Indian HISTORY

AncientIndia THEEARLYMAN The Palaeolithic Age

G The fossils of the early human being have (500000 BC-9000 BC) been found in Africa about 2.6 million G The palaeolithic culture of India years back, but there are no such developed in the pleistocene period evidence in India. So, it appears that India or the Ice Age. was inhabited later than Africa. G It seems that Palaeolithic men G The recent reported artefacts from Bori belonged to the Negrito race. Homo in Maharashtra suggest that the Sapiens first appeared towards the appearance of human beings in India was end of this phase. around 1.4 million years ago. G Palaeolithic men were hunters and G The evolution of the Earth’s crust shows food gatherers. They had no four stages. The fourth stage is divided knowledge of agriculture, fire or into Pleistocene (most recent) and pottery, they used tools of Holocene (present). unpolished, rough stones and lived G Man is said to have appeared on the Earth in cave rock shelters. They are also in the early Pleistocene. called Quartzite men. G The early man in India used tools of stone G This age is divided into three phases roughly dressed by crude clipping. This according to the nature of the stone period is therefore, known as the Stone tools used by the people and change Age, which has been divided into in the climate. ¡ The Palaeolithic orOldStoneAge ¡ EarlyorLower Palaeolithic ¡ TheMesolithicorMiddleStone Age ¡ Middle Palaeolithic ¡ TheNeolithicorNewStoneAge ¡ Upper Palaoelithic

Age Tools Climate Sites Early Handaxes,cleavers Humidity decreased Soan Valley (Punjab) and choppers Middle Flakes-blades,points, Further decrease in Valleys of Soan, Narmada and borers and scrapers humidity Tungabhadra rivers Upper Scrapersandburin Warmclimate Cavesandrockshelters of this age have been discovered at Bhimbetka near Bhopal 2 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

The Mesolithic Age G Neolithic men lived in caves and decorated their walls with hunting and (9000BC- 4000BC) dancing scenes. They knew the art of G It intervened as a transitional phase making boats. In the later phase, between the Palaeolithic Age and the people lived a more settled life and Neolithic Age. lived in circular and rectangular G In this age, climate became warm and houses made of mud and reed. dry, which brought about changes in G Koldihwa in UP revealed a three fauna and flora and made it possible for fold cultural sequence: Neolithic, human beings to move to new areas. Chalcolithic and Iron Age. Mehargarh G The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, in Baluchistan is the oldest Neolithic fishing and food- gathering. At a later site in India (7000 BC). stage, they also domesticated animals. G Important sites include Chhotanagpur G The characteristic tools of the region, Central India and South of the Mesolithic Age are microliths, pointed Krishna river. Belan valley of Vindhays cresconic blades, scrapers, etc, made and middle part of the Narmada valley up of stones. shows all the three phases of Stone Age. G Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan provide the earliest evidence for the domestication Chalcolithic Culture of animals. (2800BC-700BC) G The people of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic ages practiced painting. G The end of the Neolithic period saw the Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a use of metals. Copper was the first striking site of Pre-historic painting. metal to be used. G Chalcolithic culture refers to the The Neolithic Age stone-copper phase. People also used (4000 BC-1000 BC) hand-axes and other objects made up of copper ware. G The people of this age used tools and G Chalcolithic people were primarily implements of polished stone. They rural communities. They domesticated particularly used stone axes. animals and practised agriculture. G It is interesting that in Burzahom dogs They were not acquainted with burnt were buried with their masters in their bricks and lived in thatched houses. graves. They venerated the mother Goddess G The neolithic settlers were the earliest and worshipped the bull. farming communities. They produced G The people of Chalcolithic culture were ragi and horse-gram (kulathi). the first to use painted pottery. Black Neolithic sites in Allahabad district are and red pottery painted with white line noted for the cultivation of rice in the design was most popular. sixth millenium BC. They domesticated G The Malwa ware is considered the cattle, sheeps and goats. They wove richest among the Chalcolithic cotton and wool to make clothes. ceramics. G Hand made pottery and use of potter G Important sites of this phase are spread wheel first appeared during the in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Neolithic age. Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh etc. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 3 IndusValleyCivilisation

G Indus Civilisation is one of the four Geographical Spread earliest civilisations of the world along G The civilisation covered parts of Sind, with the civilisations of Mesopotamia Baluchistan, Afghanistan, West Punjab, (Tigris and Euphrates), Egypt (Nile) Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and China (Hwang Ho). Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab G The civilisation forms part of the and Maharashtra. proto-history of India and belongs to G Mundigak and Shortughai are the the Bronze age. two sites located in Afghanistan. G The most accepted period is 2500- G West-Sutkagendor on Makran coast 1700 BC (by Carbon-14 dating). (Pak-Iran Border) East-Alamgirpur in It can be divided into following sub-parts Uttar Pradesh (River Hindon). G EarlyPhase 2900-2500BC G North-Manda in Jammu (River Chenab). G Middle (mature) Phase 2500-2000 BC South-Daimabad in Maharashtra (River Pravara) are major sites. G LaterPhase 2000-1750BC G Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa in 1921. Some New Discoveries ■ G RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro Ganverivala in Pakistan by Rafeeq Mugal. or Mound of the Dead in 1922. ■ Rakhigarhi in Sind (Haryana) by Rafeeq Mugal. Nomenclature of Indus ■ Dholavira on bank of river Luni in Gujarat Valley Civilisation excavated by RS Bist and JP Joshi is largest and latest excavated site in India. G Indus Valley Civilisation as it flourished along the Indus river. Town Planning G Harappan Civilisation named by John Marshall after the first discovered site, G Town planning was not uniform. A Harappa. unique feature was the grid system i.e. G Saraswati-Sindhu Civilisation as streets cutting across one another at most of the sites have been found at the right angles, dividing the town into Hakra-Ghaggar river. large rectangular blocks.

City Province RiverBank Yearof Archaeologist(s) Discovery Harappa PakistaniPunjab Ravi 1921 DayaRamSahni Mohenjodaro Sind Indus 1922 RDBanerjee Sutkagendor Baluchistan Dasht 1931 AurelStein Rangpur Gujarat Bhadur 1931 MSVats Chanhudaro Sind Indus 1931 MGMajumdar Ropar IndianPunjab Sutlej 1953 YDSharma Lothal Gujarat Bhogava 1957 SRRao Kalibangan Rajasthan Ghaggar 1959 BBLal Alamgirpur UttarPradesh Hindon 1974 YDSharma Banawali Haryana Ghaggar 1974 RSBisht 4 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

G The towns were divided into two parts: G Crops produced wheat, barley, dates, upper part or citadel and lower part. peas, sesamum, mustard, millet, ragi, G The fortified citadel on the Western bajra and jowar. At Lothal and Rangpur, side housed public buildings and rice husks were found. members of ruling class. G They were first to produce cotton in G Below the citadel on the Eastern side, the world, which Greek called as Sindon lay the lower town inhabited by the derived from Sind. A fragment of woven common people. cotton cloth was found at Mohenjodaro.

G G Underground Drainage System Well irrigation is evident from connected all houses to the street Alladinho, dams and irrigation canals drains made of mortar, lime and from Dholavira. Sugarcane was not gypsum. They were covered with known to Indus people. either brick or stone slabs and equipped with its ‘Manhole’. This Domestication of Animals shows developed sense of health and G Animal rearing was practiced , evident sanitation. from the discovery of the Humped Bull.

G The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) It was G They domesticated buffaloes, oxens, used for religious bathing. Steps at sheep, asses, goats, pigs, elephants, either end leads to the surface. There dogs, cats etc. were changing rooms alongside. G Camel bones are reported at Kalibangan G The Granaries (Harappa) 6 granaries and remains of horse from Surkotada. in a row were found in the Citadel at Harappa. Trade G Houses were made up of burnt bricks. G Agriculture, industry and forest They were often two or more storeyed, produce provided the basis for internal varied in size, with a square courtyard and external trade. around, which had a number of rooms. G Trade was based on barter system. Windows did not face the main streets. Coins were not evident, bullock carts, They had tiled bathrooms. pack animals and boats were used for G Lamp-posts were erected at regular transportation. intervals. It indicates the existence of G Weights and measures were made of street lighting. limestone, steatite etc. Generally in Agriculture cubical shape. They were in multiple of 16. G Agriculture was the backbone of the G Several sticks inscribed with measure civilisation. The soil was fertile due to marks have been discovered. It points inundation in the river Indus and that linear system of measurement was flooding. in use. G The Indus people sowed seeds in the G Foreign trade flourished with flood plains in November, when the Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Iraq), flood water receded and reaped their Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan and harvests of wheat and barley in April, Bahrain. before the advent of next flood. G Sumerian text refers to trade with G They used wooden plough share Meluha (Indus). Dilmun (Bahrain) and (ploughed field from Kalibangan) and Makan (Makrancoast) were two stone sickles for harvesting. intermediate stations. G Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dam G Lothal (artificial dockyard), Surkotada, for storing water were a feature in Sutkagendor, Prabspattan, Bhatrao, parts of Baluchistan. Grains were Kalibangan, Dholavira, Daimabad were stored in granaries. coastal towns of the civilisation. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 5

G Seals were made of steatite Pictures of one horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinocerous, goat and elephant are ■ Daimabad Bronze industry. found on the seals. They marked ■ Lothal Factory for stone tools and metallic ownership of property. finished goods. G Mesopotamian seals were found from ■ Balakot Pearl finished goods, bangle and Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan; Persian shell industry. seal was obtained from Lothal. Most important one is the Pashupati seal. ■ Chanhudaro Beads and bangles factory. G Metal images Bronze image of a G Major Exports Agricultural products, nude woman dancer (identified as cotton goods, terracotta figurines, devadasi) and stone steatite image of a pottery, steatite beads (from bearded man (both are obtained from Chanhudaro), Conch-shell (from Mohenjodaro). Lothal), ivory products, copper etc. G Terracotta figurines Fire baked clay was used to make toys, objects of worship, animals (monkey, dogs, sheep, Imports From cattle, humped and humpless bulls), cattle toys with movable head, Gold Kolar(Karnataka), toy-carts, whistle shaped like birds and Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) both male and female figurines. Silver Afghanistan,Persia(Iran), G They played dice games. Gambling was South India their favourite time pass. No clear Copper Khetri(Rajasthan), evidence of music. Baluchistan, Arabia Tin Afghanistan,Bihar Religious Practices Lapis Lazuli Badakhshan (Afghanistan) G Chief Female Diety A terracotta and Sapphire figure where a plant is shown growing Jade CentralAsia out of the embryo of a woman, Steatite Shaher-i-Sokhta,KirtharHills represents Mother Goddess (Goddess Turquoise Iran of Earth). Amethyst Maharashtra G Chief Male Diety Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low Art and Craft throne and having three faces and two G Harappans used stone tools and horns. He is surrounded by an implements and were well acquainted elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo with bronze. Bronze was made by and two deers appear at his feet. mixing copper (from Khetri) with tin. G Lingam and yoni worship was G Bead making and jewellery of gold, prevalent. Trees (pipal), animals (bull, silver precious stone were made. birds, dove, pigeon) unicorn, and Cotton fabrics were used in summers stones were worshipped. No temples and Woollen in winters. have been found, though idoltary was G Both men and women were very fond of practised. ornaments and dressing up. G Indus people believed in ghosts and G Pottery, both plain (red) or painted evil forces and used amulets for (red and black) pottery was made. Pots protection against them. Fire altars were decorated with human figures, are found at Lothal and Kalibangan. plants, animals and geometrical G Evidence of snake worship is also patterns and ochre was painted over it. found. 6 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Burial Practices G Harappa East-West axis; R-37 and H cemetery. G General practice was placing the dead body in the in North-South direction. Script

G Mohenjodaro Three forms of burial G It was pictographic in nature. Fish Complete, Fractional and Post Cremation. symbol is most represented.

G Kalibangan Two forms of burial- Circular G Overlapping of the letters show that and Rectangular Grave. it was written from right to left in G Surkotada Pot-burial, the first line and then left to right in Dholavira Megalithic burial. the second line. This style is called G Lothal Double burial. Boustrophedon.

DECLINEOFTHE CIVILISATION The Harappan culture flourished about till 1800 BC, then it began to decline. There is no unanimity among historians, regarding the exact reason for the decline of this urban civilisation. There are many different theories that show the decline of the Indus culture. (Different Views) Views Thinkers External Aggression Wheeler, Piggot and Gordon-Childe Inundation MR Sahani Epidemic KVR Kennedy Tectonic Disturbances (e.g., Dholavira) MarshallandRaikes Sudden Decline Wheeler Climatic Change RL Stein and AN Ghosh Deforestation, Scarcity of Resources, Ecological Fairservis Imbalances Flood (e.g., Mohenjodaro) Marshal,SRRao,Maickey The Destruction due to Change in Course of GF Holes River Ghaggar

City ArchaeologicalFinds Harappa 2 row of six granaries with brick platform, work men’s quarter, stone symbol of (Gateway city) lingam and yoni, virgin-Goddess, clay figures of mother Goddess, wheat and barley in wooden mortar, copper scale and mirror, vanity box, dice. Sculpture Dog chasing a deer (bronze), nude male and nude dancing female (stone), red sand stone male torso. Mohenjodaro The great bath, The great granary (largest building), multi-pillared assembly (Mound of the hall, college, proto-Shiva seal, clay figures of Mother Goddess, Dice. Dead) Sculpture Bronze dancing girl, steatite image of bearded man. Kalibangan Decorated bricks, bangle factory, wheels of a toy cart, wells in every (Black Bangle) house.Remains of a massive brick wall around both the citadel and lower town (lower town of Lothal is also fortified), bones of camel, tiled floor. Mother Goddess figurines are absent here. Chanhudaro Inkpot, lipstick, carts with seated driver, ikkas of bronze, imprint of dog’s paw (Lancashire of on a brick. Only city without citadel. India) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 7

City ArchaeologicalFinds Daimabad Bronze images of Charioteer with chariot, ox, elephants and rhinoceros. Amri Actual remains of Rhinoceros. Alamgirpur Impression of cloth on a trough. Lothal Rice husk, fire altars, grinding machine, tusks of elephant, granomy, (Manchester of terracotta figure of horse and seal, dying vat, painted jar (bird and fox), Indus Valley teracotta ship, houses with entrance on main streets, impressions of cloth on Civilisation) some seals, modern day chess, instrument for measuring 180, 90 and 45 degree angles. Ropar Buildings made of stone and soil. Dog buried with humans. One inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs; oval pit burials. Banawali Oval shaped settlement, only city with radial streets, lack of systematic drainage pattern. Toy plough, largest number of barley grains. Surkotada Both Citadel and lower town fortified with stone wall. First actual remains of horse bones. Cemetry with four pot burials. Dholavira Only site to be divided into 3 parts. Giant water reservoir, unique water harnessing system, dams and embankments, a stadium, rock-cut architecture. Sutkagendor Two fold division of township Citadel and Lower Town. TheAryansandtheVedicAge Original Home and Rigvedic or Early Vedic Period Identity (1500-1000 BC)

G The word Aryan literally means G Early Vedic people had knowledge of rivers of high birth. Veda means mantra Yamuna, Saraswati, (Nanditara) and Ganga. and slokas and also knowledge Ocean was mentioned as Samudra (referred and conscience. to collection of water and not sea) snow mountains (Himvat) and desert land (Dhawa). G The location of the original So, they lived in Sapta Sindva region. homeland of the Aryans is still controversial, but the most accepted theory is that they migrated from Central Asia in RigvedicNames ModernNames several groups between Sindhu Indus 2000-1500 BC and settled in Vitasta Jhelum Eastern Afghanistan, modern Askini Chenab Pakistan, Punjab and Western UP. Parushni Ravi G This region is popularly known as Vipas Beas the land of seven rivers or ‘Sapta Sutudri Sutlej Sindva’ (the Indus, its five Gomati Gumal tributaries Vitasta, Askini, Vipas, Krumu Kurram Parushni, Sutudri and the GhaggarDrishadvati Ghaggar Saraswati). Suvasthu Swat Note The Central Asian theory is also Kubha Kabul proved by the Boghazkai Inscription Nanditara Saraswati (Turkey), which mentions 4 Vedic Gods : Sadanira Gandak Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya. Gumal Gomati 8 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

G Aryans came into conflict with the G King was assisted by many indigenous inhabitants called Dasas functionaries. Most important (early branch of Aryans) and Dasyus functionary was the Purohita, the (Original inhabitants). Dasyuhatya or religious advisor of the king, followed slaughter of Dasyus is repeatedly by the Senani, the head of the army. mentioned in the Rig Veda. G The voluntary offerings to the chief by the people was called Bali. The Dasarajna War G Army There was no regular or ■ In this battle fought on the banks of the standing army. However, there were Parushni River (Ravi), Sudas, the son of groups of infantry and charioteers. Divodas and the Bharata king of Tritsu family G Weapons made of stone, wood, bone wonoveranallianceoftentribes(5 Aryansand and metal were used. 5 non-Aryans) and killed their leader Purusukta. Society

■ The battle broke out due to a dispute between G Kinship was the basis of society’s Vasistha (priest of Bharatas) and Visvamitra structure. People gave their primary (priest of alliance). loyalty to the tribe, which was called Jana. Economy G An other term that stands for tribe in the Rig Veda is Vis. G Aryans followed a mixed economy consisting of both agriculture and G Vis was divided into grama. When pastoralism. grama clashed with one another, it caused the Sangrama or war. G They possessed better knowledge in G agriculture Ploughshare is mentioned The term family (Kula) is rarely in Rig Veda. It was made up of wood and mentioned in the Rig Veda. was drawn by the ox. They were Patriarchial family structure was acquainted with sowing, harvesting, prevalent. threshing and knew about different G Varna was the term used for colour seasons. of people, which were classified into four Varnas. G The reference of cow in the Rig Veda shows that Rigvedic Aryans were G Brahmins (teachers and priests), predominantly pastoral people. The term Kshatriyas (rulers and administr- for war in the Rig Veda is Gavishthi or ators), Vaishyas (merchants and search for cows. The horse was almost as bankers), Sudras (artisans and important as cow. labourers). G Cow was the standard unit of exchange. Gold coins like Nishka, Krishna and Rigvedic Gods Satmana were also in use. Godhuli was G Rigvedic people believed in nature used as a measure of time and Gavyuti as worship and not in erecting temples measure of distance. or idol worship. They performed Yajnas in open areas. Polity G Soma was considered to be the God

G The election of the king was by the tribal of plants and an intoxicating drink is assembly called Samiti. named after him.

G G Several tribal or clan based assemblies The 9th mandala of the Rig Veda i.e. existed such as the Sabha, Samiti, ‘Soma Mandala’ is attributed to Vidatha and Gana. Soma.

G G The Samiti was the National Assembly of Some female divinities such as the people, while the Sabha was Council Aditi and Usha, represented the of Elders. appearance of the dawn. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 9

Important Rituals

God AssociatedField G Rajasuya—The king’s influence was Indra/Purandar Breaker of Forts strengthened by rituals. The king (Most performed this sacrifice, which was Important) supposed to confer supreme power on Agni Fire God him.

Varuna Water God and upholder G Asvamedha—A king performed the of natural order Asvamedha, which meant unquesti- oned Surya God with 7 horse driven control over the area, in which the royal chariot horse ran uninterrupted. Savitri God of light to whom Gayatri Mantra is G Vajapeya—A king performed the Vajapeya addressed or the chariot race, in which the royal Mitra Solar God chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. Pushan God of marriage, also guarded roads Vishnu One, who covered Earth LATERVEDICAGE in 3 steps-Upakrama (1000-600BC) Rudra God of Animals Dyaus Eldest God and Father (PAINTED GREYWARE PHASE) of the World G Later Vedic texts refer to rivers Narmada, Ashwin/Nastya God of Health, youth Sadanira etc. Vindhya mountain and and immortality territorial division of India into Aryavarta Sindhu River Goddess (Nothern India), Madhyadesa (Central Yama God of Death India) and Dakshinapatha (Southern Marut Personified Storm India). Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole Western UP covered by Types of Marriages Ganga-Yamuna Doab (Aryavarta). G The expansion towards East is indicated in Eight types of marriages were in a legend of Satapatha Brahmana i.e. how practice during the Vedic period : Videha Madhava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and Brahma Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same came to the land of Videha (modern class. Tirhut). Daiva A daughter is given to a sacrificial priest, as a part of Polity his fee. G Formation of large kingdoms; for all Arsa A token bride-price of a cow practical purposes, Kingship became is given in place of the hereditary. Assembly lost its importance dowry. and royal power increased at their cost. Prajapatya The father gives the girl Vidhata totally disappeared. Women were without dowry and without demanding the bride-price. no longer permitted to attend assemblies. Gandharva Love marriage. G The term Rashtra indicating territory, Asura Bride was bought from her first appeared in this period. father. G Taittariya Brahmana refers to the theory Rakshasa Marriage by capture . of divine origin of kingship. Paishacha Marriage by seduction. G Satapatha Brahmana refers to 12 Ratninas or Civil Functionaries of the time. 10 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

() G Position of women declined. Aitareya Brahmana states that daughter is the Purohita ThePriest source of misery while a son is the Mahishi TheQueen protector of family. Maitrayani Samhita Yuvaraja CrownPrince mentions three evils—liquor, woman and Suta/Sarathi The Royal herald/the dice. Polygamy became frequent. Charioteer G However, some of the women had Bhagadugha Collector of taxes got higher education as indicated by the Akshavapa Courier Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue in Palagala FriendofKing Vrihadarnyaka Upanishada. Govikarta Headofforest G In this period, pratiloma vivah was not department permitted. Senani TheGeneral Economy Gramani Headofthevillage Kshata Gateman/Chamberlain G Agriculture became the chief economic activity. Manure was wheat, rice, barley, Sangrahitri Treasurer beans and seasum.

G G There was development of judiciary. New occupational group emerged, such Kings administered the Criminal as fisherman, washerman, dyers, door- Court. Serious crimes were the keepers and footmen. killing of an embryo, homicide, the G Tin, silver and iron was now known to the murder of a Brahmin, stealing of people. gold and drinking sura. Treason was G Merchants were organised into Guilds, as a capital offence. indicated by the terms-Ganas (corporations) and Sresthins (eldermen). Society

G The fourfold division of society Religion became more clear. Intially based on G Rituals became important in the cult of occupation, it later became sacrifice. hereditary. G Prajapati became the supreme God. G Brahmin—The growing cult of Vishnu was conceived as the preserver sacrifice enormously added to the and protector of people. power of Brahmins. G Pushan, responsible for well being of G Kshatriyas They constituted the cattle, became the God of Shudras. warrior class. G Towards the end of the Vedic Age, a G Vaisyas—They were the section of society began to resent the agriculturalists, cattle rearers, priestly domination. traders, artisans and metal workers. G Shudras—Lowest in the social 16 Samskaras hierarchy and born to serve the upper three varna. 1.Garbhadhana 9.Karnachhedana G The Ashram system was formed to 2.Pumsavana 10.Vidyarmbha attain four purusharthas (Dharma, 3.Simantonnayan 11.Upanayana Artha, Kama and Moksha). Jabala 4.Jatakarma 12.Vedarambha Upanishada gives the earliest 5.Namakaran 13.Samavaratana reference to four ashramas i.e. the 6.Nishkramana 14.Vivaha stages of life—Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Varaprastha and 7.Annaprashana 15.Vanprastha Sanyasa. 8.Chudakarma 16.Antyesti GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 11

The Vedic Literature The Upanishadas

G The word Veda comes from the word Vid, G The term Upanishadas is the means to know or knowledge. knowledge acquired by sitting close G Vedic texts are divided between sruti to the teacher (Guru). (based on hearing) and smriti (based on G Also called Vedarita, because they memory). denote the last phase of Vedic period. G Veda are divided into Samhitas. G They are spiritual and philosophical in nature and they reveal the aim of Rig Veda Vedas. They define the doctrine of Karma, Atman (soul), Brahma (God), G Oldest religious text in the World. origin of Universe. G Collection of hymns, composed around 1700 BC, contains 1028 hymns and is G There are 108 Upanishadas and the divided into 10 mandalas. period of 800 BC to 500 BC is known as period of Upanishadas. 11 are G 2nd to 7th (II to VII) are the earliest predominant and they are called mandalas, each of which is ascribed at a mokhya Upanishadas. particular family of Rishi Gritsamad, Visvamitra Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaja, Brahmanas Vashistha. VIII mandala is ascribed to Kanvas and Angiras. IX mandala is the G These are the prose commentaries on compilation of Soma hymns. various vedic hymns. They explain the vedas in an orthodox way. They G The Xth mandala contains the famous Purushasuktab hymn which explains that explain the hidden meaning behind the four varnas (B, K, V, S) were born the hymns. They are ritualistic by from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of nature. the creator Brahma. G The most important is the ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ attached to the Yajur Veda. G The III mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra. It recommends one hundred sacred paths. G Saraswati is the deity river in the Rigveda. The Aranyakas Sama Veda G The sages dwelling in the forests explained the vedic scriptures to G Sama Veda derives its roots from ‘saman’, their pupils in the form of Aranyakas. which means melodies. It is a collection These have magical power and they of melodies. The hyms of the Sama Veda form the concluding part of were recited by Udgatri at the Soma Brahmanas. It provides details of the sacrifice. rishis, living in jungle. G It contains Dhrupad Raga. Vedangas Yajur Veda G They are the limbs of the Vedas. G Deals with the procedures for the These are treaties of Science and performance of sacrifices. The beliefs Arts. and rituals of non-Aryans are written ¡ Shiksha (deals with pronounciation) in it. (phonetics). G Two text of Yajur Veda ¡ Kalpa (dealswithrituals) ¡ Shukla (White) Yajur Veda ¡ Vyakarana (Grammar) ¡ Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda ¡ Nirukta (Etymology) Atharva Veda ¡ Chhanda (Metrics) ¡ Jyotisha (Astronomy) G It is a book of magical formulae. It contains charms and spells toward off G Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi evil and disease. (4th century BC) on Vyakarana. 12 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Upavedas Sutras There are four Upavedas— Sutra literature is divided into three classes ¡ G Dhanurveda (upaveda of Yajur Veda) Srauta Sutra (dealing with large public : Deals with art of warfare. sacrifices). ¡ Griha Sutra (dealing with rituals G Gandharvaveda (upaveda of Sama connected with birth, naming, marriage). Veda) : Deals with art and music. ¡ Dharma Sutra (explain social and local G Shastrashastra : Deals with customs). military technology (associated with Atharva Veda) Epic G Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas, is G Ayurveda (upaveda of Rig Veda): older than the ‘Ramayana’. Originally, the Deals with medicine. Mahabharata consisted of 880 verses then it was raised to 24000 verses. The Philosophy final compilation brought the number of Six systems of Hindu philosophies, verses to 100000. given by six philosophers of ancient G Ramayana written by Valmiki originally India. consisted of 6000 verses, which was ¡ Nyaya (analysis) — Gautama raised to 12000, and finally 24000 verses. ¡ Vaisesika — Kannada Smritis ¡ Sankhya — Kapila G ¡ Yoga (application) — Patanjali Dharma Shastra is the other name for the Smritis, which are the law books ¡ Purva Mimansa — Jaimini written in sloka form. ¡ Uttar Mimansa — Vyasa G The important smritis are Manav Dharma Shastra, Vishnu Dharma Shastra, Puranas Yajnavalkya Smriti and Narada Smriti.

G These include mythology, cosmogeny, G Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti various legends, folk beliefs, law is the oldest and most famous. Manu is codes and miscellaneous topics. supposed to be the first King and law G It refers to the change in the mode of maker. worship (from sacrifice to idol G Later on, some minor smritis and worship), and visual appeal of deities as commentaries like the Mitakshara were against worship of ideas. compiled. Pre-MauryanAge

G The material advantages brought about by the use of the iron implements in Eastern UP and Bihar in 6th century BC helped in the formation of large territorial states. G Use of iron tools in agriculture produced surplus, which could be taxed by the princes to finance their military and administrative needs. G Thus, many Janapadas sprung up in the 6th century BC, the larger ofwhich were called Mahajanapadas.

THE They were of two types MAHAJANAPADAS G Non-Monarchial/Republican States Kamboj, Kuru, Koliyas (Ramgrama), G The Anguttara Nikaya of Suttapitaka, Malla, Moriya (Pipplivana), Shakya Mahavastu (Buddhist literature) and (Kapilvastu), Vajji (Panchal), Lichchhavis Bhagavati Sutta (Jain literature) (Vaishali), Bhaggas (Sumsumasa), mentions the list of Kalamas (Kesaputta), Videhas (Mithila), 16 Mahajanapadas. Jnatrikas (Kundalgrama). GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 13

G Monarchical States Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, Kosala, THEREPUBLICAN Gandhara, Magadh, Matsya, STATES Sursena, Vatsa. G The republics, unlike the monarchies were G People now owned stronger ruled by tribal oligarchies and the allegiance to the janapada, or Brahmanas had no place. territory than the jana or tribe they belonged to. G The ruling class belonged to the same class and varna. Lichchhavis are said to be G Asmaka was the Southernmost the oldest republic in the world. Mahajanapada. G Vatsa was earlier a Kuru clan. Administration

G Vajji was confederacy of eight Raja (King), Uparaja (Vice-King), Senapati republican clans. (Commander) and Bhandagarika (treasurer).

Mahajanapadas(Location) Capital(s) 1. Gandhara (Between Kabul and Rawalpindi) Taxila 2. Anga(BhagalpurandMungherinBihar) Champa 3. Magadha (Patna and Gaya district of Bihar) Girivraj, Rajagriha (Bimbisara); Patliputra (Udayin); Vaishali (Shishunaga); Patliputra (Ashoka) 4. Kasi(Varanasidistrict,UP) Varanasi 5. Vajji(Vaishalidistrict,Bihar) Vaishali 6. Malla(SouthofVaishalidistrict,UP) KusinagaraandPava 7. Chedi(RiverKen,Bundelkhandarea) Sothivati-nagarorShuktimati 8. Vatsa (River Yamuna, Allahabad and Mirzapur Kaushambi district in UP) 9. Kosala(EasternUP) SravastiandAyodhaya(Saket) 10. Kuru (Ganga Yamuna doab, Hastinapur and Indraprastha Delhi-Meerut region) 11. Panchala (Ganga-Yamuna doab, Rohilkhand) Ahichhatra, Kampilya 12. Matsya (Jaipur-Bharatpur-Alwar district) Viratnagar/Bairath 13. Surasenas(Mathuraregion) Mathura 14. Asmaka (River Godavari) (Near Paithan in Patna or Patali Maharashtra) 15. Avanti(Malwa) Ujjain(Northerncapital),Mahismati (Southern capital) 16. Kamboja(HazaradistrictofPakistan) RajapurorHataka 14 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History Magadha Empire

G The period from 6th century BC to 4th G His three wives belonged to royal century BC saw the struggle for family of Koshala supremacy amongst the four (Mahakosaladevi, sister of mahajanapadas-Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa Prasenjit ruler of Kashi), Lichchhavi and Avanti. (Chellana, sister of Chetaka) and G Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most Madra clan of Punjab. (Khema, powerful and prosperous kingdom in the daughter of Madra king). North India. G He sent his personal physician, G The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha Jivak to his rival Avanti King and Brihadratha. But, the growth started Chandapradyota Mahasena of under the Haryankas, expansion took Ujjain, to cure him of jaundice. place under the Shishunagas and G The Gandhara ruler of Taxila, Nandas, and reached its zenith under the Pukku Sati, sent on embassy to Mauryas. Bimbisara. G Extent : Former districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad. Ajatashatru (492 BC- 460 BC) G He was son of Chellana and Causes of the Rise of Magadha Bimbisara. He occupied the throne by killing his father. ■ Advantageous geographical location of the capital G He adopted an aggressive policy of cities. expansion and gained complete ■ Abundance of natural resources such as iron, control over Kasi. helped in preparing effective weapons. G He defeated his maternal uncle ■ The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and Prasenjit, king of Kosala and sufficient rainfall were very conducive for married his daughter Vijjira. agriculture produce. G He destroyed Vaishali (capital of the ■ Unorthodox character of Magadhan society and Lichchhavis) after a protracted war ambitious rulers. of sixteen years, by sowing the seeds of discord amongst the people HARYANKA DYNASTY of Vaishali. G Sunidha and Vatsakar - Bimbisara (544BC- 492BC) Ajatashatru’s diplomatic ministers, Mahashilakantaka - a war engine, G He built the capital city Rajgir (Girivraja), which catapulted big stones and which was surrounded by five hills, the Rathamusala - a kind of chariot openings in which were closed by stone with a mace; helped him to defeat walls on all sides. This made Rajgir the Lichchhavis. impregnable. G He fortified Rajagriha to meet the G He was contemporary to Gautama Buddha threat from Avanti. He also built the and Mahavira and the first king to have fort of Rajagriha and Jaladurga standing army and makaira, for which he (a water fort) at Patali village on the is known as Seniya. bank of river Ganges.

G He defeated Anga King Brahmadatta and G He patronised the First Buddhist strengthened his, own position by council and Buddha died during his matrimonial alliances. reign. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 15

Udayin (460BC-444BC) Dhanananda

G Son and successor of Ajatashatru. (TheLastNandaRuler)

G He built the fort upon the confluence of the G Alexander invaded North-Western Ganga and the Son rivers at Pataliputra India during his reign (326 BC), but (Patna), thus, transferred the capital from the huge army of Dhanananda Rajgriha to the new city Pataliputra. deterred Alexander from advancing G Udayin was succeeded by weak rulers towards Gangetic valley. Anuruddha, Munda and Naga Dasak. G He is probably referred to as Agrammes or Xan-drames in the SHISHUNAGA Greek texts. G Chandragupta Maurya, assisted DYNASTY(412BC-344BC) by Kautilya overthrew Dhanananda

G Shishunaga was the minister of to establish Mauryan dynasty in 321 Nag-Dasak and was elected by the people. BC. G He destroyed the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti. This ended the hundred-year old FOREIGNINVASIONS rivalry between the two states and Avanti became a part of Magadh. He temporarily Iranian Invasion shifted the capital to Vaishali. G The archaemenian ruler of Iran, took advantages of the political Kalashoka (Kakavarin) disunity on the North-West frontier G He succeeded Shishunaga. of India.

G G He transferred the capital from Vaishali to Cyrus of Persia (588 BC-530 BC) Pataliputra and convened the Second was the first foreign conqueror, who Buddhist Council in Vaishali (383 BC). penetrated well into India. He destroyed the city of Capisa (North G Sabakami was the President of this council. of Kabul). He enrolled Indian NANDADYNASTY soldiers in the Persian Army. G Darius–I, grand son of Cyrus (344BC-323BC) invaded North-West India in 516 BC and annexed Punjab, West of Indus It is considered to be the first non-Kshatriya and Sind. dynasty and ruled for 100 years. G Xerxes, the successor of Darius, Mahapadmananda employed Indians in the long war against the Greeks. G Mahapadmananda, the great conqueror and founder of the dynasty, also known as Impacts of Iranian Invasion

‘Ekarat’, ‘Eka-chhatra’ (sovereign ruler) or G Iranian contact gave an impetus to Sarvakshatrantaka i.e., uprooter of the Indo-Iranian trade. Kshatriyas (by Puranas) and Ugrasena i.e., G There was cultural exchange in the owner of huge army (Pali texts). He is also form of Kharoshthi script from Iran described as ‘‘The first empire builder to India. Some of Ashoka’s of Indian History.’’ inscriptions in North-West India G He conquered Koshala and Kalinga (and were written in this script. from here, he brought an image of the Jina G Iranian influence is perceptible in as victory trophy). sculpture, e.g. the bell-shaped G Succeeded by his eight sons, last one being capitals. Dhanananda. 16 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Alexander’s Invasion Pre-Mauryan Society

G Alexander, the king of Macedonia G Division of society into four classes destroyed the Iranian empire. From necessitated the formation of Dharmasutras.

Iran, he marched towards India, G Shudras were ill-treated, while all attracted by its great wealth and privileges were cornered by the divided polity. Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.

G Alexander conquered Kabul in G Restrictions were imposed on women and 328 BC. He moved to India through they were not entitled to education or the the unguarded Khyber pass and Upanayana ceremony. reached Orhind near Attock in 326 BC. G Dharmasutras condemned Vaishyas for G Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily lending money. submitted to Alexander. He got the first and strongest resistance from Pre-Mauryan Economy Porus. G Agricultural production increased. Varihi G Alexander defeated Porus in the and Sali were new varieties of rice; Battle of Hydaspas on the banks of Karisa, Nivartan and Kulyavapa were the river Vitasta (Jhelum), but was units of land measurement; Sita was the impressed by his bravery, so he state’s land. restored to Porus, his kingdom and G Development of industry and crafts. made him his ally. Sreni was the guild or corporation. G After the Battle of Sakala, G Spurt in trade. Sartha referrred to Caravans Alexander proceeded upto Beas with and Sresthi to bankers. Anathapindaka, a view to conquer the East, but his was a Sresthi of Sravasti, who donated fatigued army refused to cross the Jetuvana Vahana to the Buddha. Mendaka river. was another rich Sresthi of Rajagriha.

G So, he was forced to retreat. He G Pottery Northern black polished ware placed the North-Western India was used. under the Greek Governor Selucus Nikator. Immediate Causes of the G He remained in India for 19 months Rise of Heterodox Sects (326-325 BC) and died in Babylon ■ Division of the society into 4 varnas. (323 BC) at the age of 33 years. ■ Reaction of the Kshatriyas to the Brahmins Impacts of Alexander’s supremacy. Invasion ■ The desire of the Vaishyas to improve their social position, with an increase in their G Opening up of new trade routes economic position. between North-West India and ■ Western Asia. To preserve cattle wealth. ■ Desire to go back to simple life. The use of G Indians learnt from the Greeks in the fields of coinage, astronomy, Sanskrit in Vedic texts was not understandable architecture and sculpture to the masses. (Gandhara School). G Many Greek settlements were RELIGIOUS established, like Alexandria in Kabul and Sind, Boukephala in Jhelum. ENVIRONMENT G Alexander’s invasion paved the way The 6th century BC was the period of great for the expansion of the Mauryan religious upheaval or intellectual empire in that area. revolution. Of the various sects that G His historians have left valuable emerged in this period, Jainism and accounts related to Indian Buddhism were the most prominent. geography, social and economic This marked the beginning of Second conditions, which enable us to build Urbanisation in India, also known as the the Indian chronology of the times. Age of the Buddha. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 17

G He was called the Jaina or Jitendriya JAINISM (one who conquered his senses); G It was founded by Rishabhnath. He is Kevalin (perfect learned), Nirgranthas described as an incarnation of (from all bonds), Arihant (blessed one) Narayana in Vishnu Purana and the and Mahavira (the brave). Bhagavata Purana. Teachings of Mahavira G There were 24 Tirthankaras (guru), the first one was Rishabhnath G Rejected the authority of the Vedas and (emblem-bull). did not believe in existence of God. G Rig Veda mentions two Tirthankaras- G He believed that every object Rishabh Dev and Arishtanemi. possesses a soul, so he professed strict G The 23rd Tirthankara was non-violence. Parsavanath (symbol-serpent). He G Attainment of salvation by believing in was the Prince of Banaras, who penance and dying of starvation. abandoned the throne and led the life G Universal brotherhood (equality) and of a hermit. He died at Sammet non belief in caste system. Sikhar/Parasanath Hill in Hazaribagh G He believed in karma and transmi- district of Jharkhand. gration of soul. G The 24th Tirthankara was Vardhaman Mahavira (Emblem-lion). Jaina Philosophy

G Syadavada All our judgements are Life of Mahavira necessarily relative, conditional and G Vardhman Mahavira or Jina (conqueror) limited. It is the theory of ‘may be’ and was born to Siddhartha (head of Jnatrika seven modes of prediction are possible. clan) and Trishla (Lichchhavi Princess Absolute affirmation and negation is and sister of Chetak) in 540 BC at wrong. Kundalgram near Vaishali in Bihar. G Anekantavada Doctrine of mayness G He was married to Yashoda and had a of reality. daughter Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first G Three Ratnas (Way to Nirvana): disciple. ¡ Rightfaith(Samyak Vishwas)

G Renunciation : At the age of 30, he ¡ Rightknowledge(Samyak Jnan) became an ascetic and joined an order founded by Parsavanath, but left it ¡ Right conduct (Samyak Karma)

later. He wandered for six years with G Five Cardinal Principles Gosala (founder of Ajivika Sect). ¡ Non-injury(Ahimsa). G Kaivalya (perfect knowledge) attained ¡ Non-lying(Satya). at the age of 42, under a sal tree at Jimbhika grama in Eastern India on the ¡ Non-stealing(Asteya). banks of the river Rijupalika. ¡ Non-possession(Aparigraha). ¡ G First sermon at Pava to his eleven Observingcelibacy(Brahmacharya). disciples known as Ganddharas. He G Mahavratas-monks, who observed the also founded a Jain Sangha at Pava. five principles.

G Death at the age of 72 in 468 BC at G Anuvratas lay members who observed Pavapuri near Rajagriha. the five principles.

G He became the head of a sect The first four principles were given by Nirgranthas (free from fetters), later Parsavnath, while the fifth was added called as ‘Jinas.’ later by Lord Mahavira. 18 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Five Instruments of Jain Church

Knowledge G Arya Sudharman, one of the disciple

G Mati jnana—Perception through of Mahavira, became the Thera (Potiff) activity of sense organs including the of Jaina Church after his death. brain. Later, he was succeeded by Jambu, Sambhutavijaya and Bhadrabahu G Avadhi jnana—Clairvoyant perception. (contemporary to Chandragupta G Shruta jnana—Knowledge revealed by Maurya). scriptures. G Manahparyaya jnana—Telepathic Spread of Jainisim knowledge. G In later times, Jainism was chiefly G Keval jnana—Omniscience or Temporal concentrated in two regions : knowledge. ¡ Gujarat and Rajasthan-Svetambara sect. Sects of Jainism ¡ Mysore—Digambara sect. G After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta Maurya, Importance of Jainism a severe famine led to a great exodus Led to the growth of many regional of Jaina monks from Ganga valley to languages like Suraseni, out of which the deccan. This migration led to a grew the Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani great schism in Jainism. and Kannada. G Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted on the retention of the rule of Causes Behind the Decline nudity, which led Mahavira establish of Jainism the sect of the Digambaras. ■ Extreme observance of ahimsa, penance and G Sthulabhadra, the leader of the austerity. monk, who remained in the North allowed his followers to wear white ■ No patronage from later kings. garments termed as the ■ The Jainas did not make any efforts to spread Svetambaras. their religion.

Council Year Venue Chairman RoyalPatron Developments First Jaina 300BC Pataliputra Sthulabhadra Chandragupta Compilation of 12 Council Maurya Angas to replace 14 Purvas Second Jaina AD512 Vallabhi Devridhigani — Final compilation of 12 Council Kshmasramana Angas and 12 Upangas GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 19 Buddhism Founded by Gautama Buddha (also Teachings of Buddha called Sakyamuni or Tathagata) known originally as Siddhartha. (a) Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas) Gautam Buddha 1. The world is full of sorrows (Sabbam G He was born (Symbol-lotus and bull) Dukkam). in 563 BC at Lumbini (Sakya tribe of 2. The cause of sorrow is desire (Dwadash Kapilvastu) on Vaiskha Purnima day in Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada). Kshatriya clan. 3. If desires are conquered, all sorrows G His father Suddhodhana was the can be removed (Nirvana). Saka ruler, his mother Mahamaya 4. This can be achieved by following the died after 7 days of his birth, so he 8-fold path (Ashtangika Marga). was brought up by stepmother Gautami. G The second truth, is based on Buddha’s doctrine of Paticheha samutpada or G Married at 16 to Yashodhara, Pratitya samutpada i.e. law of dependent enjoyed the married life for 13 years origination or causation. and had a son named Rahul. G Great Renunciation or (b) Eight-Fold Path Mahabhinishkramana (Ashtangika marga) (Symbol-horse) at the age of 29 years G Right understanding after witnessing four scenes in a sequence (old man, sick man, dead G Right thought body and an ascetic). G Right speech G Nirvana or Enlightment G Right action (symbol-Bodhi tree) at 35 years of age G Right livelihood at Uruvella (Bodh Gaya) under a G Right effort pipal tree on the banks of Niranjan G Right mindfulness (Phalgu) river on the 49th day of meditation. G Right concentration G First Sermon or Dharmachakra (c) Three Jewels (Triratnas) Pravartana (symbol-8 spoked wheel) at Sarnath, where his five disciples G Buddha (the enlightened) had settled. G Dhamma (doctrine)

G G Death at the age of 80 years in 483 BC Sangha (order) at Kusinagar in UP in the Malla republic (Mahaparinirvana). (d) Code of Conduct G Do not covet the property of others G Do not commit violence Events Symbols G Do not use intoxicants Janma (Birth) LotusandBull G Do not speak a lie Mahabhinishkramana Horse G Do not indulge in corrupt practices (Renunciation) Nirvana/Sambodhi Bodhi tree (e) Belief in Nirvana (Enlightenment) G Also known as moksha or salvation. It Dhramachakra pravartana Wheel refers to a belief in the concept of (First Sermon) ultimate bliss, whereby the person gets Mahaparinirvana (Death) Stupa freedom from the cycle of birth and death. 20 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

(f) Belief in Ahimsa Causes of the Decline G Law of Karma and Madhya of Buddhism Marga/Madhyama Pratipada (the ■ Incorporation of rituals and ceremonies, it Middle Path). originally denounced. ■ Reform in Brahamanism and rise of Buddhist Sangha Bhagavatism. It consisted of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) ■ Buddhists took up the use of Sanskrit (earlier and nuns, who acted as a torch bearer of the Pali), started practicing idol worship, dhamma. The worshippers were called receiving offerings and huge donation. Upasakas. Importance of Buddhism Sects of Buddhism G Promotion of Trade and Commerce. G Vajrayana Its followers believed that G Stressed upon the Doctrine of salvation could be attained by magical Ahimsa. power, which they called vajra. G Improvement in condition of women G The chief divinity of the sect is Taras. and downtrodden sections. Bengal and Bihar (Eastern India) was the main area of its concentration. G Spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia. G Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle). G Promotion of Pali language and G Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle). education through Residential Buddhist Scriptures Universities (Taxila, Nalanda). Hinayana Literature (in Pali) Spread of Buddhism

G Tripitakas G Mahayanism in Central Asia, China ¡ Vinaya Pitaka Rules of monastic and Japan, Hinayanism in Ceylon, disciplineformonks. Thailand and other parts of South-East ¡ Sutta Pitaka Collection of Buddha’s Asia. sermon. G King Ashoka sent Buddhist missions ¡ Abhidhamma Pitaka Philosophies of under his son Mahendra and daughter Buddha’steachings. Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.

Buddhist Year Venue Chairman RoyalPatron Development (s) Council First Council 483 BC Saptaparni Mahakassaapa Ajatashatru Compilation of Sutta Cave, (Haryanka Pitaka and Vinaya Rajgriha Dynasty) Pitaka by Ananda and Upali respectively Second 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalasoka Monks were split into Council (Shisunaga Sthavirmadins and Dynasty) Maha sanghikas Third Council 250 BC Patliputra Mogaliputta Tissa Ashoka Compilation of (Maurya Abhidhamma Pitaka Dynasty) Fourth AD72 Kundalvan, Vasumitra Kanishka Division of Buddhists Council Kashmir (Chairman) and (Kushan into Hinayana and Ashwaghosha Dynasty) Mahayana (Vice Chairman) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 21

Some Famous Buddhist ¡ Cave architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and in Western India around Scholars Nashik. Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Asanga, ¡ Art pieces of Amaravati and Vasubandhu, Buddhaghosha, Dinnaga Nagarjunakonda. and Dharmakirti. ¡ TraditionalNamesofBuddhistPlaces. Bodhisattvas G Stupa relics of Buddha or some prominent monks. ■ Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt) G Chaitya Prayer hall. ■ Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus bearer) G Vihara residence. ■ Manjushri (holds books describing 10 paramitas)

■ Kshitigrha (guardian of purgatories) Buddhist Location Founder ■ Maitreya (the future Buddha) Universities ■ Amitabha/Amitayusha (The Buddha of Nalanda Badagaon, Kumargupta-I heaven) Bihar Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Dharmapala Buddhist Architecture Bihar (Pala ruler) Buddhism takes the credit for— Somapuri North Dharmapala ¡ First human statues to be Bengal (Pala ruler) worshipped. Jagadal Bengal Ramapala(Pala ruler) ¡ Stone-pillars depicting the life of Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut. Odantpuri BiharSharif, Gopala (Pala Bihar ruler) ¡ Gandhara art and the beautiful images of theBuddha. Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka (Maitrak rule)

Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism

G Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste system, but upheld the essence of Vedas, preached truth, non-violence, celibacy and detachment from material comforts, believed in karma and rebirth and were liberal towards women.

Buddhism Jainism n Followers Monks Lay man n Salvation Moderateone Extremeone n Spread Died in India, but spread to foreign lands Confined to India and survived n Ahimsa LiberalPolicy Over-emphasis n Soul Didnotbelieveinsoul Believedinsoul

Sect Founder Theory n Ajivikas Gosala Maskariputra (Makhali) Believed in fate called ‘Niyati’ n Amoralism PuranaKassapa SankhyaPhilosophy n Lokayata or AjitaKeshakambalin Uchchedavada(annihilationism) Charvaka School n Hindu Vaisesika PakudhaKatyayana Sorrow,happinessandlifeare School indestructible like Earth, water etc. 22 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History TheMauryanEmpire ORIGINOF MAURYAS Buddhist Literature

G G Mudrarakshasa—Mauryas were Ashoka vadana and Divyavadana connected with the Nandas and were Information about Bindusara and called them Vrishal/Kulhina (of low clan). Ashoka’s expeditions to Taxila.

G G Buddhist tradition Chandragupta was Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri a Kshatriya (Sakya clan). The region was Lankan chronicles) Ashoka’s role in full of peacocks (mors), so became spreading of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. famous as ‘Moriyas’. G Jatakas Socio-economic conditions G Puranas They belonged to the Moriya of Mauryan period. clan (low caste) G Sthaviravali Charita or Parisistha- G Junagarh rock inscription of Rudrada- parvan of Hemachandra (A biography man (AD 150) suggests that Mauryans of Chanakya) Chandragupta’s might have been of Vaishya origin. conversion to Jainism. G Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta in Sources Sanskrit, an account of prevailing socio-economic conditions and about Literary Sources how Chandragupta overthrew the G Arthashashtra of Kaut1ilya (Chanakya Nandas with the help of Chanakya. or Vishnugupta) Written in Sanskrit by G Indica of Megasthenese Socio- Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, economic and administrative it is a treatise on state craft and public structure under Mauryas; Indians administration under Mauryas. The book free from slavery; 7-Castes system is in 15 parts. and usuary in India.

Edicts Content Location A. Rock Edicts n 14 Major Rock Edicts Ashoka’s principle of Kalsi (Dehradun, Girnar (Gujarat), government and policy of Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh), Dhamma Mansehra (Pakistan), Sopara (Bombay), Dhauli and Jaugada (Orissa), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan) n Two Separate Kalinga Kalinga War and new system of Dhauli or Tosali and Jaugada Edicts administration after war (All men (Orissa) are my children - Dhauli) n Minor Rock Edicts Personal history of Ashoka and South and Central parts of the summary of his Dhamma empire B. Pillar Edicts n 7 Pillar Edicts Appendix to the Rock Edicts Delhi topre, Delhi-Meerut, Rampurva, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh and Allahabad-Kosam C. Other Edicts n Queen’s Edict Refers to Karuvaki mother of On Allahabad Pillar Tivala/Tivara, the 2nd Queen n Bhabru Edict Ashoka’s faith in Buddhism Bairat (Rajasthan) n Nigalisagar Pillar Edict Stupa of Buddha at Kanakamuni Nigalisagar (Nepal) was enlarged n Rummindei Pillar Ashoka visited Lumbini and Rummindei/Lumbini (Nepal) reduced land tribute n 3 Barbara Cave Edicts DonationtoAjivikas BarbaraHills(Gaya,Bihar) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 23

G Puranas Chronology and lists of Mauryan G Chandragupta was the first Indian kings. ruler to unite the whole North India. G Others Account of Diodorous, Pliny, Both trade and agriculture Plutarch (Chandragupta as Androcottus), flourished during his reign. Weights Arrian and Justin (Chandragupta as and measures were standarised, Sandrocottus). money came into use and sanitation and famine relief measures were Epigraphical Evidences undertaken by the states. G Ashoka’s Edicts and Inscriptions (298BC-273BC) Ashoka’s edicts were first deciphered by Bindusara James Princep in 1837. It was written in G Greeks called him Amitro Chates Prakrit language and 3 scripts viz (derived from Sanskrit word Kharoshthi in North-West, Greek and Amitraghata i.e., slayer of foes); Aramaic in West and Brahmi in Eastern Vindupala (Chinese texts;), India. Sinhasena- Jain text; Bhadrasara (Yayu Purana). Quick Digest G He extended the kingdom further to ■ Inscriptions of Skandgupta and Rudradaman are the peninsular region of India as far also found at Girnar. The Pillar Edict VII is the last South as Mysore. edict to be issued by Ashoka. G Antiochus I, the Selucid king of ■ Mahasthan and Sohgura copper plate Syria, sent his Ambassador, inscriptions issued by Chandragupta Maurya, Deimachus to his court. deals with relief measures adopted during G Pliny mentions that Ptoleny famine. Philladelphus of Egypt sent ■ Latest discovery- 3 Ashokan minor rock edicts Dionysius as his ambassador to the from Sannati village (Karnataka). court of Bindusara. G Taranath—the Buddhist monk, Chandragupta Maurya credits him for conquering the land between the two seas. (322 BC-298BC) G Antiochus I sent some sweet wine G Also called as Sandrocottus/ and dried figs to Mauryan court on Androcottus by Greek scholars. Bindusara’s request, but denied to G He entered into an alliance with send a sophist explaining that Parvartaka and with the help of Chanakya, Greek law forbid a sophist to be he dethroned the last Nanda ruler sold. Dhanananda and founded the Mauryan G He patronised Ajivika sect. Dynasty with the capital at Pataliputra. G Chandragupta defeated Selucus Nikator, Ashoka (268BC-232BC) the general of Alexander in North-West G He was the greatest Mauryan ruler; India in 305 BC. Selucus surrendered a Governor of Taxila and Ujjain vast territory in return for 500 elephants. previously. His rule extended to the Hindukush became the boundary between whole of sub-continent except to the the two states. There was a matrimonial extreme South. It also included alliance between them. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kashmir G Selucus also sent the Greek Ambassador, and valleys of Nepal. Megasthenese, to the court of G A Buddhist text Dipavasma says Chandragupta Maurya. that he usurped the throne after G Chandragupta embraced Jainism and went killing his 99 brothers, except the to Chandragiri Hill, at Sravanbelagola youngest one, Tissa in the war of with Bhadrabahu, where he died of slow succession that lasted for four starvation (Salekhna). years. 24 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

G He fought Kalinga War (261 BC) in ¡ Yuvaraj theCrownPrince the 9th year of his rule. The miseries ¡ Gopa the Purohit Chief Priest of war caused deep remorse to Ashoka, and therefore he abandoned ¡ Senapati Commander-in-Chief the policy of physical conquest ofArmyandotherministers. (Bherighosa) in favour of cultural conquest (Dhamma ghosha). G However, Ashoka retained Kalinga Provinces Capital after conquest. This proves that he n Uttarapatha (North) Taxila was not an extreme pacifist and n Avantipatha (West) changes in his policies were mainly Ujjain for administrative purposes. n Prachyapatha (West) Kalinga n G He embraced Buddhism under Dakshinpatha (South) Suvarnagiri Upagupta. n Central Province Pataliputra G He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon as Buddhist missionaries with a sapling of original pipal tree. Major Rock Content G He inaugurated the Dhammayatras Edicts from the 11th year of his reign by n MREI Prohibition of animal sacrifice visiting Bodh Gaya; also appointed n MREII Refers to Cholas, Pandyas, Satya Dhamma Mahamatras (officers of putras and Kerala putra (kingdom righteousness) to spread the message of South) and care for man and of Dhamma. animals n MREIII Liberality to Brahmins Ashoka’s Dhamma n MREIV Non-violence; courtesy to relations

G It was a code of conduct and a set of n MREV Appointment of Dhamma principles to be adopted and Mahamatras practiced by the people to build up an n MREVII Tolerance among all sects attitude of social responsibility and preserve the social order. It ordained n MRE VIII Dhammayatras to pay respect to elders, mercy to n MREIX Charity, kinship, Dhamma slaves and emphasised truth, n MREXII Religious tolerance non-violence and tolerance. n MREXIII Kalinga war; Bheri Ghosa to Dhamma Ghosa LATER MAURYAS

G Following the death of Ashoka, the Art and Architecture

Mauryan dynasty lasted for G Mauryan art is classified into two groups 137 years, the empire was divided by Ananda Coomaraswamy into Western and Eastern parts. 1. Popular/Folk Art Sculptures of G Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, Yaksha and Yakshini e.g., Yaksha of was assassinated in 184 BC by his Parkham (Mathura); Yakshini from Brahmin Commander in-chief, Vidisha (MP) and Didarganj (Patna). Pushyamitra Shunga, who established the Shunga dynasty. 2. Royal/Court Art Royal Palace of Chandragupta Maurya at Kumharar, Mauryan Administration Patna (Fa hien referred it as the Creation of God), City of Patliputra G The Mauryan state was a welfare Ashokan Pillars; stupas and caves. state, with highly centralised government. ¡ Mauryans introduced stone masonry on alargescale. G Central Administration King was the Nucleus, assisted by Mantri ¡ Pillars represent the masterpiece of Parishad, which included : Mauryan sculpture, e.g., GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 25

¡ Single lion capital Rampurva and G Stupas were built throughout the Lauriya Nandangarh. empire, to enshrine the relics of Buddha ¡ Four lion capital at Sarnath and e.g., Sanchi and Bharhut. Sanchi. Significance of Mauryan ¡ Carved elephant at Dhauli and Rule Engravedelephant at Kalsi. G The emblem of Indian Republic has been Causes of the Fall of the adopted from the lion capital of Ashokan pillar at Sarnath. Mauryan Empire G Many Gurukuls and Buddhist Brahmanical reaction (HP Shastri), financial monasteries (Taxila and Banaras) crisis, oppressive rule, weak successors; developed with royal patronage. highly centralised administration (Romila G Literary developments e.g., Thapar); Pacific policy of Ashoka (HC Ray Arthashashtra (Kautilya); Kalpasutra Chaudhary); Partition of the Empire are some (Bhadrabahu), Katha Vastu (Buddhist of the probable causes of decline of Mauryan text), Bhagwati Sutra, Acharanga empire. Sutra and Dasavalik (Jaina text). Post-MauryanPeriod

Mauryans were succeeded by many in the North-West frontier of India. ruling dynasties from Central Asia in e.g., Gandhara art and Military North-West India and by native rulers Governorship. (Shungas, Kanvas, Satvahanas) in the G The Sanskrit term for astrology Eastern, Central and Deccan region of Horshastra is derived from the Greek India. term Horoscope. FOREIGNSTATES The Shakas or Scythians The Indo-Greeks (AD Ist to 4th Century) G The Greeks were followed by the Shaka. G A series of invasions began in about 200 BC. The weak Mauryan king failed G There were five branches of Shakas to restrict them. The first to invade ruling from Afghanistan, Punjab, India were the Indo Greeks, who ruled Mathura, (where it ruled for about two Bactria lying South of the Oxus river in centuries.), Ujjain (rules over) Western the area covered by North India and Deccan. Afghanistan. They occupied a large G A king of Ujjain, who called himself portion of North-Western India, and Vikramaditya defeated Shakas. An era moved upto Ayodhya and Pataliputra. called the Vikram Samvat is recorded G The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was from the event of his victory over the Menander (165-145 BC) or Milinda. Shakas i.e., 57 BC. He had his capital at Sakala (Modern G The most famous Shaka ruler in India Sialkot in Punjab). He invaded the was Rudradaman (AD 130-150). Ganga Yamuna doab. He was G He repaired the Sudarshan lake in the converted to Buddhism by Nagasena. semi arid zone of Kathiawar, and issued Menander and Nagasena’s the first-ever longest inscription in conversation were recorded in the Chaste Sanskrit at Junagarh. book Milindapanho or ‘the questions of Milinda.’ G Other important Saka ruler in India were Nahapana, Ushavadeva, Chastana, G They were the first rulers in India to issue coins. The Greek rule Ghamatika etc. introduced features of Hellinistic art 26 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

G Kanishka patronised the following Sudarshana Lake persons : ■ It was constructed by Pushyagupta the Ashwaghosha Buddhacharita Governor of Saurashtra under Nagarjuna Madhyamik sutra Chandragupta Maurya. Vasumitra Chairman of the Fourth ■ Tushasp constructed dam on the lake Buddhist Council during the reign of Ashoka Maurya. First Charaka Charakasamhita. reconstruction by Governor Survishakh G The last Kushana ruler was Vasudeva I. under Saka Satrap Rudradaman and second This shows that successors of Kanishka by Chakrapalit under Skandgupta. bore typical Indian names as Vasudeva. Impacts of Central The Parthians Asian Contact (AD 1st to 3rd Century) G The Shaka-Kushana phase registered a G Originally, the Parthians lived in Iran, distinct advance in building activities. from where they moved to India, and The use of burnt brick for flooring and replaced the Shakas. that of tiles for both flooring and G They occupied only a small portion of roofing, construction of brick well and North-Western India as compared to red ware pottery became prevalent. the Greeks and Shakas. G They introduced better cavalry, and G The most famous Parthian king was tunic, trousers and long heavy coat and Gondophernes, in whose reign also. They also brought cap, helmets, St Thomas came to India for the and boots, which were used by propagation of Christianity. warriors. The Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins. The Kushanas Kanishka controlled the famous silk (AD 1st to 3rd Century) route in Central Asia. G The Kushana empire gave rise to G The Kushanas (Yuechis or Tochanians) Gandhara and Mathura Schools of replaced the Greeks and Parthians. Art. The famous headless erect statue They were nomadic people from of Kanishka shows artistic creations of steppes of North Central Asia. Their Mathura School. Vatsyayana wrote empire included a good part of Central Kamasutra in this period. Asia, portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost the whole of Gandhara School of Art Pakistan and North India. G It exhibits the influence of Greek and G The first Kushana dynasty was Roman art; patronised by Shakas and founded by Kujala Kad-phises. Wima Kushans. The school specialised in Kadphises (the 2nd ruler) issued gold Buddha and Bodhi-sattva images, coins in India. Kanishka founded the stupas and monasteries. They used blue 2nd Kushana dynasty. schist stone. G Buddhas of this school of art are gentle, Kanishka (AD 78-101) graceful and compassionate. He was also known as Second Ashoka and was the most famous Kushana Mathura School of Art ruler. He had two capitals–Purushpur G The Buddha of the Gandhara school of and Mathura. Art were copied here, but in a refined ¡ Kanishka started an era in AD78, way. which is now known as Saka era, and G The majority of creations consisted of isusedbyGovernmentofIndia. nude, seminude figures of female, ¡ He patronised the Fourth Buddhist Yakshinis or Apsara in an erotic pose. Council in Kashmir, where the G The image exhibited not only doctrine of Mahayana form of the masculinity and energetic body, but also Buddhismwas finalised. grace and religious feeling. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 27

Amaravati School of Art Kanva Dynasty

G Lord Buddha depicted in the form of a (73BC-72BC) Swastika mark. Also depicted Buddha in G Kanva was a minor dynasty founded the human form for the first time. by Vasudeva, who killed the last G The ornate bull or ‘Nandiswara’, situated Shunga King Devabhuti. Its Capital in the Amareswara temple, is also an was at Pataliputra. Amaravati piece of art. G Bhumimitra and Narayana suecceeded Vasudeva. All the rulers NATIVESTATES were Brahmins. G The last ruler, Susarman, was killed The successors of Ashoka were weak kings, by Andhra King Simuka. so Mauryan Empire gradually declined. The last ruler of Mauryan dynasty was killed by The Cheti Dynasty his own commader-in-Chief Pushyamitra Shunga who founded the Shunga dynasty. of Kalinga G The Hathigumpha inscription of Shunga Dynasty Kharavela—the third ruler of the (185BC-73BC) dynasty, gives information about the Chetis. Kharavela pushed his G Pushyamitra Shunga ruled from kingdom upto Godavari in the South, Vidisha (MP). He defeated Bactrian king, and recovered the Jaina image from Dematrius and conducted two Magadha. Ashwamedha Yajnas (Chief priest- G He was a follower of Jainism. He Patanjali). He is considered to be the constructed residential caves for Jain prosecutor of Buddhism. monks on the Udaygiri Hill near G However, the Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut Bhubaneshwar, Orissa. was built during his reign. G The Greek Ambassador Heliodorus The Satavahana Dynasty visited the court of fifth Shunga king G The Satavahanas are considered to Bhagabhadra, and set up a pillar in be identical with the Andhra, who honour of Lord Vasudeva near Vidisha are mentioned in the Puranas. (Madhya Pradesh). G The earliest inscriptions of the G Shunga king Agnimitra was hero of Satavahanas belong to the first Kalidasa’s Malvikagnimitram. century BC, when they defeated the G The Shungas marked the revival of Hindu Kanvas and established their power culture, Sanskrit language and in parts of Central India. Bhagavatism. G They were successors of Mauryas in G The great Sanskrit Grammarian, the Deccan and Central India. Patanjali was patronised by them. G The founder of this empire was G The famous book on Hindu Law Simuka, after the assassination of Manusmriti was compiled during this last Kanava King Susarman. period. G Gautamiputra Satakarni G Later Kings Vasumitra, Vajramitra, (AD 106-130) was the greatest ruler of Bhagabhadra, Devabhuti. All of them this dynasty. were Brahmanas. G Assumed the title of raja-raja and G Shunga Art Bharhut Stupa, gateway maharaja. railing surrounding the Sanchi Stupa G His capital was at Paithan or built by Ashoka, Vihara, Chaitya and Pratisthan on the banks of the river Stupa of Bhaja (Poona), Nasika Chaitya, Godavari in Aurangabad district. Amaravati Stupa etc. 28 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

G Vasishthiputra Sri Satkarni, the 24th G Satavahana rulers called themselves ruler, married the daughter of Saka Brahmins. Gautamiputra Satkarni Satrap Rudradaman, but was twice boasted that he was a true Brahmin. defeated by him. G They performed Vedic rituals and G Yajna Sri Satkarni (AD 165-194), the later worshipped Gods like Krishna, king of Satavahanas, ‘recovered North Vasudeva and others. Konkan and Malwa from Shaka rulers. His G Stupas at Nagarjuna konda and coins figured ‘ship with double mast’. Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became G Pulamayi III was the last Satavahana important seats of Buddhist culture ruler, succeeded by Ikshavakus in the under the Satavahanas. 3rd century BC. G In the Satavahana phase, many chaityas e.g., Karle in Western deccan, Important Aspects of the Nashik and Kanheri and Viharas were Satavahanas cut out of solid rocks in the North-Western Deccan. The official G They issued mostly lead coins (apart from language of Satavahanas was Prakrit, Copper and Bronze). Satavahanas were and the script was Brahmi. the first rulers to make land grants to Brahmins. There is an instance of grants G Provinces were called Ahara, and being made to Buddhist monk, which the officials were known as Amatyas shows they also promoted Buddhism. and Mahamatyas. TheAgeoftheGuptas

G The fall of Kushana empire towards the Samudragupta middle of 3rd century AD led to the (AD 335-380) establishment of the empire of the Guptas. G Son and successor of Chandragupta I. G Although the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Mauryas, it kept North India G He was a great conqueror. politically united for more than a century. G The long inscription in the pillar of G Their period is generally regarded as the Allahabad (Prayag Prasasti) Golden Age of Hinduism. enumerated by his court poet Harisena informs about the people G Guptas belonged to the Vaishya caste. and the countries that were G Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta conquered by Samudragupta. dynasty. Sri Gupta was followed by his Because of his bravery and son Ghatotkacha and was followed by his generalship, he came to be called the son Chandragupta. Both assumed the Napoleon of India by VA Smith. title of Maharaja. G Virasen was his Commander- Chandragupta I (AD 319-335) in-Chief during Southern campaign. Vasubandhu, a famous Buddhist G He greatly raised the power and prestige scholar, was his minister. of his dynasty by his matrimonial G Samudragupta’s arms reached as far alliances and conquests. as Kanchi, Tamil Nadu, where the G He married the Lichchhavi princess Pallavas were compelled to Kumara Devi and issued Chandragupta I recognise his suzerainty. Kumaradevi type gold coins (Dinaras). G Samudragupta annexed the G Chandragupta-I is also said to have territories after defeating the started a new era Gupta Era, which starts monarchs in North India, but did not from 26thFebruary AD 320, the annex territories in South India. coronation date of Chandragupta I. G His authority over Java, Sumatra and G He established his authority over Malaya island proves that he Magadha, Saketa and Prayaga. maintained a strong navy. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 29

G Samudragupta is said to have G Chandragupta II conquered Western composed numerous poems of high Malwa and Gujarat, from the Shaka merit. Some of his coins represent him Kshatrapas Rudra Simha III. The playing the Veena. He also performed conquest gave Chandragupta the Asvamedha Sacrifices. Western sea coast, famous for trade and G The Allahabad pillar inscriptions commerce. This contributed to the mention the title Dharma Prachar prosperity of Malwa and its Chief City Bandhu i.e., he was the upholder of Ujjain. Ujjain was made the second Brahmanical religion. capital by Chandragupta II.

G According to Chinese sources, G He issued silver coins (first Gupta ruler Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri to issue silver coins) and adopted the Lanka, sent a missionary to title Vikramaditya and Sakari in Samudragupta for a permission to memory of his victory. build a Buddhist temple at Gaya. G The court of Chandgragupta II at Ujjain G He was a Vaishnavite. was adorned by 9 scholars known as Chandragupta II Navaratna, including Kalidasa and Amarsimha. (AD 380-415) G Harisena was the court poet and the G According to Devi Chandraguptam of minister. Vishakhadutta, Samudragupta was G Fa Hien—The Chinese piligrim visited succeeded by Ramagupta. India at his time. G Ramagupta was a coward. He surrendered his queen Dhruvadevi to Kumaragupta (AD 413-455) the Saka invader. He was also the only Gupta ruler to issue Copper coins. G He founded the Nalanda University.

G G Chandragupta II, the younger brother Worshipper of Lord Kartikeya. of Ramagupta, invaded the enemy’s G In the last year of his reign, the empire camp, killed the Saka ruler and was invaded by the Turko-Mongol tribe, Ramagupta; occupied the throne and the Hunas. During the war with the married Dhruvadevi. Hunas, Kumaragupta died. G He proved to be a great ruler and extended his empire by conquests and Skandagupta (AD 455-467) matrimonial alliances. He married G He repulsed the ferocious Hunas Kubernaga of Naga dynasty and attacks twice. The heroic feat entitled married his daughter Prabha- him the title Vikramaditya (also vatigupta, with the Vakataka prince mentioned in the Bhitari Pillar Rudrasena II. Inscription). G Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription (Delhi) claims his authority over G During his period Sudarshana lake was North-Western India and a good repaired and its embankments were portion of Bengal. It says that the king rebuilt. defeated the confederacy of Vangas G The continuous attack of the Hunas and Vahilkas (Bulkh). Virasena’s weakened the Guptas economy and the Udaygiri Cave Inscription refers to decline of empire began soon after the his conquest of the whole World. death of Skandagupta. 30 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Reasons of the fall of Gupta Empire

G The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the growing Huna power.

G Rise of Feudatories in Bihar, Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.

GuptaKings Titles GoldCoins (Dinaras) Chandragupta I Maharajadhiraja or king of the kings Kumaradevi type Samudragupta Kaviraj (Prayag Prasati), Dhanurdhari-Archer, Garud, Axe, Ashwamedha, Vikram, Param Ashvamedha, Vyagnra hanam Bhagvat, Sarva-rajoch Chetta (Tiger killing), Veena Vadan, Playing (uprooter of all kings), flute type. Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, Sakari Ashvarohi, Chhatradhari, Devagutpa/Devashri/Devaraja, Chakra-Vikram type etc. Narendra Chandra Sinh Vikram, Param Bhagvata etc. Kumaragupta Mahendraitya, Ashvamedha Gajarohi, Khadgadhari, Gajarohi Mahendra and Mahendra Sinh Sinh-nihanta, Khang-nihanata, (i.e., rhinocerous slayer) Kartikeya and Apratighmudra type. Skandagupta Vikramaditya, Kramaditya, Param Archer king and Queen, Chhatra Bhagvat, (on coins); Shakropama and Horseman type. (Kahaum Pillar inscription); Devaraja (Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa).

Gupta Administration G City Administration Paura was the council responsible for city G Gupta administration was highly administration. It included the president decentralised and quasi-feudal in of the city corporation, Chief character. representative of the guild of merchants, G Gupta Kings adopted pompous titles a representative of the artisans, and the such as Parameshvara, Maharajadhiraj, Chief Accountant. It comprised of local Parambhattarka, which signify that representatives. they ruled over the lesser kings in their G Army Military Chariots receded into empire. The practice of appointing the background and cavalry came to Kumara (crown prince) came in vogue. the forefront. The Gupta empire G Kings were assisted by Mantriparishad/ maintained a large standing army, but Mantrimandal (Council of Ministers) as essentially the military organisation referred in the Prayag Prasasti. was feudal in character. G Senabhakta It was a form of tax i.e., the army was to be fed by the people whenever, it passed through the countryside. Forced labour or vishti Unit Headedby was also practised in royal army. n Bhukti (province) Uparika G Revenue Land revenue was the chief n Vishayas (district) Vishyapati source of state’s income. It varied from n Nagar/Peth Purapala/Nagar 1 1 Village (sub-district) Pati th to th of the produce. The number Gramika 4 6 of taxes increased. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 31

G During the Gupta’s rule, Land grants that the wife of Goparaja, (Agarhara and Devagrahara grants) also Commander of Bhangupta, performed included transfer of royal rights over salt sati). Polygamy and pre-puberty and mines, which were earlier states marriages were common. Women monopoly during Mauryas. were not given the right to property Judiciary For the first time, civil and except for stridhana, in the form of criminal law were clearly defined and garments and jewellery. demarcated. G Coinage Guptas issued the largest Religion number of gold coins, which were called G Bhagavatism centred around the dinaras in their inscriptions. Silver worship of Vishnu or Bhagavad. coins were called the Rupayakas. G Bhagvad Gita was written in this period. It preached the doctrine of Incarnation or Avatar. Official FieldofWork G Idol worship in the temple became a n Maha Pratihari Chief usher of Royal common feature. The Gods were Palace unified with their respective n Dandapashika Chief officer of the consorts. Thus, Parvati got associated Police department with Shiva and Laxmi with Vishnu. n Mahaprajapati Chief officer of elephant G Gupta kings followed a policy of corps tolerance towards the different n Vinayasthitisthapak Chief officer of religious religious sects. affairs G There was an evolution of n Mahashvapati Chief of Cavalry Vajrayanism as well and Buddhist n Mahadandanayaka Minister of Justice tantric cult. G Buddhism no longer received royal Society patronage in the Gupta period. G The Supremacy of the Brahmins Economy continued. They accumulated wealth on accounts of numerous land grant and Land was classified into five groups : claimed many previlege. ¡ Khila — Wasteland G The position of the Shudras improved, ¡ Kshetra Bhoomi —Cultivableland and they were permitted to listen epic, ¡ Vastu Bhoomi — Habitableland puranas and to worship a new God, Lord ¡ Charagah Bhoomi —Pastureland Krishna. ¡ Aprahata Bhoomi —Forestland G Varna system got strengthened due to the large scale proliferation of castes, G According to Pahadpur copper plate chiefly because of assimilation of inscription of Buddhagupta, state foreigners into the Indian society, was the exclusive owner of land. absorption of tribal people into G Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta Brahminical society through land grants refers to the land survey conducted and transformation of guilds into class during the period. due to the decline of trade and urban G Pushtapala was the officer incharge centres. for maintaining records of all land G The Position of women declined; The transactions. first example of immolation of widow G Trade There was a decline in trade after death of her husband (sati) with the Roman Empire after AD 3rd appeared in Gupta times. (Also referred century, while the South-East Asian in the Eran inscription, which mentions trade increased. 32 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

G Ports on West coast to trade with Gupta Architecture Mediterranean and West Asia—Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay. G The Gupta Age marks the beginning of main style of temple G Ports on East coast to trade with South-East architecture in India namely the Asia—Tamralipti, Ghantashala and Kandura. Nagara and Dravida style (shikhar style) with Garbagriha (shrine room in which the image of God is Bhaga King’s share in the produce, to be paid by kept). cultivators. G Square sanctum sanctorum and a Bali (Earlier a voluntary offering) An additional pillared porch. and oppressive tax during Gupta period. Bhoga Periodic supplies of fruits, firewoods etc., Religious Literature which the villagers had to furnish to the king. G Hindu texts Many old religious Uparika An extra tax levied on all subjects. books were re-written e.g., Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana, Manu Smriti (translated into English Gupta Art under the title of ‘‘Institutes of Gupta period is also called The Golden Age of Hindu law’’ William Jones), Ancient India. Ramayana and Mahabharata. G Samudragupta is represented on his coins G New text Narad Smriti, playing the Veena and Chandragupta II is Parashar Smriti, Katyana Smriti credited with maintaining in his court, nine and Brihat Smriti. luminaries or great scholars viz, Kalidasa, G Jain texts Nyayavartam written Amarsimha, Dhanavantri, Varahmihira, by Sidhsena. Vararuchi (Vartika-a comment on G Buddhist texts Abhidharma Ashtadhyayi), Ghatakarna, Kshapranak, Kosha written by Dignaga, Vishu- Velabhatt and Shanku. dhimagga written by Buddhghosa. G Over two metre high bronze images of the G Mrichchakatikam (i.e., the clay Buddha of Gupta period has been cart) is the love story of a poor recovered from Bhagalpur. Brahmin Charudatta and virtuous G For the first time, we get in the Gupta period courtsean Vasantasena. The work images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other is notable for its realistic depiction Hindu Gods. of city life. G Buddha sitting in Dharmachakra mudra (Sarnath) and Buddha images of Bamiyan Quick Digest belong to this period. ■ Brahmasidhanta, was translated into G Brahminical Image The Great Boar (Varah) carved in relief at the entrance of a Arabic under the title ‘‘Sind Hind’’. cave at Udayagiri. ■ Ritusamhara, Meghdootam and Raghuvamsham are epics and not G Paintings Ajanta paintings and paintings at Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) are of this time. plays. They belong to the Buddhist Art. ■ Bhasa wrote 13 plays in this period. ■ G In this period the Gandhara School of There was a development of Sanskrit Sculpture was replaced by regional centres grammar based on Panini and at Banaras, Pataliputra and Mathura. Patanjali. Amarkosha was compiled G Stupas—Mirpur Khas (Sindh), Ratnagiri by Amarasimha. (Orissa) and Dhammekh (Sarnath). GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 33

Astronomy (Science) Author Book G Aryabhatta, the great mathematician wrote Aryabhatiyam and Surya Siddhanta. He Sudraka Mrichchakatikam placed the value of first line number and the Bharavi Kiratarjuniya use of zero (‘0’). Dandin Dasa Kumar Charita G Varahamihira wrote Panchsiddhantika and and Kavyadarshan Brihadsamhita. He said the Moon moves Bhasa Svapnavasavadatta round the Earth and Earth together with the m, Charudatta Moon, move round the Sun. Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa G Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. Devichandraguptam He hinted the law of gravitation in Brahma Vishnu Sharma Panchtantra and Siddhanta. Vagabhatta was a distinguished Hitopodesha physician. Amarismha Amarkosh G Dhanvantri was famous for the knowledge of Ayurveda. Iswara Krishna Sankhya Kanika G Romaka Siddhanta, a book on astronomy was Vatsyayana Kamasutra compiled. (earliest book on sex) G Palakapya wrote Hastyagarveda, a treatise Bhattin Ravan Vadha on the disease of elephants. Varahamihira Panchasiddhantika, G Bhaskara wrote Mahabhaskarya and Laghu Brihad Samhita Bhaskarya.

The Harsha Period

PUSHYABHUTI/ Harshavardhan (AD 606-647) VARDHANA DYNASTY G Harsha, also known as Siladitya, ascended the throne in AD 606 and from G Harsha belonged to Pushyabhuti this year, Harsha Era began. dynasty, which ruled from Thaneswar. G Harsha made Kannauj his capital. Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of Guptas, but had assumed G The early history of Harsha’s reign is independence after Hunas’ invasion. constructed from a study of the book Harshacharita. G Prabhakar Vardhana (AD 580-605) was its first important ruler succeeded G Harsha is called the Last Great Hindu by Rajyavardhan (AD 605-606). Emperor of India, but he was neither G Grahavarman (Maukhari ruler of a staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the Kannauj), husband of Rajyashri (sister whole country. of Rajyavardhana) was murdered by G In Eastern India, he faced opposition Devagupta (ruler of Malwa) in alliance from Shaivite King Shashanka of with Shashanka (ruler of Bengal). Gauda, who cut off the Bodhi tree of G Rajyavardhana killed Devagupta but Bodhgaya.

was himself killed by Shashanka in G Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II, the AD 606. Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi. 34 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

G Harsha was defeated in Deccan by Art and Architecture Pulakesin-II, the Chalukyan king of Vatapi. Harsha’s administration Vesara/Deccan Style

became more feudal and G It was started by the Chalukyas. decentralised. G Examples include Vesara style temples at G The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang Aihole (town of temples), Jinendra temple visited India during Harsha period. (Meguti temples), Vishnu temple, Lad Khan He informs us that the revenue of temple (God Surya), Durga temple, Nagara Harsha was divided into four parts, one for the king, second for style temple at Pattadakal, Papanatha the scholar, third for the officer temple, Dravida style temple at Pattadakal, and fourth for religious purposes. Virupaksha temple and Sangamesvara G Harsha used to celebrate a solemn temple. festival at Prayag after every five years. Pallava Art/Dravida Style

G G After the death of Harsha in The Shikhara had influence of Java, AD657, the empire once again Cambodia and Annam. broke up into petty states and the Examples of Pallava Arts : throne was usurped by his minister ¡ Bhairawkona temple Arunashva. ¡ Ananteshwar templeat Undavalli G Harsha was a Shaivite. He also ¡ Mandapa temple granted revenue of 200 villages for ¡ Ratha temple of Mamallapuram the maintenance of Nalanda University. It is said that Harsha ¡ Kailashnath and Vaikunth brought ‘5 indies’ under his control ¡ Perumal Templeat Kanchi (Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar ¡ ShoreTempleat Mamallapuram and Orissa). ¡ Pallava Sculpture Based on Buddhist tradition e.g., Descent of the Ganges and Tripartite Struggle Arjuna’s penanceat Mamallapuram. The struggle for supremacy between the Palas, the Gurjara - Pratihara and Rashtrakuta Style the Rashtrakutas for the possession The rock-cut temple of Kailash (Shiva) at of Kannauj (Farrukhabad District, Ellora, was built by Krishna I. UP) at the end of AD 8th century is known as the Tripartite struggle in Hoyasalas Style history. Temple of Hoyasaleshwar at Dwarsamudra. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 35 ) Trimurti ath temple at Puri. They traded withwere South-East replaced by Asia Senas and in Bengal. They originatedRajasthan. in Geyanta region of PrabhavatiRudrasena. to the Vakataka king ConstructedSravanbelagola. Jain monuments at They were overthrown bydynasty Deva Hoysala art andhigh architecture standard. was TheHoysala of temple minute a is carvingfeature. their most of attractive Rashtrakutas arebuilding of credited cavewas shrine dedicated of with to Elephanta. Mahesh andcounts It ( the amongart the creations most of India. magnificient . Chandragupta II married his daughter Asvamedha Yagyas . built the Sun temple at Konark. Anantvarman built the Jagann Adi varaha Revived Nalanda University and He is compared to Vikramaditya in He worshipped Lord Vishnu and performed four defeated the Chalukyan ruler won Orissa and Assam. defeated by Rajendra Chola. Dunvirta Mihir Bhoja adopted the title Pravarsena I Narshima Deva I Ballasena Lakshmansena Dharma Pala founded Vikramshila(Pratihara) Universsity Amogkannauj. defeated varsha Bhoja (Rashtrakuta)Devapala and won Mahikala Vira Ballal Somesvara IV. Amogvarsha giving patronage to men ofHe wrote letters. the Istalso Kannad Poetry, wrote Kavi Prashnottar Rajamarg, Mallika. and Madhava Harichandra Vindhyashakti Anantavarman Chodagong Deva Vijaysena Gopala Dantidurga (earlier served the Chalukyas of Badami) Kolar, Talakal Konganivarman 1. Jodhpur 2. Malwa Vatsagumla, Paunar Kalingnagar, Cuttack Vikrampura, Vijaypura Dwarasamudra Vishnu Vardhan Pataliputra, Gaur Manyaket or Malkhed Western Gangas (AD 350-999) Gurjara Pratiharas (SW Rajasthan) (AD 733-1019) Vakatakas (Deccan and Central India) Eastern Gangas of Orissa Senas of Bengal Hoysalas Palas (Eastern India) Rashtrakutas (AD 750-1142) Dynasty Capital Founder FamousRulers OtherFeatures 36 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History Vikramdevacharita in Yagyavalkya Smriti, Mitakshara adorned the court of Vikramaditya IV. Ramachandra wasKafur. defeated by Malik and Bilhana, the writer of TheyHindus. wereBoth the orthodox Chalukyas andestablish Pallavas tried Brahmanical to theirbetween Krishna supremacy and Tungabhadra. overMany of land thethe painting and Ajantacompleted sculptures of anddeveloped during the Ellora DeccanThey or perfected caves Vesara the Chalukyan artthat style. of stone were is building, mortar. Art stones finally joined without visited his (AD 630-668) occupied Hiuen Tsang (AD 1070-1126) He started the He was contemporary of Harsha and (AD 1043-1068) He shifted the capital set up Pillar of victory and a temple at constructed Kailash temple at Ellora in Ramchandra Somevara I from Manyakhet to Kalyani. Vikramaditya IV Chalukya- Vikram era. Pulakesin-II was able tobut check Harsha wasNarasimhavarman-I. in defeated conquering Deccan, The and Chinese pilgrim killedkingdom. by Pallava ruler Krishna II Dravidian sytle Krishan III Rameshwaram. Narasimhavarman-I Chalukayan capital atVatapikonda. Vatapi and assumed the title the Parmar king Munj) Devagiri Bhillana Vatapi (Badami) Pulakesin I Kalyani TailapII(defeated Kanchi Simhavishnu Yadavas Chalukyas of Badami Chalukyas of Kalyani Pallavas (AD 560-903) of Tondainadu (land of creepers) Dynasty Capital Founder FamousRulers OtherFeatures