The Emergence of the Mahajanapadas Sanjay Sharma Introduction In the post-Vedic period, the centre of activity shifted from the upper Ganga valley or madhyadesha to middle and lower Ganga valleys known in the contemporary Buddhist texts as majjhimadesha. Painted grey ware pottery gave way to a richer and shinier northern black polished ware which signified new trends in commercial activities and rising levels of prosperity. Imprtant features of the period between c. 600 and 321 BC include, inter-alia, rise of ‘heterodox belief systems’ resulting in an intellectual revolution, expansion of trade and commerce leading to the emergence of urban life mainly in the region of Ganga valley and evolution of vast territorial states called the mahajanapadas from the smaller ones of the later Vedic period which, as we have seen, were known as the janapadas. Increased surplus production resulted in the expansion of trading activities on one hand and an increase in the amount of taxes for the ruler on the other. The latter helped in the evolution of large territorial states and increased commercial activity facilitated the growth of cities and towns along with the evolution of money economy. The ruling and the priestly elites cornered most of the agricultural surplus produced by the vaishyas and the shudras (as labourers). The varna system became more consolidated and perpetual. It was in this background that the two great belief systems, Jainism and Buddhism, emerged. They posed serious challenge to the Brahmanical socio-religious philosophy. These belief systems had a primary aim to liberate the lower classes from the fetters of orthodox Brahmanism. By the middle of the sixth century BC, Magadha seems to have emerged as the most powerful state by liquidating all the other mahajanapadas. In due course of time it reached the status of an Empire under the Nandas, who prepared a suitable ground before the coming of the mighty Mauryas. The Mahajanapadas Buddhist work Anguttara Nikaya and Jaina Bhagwati Sutra give lists of sixteen mahajanapadas which came into being after the fall of the Videhan monarchy under Janaka. The two lists differ on a few names. A brief survey of the mahajanapadas is as follows: Kasi: Kasi was, at least initially, the most powerful of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It seems it had an instrumental role in the fall of the Videhan monarchy. The capital of Kasi was Benaras. According to Jaina texts, Ashvasena, father of the 22nd tirthankara, Parsva was a king of Benaras (Kasi). The Assaka Jataka tells us that prince of Assaka (capital Potali) was a vassal of the king of Kasi. The Shatapatha Brahmana says that Dhritrashtra, a king of Benaras, had subdued the kings of Kosala, Anga and Magadha. Kosala: Kosala was geographically surrounded by the hills of Nepal in the north, by river Gomati in the west, by the river Sarpika or Syandika in the south and by the river Sadanira (Gandak or Rapti), which separated it from Videha in the east. Both the Sutta-Nipata and the Majjhima Nikaya quote the Buddha confirming his nativity to Kosala. Shakya was subjugated by Kosala in the first half of 6th century BC. The state of Kosala is said to have been adorned by three great cities—Ayodhya, Saketa and Savathi (Sravasti). The first two were adjoining cities. Sravasti, situated on the south bank of the Rapti (Achiravati), has been identified with the twin villages of Saheth and Maheth. The royal family of Kosala is said to have descended from a king named Ikshavaku. Prasenjit, the famous king of Kosala, and the Buddha were contemporaries and represented different lines of Ikshavaku. Anga: Anga was located to the east of Magadha and the river Champa (modern Chandana) formed the dividing line between the two. Capital of Anga was Champa, situated on the confluence of the Ganga and the Champa. This city was also known as Mohini and Kalachampa. The earliest reference of Anga is found in the Atharvaveda. While the Ramayana tells us the story of the creation of Anga by Madana, the god of love, the Mahabharata and the Puranas attribute its foundation to a prince named Anga. Danavarshabah, a hero of Anga, is mentioned in the Matsya Purana. A princess from Anga named Chandana or Chandrabala, is said to be the first female to embrace Jainism shortly after Mahavira attained the Kevalaship. The last known prince of Anga, Brahmadatta is said to have been defeated by Bimbisara, the king of Magadha. Magadha: Geographically Magadha was situated between modern Patna and Gaya in South Bihar. Its earliest known capital was Girivraja or old Rajgriha. Another city by the name of Girivraja was in Kekaya. According to the Mahabharata, it was protected by five hills. Magadha has been mentioned in the Atharvaveda though with a lot of contempt. The only king of Magadha who finds mention in the Vedic literature was Pramaganda. According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha, father of Jarasandha. His dynasty seems to have ruled in the sixth century BC. The Puranas say that next to the line of Brihadratha was a dynasty called Saisunaga founded by Sisunaga and Bimbisara belonged to this dynasty. But Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita refers to Bimbisara as belonging to the Haryanka-kula. The Mahavamsha says that Saisunaga dynasty, founded by Sisunaga, succeeded the Haryanka-kula. Under Bimbisara and Ajatashatru the capital was Girivraja but under Udayin, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra and Sisunaga further changed it to Vaishali, which remained the capital till the end of the Nandas. Ashvaghosha says that Bimbisara was not the founder of the Haryanka-kula and the Mahavamsha adds that he was put on the throne while in his fifteenth year. Vajji (Vrijji): Geographically Vajji was surrounded by Nepal hills in the north, Ganga in south, river Gandak in the west and forest in the east. It was a confederacy of eight clans (atthakula): Lichchhavis; Videhas; Jnyatrikas; Vajjis; Ugras; Bhogas; Kauravas; and Aikshavakus. Videha was same as the Videha of Janaka with Mithila as the capital. Capital of the Lichchhavis was Vaishali (modern Basarh near the river Gandak in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar). Jnyatrika was the clan of Siddhartha and his jina son Mahavira. Their seats of power were Kundgrama and Kollaga in the suburbs of Vaishali. Vajjis were also associated with Vaishali, the capital of the whole confederacy. Vajjian confederacy emerged after the fall of the dynasty of Janaka. A number of views have been given regarding the origins of the Lichchhavis, some of which are as follows: 1. Smith explains their Tibbetian links based on their judicial system and method of disposal of dead. 2. According to Pandit S.C. Vidyabhushana, Lichchhavis were from Persia as the name Lichchhavi was derived from Persian name Nisibis. The Indian tradition assigns them the position of kshatriyas. 3. Another view holds that Lichchhavis were foreigners but were taken in the fold of Brahmanism as kshatriyas like the Gurjara-Pratiharas. 4. Manu refers to their foreign origin and calls them vratya rajanyas primarily because they were against Brahmanism and promoted Buddhism and Jainism. 5. A more accepted view is that they were indigenous kshatriyas but were relegated to the status of the vratyas because of their patronage to Buddhism and Jainism. Lichchhavis rose to power in late sixth century BC. The real power vested with the nine ganarajas and the elders in the clan who were called mahallakas. The Jaina Kalpasutra refers to an alliance between the nine Lichchhavis, the nine Mallakais and the eighteen clan lords of Kasi-Kosala. According to the Niryavali Sutra, the leader of this confederacy was Chetaka, the brother of Trishala (Mahavira’s mother) and father of Chellana (also known as Vaidehi), who was Ajatashatru’s mother. This alliance was aimed against Magadha under Ajatashatru, but was badly destroyed by the latter. Malla: The territory of the Mallas was divided into two parts, Malla Proper (capital – Kushinara) and Southern Malla (capital – Pawa), the river Kakutya (Modern kuku) forming the dividing line. Kushinara has been identified with Kushinagar near Kesia in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, while Pawa has been identified with Padarauna village, 12 miles north-east of Kesia. The Mallas were champions of Buddhism like the Lichchhavis and so, were classified by Manu as vratyas. Like in Videha (under Janaka), they also had a monarchical constitution to begin with. In the Mahaparinibbana Sutantra, the Mallas have been addressed as vassettha i.e. belonging to vashishtha gotra. Later, they seem to have accepted a republican form of polity. Chedi: Chedi corresponds roughly to the eastern part of the Bundelkhand. Its capital was called Suktimati which was situated near the river of the same name (now identified as the Ken). Chedis have been mentioned as early as in the Rig-Veda. Their king Vasu Chaidya has been praised in a danastuti. Vatsa (Vamsa): Vatsa was situated to the south of Ganga near Allahabad. Its capital was Kaushambi (Kosam). The Puranas mention that when Ganga washed away the city of Hastinapura, the Puru king Nichakshu, a descendent of Janmejaya shifted his capital to Kaushambi. In Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadatta, Udayana, the ruler of Vatsa, has been mentioned as a scion of Bharata-kula. Satanika Parantapa-II, father of Udayana, is said to have attacked Champa, the capital of Anga, and defeated Dadhivahana. Kuru: The Kuru kingdom was situated around modern Delhi. Its capital was called Indraprastha or Indapatta. Another important city was Hastinapura of the Epic Mahabharata. It seems probable that after the removal of the elder branch of the royal family to Kaushambi and following the decline of Abhipratarinas, the Kuru regime parcelled into small states which, it seems, formed a confederacy.