show signs of rising. (ii) Slow increase in Industrial and Agricultural production After independence in most of the years, the rate of industrial development in Bharat was comparatively less. Owing to various reasons, the demand of industrial produce kept on increasing. However the industries failed to fulfil this demand. More demand caused rapid rise in prices in the industrial sector. Despite Green Revolution, the production of Indian agriculture is low. Besides, Indian agricultural production failed to fulfil the demand. In such a condition, the higher demand of agricultural produce is raising their prices rapidly. 347

(iii) Higher Public Expenses More development brought more responsibilities of the government, causing increase in government expenditure. This increase in government expenditure is not completely useful for society. Unproductive expenditure by the government does not increase aggregate supply. Rather it increases aggregate demand by granting purchasing power to the public. This causes inflation. (iv) Other Causes Owing to growing population in Bharat, the demand of goods and services always remains higher, causing rise in prices. The price of several goods is fixed by the government. When the government raises the prices of these commodities in order to meet its fiscal deficit, the problem of inflation in the economy can be seen. Expensive exports, fixing higher minimum support prices of agricultural produce, rising level of income, higher level of indirect taxes, higher rate of wages, hindrances in industrial production etc. are also causes of inflation. 28.1-V Measures to Control Inflation There is no single cause of inflation. Hence it is not an easy task to control it. Inflation gives birth to several problems before the country. Hence it must be disrupted. The following measures can be taken to control inflation: (i) Monetary Measures The central bank (as in Bharat) takes monetary measures to control inflation. With these measures, the central bank tries to reduce aggregate demand and increase aggregate supply by the quantity of currency, availability of credit and affecting interest rates. When the quantity of currency or availability of credit is reduced, the aggregate demand comes down, which brings down inflation. (ii) Fiscal Measures The government takes fiscal measures. With these measures, the government tries to raise aggregate supply by restricting aggregate demand through changes in taxation, public expenses and public loans. The government can reduce inflation by raising direct taxes and reducing public expenses and control aggregate demand by taking public loans to reduce inflation. The government can also reduce indirect taxes and increase productive investment and control inflation by increasing aggregate supply. (iii) Other Measures Besides the measures mentioned above, inflation can be inhibited by making essential goods available at fair price shops through public distribution system, importing goods in demandand reducing administrative prices. The motivation for investment given by the government to agriculture and industries also increases aggregate supply and is helpful in controlling inflation. Textual Questions-28.1 1. Which country of the world has the fastest growing economy? 2. What is inflation called in general terms? 3. What is the meaning of value of currency? 4. Which agency adopts monetary measures? 5. By whom are fiscal measures taken?

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28.2 Poverty Poverty is a state in which a person fails to fulfil his minimum needs. Poverty is a multifaceted concept. However, in general terms, it means economic destitution i.e. scarcity of money or wealth is called poverty. We see that some people live in palatial houses while some people have no house to live in or they live in a rough shelter. You must have seen several children who are not able to attend school. They have to work to fulfil their or their family’s basic needs. We can say that in society, some people are rich while others are poor. The poor have scarcity of money and they lack the means necessary to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and shelter. Absolute Poverty and Relative Poverty 28.2-I Absolute Poverty Absolute poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of a set standard of basic human needs essential for survival. The concept of absolute poverty is more relevant to undeveloped nations. In the reference of nations like Bharat the word poverty means absolute poverty. All the nations have different set standard of basic or minimum needs. This standard depends on the stage of development of the nation, the standard of living of the people, condition of inflation in the economy etc. All these factors vary for all the nations.Hence the set standard of minimum needs in all he nation to decide absolute poverty i.e. the poverty line also varies. 28.2-II Relative Poverty Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context, hence relative poverty is a measure of income inequality. This concept is more relevant to the developed nations. 28.2-III Measurement of Poverty in Bharat The first attempt to measure the poverty in Bharat was done by DadabhaiNaoroji in 1868 CE. Before independence, the National Planning Committee had also put forth estimations of poverty in Bharat. After independence, a working group was constituted by the Planning Commission in 1962 CE to formulate poverty line and to define poverty. V M Dandekar and NeelkanthRath defined a standard for poverty in 1971.In 1979, a task force constituted by the Planning Commission for the purpose of poverty estimation, chaired by YK Alagh, constructed a poverty line for rural and urban areas on the basis of nutritional requirements. On the basis of this report, the government fixed that the minimum calorie consumption in rural areas must be 2500 calorie per capita while for urban areas it must be 2100 calorie per capita. A person who consumes less than these shall be considered poor. This was called calorie or consumption based poverty line. Later the Planning Commission again constituted working groups for poverty estimation under the chairmanships of D T Lakadwala, Suresh Tendulkar and CRangarajan. Poverty estimation by Lakadwala formula was done in 1993-94 and 2004-05. Suresh Tendulkar and C Rangarajan estimated poverty on the basis of consumption expenditure. They prepared a collection of minimum quantities of food items and commodities (poverty line basket) and estimated how much consumption expenditure is required to purchase this poverty line basket on market prices. Their estimation for the year 2011-12 was that a person of urban area with consumption expenditure less than Rs. 1000 is poor while a person of rural area with consumption expenditure less than Rs. 816 was poor. 349

According to the estimation by Suresh Tendulkar 21.92 percent of people in Bharat are poor i.e. 27 crore people of Bharat are living below poverty line. C Rangarajan considered Rs. 972 and Rs. 1407 consumption expenditure to be poverty line for rural and urban areas respectively for the year 2011-12. On this basis the poverty in Bharat in 2011-12 was 29.5 percent. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiativedeveloped the Multidimensional Poverty Index for the United Nations Development Programme. It was released in the Human Development Report of 2010. Three dimensions and ten indexes were used to evaluate poverty index. The collection of reliable scores in Bharat is conducted by the National Sample Survey Organisation. Various experts make estimations of poverty on the basis of the consumption expenditure scores collected by the organisation in different rounds. 28.2-IV Causes of Poverty Social, economic and political causes are responsible for poverty in Bharat. (i) Social Causes The social structure in Bharat increases poverty. There are several traditions related to birth, marriage and death that fell a person into debt. The person is trapped into that debt lifelong. Similarly the desire of a male child has contributed to population growth, which is one of the biggest causes of poverty. The rural Hindu society is divided into castes in which a greater backward section has been kept in deprivation. This section was not given any opportunity to come out of the grip of poverty. While deliberating upon the causes of poverty, the name of RagnarNurkse is significant.Nurkse presented the hypothesis of the vicious circle of poverty and says that a nation is poor because it has always been poor. The vicious circle of poverty implies that the cause of poverty is poverty and the result of poverty is poverty. (ii) Economic Causes A major part of the population of Bharat is victim of economic backwardness. Because of economic backwardness, people are not able to invest in education and health. Hence they remain qualitatively inferior. This brings less income and they are not able to come out of the vicious circle of poverty.Before independence, most of the Indians were dependent on agriculture and their resource base was very weak. Less investment brought less agricultural production. Because of these reasons, the income of the small farmers and agricultural workers remains at the minimum level of survival. Economic backwardness brings less opportunities. A person is not able to come out of the vicious circle of poverty owing to lack of opportunities. (iii) Political Causes Lack of political will is also responsible for acute poverty in Bharat. Earlier than the fifth Five-year Plan, the government had not taken any substantial measures to alleviate poverty. Various governments made several poverty alleviation programmes but they could not reach the target groups owing to lack of strong political will. Besides there are several leakages in the administrative system. The policy of direct money transfer adopted by the present government has blocked these leakages to a great extent. (iv) Other Causes Low level of education, lack of enterprising tendencies, lack of vocational and employment generating education, poor infrastructure, lack of capital creation and unavailability of health services are responsible for acute poverty in Bharat. All of these keep the production and level of 350 income low, which is a major cause of poverty. The poor lack self-confidence and they are not in position to take economic risks. Hence they lack courage to start their own business to come out of the vicious circle of poverty. Inflation or dearness also increases poverty. Several people are not able to buy goods of their basic needs of life and fall under poverty line. 28.2 Poverty Alleviation Measures (i) Expansion of Education and Health Services Lack of education is at the root of social evils. A person is not able to take advantage of his capabilities and opportunities available to him because of lack of education. Education must be diffused to all sections of society to eradicate poverty. It is due to education that a person becomes skilful and the production increases. Expansion of health services shall also make the poor skilful and capable and thus productivity shall increase. Education and health transform common labour into human capital. It is due to human capital that Japan and America have become economic powers. Hence the government must diffuse education and expand health services to the poor. (ii) Increasing Employment Opportunities Unemployment and poverty are intimately related. Both these problems coexist. Hence by increasing opportunities of employment, poverty can be alleviated. The skilful and capable in society can be drawn out of the trap of poverty by motivating them for employment and making resources available to them. The unskilled and less capable poor may be provided wage labour to raise their purchasing power. Although the present and earlier governments conducted several programmes of wage labour and self-employment yet they have not been adequate to solve the problem of poverty. To alleviate poverty, education must be made more employment oriented and employment opportunities must be generated. (iii) Need to Control Social Evils The rampant social evils in the Indian society have restrained people and various sections and they remained poor. Several social practices like huge expenditure at the time of marriage and death fells the poor into debt trap and they are never ever able to free themselves from the trap of poverty. The Indian man believes poverty to be the result of his ill fortune and makes no efforts. Poverty alleviation does not seem to be possible till these rampant malpractices in our society and culture are checked. (iv) Population Control Bharat is the second largest populated country in the world. After independence, the expansion of health services has largely brought down the death rate but there has not been much improvement in the birth rate. The population in Bharat has grown rapidly owing to the large gap between birth rate and death rate. Because of this rapid growth, the little property a poor man has is further divided and the poor man becomes poorer. Owing to the large number of children in the family, he is not able to invest in their health and education. Hence population must be controlled for poverty alleviation. (v) Delivering Benefits to the Targeted Person or Group Several ambitious projects and programmes were conducted for poverty alleviation but they had several leakages. Hence there have been no desired results. Because of these leakages, a large part of the resources meant to be distributed to the poor is siphoned away by others. If the government is serious about poverty alleviation, it must ensure that the benefits of the projects reach the poor. After 1970, a multifaceted policy was adopted in Bharat for poverty alleviation. Several programmes of wage labour and self-employment were conducted and efforts were made to alleviate 351 poverty by giving employment. In order to eradicate poverty, the government has identified the families living below poverty line (BPL) and has made policies to provide essential goods and services at low cost or free of cost. Several of these measures of poverty alleviation have lessened poverty to some extent but it is far from satisfactory. Textual Questions-28.2 6. A person is not able to fulfil the minimum needs of survival. What is this state called? 7. By whom the first attempt for measurement of poverty was done in Bharat? 8. What was the percentage of unemployment in 2011-12 according to C Rangarajan report? 9. What are the political causes of poverty? 10. “The cause of poverty is poverty and the result of poverty is poverty”. Which economist said this?

28.3 Unemployment A person is qualified and is willing to work but he fails to find employment. This state is called unemployment. In other words, if a person is not profitably working in a productive activity is called unemployed. Bharat is a country of the youth but this youth power will be useful when they are adequately employed. In our village or town, some people are engaged in agricultural work while others do business. Besides, some are working with services like education, health, banking, insurance etc. Every employed person earns money for his work and at the same time contributes in the production of the country. A person earns money and gets experience from employment, which increases his working skill. If a person remains unemployed, there is loss of money and skill and he falls into depression. Unemployment makes a person less capable and unsocial. The condition of unemployment is a great loss to individual, society and the nation. In order to understand unemployment, we must first understand labour power, work power and rate of unemployment. Labour power means that part of population which supplies labour for the current economic activities to produce goods and services. It includes both the employed and the unemployed. Work power is that part of labour power which is employed. A person is called unemployed if he, willing to work on the prevalent rate of wages, does not get work according to his qualification. The rate of unemployment is the proportion of the number of the unemployed to the number of persons in the labour power. In order to collect data relating to unemployment in Bharat, the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) collected data by holding different rounds. This organisation conducted 68th round in 2011-12 to estimate unemployment in Bharat. In this round it was found that on the basis of general conditions, the labour power was 395 per thousand and workpower was 386 per thousand and in the 68th round of 2011-12,the rate of unemployment was 2.3 percent in general conditions. 28.3-I Types of Unemployment (i) Seasonal Unemployment There are several occupations that end with a season. Such occupations give employment in a particular period or season. Agriculture and agriculture based industries are the best examples. When the season is adverse, the people employed in these occupations have to face unemployment. This is called seasonal unemployment.

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(ii) Structural Unemployment The structure of the economy changes with development. The demand in one sector may come down while in some other it might rise. With the change in the structure of the economy, the form of demand also changes. Thus the unemployment arising out of structural changes is called structural unemployment. (iii) Technical Unemployment The unemployment arising out of modifications in the technique of production or the use of new machines is called technical unemployment. (iv) Frictional Unemployment It is also called fractional unemployment. The unemployment arising in between the period of two employments is called frictional unemployment. This arises because of changing jobs, strikes, lock out etc. This unemployment is of temporary nature. (v) Cyclical Unemployment The business cycle describes the rise and fall in production output of goods and services in an economy.When there is slump in the business cycle, the level of aggregate demand is very low. This causes fall in production and employment. Fall in aggregate demand or problems in business cycles also causes the problem of unemployment. (vi) Hidden Unemployment Sometimes a person seems to be employed but his contribution to the total production is nil or negligible. If the surplus labour is removed from that work, it will not make any change in the total quantity of production. This is called hidden unemployment. This type of unemployment is mostly found in the agricultural activities in the rural areas of undeveloped countries. In the agricultural developing economy of Bharat, structural and hidden unemployment are mostly found. Frictional and Cyclical unemployment are generally found in developed countries. 28.3-II Causes of Unemployment The major causes of unemployment are: (i) Lack of Employment Oriented Education and Training The level of literacy and education in Bharat is constantly growing but at the same time the problem of educated unemployed can also be seen. Indian education lacks employment orientation. The practical utility of education is very less. Despite educational qualifications, students fail to procure employment. Similarly there is lack of skill development training centres. Training makes man human capital, which increases employment opportunities. (ii) Growing Population and Labour Power The government is running several projects to provide employment but they have failed to absorb the growing labour power of the increasing population. The labour power is constantly growing in Bharat. This needs rapid creation of employment opportunities. (iii) Unsuited Technology Modern technology is being rapidly adopted in Indian agriculture and industries. This technology is capital intensive and labour welfare. It is not suitable for a country like Bharat. A technology that can utilise the huge labour power needs to be adopted in Bharat. Ultramodern technology is also responsible for unemployment in Bharat. (iv) Backwardness in Agriculture Backwardness in agriculture and slow development is also a major cause of unemployment in Bharat. At present almost 50 percent of labour power finds employment in agriculture and 353 agriculture related sectors. The slow development in the agricultural sector has failed to create adequate opportunities of employment for this huge population. (v) Jobless Economic Development Generally employment increases with development. Bharat has progressed much during the past 35 years. However the contribution of the service sector in this development is comparatively much. Labour intensity in the service sector is less than that of agriculture and industries. Hence there has not been adequate growth despite rapid economic development. (vi) Lack of Political Will and Organised Planning There was a need to absorb through organised planning the surplus labour borne out of structural changes with development in Bharat. Although the government conducted several programmes to abate unemployment yet they lacked coordination. These programmes had several leakages. Hence they could not deliver to the target people. 28.3-III Measures for Abatement of Unemployment The problems of unemployment and poverty are so deeply interconnected that the measures for their abatement are not separate. The government has made efforts during the last 40 years to end their coexistence by conducting several wage labour and self-employment programmes. Poverty and employment in the rural areas has been reduced to a great extent through projects like MNREGA. Several parallel self-employment programmes have also reduced unemployment of educated and skilled people. The economists believe that the rate of unemployment cannot be brought down to zero.In an economy the structural and frictional unemployment do exist. Because of unemployment a nation cannot achieve its level of maximum possible production and loses a part of production for good, which it could have produced by providing employment to all. The government can adopt the following measures to abate unemployment: (i) There must be proper coordination between wage labour and self-employment programmes conducted by the governmentand the leakages must be minimum. (ii) Education must be made job orientedand the youth must be motivated for self- employment through training and skill development. (iii) More industries must be established to absorb the surplus labour released from agriculture at the instance of development. (iv) Need of meticulous planning- Lakhs of new youth are added to labour power in Bharat every year. It is not only an opportunity but also a challenge for Bharat. Employment needs to be created for this youth by making pertinent policies. The policies regarding employment must be made in such a way that along with the present unemployed the potential unemployed are also kept in view. Textual Questions- 28.3 11. Which type of unemployment is found the most in Bharat? 12. Which organisation makes estimation of unemployment in Bharat? 13. Give an example of seasonal unemployment. 14. What is the biggest cause of unemployment? What you have learnt 1. Inflation (dearness) means steady increase in the general price level. 2. In order to ascertain the rate of inflation in Bharat, whole sale price index and several types of consumer price indexes are framed. 3. The values of cost and currency go opposite to each other. 354

4. Monetary and fiscal measures are adopted to control inflation. 5. The first poverty estimation in Bharat was done by DadabhaiNaoroji in 1868. 6. According to Suresh Tendulkar, 21.92 percent of people were poor in Bharat in 2011-12. 7. Absolute poverty is a condition in which a person is not able to fulfil his basic needs. 8. Unemployment is a condition in which people of working age and willing to work fail to find employment at the prevalent rate of wages. 9. Hidden unemployment and structural unemployment are prevalent more in Bharat. 10. The National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) conducts sample surveys to estimate poverty and unemployment. Answers to Textual Questions 1. Bharat 2. Dearness 3. The purchasing power of currency is called value of currency 4. By the Reserve Bank 5. The government 6. Absolute poverty 7. DadabhaiNaoroji in 1868 8. 29.5 percent 9. No serious efforts taken owing to lack of political will 10. Nurkse 11. Hidden and structural 12. National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) 13. Unemployment based on agriculture 14. Lack of education Lesson End Questions Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is not a challenge before the Indian economy? (A) Unemployment (B) Inflation (C) Education (D) Poverty 2. Which of the following implements monetary measures to control inflation? (A) State Bank of India (B) Reserve Bank of India (C) Central government (D) State government Short Answer Questions 1. Who has presented the latest estimation of poverty in Bharat? 2. Explain the concept of absolute poverty. 3. By whom and when was the first attempt to measure poverty in Bharat made? 4. Define labour power. 5. What is hidden unemployment? 6. Which type of unemployment is mostly found in the agricultural sector? 7. Which type of unemployment is mostly found in developed economies? 355

8. What is inflation? 9. Explain the fiscal measures to control inflation. 10. What are monetary measures to control inflation? Explain. 11. Explain the difference between absolute and relative poverty. 12. Comment on the economic causes of poverty in Bharat. 13. How is unemployment detriment to a person? 14. What do you understand by frictional unemployment? Essay Type Questions 1. Comment on the causes of inflation in Bharat in detail. 2. Explain the measures that can be taken for poverty alleviation. 3. What measures have been taken for the abatement of unemployment? What other measures can be taken?

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Chapter 29

Currency and Financial System

Introduction:- During the period of time, man was dependent on nature for his basic need; due to the small group in the early period, man began to simplify the transactions of his needs. The merchandise system is called the exchange of goods for the exchange of goods. An important invention of each branch of knowledge is in which the currency is prominent. The most important invention of currency. Aims:- The historical origin of the currency will be known about the role and development of the currency Understand the institution and non- institutional institutions of saving and credibility. Commercial bank Deshi bankers, Sahukar, land owners self help groups and chitfund company. Private financial companies will be able to know about debts and debt. Get information about monetary depreciaton and cashless transactions.

29.1 Currency Money is an object which is generally accepted by the masses as a means of exchange and measure of value and society and government recognize it as legal. (29.1.1)Origin of currency:- India and China are issuing the first coins in the world same time ago with China BC from Indian coins are prevalent. (29.1.2)Main function of currency store-stock:- 1.Value of Stock:- Currency works as the price value. Currency is specific in form of reserves because it is the most liquid assest. 2.Currency medium of exchange:- It is the most important task of currency, It is used as a mean of payment of money. 3.Value of delayed payment:-Currency is the unit by which deferred or future payment can be easily settled. 4.Accounts unit:-The value of all things can be expressed in the form of currency Exchange value of all goods and services expressed in the unit currency. 5.Other works of currency:-Currency also performs many types .Transfer of value with the help of money is convenient. Currency works to give mobility to the capital. (29.1.3)Development of currency:- First, the gods exchange system started and after then the currency development stated.Three steps are major in reaching the presence of the currency. 1.Commodity exchange 2.Metal money 3. Paper money Commodity Exchange:- In this goods were used for exchange of goods,goods were used as currency, but there was a lack of standard of value. There was difficulty in relation to the transfer of value and the unvisible objects, thus the monetary exchange system was started. 357

Metal currency:- The posture of the object currency was later replaced by the metal currency. Initially, the work of money metal things and their pieces. There were many difficulties for the metal currency due to higher cost of production, letter currency took place. Letter currency:-Letter currency replaced the metal currency, it has many properties. It is less expensive and there is more suitable transaction in transit. Most countries are currently used letters using currency and coins. Textual Question:- 1.what is barter called?

29.2Savings Part of the income that has not been consumed is called savings. Credit:-In economics, providing credit and lending is called giving credit. In the simple words credit words expense the popularity strong financial conditions. (29.2.1) Institutional financial sources and non- institutional financial sources. People can get credit from various financial sources to meet the institutional and non- institutional sources requirements of credit. Institutions that provide institutional credentials are registered with the Reserve Bank of India. Institutional financial source Non-institutional financial sources The institutional financial source is Non-institutional financial sources are not Registered with the Reserve Bank of India. Registered any where. These institution also carry out social It works for profit purpose only. Obligations along with profit. few records are kept in the transaction. The whole record of their is kept customers are exploited In many ways. There is no Certain rule law and procedure in it There is no exploitation of customers. Non-institutionlzed financial sources are not There are certain rules, laws and Procedures. charges at high interest rates. Examples- Money lenders, native bankers, It is deposited at a reasonable interest landlords. Rate and loan are provided. There is less paper work in it. Example-Bank co-operatives. This is only by the institutions for profit The paper work is quite high. Low record of their transactions are kept These institutions do not work for by these institutions. Profit only. These institutions keep a complete record of their transaction. Textual Question:- 2.What is the meaning of saving? 3.Give two examples of institutional institutions. 4.Explain two differences between institutional financial sources and non-institutional financial sources. Commercial Bank:- (29.2.2)Commercial Bank:-A commercial bank is a financial institution which provides services such as accepting deposits, providing business loans etc.

Importance of commercial banks:- 358

Commercial bank have high importance in economy and development and strength, which can be clear by the following points. Bank that collect deposits from the public reach the producers and investors in different sectors of the economy. Bank lend to the wages received and the banks allocate resources to those areas which are necessary for social welfare. Commercial bank also provide interest to the public by keeping the buses safe. Works commercial banks:-  Providing loans  Accepting a deposit  Other tasks 1.Providing loans:-Commercial banks provide loans to all sectors of the economy business, industry, agriculture etc. This loan is provided in the form of cash credits etc. 2.Accepting deposit:-Bank individual firms receive deposits from other institutions. These deposits form other institutions. These deposits are three types.(1)Saving Account deposit (2) Current Account deposit 3.Other tasks:- In additional to accepting land and providing loans, the bank offers many other types of services to its customers. The banks collects bills and checks. Textural question:- 5. What does the commercial bank mean? 6. Write any two words of the commercial banks? Indigenous Banker:- (29.2.3) Indigenous bankers:- Is a private firm or a person who deal like a bank. Before the development of existing commercial banks in India, Banking works was done by the native bankers. It has been an important source of non-institutional credit of India. The following are the works alone by the native banker:- 1. Accept deposit from the public. 2. Transfer funds from one place to another. 3. Running own business with banking work. 4. Role play at friends and advisers with customers. 5. Deal with Retail traders as well

Textural Question:- 1.What was the role of native banker before the present banks? 2.Write two works of native banker. Moneylender:- (29.2.5)Moneylender:-Moneylender has important role in the non-institutional sources of credit. The money lenders lend themselves to own capital. Do not accept public deposits the public. Provide loans by mortgaging property of moneylenders. They are considered exploitation due to charging higher interest rates from the borrowers. In additional to moneylenders and native bankers, landlords, friends and relatives are also important source of non-institutional credit. (29.2.5) Landlord:-Landowner is an important source in the non-institutional sources of credit. It is also known Jagirdor. Due to the excess of land, their income source is high. Landlord land money like chit fund moneylenders etc. At the present time, their low interest rates have come down due to their high interest rate.

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Textural question:- 7.Why is the money lender considered to be absordent in society? Self help group:- (29.2.6) Self help group:- Self help group is a group of 15-20 members who meet regularly and save. And the members can take small loans according their needs, small group of self- help group provide small loans to their members to make their mortgrged land available for purchase and purchase of animals. Self help group help borrowers out of debt with the help of debtor. These groups assist in organizing the poor in rural areas. Women become financially self – reliant. Textual question:- 8. How many members are in the self help group? Chit fund:- (29.2.7) Chit fund:-The Company that manage, operates and directs the chit scheme, called Fund Company. Chit fund is a special savings and loan scheme in India. This is a plan of mutual benefit among the members. In this the total deposit amount is given by the tender, or by action, to any one member. If any member does not take part in the tender of action, then the name of the winner is decided by cutting the discount in a minimum amount. Every month the prize money is given as the winner, the member who once gets the winner does not include again action plan. Chit fund schemes are run by friends and relatives in addition to organized financial institutions. Textual question 9. What is the chit fund company?

(29.3) Private Financial Companies In order to provide loans to the customers, loan facility is provide by the enterprencurs in the private sector, these financial companies are given loans at a higher interest rate. These companies have a system of guarantee for the debtor. The debtor has to suffer from exploitation and is trapped in a debt trap which is blocked in his economic and social development. Private financial companies hold expeditiously on debt lending and deposit in comparison to government financial companies. Private Company:- According to the companies Act, a personal company refers to a company whose paid capital is of the amount determined and which is prohibited by its intermediaries. 1. The company is required to put a private limited at the end of its name. 2. It you have constituents, you can ban the right to transfer. 3. The numbers of members is limited in 200. 4. Prohibits the invitation to the public for the purchase of its securities. Features Of Private Company:- 1. Minimum two members must in comp. 2. It can not be more than 200 members. 3. Can not offer the public to get capital, only be collected by the members. 4. Minimum two operators are required. 5. In this, the shareholders or members can transfer the shares under certain restrictions under the restrictions. 6. The annual report is not required to be submitted to the registrar. 7. No need to issue a certificate. 8. Members of the private company are not required to keep indexing.

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29.3.1 Share And Loan Letter:- This is an important document to collect capital. The shareholders are the owners of the company, the lenders are creditors of the company.

Share And Debentures

Difference Between Share And Debentures:-

Difference Share Debenture Nature The share is part of proprietary fund. This is part of the lending fund. Level It is the owner of the company. It is the creditor of the company. Control It has a company or control in its hands. It has no control over the functions of the company. Franchise It has a franchise. There is no right to vote for this. Risk This is the company’s primary endorser. Their risk is minimum. Return They do not have the right to regular returns. They have the rights to receive interest. Textual Questions:- 10. Write two characteristics of private company? 11. Explain one difference between share and loan letter?

29.4.Monetary Devaluation 29.4.1 Monetary Devaluation:- Decreasing the value of a country’s currency against the currency of another country is called monetary devaluation. 29.4.2 Demonetisation:- When a government’s legally ban the old currency, it is called monetisation. Using the monopoly on 9th November 2016 by the , 500 and 1000 notes were declared illegal in the currency. In return, new notes of 500 and 2000 were issued. After the demonetisation, the government has made efforts to popularise cashless transactions. Textual Questions:- 12. What is demonetisation? 13. What is monetary devaluation? 29.4.3 Cashless Transaction:- Cashless transactions refer to financial transactions without cash. This transactions is done through internet banking, credit card. Cashless Transaction Medium:- 1. Payment by check or draft. 2. By internet banking. 3. By swipe machine. 4.By ATM machine (Automated Teller Machine). 5. By mobile app. 1. Payment By Check Or Draft:- The simplest way to pay cashless payment is by check or draft. Both of these methods do not require internet. 2. Payment By Internet Banking:- The second major medium of cashless transactions is internet banking, through which customers can buy multiple companies and services online at the seller’s home. This is extremely convenient way. Online shopping can be ordered for any types of item or service to buy at home. 3. Payment By Swipe Machine:- Through this machine, customers use credit and debit low ATM cards to avail this service. Each buyer can use it successfully.

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4. Payment By ATM Machine:- Under cashless payment, the buyer can transfer the amount directly to the seller’s account from his ATM card. Buyer and seller’s account must be in one bank to avail this facility. The information of the bank’s IFSC code (Indian Financial System Code) is necessary. 5. Payment By Mobile App:- Cashless transactions are done easily through different apps of smartphones. Bhim App has been released by the Government of India. The constitutional producer of India was released in the name of economic and social meditation, Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar. People can easily access this app through simple and digital transactions. Benefits Of Cashless Transactions:- 1. Save time and money 2. Free from cash. 3. Black marketing decreased. 4. Increase revenue. 5. Decrease in pressure on banks. 6. Rein in illegal activities. Precautions Durning Digital Transactions:- 1. Immediately contact bank if seams suspicious any kind injury. 2. The registered mobile number in accounts not be changed. 3. Regular monitoring of the account statement while using net banking and changing its password from time to time. 4. Our ATM card should be kept confidential when using the swipe machine.

Textual Questions:- 14. Name the digital payment app that was issued by the Government of India? 15. Tell the meaning of cashless transactions? 16. Write the names of two medium of cashless transactions?

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What have you learned? 1. There are many modern forms of currency, in which currency (paper notes and coins) are prominent. 2. In our country, the Reserve Bank Of India issues the currency from the Central Government. 3. Loan or lending is said to provide credit. 4. The portion of income that has not been consumed is called Savings. 5. Removing the legality of the prevailing currency and removing it from circulation is called Demonetisation. 6. Institutions that work in financial transactions are called Financial Institutions. 7. Examples of non-institutional financial sources are native bankers, moneylenders, landlords, relatives etc. 8. The moneylenders lend themselves to the capital of purely. Public deposits are not accepted by them. 9. Self help group is a new trend of providing micro credit. 10. The company which manages, operates and directs the Chit Scheme is called Chitfund Company. 11. Cashless transaction medium:- 1. Payment by check or draft. 2. By internet banking. 3. By swipe machine. 4. By ATM machine. 5. By mobile app.

Answeres- 1. Instead of goods commodity transaction.11 2. Part of the income that has not been consumed. 3. Bank co-operative societies. 4. Fair interest rate, fixed rate of interest. 5. Financial institutions that accept deposits. 6. Providing loans and accepting deposits. 7. Due to charging higher interest rates. 8. A group of 15-20 members. 9. The company which manages and directs the chit scheme. 10. At least two members, minimum two operators. 11. Owner, franchise. 12. Legitimate closure of old currency. 13. Price reduction compared to the other national. 14. Bhim. 15. Financial transactions without cash. 16. Swipe machine, check.

Question for Exercise- Multiple Choice Questions:- 1. The symbol of Indian is prepared by whom? (A) D. Anand (B) Vishwas (C) D. Udaykumar (D) S. Prabhu 2. The work of money is- 363

(A) Measure of value (B) Medium of exchange (C) Value store (D) All of the above Very Short Answer Questions:- 1. What is currency? 2. Which notes were demonetised by the Government of India in 2016? 3. What is the name of Central Bank of India? Short Answer Questions:- 1. Native banker write any four jobs? 2. Describe the moneylender in the form of non-institutional sources of credit? Essay Type Questions:- 1. Explain the main functions of money? 2. Explain the differences between institutional and non-institutional financial resources? 3. What is chit fund company? Explain the function of chit fund? 4. Explain the importance of commerce banks? 5. What is a self help group? Describe the procedure of the self help group? 6. Explain about cashless transactions in detail?

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Chapter-30

Business

Int Introduction:- Today, business is a major economic activity in all modern societies, which is related to the production and distribution of goods and services as necessary. Business is the central point of our life. Developed countries such as Japan, Britain, France, America, have reached high levels due to business. Innovation in business has been incorporated from information technology and service sectors. Aims:- After the study of this lesson you have:-  You will be able to get acquainted with the concept of business  You will be able to gain knowledge about business activities  You Will know about manufacturing  You will be able to get information about the information technology and service sector  30.1.Business Concept Meaning- The purpose of earning money buy and sell of goods and services called business. Business definition:- According to professor Heine-“Business refers to such action that are aimed to earning or profit by purchasing and selling goods”. According to :- “Business is an institutional that produces, distributes or facilitates any such goods or services that other people in society need”. It is evident from the aforementioned definition that business is an economic is an economic activity in which the production and distribution activities of good and services are included. Business features:- 1. Business is a human action:- In the business involves the economic actions performed by humans but not actions of animal or birds. 2. ------the needs of society:- business is a social activity in which business is making profit by satisfaction with the needs and feeling of society. 3. The risk:- any business will be present only when the risk exist. If there is no risk in economic activity to earn profit then business is not considered 4. Courage:- the business also include the risk element as well as the element of adventure 5. Production and distribution of goods and services with value:- business involves the same economic action that are made to distribute value items and services. 6. Profit earning:- make no profit. No business can run for a long time, so a business makes every effort to maximize profit by doing more than purchasing the amount of his sales in his business. 7. Regulation and legality :- regulation and legalization of business is essential. Consumer protection of business, Indian contract act, etc, in the limitations of economic activities. 8. Industry and commerce Inclusion of activities:- From the production of commodities in the business, all the activities involved in describing the object the final consumer are include. Assistant bank, transport, insurance, packaging are called commercial activities to reach the production and production of goods to consumers. 9. Existence of capital:- Capital is required in business is no financial action is done without capital 10. Social responsibility:- the ideology of social responsibility is part of the business. No business can be operated successfully without fulfilling social responsibility. Modern features of business:- 1. Production at macro level 365

2. Expansion of markets 3. Uses of innovative means of transport and communication skills and vehicle 4. Banking and insurance services. 5. Advertising and sales promotion 6. Emphasis on investigative works 7. Construction of companies of corporations. Textual question:- 1. What is the business? 2. Write two characteristics of business? 3. Name the modern features of business? 4. (30.2) Classification of Business Activities Commerce- Under the commerce, various supportive activities of trade and business are included. Different business activities can be divided into two parts 1. Industry 2. Commercial Industry :- Industry refers to the production of goods. All the activities of commerce that facilitate the exchange and distribution of goods. Industry can be divided into three categories. 1. Primary industry 2. Secondary industry 3. Service industry. Commerce:- There are two types of commerce activities firstly, which are used to sell or exchange of goods are called trade. Second all those actions that help in the business include banking, insurance, telecommunications, advertisement packing and godowns. The commerce links producer and the consumer. Therefore, the intent of commerce is with those actions which solve the power,Location, time finance and information related obstacles in ex-change for goods and services given below; classification of business activities. The flow of commerce and commercial auxiliary activities is clear by the picture.

Commerce and Commerce subsidiaries Commercial commerce subsidiaries

Trade Assist to trade

Transportation Internal business External busines business Insurance

Wholsale Retail Import Export Financial e Storage

 Business;- purchasing and selling goods for the purpose of earning profit is called business.  Wholesale trade:- Buy and sell of goods in large quantities is called wholesale treade.  Retail business:- Purchase and sale of goods made in the small quantities is called retail.  Import:- Buying commodities from other countries called import  Expert ;- Selling goods in other countries is called export.

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Business auxiliary activities:- 1. Transport and communication:- The goods are produced at specific areas such as sugar, uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and tea Assam. Their consumption is needed in all parts of the country. Raw material is transported to the production site. And the finished good are taken from the factory to the place of consumption. Transportation requires communication channels as well. Therefore, postal and telecommunication services are also considered to be helpful in business activities. 2. Storage :- Often they are not used or sold immediately after the production of good, they are kept safe in were houses to facilitate them. Provides assistance in resolving storage capacity. 3. Insurance:- There are many types of risk in business fire extinguishing the factor, furniture, machine etc. of factor factory factories and other risk is necessary. Safety is essential due to loss of cargo or loss of employes due to accident. Insurance provides protection to all of these 4. Finance :- Without the money, the business can not run, so the trader can get the required amount from the bank. Banks help in business by solving the problem of finance. 5. Advertisement:- Advertising is propagated to promote goods. Producers and businessmen are not able to meet each person individually. Advertising is necessary to increase sales. Advertising is helpful in giving information about available items in the market and purchasing item specific Textual question:- 1. What is trade? 2. What is the retail trade? 3. What does the export mean? 4. What is the wholesale trade. Manufacturing :- The process of converting raw material into production manufacturing. The manufacturing industry can be divided into four parts based on the production process.  Analytical industry:- Industries that produce different and differentiation and elements of the same production. Such as oil purifier factory / refineries.  Artifical industry:- These industry gather various organization and form a new product by process such as cement industry.  Processing industry:- The industry that passed through different phases to build a product. Such as paper, sugar industry  Assembling Industry:- Industries that add different parts to ready of production For ex. computer televisions, car. Information Technology:- The information technology brought revolutionary changes in our life. Through Information Technology we are moving towards economic prosperity. Information technology is being developed through e- commerce and e- banking etc, as an electronic commerce. This innovative new Year is developing e- commerce, e- banking, e- shopping etc. Trough electronic medium. Information technology has become a symbol of power and development in the present form. Use of information technology:- E- Government is called by the name of e- government, digital government. Access to government services is ensured by the presence of general public technologies techniques. Major services provided by e- governance. 1. E- citizen 2.E- transportation 3. E- medicine 4. E- education 5. E- registration 6. E- governance secretariat 7. E- police 8. E- court 9. E- democracy 367

Digital India program:- An innovative program of the government of India whose main objective is to make a whole country change from digital perspective to empowered society and knowledge economy. This program is very broad in which many ministries and department are employed. It contains various ideas in single and comprehensive vision. Digital India contains nine columns. Broad band highway, access to mobile connectivity, public internet access program, improve government improvement through e- governance, electronic formation of e- revolution services I.T for jobs (Information Technology). All this is detailed program. E- Mitra:- E- mitra is an e- governance plan created to work online in all districts to gain various government schemes run by the Rajasthan government. All facilities are now available on e- mitra kiosks and e- mitra mobile app. The Rajasthan government has added 105 facilities of different departments with the e- mitra portal. E– commerce:- Electronic commerce or e- commerce means doing business through the internet. E- Commerce indicates all the business functions in which the product and service is purchase and solid on line. E- business, E- banking, E- shopping, etc. is part of E- commerce Benefits of e- commerce:- The key benefits of e- commerce are the following;- 1. The number of mediators between producer and purchasers decrease and marketing costs also fall. 2. Trading in e- commerce is exchanged online through the internet, which reduces the cost and time of the exchange of business information. 3. E- commerce does not require costly showroom salesmen and commissioning agents 4. Information about production and services is available in e- commerce. Thus, a worldwide market is available to the trader. 5. Process of obtaining licenses in e- commerce has made government other activities transparent. Internet banking:- Using any bank the services provided by any bank from any location through the internet through the internet through computer, mobile or any other device, is called internet banking. Internet banking in known by many names. Such as online banking, mobile banking, net banking etc. Benefits of internet banking:- 1. Shopping online 2. Mobile recharging 3. Get information about account balance. 4. Viewing bank statement 5. Pay to electricity, water, t.v and other bills 6. Booking bus, rail and other tickets with the internet 7. Make your tax and other payment online 8. Make stock market and other various investment by online] Textual question:- 1. What is manufacturing industry? 2. Give an example of analytical industry? 3. What is the processive industry? (1) Business is an important part of commerce. (2) The purpose of trade is to buy and sell goods for the purpose of earning profit (3) Transport is supported in business (4) With Transport can be carried those items from one place to another (5) Communication means, therefore the productive business and consumers can exchange information between each other. 368

Answers:- 1 Purchase of good and services. 2. Business is a humanitarian courage 3. Advertising and sales promotion, banking and insurance services. 4. Purchasing of goods. 5. Purchase sales of items in small quantities. 6. Sell good in other countries. 7. Purchase sales of goods in large quantities. 8. The process of converting raw material into manufactured goods. 9. Oil purifier factory. 10. For the contruction of the ripe industry, various stages pass. Short Answer question:- 1. Two uses of information technology? 2. What does e- commerce mean? 3. Write two benefits of internet banking? Essay Type questions:- 4. What is internet banking? Write its benefits. 5. Explain the helpful action of commerce and commerce?

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Chapter- 31

Book keeping (ledger account)

 Historical background  Features  Methods of mahajani system  Double accounting system  General principles and states Introduction:- Man can not remember all the things through the day, how good is his memory. As far as personal income- expenditure is concerned, one can run his daily income by writing a small note- book, but a trader with hundreds of deals per day has to keep it properly according to the rule. Therefore, perfection can not depend on memory, it is necessary to write such deals and transactions in any looks, register of look. The confirmation of this requirements is well- formed by the following Indian sayings. Write first and give later. It you forget, get from paper. In India there are mainly two methods (system) of accounting. Actually both systems have two forms of the same format. For businessmen. It is also important to kept full account of economic practices because they have many behaviour or deals every day, so writing articles of economics in books or books is essential for business organization, non- business organizations or individuals. The can get a lot of information on the basis of the account books, whereas account books can be made systematically. There is a system of book keeping (ledger account) by which it is possible. Aims:-  Information about birth and development of book keeping (ledger account) will be available.  Know the meaning and characteristics of book keeping  Know about the methods of book keeping  Know the principles and states of book keeping.  31.1. Historical background:- vk;~enkS fy[ksRlH;x~ O;;a i’pk|Fkkxre~A ok;s pk;a O;;a n{ks i=Hkkxs p ys[k;sr~AA 'kqØ uhfr v/;k; 2 'yksd] 'yksd 362 That is the first income should be written, than as it has been spent, should write in the reverse hand side of the book, Income should be written and expenses in straight hand side. This verse confines that the method of accounting in India is very ancient. 370

In ancient times, people kept accounting too. The art of keeping accounting was definitely undeveloped. Some accounts were found 2600 year ago from balylonia, from which it is clear that at that time the method of writing accounting was in vogue, but the father of the system of the current double account system was “Lukas pocioli” of Italy. The system of double accounting is also called the Italian system because it was first adopted by Italian system because it was first adopted by Italian business men. In 1795 “Eduard Jones” published his book “English system of Book keeping”. Thus, various accounts and practise were incorpated in the development of book accounts from time to time, and the book accounts reached the present state of development. Textual question:- 1. Writethe name of the book of Edward Johons? 2. In which year was Edward Johons book published?

31.2 Meaning and definition:- “Book keeping” is the hindi translation of the English language word book book keeping.”Book keeping” is a mixture of two words ”Book” and ” keeping”. Meaning of book means book and keeping means keep, i.e. to keep account of financial practices on the basis of a mixed method. Defination:- The major definations of book keeping are as follows:- Batli boi:- “The name of the art of writing business practices in some rules books.” North cott:- “Book keeping is the art that teaches the monetary aspect of business or financial practice to write in the books of account.” Textual question:- 1.What is the second name of book keeping? 2.Explain literal meaning of book keeping? The key features of the book keeping account are as follow:-  Book keeping is science and also art  The account of financial nature’s behaviours are written in monetary terms.  Behavior is accounted for in certain books.  Accounts are routine and regularly  Financial status information may be obtained. Textual question:- 3.Tell two features of book keeping? 4.How is the account of the behavior of financial nature written in the form?

15.4. Book keeping prevalent and important method are as follow:-  Mahajani book keeping method.  Double accounting method. (15.4.1) Mahajani book keeping:- Mahajani book keeping method is also called Indian system because its birth place in India. Some people call it Indians accounting system or country accounting system. In our country, there are more business institution having articles on book keeping so the practical utility of this method is high. Kautilyas economic also gets its description. This method is a complete scientist because it has come

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Majani Bahikhata Bahi true for all kinds of business in kind of circumstances. Use of mahajani method of book keeping is wide speread in India. Textual question:- 5.Tell the other name of mahajani book keeping? 6.Who is the author of the book of economics? (15.4.2) Features of mahajani book keeping:-  This method is very simple. A general education person can also use it easily and quickly.  This method is kept in various Indian languages.  This method is less expensive and useful for small and big traders.  This method flexible, the book used in it can be reduced and extended.  This method is scientific and as a double accounting method, it is based on the principle of double entry.  Mahajani book keeping system /In the law a small merchant is not satisfied with the cash book in the second system.  According to the mahajani book keeping system language can be used in India for entry in books, but the second system is suitable for the English language.  The use the black ink for writing transaction in books, while using the blue and red ink for transaction in the register.  Only plain paper is used, turn them on and put them to work.  In this system, use the book to keep the details of the transaction, while the registers are used in the system of double accounts. Therefore these books are more affordable and more stable than the registers. Textual question:- 7.Why mahajani book keeping is useful for small traders? (15.4.3) Stages of mahajani book keeping system;- Different books are used to record business related deals and transaction in the mahajain book keeping system.

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These books have three stages- First phase______Secondphase______Third phases

Primary account Classification(khatoni) Summary

1. Closed or Journaling 1. Ledger (Bottom\ raw (last account) 2. Cash and cash book data) 1. Goods account 3.Deposit copying, 2. profit and loss name duplicate and account.

retail copy book. 3. firm figure

Primary Debates.(Bahian) It is the accounts in which transaction are alone first of all is accounted for. According to the business status, the number of this can be reduced or more. Main book are:- 1. Raw day book 2. Raw cash book 3. Original cash book 4. Copying debates(Bahian) classification:- This category also know as division. Under this, the transaction written in primary books are classified fied in lb. In this, the same types of transaction are written in one account. Under the classification, raw data is prepared for the purity of kathoni in the trial balance Talpat. Last summary:- The objective of the business in not met by the classification of accounts and the formation of raw data, but its main objective is to find out the financial position of the business at the end of the year, to obtain the accounts of the final summary in order to achieve it. Textual question:- 8. How many stages of mahajani book keeping method? 9. Tell the name of the third state of the booklet mahajani? (15.4.4)Basic principles of mahajani book keeping;- Mahajani book keeping means the period from which the use of scientific principle is used in special types of books. The principle of mahajani accounting (system) is a dual accounting double effect.  The basic principle of mahajani book keeping is double accounts.  From the principle of double accounting, it implies that each transaction effects two accounts, one is the one giving the account, and the other is like- Abhimanyu bought a loan of Rs 500 from pratap. In this, two accounts have been affected, one is the account is pratap. In this way, from the point of view of each trader, two accounts of any transaction will be affected. Therefore entries in two accounts will be made for the same transaction in the books of the respective trader. Each account is divided into two parts, the first part on the left side is called the side of the deposit, the second part, which is on the right, is know as the name side.

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Deposit Name 1 2 3 4 5 Tip Peta

Textual question:- 10. How many sals (folds) are there in mahajani book keeping? 11. How does the deposited side in mahajani book- keeping come? 12.What is the basic of mahajani book keeping system? (15.4.5) Double accounting method:-  Dual accounting system is the method of book keeping in which, at least two entries are made in account book in respect to each transaction in business. This system is not only in our country, but all the progressive countries of the world because ot is superior and scientific in all other system. Each transaction has two side. One name the second deposit. Through this method all the necessary information can be obtained on time.  System of dual accounting system:- The basic principle of the system of double accounting is that is should write each merchant’s behavior in two accounts. The double accounting method is based on the following principle  There are two sides of each business- each business practice has two sides in which there is a gain- holder and the second beneficiary. This benefits comes from exchange of cash, goods or services.  The effect of behaiours on each side of each side of each business behavior has a hearing on both sides.  Accounting on both sides is necessary due to the effect of each behavior on both sides, its account should be accounted for on both sides  Different states of double accounting method. (1) Initial account:- Whenever there is a deal in business, a daily data is entered in the book of one of the original records. The main book of the original record is the journal. (2) Classifications and collections:- After the accounting of business practices is completed, these behavior are classified in a book and the same type of behavior that are held at different times are kept in the same category, which is called the collection. Thus, the second stage of the classification and collection account. It is also called khatoni. Summary:- After classification and collection of accounts for every year, it is necessary to summarize those articles. With the help of this summary, you can get information about the profitability of the period or financial condition of the business. Textual question:- 13. How many stages of the double accounting system are? 14. Name the third stage of the double accounting system? 15. How many entries are in each behavior in the double accounting system.

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A merchant Buyer – seller Deposit and name favor in book. Business Purchase and sale of goods businessman the person who makes purchase and sale of goods for profit, is called a trader. Buyer The buyer of the good is called buyer. The seller the seller who sells good is called seller. Deposit the booklet written in the book keeping on the left is called the deposit expense. charges (Jama-Kharch) goods The merchandise that is traded is called the goods. Property In business goods and other things like property, furniture, cash etc. are called property Behaviour In practice, financial transaction between two people is called behaviour (ubiness Activities) Entry Economic activities written in books is called entry. Fame The monetary value of business reputation is known as fame. Sales return return of the goods sold is called a sale return withdrawal The amount of cash or good that are extracted from business for personal work by the business owner is called a withdrawal. capital Cash money or merchandise trader puts it in his business, he is called capital ownership The business owners, position is called ownership Note down Accounting a deal in mahajani book keeping is called note down. appropriation The amount invested in government and non- government Securities is called appropriation. What have you learn:-  Business dealings are alone by all traders in account books or registers.  Two method of accounting are popular.(1) mahajani bookkeeping method (2) Dual accounting method.  Bookkeeping is helpful in reducing the power of remembering a person, because the accounting book is kept in the account  Under the double accounting method all the tasks of book keeping and accounting can be divided into three parts this is called the state of double accounting law.  The world pastor “lucas pacioli” is considered as the father of the law of double accounting of the law of books in the world.  Mahajani bookkeeping method is also known as Indian bookkeeping method. It is a scientific and universal method  The mahajani bookkeeping system is based on double accounts, it calls books in the name of books  There are three states of mahajani bookkeeping system. 1. Initial account 2. Classification 3. Last account or summary.  Dual accounting method also has three stages. 375

1. Initial account 2. Classification and collection 3. Summary Answers:- 1. English system of book keeping 2. 1795 3. Art science, financial status information 4. Monetary form 5. Indian system 6. Kautilya 7. Simple and inexpensive 8. 3 9. Summary 10. 6 11. Deposit side initial 12. Double accounting 13. 3 14. Summary 15. 2 Question for Exrcise:- 1 The most scientific method of book keeping and accounting as:- (a) Single accounting law (b) Double accounting method (c) Cash book (d) none of these 2. The first stage of account under double accounting method is:- (a) classification and collection (b) summary (c) Initial account (d) none of these 3. Second name of mahajani bookkeeping method (a) Foreign law (b)Indian law (c) jesus Christ (d) Edward jones Answers:- 1.(b) 2. (c) 3.(b) 4.(b) Very short question:- 1. Write the second stage of the double accounting method? 2. What is known as the third state summary of double accounting? 3. When did the double accounting system start? 4. How many buckets are there in case book? Short Answer question:- 1. Write two characteristics of mahajani bookkeeping? 2. Write two principle of dual accounting law? 3. What does the buyer and the seller mean? 4. What does the entry mean? Essay Type question:- 1. Describe the different stages of double accounting method? 2. Describe the states of the mahajani bookkeeping? 376

3. Describe mahajani double accounting method?

A Business Man Seller and Byer

Credit Debet in Bahi

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Chapter-32

Consumer Protection and Right to Information

Introduction: When a parson consumerders by paying the value of something or service, it is known as a consumer and according to the purchaser’s value, the goods or services are not available, the consumer comes under the category of exploitation. The consumer also has the right to protection and promotion in the act. Right to information Act 2005 has given right to citizens. Consumer Protection Meaning:- Consumer protection means the security of consumer from unfair treatment of sellers and prodcers in order to provide consumer protection, the following right have been given to consumers in the consumer protection Act 1986. 1. Right to security 2. Right to information 3. Right to selection 4. Right to complain 5. Right to indemnify 6. Right to consumer education Types of consumer exploitation:- 1. Exploitation in the form of goods or commodities. 2. Exploitation as a service. Causes of consumer’s abuse:- 1. No selection of the right thing or service. 2. Lack of complete information about the item or service. 3. Believe in things written on goods. 4. Uneducated consumer. 5. Non – receipt of item or service purchase bill. 378

6. Consumers do not complain properly. 7. Lack of organized consumers. 8. Purchase without regard to the quality, quantity, accuracy of the item or service.

Consumer abuse and prevention measures Consumer abuse and prevention measures:- Remedial Measures:- 1. Measures for prevention from exploitation. 2. To take necessary action to reserve ISI And Agmark marking for certifying items. 3. For correct weight and measures should be made law for this 4. Set – up fair price shops. 5. Laws will also be made for consumers to get good quality goods. 6. Development of co-operative shops and supper markets. 7. Awareness campaign should be conducted from time for time to the consumer for the right information. 8. Legal action should be taken against exploitation in the benefit of consumers. Textual question:- 1. What does consumer abuse mean? 2. Explain two ways to prevent consumers abuse? Legal Awareness:- The legal awareness of the functioning of public welfare schemes and revised rules by the service agencies set up under the legal service authority act 1987, and all the citizen for the society, is brought to light. Legal Awareness measures:- The following measures are taken by the government for legal awareness. 1. Legal literacy camps are being organized. 2. The talk of law is being broadcasted in weekly program. What have you learned? 1. Protecting consumers with unfair treatment of producers and sellers is called consumer protection. 2. Right to information act 2005 has been granted right to citizens. 3. Right to information, Right to safety, Right to Complaint, Consumer protection act 1986. 4. Legal information is available to all citizens under the legal services authority act 1987. Right to Information The constitution of India has given freedom to speak to every citizen. The public gives tax, so the public has the right to know that the amount paid by him was spent on the right things? How is the quality of works? Whether the government has full accountability or not? Any citizen will have 379 to inform the government official/employee on demand. Right to information is the Right to Information Act. Right To Information Act 2005:- This legislation was passed by the Lok Sabha on June 15, 2005, and after the president’s approval, this law has been implemented from all over the country on October 13, 2005. Right to Information Act 2005, the following rights have been given to citizens of the contry:- 1. Every citizen has the right to receive that information from any department or office of the state government and central government. 2. Any citizen can see the documents or record and can take certified copies of the documents. 3. You can also see the works. 4. Samples of material to come in work will be taken. 5. The computer will also be able to get information in CD OR Floppy. 6. The right to know about wages of mastral. Log Book tender documents, cast book department schemes etc. How to get information:- Any citizen who wants to take the information should give the application form on the prescribed form. With the application form Rs10/- will be deposited in cash or postal order. 1. If the information is copied from a large size paper the different amount will be given 2. Rs50/- for CD or Floppy will be deposited. 3. Photo Copy Rs2/- will be giver per page rate. 4. To see the record or document Rs10/- after submitting. You can see one hour of free records, after which every 15 minutes or less will be given Rs5. 5. Receive information within 30 days of the application. 6. The person will be able to get information about life or liberty within 48 hours. 7. Assistance Information officer will send notification in 35 days. 8. Information will be considered if the information is not available within the time period. Penalty or penalty notice for not giving consideration the information officer refuses to apply for any reason without any reason, if intentionally giving false or incomplete or misleading information, then there is a provision of penalty of up to Rs 25000 for a daily of 250 rupees. The information commission can also recommend disciplinary action against the Public Information officer. What information cannot be found:- 1. State security alert. 2. Security strategy science and economic affairs confidential Information. 3. Confidential Information received from foreigners. 4. Where in the right of the court or assembly. 5. Intelligence Bureau, Border Security Force, Crime or threat to security. Information Officer:- 1. In Gram Panchayat – Secretary or Gram Sevak 2. In Panchayat Samiti – Development officer 3. In Zila Parishad – Chief Executive officer 4. In Municipal Corporation – Executive officer 5. In the assistance given by the state Government – Chief Executive officer. 6. In the university- Total Secretary. 380

7. Senior Officials Under the head of the department in government department. 8. In the government secretariat- secretary, department of Administrative Reforms.

Appeal Time:- The first appeal can he made before the Higher Officer within 30 days of getting information from the Public Information Officer. Appeal Officer:- Appeal of the Gram Sevak, the appeal chief of the development officer, the Additional Collector’s Appeal- District Collector, the first appeal can be made If the hearing is not heard in 30 days, the second appeal will be made to the state information commission. Answer question:- 1. Consumer are exploited when services or facility is not available. 2. The right measure and the law of weight to open the shops of the fair rate. Short question:- 1. Tell us two types of consumer abuse? 2. When did the Right to information Act make? 3. Write two remedies for legal awareness? Essay question:- 4. Describe the means of consumer protection by explaining the meaning of consumer

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Chapter -33

Disaster management

Aims:-  Understand the disaster.  Will be able to classify natural and human disaster.  Learn about disaster management

33.1 Disaster Disaster is a natural or man- induced event, which result in broadly human loss. In addition, there is loss of livelihood and property in a certain area. By which people suffer from grief and suffering The common characteristics of the disaster affected area are as follow:- 1. There is a huge loss to the nation’s economy 2. Normal work of society get stop due to which people are affected 3. Livelihood, life and property do damage

Type of disaster:- On the basis of speed, origin, and causes, disasters can be divided into several parts. Disaster based on speed:- 1. Slow start disaster:- The disaster that persist for several days, months. The slow start is called a disaster. Such as- drought, famine. 2. Quick start disaster:- the disaster caused by any immediate reason is called the fast start disaster. Such as:-earthquake, cyclone, volcano. Caused based disaster:- These disaster can be taken naturally as human Natural disasters:- These disaster are due to crises. In this damage of people equipment, economic and the environment. Such as earthquake, dry, cyclone, flood etc. Human induced disaster:- This come due to human induced crisis, in which people damage the environment. Such as:- tragedy, bomb blast. Natural disaster can be divided into three parts:- 1. Air related 2. Water related 3. Earth related

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Air related Water related Earth related

Storm Flooding Earth quake Cyclone Cloud burst Tsunami Hurricane Excess rain Landslide Typhoon Illnesses Tornado Tide Waves dry Table 33.1 1. Cyclone:- stormy hurricanes are called cyclones. The cyclone is wearing sharp and low atmospheric pressure around the center of the calm center. It speed is usually 50 km per hours. Cyclones occur frequently in the coastal part of India 2. Earth quake:- The tremor or vibratious of the surface are called earth quake is a criscs that comes suddenly, without warning at any time in the year. It causes heavy loss of public money. 3. Landslide:- landslides are rocks, mud, slippery stacks, which come with the power of their load, on mountain shields or river banks, The landslide of the Himalayas the western ghats, the north- eastern part of India, is the main natural disaster here. This leads to constant loss of wealth. 4. Hurricane:- hurricane is the word of the Spanish language, which means the high/ wind, The wind speed in the storms in 120 km per hours. This leads to heavy loss of man and money. 5. Tsunami:- tsunami is a Japanese language word that is made of “su” meaning port and “ name” meaning wave. 6. Flood:- Due to excessive rain water, the water of the river or the pond cross the ordinary boundary. 7. Human disasters:- 1. War – fight between two countries 2. Riots – disaffection between two sects 3. Vehicle accident:-road, rail and aeroplane accident 4. Industrial accidents:- like- Bhopal gas scand 5. Molecular radiation:- carnobils accident 6. Forest fire:- fire in the woods 7. Epidemic:- bird flu, anthrax. 8. HIV/ AIDS 9. Violence

Textual question:- 1. How many types natural disasters can be divided into? 2. What is the slow start disaster? 3. What is natural disaster? 383

4. What is Cyclone? 5. What is the earth quake? 6. What two examples of human disaster? 7. Hurricane is the word of which language? Disaster management:-Disaster management, preparation to be done prior to the disaster, measures to reduce the adverse effects of the disaster and the relief and rehabilitation work done later, are know as disaster management. Disaster management steps :- 1. Disaster coming. 2. Emergency response and relief 3. Rehabilitation and reconstruction 4. Retard / temporary 5. Preparation 1. Disaster coming:- The first phase of disaster management is that there is a possibility of disaster. 2. Emergency rescue and relief:- Immidiate solution to be followed immediately by predicting disaster 3. Rehabilitation and reconstruction:- It is encouraged to take necassory arrangement with the disaster and facilities are provided 4. Retard:- Temporary work can be done before or during the disaster even during later periods it is a task of reducing the prevalence of future disaster. 5. Preparation:- It involves measures that makes the government community and individuals eligible for quick response in the circumstances of the disaster and can face in intensely.

Role of the government in the disaster management. Government has an important role in disaster management. Organised administrative mechanism works for disaster management which is at the national block level. The central government provides assistance to state governments by providing financial support and communication system support. The state of a disaster is concerned with other primary responsive for relocation and rehabilitation work. Disaster are managed at different levels in country as follows:- 1. National level:- to make the disaster manage work in all kinds of natural calamities, the home ministry work in the center of a nodal ministry. In case of drought, disaster management work is done by agriculture and cooperatives department under the ministry of agriculture. Disasters names Nodal ministry Natural disaster(other than Home ministry drought Dry /Drought Ministry of agriculture Rail accidents Railways ministry Air Accident Civil aviaton ministry Biological disasters Home ministry Chemical disasters Home ministry Nuclear disasters Home ministry 384

Epidemics Department of health and 2. family welfare. Table 33.2 At the state level:- State government is responsible for dealing with natural disasters. So that the state government works in its own way. (1) State level committee:- the state level committee is formed under the chairmanship of the chief minister or chief secretary of the state. Who looks after relief work in the state. (2) Relief commissioner:- The relief commissioner work under the direct control of the state committee. (3) State relief samhita and state emergency planning:- States have a book called state sanhita and state emergency plan which guides the officers and employes engaged in the disaster management. 3. At the district level:- at the district level, a disaster management committee is constituted under the chairmanship of the district magistrate. In this committee , representatives of Healthy Department, Irrigation Department, water and sanitation department, veterinary department, police department, fire service officers, national International non- government organization etc. are included. This committee, along with decision making, help disaster management teams. The district administration is the focal point of implementation and activities of all government schemes. District magistrate and district administration are responsible for the day to day relief work who has the power of coordination and supervision in all department at the district level. 4. At the block level:- sector development officer(B.D.O) is the nodal officer for all activities related to disaster management. 5. At village level:- At the village level, the head of village panchayat or village head is the head of disaster management committee. This work is to cooperate with different organization. 6. Other institute:- Indian Armed Forces, National cadet corps, civil defense, National service scheme, Nehru yava Kendra, home guards etc. Also play an important role in disaster management. Textual question :- 1. Write two steps of disaster management? 2. Name the nodal ministry of drought related disaster management? 3. Who is the nodal officer in disaster related work at the block level? what have you learned:- 1. Disaster can be natural or human. 2. Stormy hurricanes are called cyclones. 3. Natural calamities related to water, floods, cloud burts and extreme rainfall are natural disaster. 4. The home minister serves the nodal ministry in the cener for all types of natural calamities. 5. State level committee is formed under the chairmanship of chief minister or chief secretary for natural calamites. 6. At the district level a disaster management committee is constituted under the chairmanship of the district magistrate. 7. At the block level, black development officer is the nodal officer for disaster management relates activities. 8. Hurricane is the word of a Spanish language which means high wind. 385

9. 90% of the damage is caused by flooding, leaving the drought 10. War, riots, epidemics, violence etc. are human disaster.

Answers:- 1. Natural disaster can be divided into three parts. 2. The disaster that many days, moths, years persist until. 3. The disaster that are due to natural crises. 4. Stormy hurricane are called cyclones. 5. Vibrate or shake the surface. 6. Two types of human disaster. 1. War 2. Epidemic 7. Hurricane is the word of Spanish language 8. Two steps of disaster management 1. Calamity 2. Relief 9. Nodal ministry of disaster drought- ministry of agriculture 10. B.D.O Nodal officer for disaster management at block level Question for Exercise:- Multiple choice question:- 1. How many natural disaster have been divided into? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 2. An example of wind natural disaster is an example? (a) earthquake (b) land slide (c) flood (d) cyclone 3. Nodal level nodal ministry of biological disasters is- (a) home ministry (b) finance ministry (c) ministry of defence (d) foreign ministry 4. Forest Fire is called- (a) fire in water (b) fire in the sea (c) fire in the woods (d) fire on the road Short Answer question:- 5. Which are the phase of disaster management? 6. Describe the role of government in disaster management? Essay Type Questions:- 7. Explain how disasters are managed in different levels of the country?

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Chapter -34

Road Safety

Introduction:- Human life is invaluable. Due to slight negligence, road accidents can end of life. Life can be saved by measures used to prevent road accidents. Per minute one road accident occurs in our country and one dies every fourth minute. Aims:- 1. Understand the meaning of road safety. 2. Get information about the causes and measures of road accidents. 3. Can understand the important signs and information related to road safety. Road: Way between the two places inland is called a road, which is used for traveling by foot or through the means.

(34.1) Meaning of Road Safety Traveling on the road, according to policies, rules and signs, is called road safety. That mean the Ministry of road transport and highways, Government of India, has made many policies and rule, signs and symbols to reduce the chances of accidents while walking on the road and traveling by vehicle. Traveling on the road by following these policies and rules is called road safety.

Textual Question:- 1. What is called road safety? 2. Which is the ministry of India’s government, which make policies and rules for road safety? (34.2) Reasons of road accident:- Every year thousands of people die in the country.Thus:- Could be the following reason:- 1. Driving Drunk Yard: Alcohol first affects the part of the brain that had the power of think and understand by drinking intoxicant vehicle, the carriage starts moving very fast in the wrong lane and stop signs and red lights are not even cared about the road accident happens. 2. Fast driving:- The main reason is one of accidents is the high speed. Any such speed by which the driver cannot control the car can prove to be dangerous. 3. Over taking incorrectly:- Incorrectly overtaking by the driver can be the main reason for the accident. 4. Taking on mobile/phone while driving:- While driving the drivers keep talking on mobile off phone, they are distracted and the road accident occur. 5. Uktahat and fatigue:- Due to long distance driving, there are tiredness and in the movement on term causes disruption of driving, resulting in an accident., 6. Not having information of traffic signs and symbols:- The traffic sign is the language of the road which is motionless. There is a possibility of accident due to lack of full knowledge of it. 387

7. Do not keep the right distance between vehicles:- it takes some time for any vehicle to stop at any speed/speed, if the distance from the forward vehicle is not kept in the distance, then the vehicle can collide with the brake, if it not kept. 8. Overtaking incorrectly:- Incorrect overtaking can be a major cause of the accident. 9. Proper care of vehicle:- Accident can occur due to non availability of tires, air, oil, etc, in time, proper care of vehicles. 10. Fair use of the mirror showing the rear view:- when starting the journey, the mirror showing the rear view is not correct and due to non- proper use, road accident can occur. 11. Expect safety features like seat belt and helmets:- Do not use seat belt and helmet equipment related to road safety there is possibility of accident loss.

Textual questions:- 3. Write any two reasons for the road accident? 4. Which protection measures an be used to save head? 5. What harm can us by not walking our/right lane? 6. which direction should we always walk on the road? 7. What is the seat belt? Reason of road accidents:- 1. Driver’s negligence. 2. Over speed. 3. Drive having drunk. 4. Unfair overtaking. 5. Playing with mobile during drive. 6. Strongly ignore traffic signals. 7. Playing loud music while driving. 8. Untrained driver. 9. Crossing red light/ signal 10. Ignore seat belts and helmets.

Road Safety Solution Following tips/suggestions for avoiding road accident. 1. We must follow the rule of traffic. 2. Vehicle should be drive at standard speed. 3. Don’t driving while drink. 4. We should notice of the safety instruments like:- seat belts, helmet etc. 5. We should keep notice of traffic signs and symbols. 6. Do not unfair overtake. 7. We should notice of our lane while driving on the highway. 8. We should take care of traffic signals. 9. The arrangement of cc tv cameras and police petroling on main roads. 10. Motor maintenance in time/regularly 11. The mirrors showing the rear view(Rear view mirror) should be used.

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Textual question:- 8 Write (any two) road safety solutions? 9 What should be arranged by the police in addition to police patrol on the road? 10 What can be with the wrong overtaking of the vehicles? Road safety equipment:- 1.Helmet:- This is belong to road safety which is two wheelers driver to protect his head. Driving the vehicle without and casually driving cand end life so, while driving two wheeler helmets must he worn driver essential. 2.Seat Belt:- In order to escape the road accident the four – wheeler driver and the person sitting beside must use the seat belt as it is necessary. It is also important equipment. In the absence of this, action can be taken by traffic police.

Helmet Seat Belt

Immportant Indications and information related to Safety

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Texual question:- 11. Write the two devices name to avoid from Road accidents? Important Signs and information related to road safety:- 1. While careless driving on road to happens bad incident is called road accident. 2. The main purpose of road safety is to safe journey. 3. Always walk on road left side safely. 4. Two wheel drivers should use helmet. 5. Four wheel drivers should use seat belts. 6. By following the traffic rules, road accident can be decreased. 7. License must be required when driving on the road. 8. While driving vehicle do not talk on mobile. 9. State and district can be traced through state vehicle registration and district vehicle registration code. 10. Ministry of road transport and Highway authority of India has make policies rules and symbols for road safety. Answers:- 1. Travelling on the road following the rules and signs 2. Ministry of road transport and highways, government of India. 3. Drivers negligence. Ignoring traffic rules. 4. Helmet 5. Accident 6. Left side 7. Equipment for accident prevention in four wheeler vehicle. 8. We must follow the rules of traffic. 9. Vehicles must be run at fixed speed. 10. CCTV cameras. 11. Accident Lesson question:- Multiple choice question:- 1. Where should walk on road? (a)left (b)Right side (c) Middle of (d) Along the Shore 2. The traffic light are number of colour? (a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Five 3. Meaning of red light? (a) Go away (b) Careful (c) Stop (d) No one 4. The reason for road accidents is? (a) Negligence (b) Uncontrolled motion (c) Intoxication (d) All of above Short Answer question:- 5. Write four reasons for road accident? 392

6. Write three reasons for avoid road accident? 7. Write vehicle registration cord of the following location? Ajmer, Jaipur, Nagaur, Pali. Essay Type question:- 8. Explain the causes of road accident? 9. Take measures of prevent road accident?

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Chapter-35

Cleanliness Campaign (Swachha Bharat Abhiyan)

Introduction:- The important work of human life is Indian philosophy. It is said to keep the soul, mind, intellect and environment pure. Solid waste management is important for cleanliness. Through this, sanitation campaign will be strengthened. Aims:- 1. You will be able to get information about type of hygiene. 2. Be aware of sanitation management 3. You will be able to gain knowledge about solid waste management

(35.1) Cleanliness intent They are all provisional services which play an important role in disposing of stools and garbage etc. of humans. This process is called cleanliness.

(35.2) Clean India Mission Rule cleanliness is considered a subject of state government. But the central government implemented the control rural sanitation program in 1986, with the aim of supporting the effort of the state, in april,1999 amended this program and made it into complete cleanliness. Later it was named Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan. Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan was rename as swach Bharat Mission on 2 october 2014. Its goals is to provide toilet facilities to all rural households and to promote cleanliness, all gram panchayat have to be released from open defectation free till October 2,1999.Under this program financial assistance of Rs 12000 is being provided to each rural house hold for the construction of toilets.

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(35.3) Types of cleanliness Based on cleanliness directions the main types of hygiene are considered as follows. 1. community cleanliness 2. Dry cleanliness 3. Ecological cleanliness 4. Environment cleanliness 5. Improved and improvised cleanliness 6. Lack of cleanliness 7. Confirmatory cleanliness 1.Community cleanliness:- Regarding community cleanliness, the care of the people of the village is negligent in the process of abandoning the goods completely 2.Dry cleanliness:- Dry cleanliness refers to the efforts of dry toilets, pest management etc. 3.Ecoligical cleanliness:-Ecological cleanliness is usually an important relationship with agricultural remedies and hygiene. Under this, there is a reduction in the use of non- renewable resources in the production of nutritious food and organic crops. 4. Environmental cleanliness:- Environmental factors related to these diseases come under environment cleanliness. Treatment of water and containinated water solid waste management, industrial garbage treatment and noise pollution control is its main part. 5. Improved and improvised cleanliness:- It is related to thousand of year old at home level, the human stool is in control of urine. Under this, sanitation and water supply are taken care of. 6.Lack of cleanliness:- It is normally related to lack of toilet. 7.Confirmatory cleanliness:- Its area is from the entire cleanliness price range. In which stool urine is in the manner of reuse or disposal of containinated water transport treatment. Textual question:- 1. What is the full name of O.D.F? 2. How much amount is given in the form of financial assistance for the construction of toilets? 3. Tell us two types of cleanliness? 4. What does the absence of cleanliness mean?

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(35.4) Cleanliness Management: Somitation management. 1. The administrator should arrange for good roshandan or drainage for the removal of harmful, sharp odor and steam. 2. Use of metal detector. 3. While preparing packing food items and while packing clean, germ free and non- germinated steel utensils should be used 4. Wall, roof and floor should be cleaned with water proof materials 5. To clean the dirty water and to step the mass of the system should be planted 6. Raw material processing room, production process room and packing room should be different 7.Flush toilets and dirt- resistant equipment are installed in the confort room. 8. Entrance doors should be installed on windows skylines and drains to prevent dust and harmful bacteria. Textual question;- 5. Write a name for any effort in cleanliness management? 6. Which equipment can be used for cleanliness in the confort room (any one)? ( 35.5) Solid Waste Management:- Solid waste management mean that the process of removing waste, removing recycling and changing the energy without adversely affecting the environment and public health is called solid wasted management. The garbage management program work on 3R theory which is reduce, reuse, recycle.

(35.6) Solid waste disposal measures:- 1. Garbage reduction and reuse:-Minimization and Hydroponization of products:-Experiments both the producers and consumers are asked to producer garbage work in mitigation measures. And in the reuse method, the public is encouraged to buy the same useful reusable. 2. Recycling of wastes:- Using waste as a useful raw material and reducing the amount of raw is called recycling of wastes. There are three levels of recycling process. 3. Incineration:- It is mainly thermal process, it is the means of recovery of energy, it is used to give heat to save electricity. The production of greenhouse gas methane is reduced. 4. Treatment and disposal:- The garbage treatment method discovers that the amount of waste is reduced so that waste disposal can be simplified 5. Garbage collection:- In the urban areas, cleaning workers appointed b local bodies in the arban areas should be able to collect special mess waste and recycled waste twice a week 396

6. Gaseification:- Gaseification is the thermal process, in the gaseification, waste is used in less oxygen prone areas.

(35.7) Benefits of Garbage management 1. Due to solid waste management, desease control will occur. 2. Energy resources will be retrieved 3. Water pollution will be reduced because the toxic substances will be reduced 4. and good vegetable manure 5. Agriculture production capacity will increases 6. Yield will be more 7. Power generation will get affordable energy 8. The recovery of energy resources as a result of garbage management will be recovered 9. Income of people will increase 10. Due to excessive work, employment opportunities will increase Textual questions:- 7. What do you think of solid waste management? 8. Explain two ways to salvage solid waste management? 9. Explain the benefits of solid waste management? 10. Waste management works on which principle? What have you learned:-  Name of swachh Bharat Mission on October 2,2014 relates to rural cleanliness  The clean India Mission program was amended on 1 april1999  A general intention of cleanliness is to provide those services that safe waste of human waste from the urine  Solid waste management refers to treating, disposing, reuse, re- circulating the management of solid waste.  Cleanliness of sanitation, dry cleanliness into parts  Solid waste management will reduce water pollution, get affordable and good botanical compost  Solid waste management increase the income of the people. Vegetables and fruits peels are egg shells, leftover food, papers, etc are called Household garbage. Answesr:- 1. Free from open defecation 2. 12000/- 3. Seven types 4. Lack of toilets in general 5. Use of metal detector 6. Flush toilets and dirt- resistant equipment are installed in the comfort room. 7. Solid waste management means that the treatment of solid wasted without removing the adverse effects of the environment and public, health, reuse of salvag. 8.(1) Cheap and good vegetable manure (2) Agricultural production capacity will increase 9.(1) Garbage reduction and reuse (2) Incineration 10. Works on 3R theory which is to reduce, reuse and recycle. 397

Reader question:- Multiple choice question:- 1. how many types of cleanliness are? (a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 9 2. Dirt- spreading insects? (a) Mosquito (b) Ant (c) Fly (d) Grasshopper 3. Exposure to open causes adverse effects? (a) On clothes (b) On health (c) At home (d) On insects 4. Producers of gasbage have been considered among the following: (a) Only animal (b) Only humans (c) Only industry and factory (d) All of the above. Short Answer question;- 1. Give definition of cleanliness? 2. What is solid waste management? 3. Write any three types of cleanliness? Essay Type question:- 1. What does cleanliness mean? 2. Describe the different types of cleanliness? 3. Explain the benefits of solid waste management?

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