2019
SCOTLAND 2 State of Nature Report Scotland 2019
THE HEADLINES In this report we have drawn on the best available data on Scotland’s biodiversity, produced by partnerships between conservation non-governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutes, UK and national governments, and thousands of dedicated volunteers. We have focused on the trends in species as the key evidence of how nature is faring.
The collection of systematic data on species’ trends often does not fully cover timescales relevant to ecological changes. Widescale data collection only began 20–50 years ago. The results should be interpreted in that context and viewed against a backdrop of profound historic human influences on nature in Scotland. Scotland makes a very significant contribution to UK biodiversity; it has a high proportion of the UK’s upland habitats, including its most mountainous terrain, and has species found nowhere else in the UK. Some of Scotland’s species, such as the White-script Lichen and Scottish Primrose, are found nowhere else in the world. Historic deforestation, intensified livestock grazing since the 18th century, widespread sporting management since the 19th century and large-scale commercial forestry during the 20th century have all had significant effects on upland wildlife. Photo: Drew Buckley
Our data show that the abundance Red squirrel and distribution of Scotland’s species has on average declined over recent decades and most measures indicate this decline has continued in the most recent decade. There has been no let-up in the net loss of nature in Scotland. Photo: Kevin Sawford 24% 14% 49% 62% 11% 38% decline in decline in of species have of species show of species are decline in the average species’ average species’ decreased in strong changes. threatened. Scottish breeding abundance. distribution. abundance. Our wildlife is Of the 6,413 species seabird indicator between 1986 Our indicator of Our indicator of Of the species undergoing found in Scotland and 2016. average species’ average species’ showing either rapid change, that have been abundance of 352 distribution, strong or moderate the proportion of assessed using However, the terrestrial and covering 2,970 changes in species defined Regional Red List abundance freshwater species terrestrial and numbers, 49% as showing criteria, 11% have indicators for fish has fallen by 24% freshwater species have decreased strong changes been classified as species, both pelagic since 1994. There over a broad range and 28% have in abundance, threatened with and demersal, has been very little of taxonomic increased. Likewise either increasing extinction from show some signs change in the rate groups, has fallen more species or decreasing, rose Great Britain. of recovery from of decline in the last by 14% since 1970, have decreased in from 45% since deep historic lows 10 years. and is 2% lower distribution (33%) 1994 to 62% over in the Celtic and than in 2005. than increased the last 10 years. North Seas. (20%) since 1970. State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 3
Though some Gannet pressures on nature, notably freshwater pollution, • Legislation has driven marked have reduced in recent decades, reductions in emissions of some the pressures that have caused harmful pollutants, although the net loss of biodiversity negative impacts remain. continue collectively to have a • The need for more homes in negative effect. response to changing human • Agricultural productivity, linked population demographics means to the intensification of land that thousands of hectares (ha) management and the decline of habitat including farmland, in farmland nature, is still woodland and wetland are increasing, although some built on every year, although Photo: Andrew Parkinson farmers have adopted wildlife- woodland cover has increased friendly farming techniques. and new wetland habitat has been created. The impacts of fishing • Average temperatures in Scotland have increased by and climate change nearly 1°C, with widespread on species’ abundance and impacts on nature distribution are evident throughout evident already. Scottish seas. At the base of the food web, plankton communities have changed in response to warming seas. While fish stocks are showing signs of recovery, the impacts of unsustainable fishing persist. The ramifications of other pressures on the marine environment, such as noise and plastic pollution, are of concern but remain less clear.
Photo: Oliver Smart This report showcases just a few of the exciting conservation initiatives, Photo: Peter Cairns involving thousands of people, Scotland has a long intended to help nature flourish across Scotland, history of love for, and delivered through partnerships fascination with, our of individuals, landowners, NGOs and government. natural heritage. Thanks to this, thousands of volunteers collect data on our wildlife every year. Without their dedication this report would not be possible; we thank them all. #STATEOFNATURE 4 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
KEY FINDINGS Our species’ status metrics make We focus on measuring change over use of two broad types of data: two periods: from 1994 through to 2016 for abundance data and from 1970 to Abundance data from a number We are able to present trends 2015 for occupancy data. Our short- of well-established monitoring term period covers the final 10 years in status for more species than schemes in Scotland and the UK of these time series, telling us how ever before in State of Nature encompassing 352 species (birds, Scotland’s nature is doing now. 2019. This is due to new datasets mammals, butterflies and moths). becoming available and the Many of these species are popular development of analytical tools to record, and are relatively easy to identify and to observe, making it which enable a much broader possible to count individuals to get a range of taxonomic groups to measure of relative abundance. Our be represented. abundance metrics report the average change in relative abundance across Using multispecies indicators, these species. our goal is to communicate a clear, objective assessment Occupancy data from large-scale biological records datasets from of the state of biodiversity which we can now calculate trends for in Scotland. The metrics we 2,970 species across a wider range of present show how measures taxonomic groups (including mammals, of average species’ status have vascular plants, lichens, bryophytes changed over time as well as and a number of invertebrate groups). showing the variation in trends These trends measure the change in the proportion of occupied sites in between species. Scotland, so our metrics effectively For full methods see State of report the average change in Golden Eagle distribution for these species. Nature 2019 at www.nbn.org.uk/ Photo: Laurie Campbell stateofnature2019.
SCOTLAND-SPECIFIC COMBINED ABUNDANCE INDICATOR BASED ON TRENDS OF MOTHS (175 SPECIES), BIRDS (143 SPECIES), BUTTERFLIES (25 SPECIES) AND MAMMALS (9 SPECIES) S ot a a u a e ator (352 species) o ter S ort ter individual species’ trends. To examine 199 201 200 201 All (352) All (344) this, we have allocated species 1 0 100 into trend categories based on the
120 magnitude of population change, over 0
100 the long- and the short-term periods. 0 0 • Over the long term, 49% of species 199 100 showed strong or moderate declines 0 0
e e and 28% showed strong or moderate
0 of species Percentage 20 increases; 24% showed little change. 20 • Over the short term, 48% of species 0 0 199 2000 2010 201 Strong increase showed strong or moderate declines Moderate increase Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change and 33% showed strong or moderate Moderate decrease Strong decrease increases; 18% showed little change. • Over the long term, 45% of The abundance indicator for 352 difference in the rate of change species showed a strong change terrestrial and freshwater species, between the long and the short term. in abundance (either increase or for which Scotland-specific trends The white line with shading shows decrease). Over the short term this are available, shows a statistically the smoothed trend and associated rose to 62% of species. significant decline in average 95% CI, the blue line shows the abundance of 24% (95% confidence Using a different, binary categorisation: underlying unsmoothed indicator. intervals (CI) -33% to -15%) between The bar chart shows the percentage • Over the long term, 60% of species 1994 and 2016. Over this long-term of species within the indicator showed negative trends and 40% period the smoothed indicator fell by that have increased, decreased showed positive trends; over the 1.2% per year. Over our short-term (moderately or strongly) or shown short term, 56% of species showed period, the decline was a statistically little change in abundance. Within negative trends and 44% showed non-significant 12%, a rate of 1.3% multispecies indicators like these positive trends. per year. There was no significant there is substantial variation between State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 5
TRENDS IN ABUNDANCE FOR BIRDS, MOTHS, BUTTERFLIES AND MAMMALS
S ot a rou a u a e ator broadly stable since, with a statistically 200 non-significant decline in average 1 0 abundance of 4% (CI -9% to 0%). 1 0 The indicator was 7% lower in 2016 1 0 compared to 2006. 120
19 100 100 • The abundance indicator for 0 25 butterfly species starts in 1979 e e 0 and shows a slight but statistically 0 non-significant increase in average 20 0 abundance of 9% (CI -27% to +45%). 19 19 0 1990 2000 2010 201 The indicator was 19% lower in 2016 Birds (143) Moths (175) Butterflies (25) Mammals (9) compared to 2006. Unsmoothed indicator • The abundance indicator for nine Based on smoothed trends: 25% (CI -49% to -1%). Over the short mammal species starts in 1998 and • The abundance indicator for term, the indicator was 10% lower in overall shows a statistically significant 175 moth species starts in 1975 2016 compared to 2006. decline in average abundance of 9% and shows a statistically significant • The abundance indicator for 143 bird (CI -14% to -4%). The indicator was decline in average abundance of species starts in 1994 and has been 5% lower in 2016 compared to 2006.
CHANGE IN SPECIES’ DISTRIBUTION IN SCOTLAND
S ot a o u a ator 2 9 0 pec e o ter S ort ter 19 0 201 200 201 • Over the long term, 33% of species 2 9 0 2 9 0 120 100 showed strong or moderate declines and 20% showed strong or moderate 100 0 increases; 47% showed little change.
0 0 • Over the short term, 37% of species
19 0 100 0 showed strong or moderate declines 0 and 30% showed strong or moderate e e 0 o pec e ercenta e increases; 33% showed little change. 20 20 • Over the long term, 23% of species
0 0 showed a strong change in distribution 19 0 19 0 1990 2000 2010 201 Strong increase (either increase or decrease). Over the nd cator 90 cred le nter al Moderate increase Little change Moderate decrease short term this rose to 45% of species. Strong decrease Using a different, binary categorisation: The occupancy indicator for 2,970 declines could reflect more severe terrestrial and freshwater species underlying abundance declines. • Over the long term, 62% of species shows a decline in average distribution showed negative trends and 38% To examine the variation in species’ showed positive trends in distribution; of 14% between 1970 and 2015, and distribution trends, we allocated trends 2% between 2005 and 2015. Because over the short term, 57% of species into categories based on the magnitude showed negative trends and 43% species tend to decline in abundance of distribution change. before they disappear from a site, showed positive trends.
NATIONAL RED LIST ASSESSMENT BY TAXONOMIC GROUPS Endangered or Vulnerable) and ered ndan ered e ar e a t o n lner e ata n erte rate 2 0 t nct or Re onall R r t c a therefore at risk of extinction from ered R ll ndan ered le a le rea nt ficie nt Great Britain (the scale at which rn ce rn
erte rate 2 te ned assessments are made). The bars show n the percentage of assessed species, by 1 and l c en broad taxonomic group and overall,
lant 2 0 which fall into each of the IUCN Red List categories.
otal 1 Of the extant terrestrial and
0 2 0 100 freshwater species found in Scotland, er e ta e of e e assessed using modern IUCN Regional Red List criteria, 265 plants (13%), 153 Of the 6,413 species found in Scotland Criteria, 642 (11%) of the extant fungi and lichens (11%), 92 vertebrates that have been assessed against the species, for which sufficient data are (37%) and 132 invertebrates (5%) are International Union for Conservation available, are formally classified as classified as being at risk of extinction of Nature (IUCN) Regional Red List threatened (Critically Endangered, from Great Britain. 6 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
In addition to the State of Nature (27 species) increased steadily up to Some species show climate-driven, report’s metrics of change in the late 2000s, peaking at 23% above significant long-term population abundance and distribution of the 1994 index value. It is currently increases including northwards terrestrial and freshwater species, 14% higher than in 1994, although range expansion. Scotland’s specialist and of extinction risk, Scottish range changes between 1970 and butterflies (six species) also show Natural Heritage (SNH) publishes 1990 suggest a decline in farmland little change since 1979; however, biodiversity indicators for birds and birds over that period. The smoothed some species (such as Grayling) show butterflies on an annual basis1. upland bird index (17 species) shows a statistically significant declines, while statistically significant decline of 17%. others (such as Small Pearl-bordered • Between 1994 and 2017, the Fritillary) have increased significantly. woodland bird index (23 species) • Between 1979 and 2017, the long- showed an increase of 69%. The term trend for generalist butterflies smoothed farmland bird index (14 species) was classed as stable.
MARINE KEY FINDINGS Marine status assessments been identified in some components but also because seasonal patterns have been made for the Greater of the plankton communities around of production and overall abundance North Sea and Celtic Seas the UK coast, including Scotland. vary among species. This has consequences for the predators of (except for seabirds). Here we Copepods (small planktonic plankton, including fish4, which in crustaceans) make up a large present examples to summarise turn can impact on species at higher proportion of the zooplankton changes around the Scottish trophic levels, such as seabirds5,6,7. biomass and play a key role in coast, but for more details on converting energy from primary Colder-water species, Calanus each group see State of Nature producers up the food web; however, finmarchicus, moving polewards 2019 UK report, Marine key the composition of these communities findings section. is changing. Warming temperatures have driven northward shifts in the PLANKTON distribution of zooplankton in the North East Atlantic, from the 1960s to The base of the marine food web the late 1980s, bringing smaller warm- is formed by a wide variety of water copepod species into certain organisms, including phytoplankton regions around the UK. (photosynthetic plant‑like microscopic organisms) and zooplankton (animal An example of this has been the shift Being replaced by warmer-water species, plankton including copepods and in the relative proportions of two Calanus helgolandicus, moving northwards larvae of some larger species). These closely related copepod species, with groups are sensitive to changes in the cold-water Calanus finmarchicus nutrients, salinity and temperatures. being replaced by the warmer-water Plankton communities respond rapidly relative C. helgolandicus in some to environmental changes, making areas2,3 (see maps below). These shifts them a good indicator of change in have the potential to impact higher marine ecosystems. In recent years, trophic levels, not least because of profound and important changes have changes to community composition
SEABIRDS Seabirds sit at the top of the food on them, such as Arctic Skua, have strength of ocean stratification, and web and are susceptible to changes been particularly affected, with a mismatch in reproductive timings in the distribution and phenology of declines of 72% and 77% respectively with availability of prey11,12. the plankton and fish species they rely since 1986. Sandeels are a key prey Index of seabird numbers in Scotland, on for food. They have undergone species for fish and seabirds. There 1986 to 2016 substantial declines in Scotland over is now good evidence that declines u a e ator 12 pec e the last 30 years. in the abundance and nutritional quality of Sandeels has reduced the 120 • From the start of the time series in 100 breeding success and populations of 1986 to the most recent estimate 0 seabirds such as Kittiwakes8,9,10. The in 2016, the average numbers of 19 100 0 cascade of mechanisms involved are 12 species of breeding seabirds in e still being investigated but include 0 Scotland have declined by 38%. the impact of fishing on Sandeel 20 0 • Surface feeding seabirds such as populations as well as increasing sea 19 2000 2010 201 ear Kittiwake, or species that depend surface temperature, the timing and nd cator State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 7
MARINE MAMMALS • Scotland hosts over 30% of the world • Since 1994, Harbour Seal abundance breeding population of Grey Seals. has decreased in colonies on the Between 2012 and 2016, populations north and east coasts of Scotland were largely stable in the west but increased in west Scotland and north, and increased by 4% (an area that holds over 20% in the North Sea13. of UK Harbour Seals)13. Harbour Seal Photo: Chris Gomersall
FISHERIES Marine fish and shellfish are harvested affecting the structure and stability of The UK administrations’ latest around the UK, representing the most the ecosystem15. assessment of progress towards Good widespread direct human pressure in Environmental Status (GES) under The UK has a legal commitment to fish UK waters14. Fish stocks of commercial the Marine Strategy Regulations17 sustainably by 2020. interest span international boundaries. confirmed GES will not be met by 2020 When fish communities are fished more The Scottish Government indicator for for fish, commercial fish and shellfish, heavily, the larger, more profitable fish sustainability of commercial fish stocks and benthic habitats. are removed and the size-mix of the reports the percentage of key Scottish fish stocks is changed. Smaller, less fish stocks fished sustainably. From commercially valuable, less reproductive 2015 to 2017 the indicator increased individuals become more dominant, from 46% to 54%16.
MARINE FISH ABUNDANCE IN THE CELTIC AND GREATER NORTH SEAS Abundance indicators for demersal • Over the long term, 27% of species Change in average species’ abundance – marine fish species, those that live showed strong or moderate Celtic Seas demersal fish on or near the sea floor (e.g. Cod, decreases and 64% showed strong u a e ator (11 species) Haddock, Saithe), for the Celtic Seas and or moderate increases; 9% showed 00 the Greater North Sea, show signs of little change. recovery following improved fisheries 00 GREATER NORTH SEA management, from very low baselines • The demersal species indicator 19 100 200 and a history of overexploitation. shows a statistically significant e 100 Data for pelagic fish species that live increase of 58% over the long term in the water column (e.g. Herring, (1983–2017) and a non-significant 0 19 1990 2000 2010 201 Blue Whiting and Mackerel) indicate decrease of 6% over the last nd cator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals increases in average abundance in 10 years. both the Celtic and the Greater North • Over the long term, 11% of species Change in average species’ abundance – Seas over the same period. Groundfish showed strong or moderate Greater North Sea demersal fish surveys are less reliable for schooling decreases and 78% showed strong u a e ator (9 species) pelagic species and therefore the or moderate increases; 11% showed direction of trend is more appropriate 00 little change. to report than the average magnitude 00 of change.
19 100 200
The abundance indicator for demersal e marine fish, for the Celtic Seas (based on 100
11 species) and the Greater North Sea 0 19 1990 2000 2010 201 (based on nine species) show increases nd cator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals in average abundance as follows: Very little is known about the CELTIC SEAS vast majority of unmonitored and • The demersal species indicator unregulated fish populations. These shows a statistically significant trends are based on a tiny proportion increase of 133% over the long term of the hundreds of demersal fish (1985–2016) and a non-significant species present in UK waters. 22% over the last 10 years. Photo: Laurie Campbell 8 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine DRIVERS OF CHANGE The following pages explore the key pressures acting on nature in Scotland; agricultural management, climate change, hydrological change, urbanisation, woodland management, pollution, invasive non‑native species (INNS), upland management, marine climate change and fisheries.
AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT
Agriculture is the dominant use of land, covering over 70% of Scotland, and some of the country’s most important wildlife habitats, such as the Hebridean machair, are intrinsically linked Photo: David Woodfall to farming systems. As a result, farming practices influence increasing greenhouse gas emissions, FARMERS HELPING NATURE how nature fares, with the power to which contribute to climate change7. TO PROSPER either support or endanger wildlife While these are changes that have Many farmers and crofters are and ecological life-support systems. been seen in lowland agriculture, managing their land with nature and Agriculture and associated land uses much of Scotland’s uplands are also the environment in mind and show are deeply related to the twin climate managed for food production; we how biodiversity can benefit with and biodiversity crises, while farmers discuss this on page 15. the right support. Leaving space for and crofters are frequently on the However, compared to other UK nature with wildlife-friendly practices frontline of environmental change. countries, some species groups such such as enhanced field margins, At both a UK and global scale, as butterflies and moths, especially good grazing management, reduced farmland management has been generalists, show greater stability in inputs of pesticides and fertilisers, and identified as one of the most Scotland. Scottish agri-environment mowing and cutting at the right time significant pressures on biodiversity1,2. schemes (AES), in which subsidies can have major benefits. Historically, intensification of support wildlife-friendly farming At Williamwood farm in Dumfriesshire, agriculture has been one of the major methods, have delivered some for example, farmers Michael and causes of biodiversity decline due to positive outcomes, in particular in Shirley Clarke have Highland-cross loss of traditional farming practices addressing declines in some farmland cattle and breeding sheep that they and changes in management. For birds8,9. Efficient food production can farm with nature in mind. They example, Corncrakes bred in all demonstrably be decoupled from maintain wet rushy areas for wading Scottish counties in the mid-19th ecological damage with the right birds, reducing their stock in the century; by the 1980s they were incentives and advice. The terrestrial breeding season, manage species-rich almost entirely restricted to some breeding bird index farmland section, grassland to maintain plant diversity, Hebridean and Orkney islands3. The incorporating trends from 27 species, sow wild-bird cover to help farmland changes in farmland management has shown a 14% long-term increase birds and have created margins to over the past 50 years that have had (1994–2017)10, and more specifically protect watercourses. They have the greatest impact on Scotland’s trends in abundance of seed-eating also planted more than 11,000 trees, nature include the increased birds in Scotland have become more 3.5km of new hedgerows, created use of pesticides and fertilisers, stable11. In some areas targeted AES a new lake and put up numerous continuous cropping, changed have arrested declines and even bat and bird boxes. Farming with sowing seasons and the loss of enabled partial recovery, such as for nature is at the heart of what they do, non-cropped habitats3,4,5. Changes in Corncrakes in the Hebrides and Corn which is why Michael was one of the food production patterns can cause Buntings in northeast Scotland12,8. founding steering group members of invertebrate declines, with conversion Despite the issues related to the Nature Friendly Farming Network to more intensive agriculture and intensification, as outlined above, (NFFN) in Scotland14. He is now chair of agrochemical pollutants the key areas with a high proportion of semi- the Scottish Steering Group of NFFN, drivers6. Moreover, changes to natural vegetation and low-intensity working alongside a growing network ploughing, crop rotations, fertiliser agriculture make up 40% of Scotland’s of support for nature among Scottish use and livestock numbers have agricultural area, and are classified as farmers and crofters. negatively impacted soil and water High Nature Value farmland13. quality, carbon storage and led to State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 9
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is a key driver The frequency of fires in uplands SCOTLAND’S UPLANDS of change in Scotland’s habitats and woodlands is predicted to AND CLIMATE CHANGE increase, leading to direct damage and species, from mountain tops Scotland’s uplands are of international to habitat and indirect impacts importance. Long-term monitoring to seabeds, interacting with the through nitrate deposition10. Across of snowbeds has revealed the effects effects of other drivers1. many sites in Scotland, peatlands of climate change. Mean snow cover and blanket bog play a crucial role Climate influences the landform duration from October to May in the in carbon storage, flood alleviation processes directly shaping mountains, central Scottish Highlands decreased and water quality, while delivering rivers and coasts, and underpins our between 1979 and 200316, during 2 significant biodiversity benefits. The habitats, ecosystems and landscapes . which time both mean temperature global importance of peatlands for Climate change and extreme weather and mean precipitation increased. carbon storage and biodiversity is events have already impacted on This is affecting the composition of increasingly recognised – the Scottish many aspects of our natural and montane vegetation, with the decline Government Peatland Action Fund13 human environment, including of some arctic-alpine species. Repeat has funded extensive restoration agriculture, forestry, transport, surveys of snow-bed vegetation and conservation work on more than water resources, energy demand over the past 50–60 years show a 1,3 19,000ha across the country. and human health . Some habitats shift towards more homogeneous will be affected directly, but often Scotland’s coastal habitats are communities, with an increase in climate change will alter intricate also seeing pressure from climate generalist species such as the Three- ecological balances, as in the marine change, through the acceleration leaved Rush and declines in specialist environment (see page 16). Many in the rise of sea levels and larger species such as snow-bed liverworts16. of Scotland’s species are adapted to storm-surges causing erosion and As a result, the species richness of specific climatic conditions, meaning reduced connectivity of some beach, dwarf-shrub heath and oceanic- that climate change is projected to dune and machair habitats. These montane liverwort-rich heath habitats have strong effects4. factors have led to changes in species is declining. These changes are 14 Climate change is driving the range composition . Saltmarshes and thought to be due to a combination of some species northward, including some dune systems, which increase of increasing temperatures, shifts in butterflies (Small Skipper, Ringlet the resilience of coastlines to these precipitation patterns, and changes 16 and Orange-tip)5; birds (Nuthatch, pressures by attenuating wave energy to grazing regimes . Shifts in the Reed Warbler)6; dragonflies (Hairy and providing a buffer for sensitive ranges of species and changes in Dragonfly)7 and moths (Thistle Ermine inland habitats, may be adversely phenology will have implications and Gold Triangle)8. On the trailing affected by higher seasonal rainfall, for the ecological composition of edge of ranges, climate change is increasing variation in groundwater, communities and habitats, with both 15 putting pressure on species that have and freshwater run-off . winners and losers. their southern limits in Scotland. A further risk from climate change is Modelling predicts that species the spread of INNS and pathogens associated with cold montane habitats which may benefit from the are likely to see continued contraction changing conditions. of their ranges to the most northerly Photo: Steve Knell and high-altitude locations9. Snow cover and its duration are projected to decrease further, with the possibility of no snow cover below 900 metres by the 2080s10. This could lead to the loss of snow-bed communities through the increased dominance of generalist species from lower altitudes. A recent project mapped the best places for nature across the UK and calculated the amount of carbon contained in the vegetation and top 30cm of soil, showing that nature-rich areas secure carbon, benefit species and provide vital ecosystem services11. It is increasingly well documented that habitat degradation means stored carbon is lost to the atmosphere12. Hairy Dragonfly 10 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine
HYDROLOGICAL in impervious substances such as colonised by Alder and willows to concrete or tarmac) has compounded form the present mosaic of dense CHANGE the rate and extent of wetland loss, wet woodland, open fen and saline and changes in farming practices lagoon. The qualifying interest of the have led to the disappearance of SAC is “Alder woodland on floodplains”; Humans have been managing many lowland ponds formerly used “wet woodland” is one of the notified the subsurface and surface to water livestock5,7. natural features of the SSSI. hydrology of catchments Recently, rewetting peatlands, the By 2010 the SAC was declared to be for thousands of years. creation of ponds and river restoration in ‘unfavourable declining’ condition Land has been drained for have led to some improvements8,9,10. because of the dieback of Alders13. agriculture and development, Green infrastructure, such as An investigation undertaken in and streams and rivers have been sustainable urban drainage systems, partnership with Forest Research diverted, straightened, deepened, has created new wetlands in urban identified that this was most embanked, dammed and reinforced areas. These developments offer likely the result of water logging, to allow navigation, provide flood opportunities for wildlife and can associated tree disease (Phytophthora), defence, create reservoirs for reduce the risk of flooding or pollution and herbivory14. power generation and agricultural, locally11. However, further pressures A partnership comprising SNH, industrial and domestic use, on hydrological networks are arising Transport Scotland, BEAR Scotland, prevent erosion and protect from climate change (e.g. increased the Scottish Environment Protection infrastructure1,2,3. The industrial flood risk and prolonged droughts), Agency and the land managers revolution brought a significant pollution (particularly diffuse pollution assessed the causes of the increase in water management and from agriculture) and INNS. The waterlogging, and found a change the current hydrological functioning latter have considerable impacts in the management of the causeway of watercourses is often a legacy of on freshwater ecosystems that are sluice gates following the retirement this period. An assessment of the known to be intensifying12, and will, of the last sluice gate keeper to be status of Scotland’s surface waters in without increased biosecurity action, an important factor. The sluices have 2017 found that 13.4% were in poor precipitate further losses. since been automated, a network of or bad condition regarding barriers drainage ditches has been reopened, to fish migration, while 8% were MOUND ALDERWOODS and deer numbers have been lowered adversely affected by flow rates4. This formerly tidal area, designated to combat excessive browsing and Latterly, streams and rivers have as a Site of Special Scientific trampling. The woodland is now been subjected to a number of often Interest (SSSI) and a Special Area of believed to be recovering, but its individually minor, but collectively Conservation (SAC), was once part return to favourable condition significant, alterations designed to of the Loch Fleet estuary but was is threatened by invasive plants improve recreational fishing. largely isolated from it in 1816 when a (Himalayan Balsam and Skunk Many of these modifications have causeway was constructed to convey Cabbage); the local community is now had adverse effects on wetland and what is now the A9. Following this helping to control these. freshwater habitats and species5. separation, the area was gradually Historic losses due to drainage have been very significant; although not Photo: Steve Austin well quantified, the extent of lowland wetlands is much smaller now than in the early 20th century, and losses extend much further back historically. Of the remaining wetlands that are protected by law, 30% of designated wetland features are classed as unfavourable or unfavourable recovering due to management. 29% of freshwater features are unfavourable or unfavourable recovering due to management6. Soil sealing (the process of covering soil
Drainage channels on moorland State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 11
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine
URBANISATION GARTCOSH’S GREAT CRESTED NEWTS Scottish Enterprise took over dispersal to and from other sites Gartcosh, northeast Glasgow, as a extremely unlikely, and severely long-term regeneration opportunity, limiting genetic exchange. The but were surprised to find a set Scottish Government is seeking to of ponds holding a substantial encourage the building of affordable population of Great Crested Newts. housing in areas with reasonable After surveys, a 10ha area containing employment prospects, and as a the 13 original ponds, plus eight newly publicly owned site close to Glasgow, created ponds, was designated as Gartcosh is highly suitable; house an Amphibian Conservation Area in building has been underway around 1998. However, Scottish Enterprise the Gartcosh Nature Reserve for some soon came to regard this area as years. Planning permission for a new crucial to their regeneration plans and road was granted in 2015. This came a nearby 29ha site was prepared as with conditions that include tunnels the Gartcosh Nature Reserve in 2003. and fences to allow animals to access SNH agreed to a translocation of the all parts of the reserve without having amphibians from the original site. to cross the road8. Photo: Peter Cairns (rspb-images.com) The translocation moved 1,012 adult The tunnels are being monitored Great Crested Newts, estimated to be Urbanisation is a threat to using customised time-lapse cameras. at least 10% of the total Great Crested Cameras have great advantages in biodiversity globally, through Newt population in Scotland, as well providing unbiased high-quality data loss of valuable wildlife sites as 10,173 other amphibians7. over long periods of time, which and fragmentation of habitats maximises the opportunities for Modelling of the 10-year post- robust comparisons. Gartcosh has due to the increase in transport translocation survey dataset indicated 1 unrivalled population monitoring data systems and infrastructure . that the translocation had been over several years and this, in addition broadly successful, although there This fragmentation has severely to high-quality tunnel monitoring was variation in population estimates impacted on species dispersal and data, will provide substantial evidence and some evidence of decline. mortality, thus increasing genetic of the effectiveness of the tunnel 2 bottlenecks , inbreeding, isolation The site is surrounded by railway and fence systems. and the chance of local populations tracks and motorways, making going extinct. Urbanisation continues, with the area covered by impermeable materials, such as concrete, increasing Photo: Neil Phillips (rspb-images.com) in many regions between 2009 and 20163. Despite the harmful impacts of urbanisation, many of our species have become reliant on urban habitats such as gardens, allotments, parks and brownfield sites (vacant and derelict land). Well-designed urban green infrastructure offers habitats for wildlife and can connect populations, thereby reducing adverse ecological effects4,5. As well as impacting biodiversity, urbanisation can lead to “Nature Deficit Disorder”6 whereby people are deprived of the health and well-being benefits that contact with nature can provide.
Great Crested Newt 12 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine WOODLAND
Despite Scotland being the most though undergrazing can also present wooded of the UK countries, problems for some plants and lichen assemblages, due to increased with around 19% woodland shade7. Evidence suggests that cover, it remains one of the many specialist lichen species have most heavily deforested continued to decline in abundance countries in Europe, with as well as distribution because of woodland cover well below negative habitat pressures8. Despite the current European average the many pressures, some woodland species have fared well in Scotland in of 37%1,2. recent years: the Woodland Bird Index Just under a quarter (311,000ha) of increased by 69% between 1994 and Scotland’s woodland is considered 2017, with 19 of the 23 monitored native3. This includes globally species increasing over the period9. important areas of Atlantic rainforest, including Oak and Hazel woodland, REVIVING AND RE-CREATING and Caledonian pine forest – widely NATIVE WOODLAND recognised as being of very high value Over the course of 15 years, Borders to biodiversity, but fragmented and Photo: David Woodfall (rspb-images.com) Forest Trust has acquired – through restricted in range3. The remaining volunteer fundraising, grants three-quarters (1.4 million ha) is LANDSCAPE SCALE from charitable trusts and public mainly commercial forestry plantation RESTORATION subscription – 3,100ha of the Southern dominated by conifers, which Uplands across Dumfriesshire and Cairngorms Connect is an ambitious benefit a smaller range of largely the Scottish Borders, collectively multi-partner project with a 200-year generalist species. known as The Wild Heart of Southern vision to enhance habitats, species Scotland project10. and ecological processes across a vast area within the Cairngorms Upland ecosystems have been National Park11. Covering 600 substantially affected by long-term square kilometres, including ancient patterns of grazing, but wildlife- Caledonian pine forest and montane sensitive management and considered willow communities, the biggest land tree planting is now restoring the restoration project in Britain will allow area. Over the course of the project forests to expand, naturalise rivers nearly a million trees and shrubs and restore huge tracts of peatland. have been planted, including new Work on this project is currently in woodlands, wood pasture and riparian its infancy but milestones have been buffer strips. Nature is beginning to set for actions, monitoring, research, Photo: Mike Read (rspb-images.com) return to the restored landscape and publicity and demonstration. a recent scientific study found that Woodlands in Scotland face pressure the number of woodland bird species from fragmentation, browsing and recorded regularly had risen from two grazing, INNS and new pests and in 2008 to 14 in 2015. pathogens4,5. Climate change will interact with these drivers, increasing This project has demonstrated that the frequency of drought, flood and planting trees and shrubs, even extreme weather events, leading at high altitudes and in severe to changes in distribution and conditions, is a perfectly achievable altered competitive relationships approach to restoring ecologically between species. Challenges facing damaged and degraded marginal woodland and woodland managers upland areas and provides a are exemplified by the percentage template that could be copied across of woodland features on protected the country. sites in favourable or recovering condition, which dropped from 68.1% in 2017 to 65.2% in 20196. Overgrazing and INNS (principally Rhododendron ponticum) were the most frequent pressures recorded at sites in unfavourable condition, State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 13
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine POLLUTION
Pollution – from plastic waste and chemicals in our soils, waters and air to the noise and light from cities and transport – threatens the environment and the species that inhabit it, not to mention our own health and well-being. From nutrient enrichment on mountain tops to the plastic litter in our seas, there are few places in Scotland left uncompromised by the by-products of modern human life. There has been marked progress, particularly since the 1990s, but the legacy Photo: Ernie Janes (rspb-images.com) of over 200 years of industrial relatively small, with no significant in Scotland has been discovered by development still remains, and change since 2007. Many pollutants analysing data from species records we face challenges from new have long-term impacts so the of mosses and liverwort (bryophytes). forms of pollution too. influence on many sensitive habitats Scientists from the James Hutton remains considerable. New threats Institute and SNH have collaborated Air pollution and nutrient enrichment have arisen with the introduction on a project which shows bryophytes affect biodiversity and ecosystem of novel agrochemical and can be used to assess the health services, harm human health and pharmaceutical products, and plastic of our ecosystems8. The newly contribute to climate change. pollution is increasingly recognised as developed indicator, which links Widespread changes have been causing harm to natural systems. bryophyte records in the National recorded to sensitive ecosystems in Biodiversity Network to information Scotland, with farming, transport, Diffuse pollution has been reduced on the habitat preferences of different energy and industry being the key in Scotland, particularly since the species, provides good evidence pollution sources. 1990s, but still represents a significant of how mosses and liverwort have risk to freshwaters6. Agriculture and Levels of the principal air pollutants reacted to changes in pollutants9. forestry are the main contributors have all declined in Scotland since The indicator draws together over of diffuse pollution, with nutrient 1990, and all but ammonia are at half a million records going back to and pesticide run-off, soil erosion levels below 40% of their 1990 value1. 1960. Most of these records were through cultivation and poaching by Most semi-natural habitats, and over made by volunteers from the British animals close to watercourses adding two-thirds of our wildflowers (such Bryological Society. individually small, but cumulatively as Harebell and Betony), require low large, pollution loads. Further diffuse The indicator breaks down information levels of nitrogen2. Eutrophication, pollution arises from contaminated into 10 catchment-based Scottish acidification and toxification of drainage from roads and urban regions and the data indicated a peak ecosystems have been shown to drive areas, along with deposition of acid in the 1990s, with sensitive species declines in the presence, abundance pollutants from the air. In 2018, 12% then starting to increase. Most records and health of sensitive species of of lochs and 20% of rivers and canals are from semi-natural habitats, so plants, lichens and other fungi3. were in “poor” or “bad” condition, it appears that bryophyte records Further up the food chain, the moth according to Water Framework largely reflect changes in atmospheric species whose larvae depend on low Directive assessments7. These were nitrogen pollution and it is heartening nutrient-adapted plants declined primarily associated with intensively to see some signs of recovery from strongly between 1970 and 20104. managed farmland. pollution. There is evidence for a Even in montane regions, far from similar pattern at a UK level for the sources of air pollution, excess MOSS SPECIES PROVIDE bryophytes and lichens, although this nitrogen is deposited in the rain, TELLTALE SIGNS OF POLLUTION must be set against the decline in altering plant communities and AND CLIMATE CHANGE abundance as well as distribution for ecological functioning5. While reactive specialist lichen species because of nitrogen (NOx) levels have fallen Revealing evidence that points negative habitat pressures10. to around 30% of their 1990 value, towards an increase in temperature the reduction in ammonia has been and reducing nitrogen levels 14 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine
INVASIVE AND ERADICATION OF INNS ON RHODODENDRON ISLANDS NON-NATIVE SPECIES Rhododendron ponticum was The Shiant Isles are one of the most introduced to Scotland via the important breeding colonies for horticulture trade; since then, it has Invasive non-native species seabirds in Europe. Historical evidence thrived in the mild, wet conditions (INNS) are a major driver of indicates that current populations of the west of Scotland and has biodiversity loss globally1. are greatly reduced through the spread across much of the available presence of non-native Black Rats, habitat. If left untreated it eliminates Impacts include predation, thought to have arrived from an 18th vegetation, outcompetes native tree competition, hybridisation, century shipwreck, which predate and shrub regeneration and has novel disease and pathogen upon seabird eggs and chicks4. significant impacts on other woodland transfer, and habitat Some previous breeders, like Manx species groups such as mosses degradation. The effects in Shearwaters, have been wiped out and lichens. It is a major cause Scotland broadly reflect the on the islands. of unfavourable site condition on designated sites, including more than international and wider UK A rat eradication and biosecurity half of those designated under the EU project took place during winter situation: significant and Habitats Directive for Western acidic 2015–2016, led by RSPB Scotland intensifying impacts on many oak woodland – the “Celtic Rainforest”, and funded by the EU LIFE fund and native taxa, especially in the for which Scotland has significant SNH, with the support of the Nicolson international responsibilities6. most vulnerable environments – family, custodians of the islands. Rhododendron is also a key host and islands, freshwater bodies and Wildlife Management International reservoir for fungus-like Phytophthora native woodlands2. Limited ran operations, using tree pathogens7. Several large-scale rodenticide contained in bait stations The available indicators show an control projects have tackled the set across the Shiant Isles and taking increasing spread of 190 established issue in Scotland, but success rates more than four months to complete. INNS across terrestrial, freshwater have been poor, with reinvasion of and marine environments in Great In March 2018 the Shiants were previously cleared areas. Key past Britain during the last six decades – declared officially free of rats. Manx weaknesses have been failure to with northwards shift a common Shearwaters and Storm Petrels eradicate at the whole-population pattern3. They also show no reduction were encouraged to nest using call scale, and failure to implement legacy in the establishment rate of new non- playback, and in 2017 calling Storm biosecurity arrangements post- native species. With evidence that Petrels were recorded on the islands eradication. A national approach has climate change and INNS will impact for the first time. Seabirds and other been developed to highlight priority biodiversity in a negative synergy, it is wildlife on the islands are being areas and guide implementation evident that despite recent progress monitored to determine responses, of control8. in policy and legislation, the impact and a comprehensive biosecurity plan and threat from INNS is intensifying is being implemented to prevent significantly in Scotland. reinvasion of mammal predators5.
UK Biodiversity Indicator: Number of new INNS established in or along 10% or more of Great Britain’s land area or coastline, 1960 to 2018 (final columns in each habitat refer to nine years rather than 10)
0
0
0
0
20 Nu er of e e
10
0 19 0 19 0 19 0 1990 2000 2010 19 0 19 0 19 0 1990 2000 2010 19 0 19 0 19 0 1990 2000 2010 19 9 19 9 19 9 1999 2009 201 19 9 19 9 19 9 1999 2009 201 19 9 19 9 19 9 1999 2009 201 re ater ar e erre tr a So rce ncc o State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 15
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine
UPLAND and release of carbon7. Differing highest summits in the British Isles management objectives still lead to and holds a total of 15 Munros. The MANAGEMENT significant conflicts in the uplands8,9, Cairngorms are home to Britain’s and the illegal persecution of birds largest area of arctic-alpine flora and of prey continues to have a major snowbed communities. Uplands cover about half of impact on species’ distribution10. Scotland’s area (estimates vary Caledonian pinewood today covers around 2,350ha of Mar Lodge Estate. from 44% to 85% depending • Some sensitive habitats have also Collaboration with neighbouring on the definition used1), been damaged by windfarms and hill tracks, although this is mitigated, estates led to a plan to cull deer and encompassing a variety of to some degree, through planning erect a fence, which has resulted in habitats and reflecting the processes. Following widespread the successful regeneration of over country’s diverse geology, historic degradation of peatland 800ha of pinewood since 1995. Birch climate and relief. Blanket bog habitats, major efforts have been and montane scrub is also recovering across large areas. These habitats and upland heath are globally made in recent decades to protect are important for Red Squirrel, Black rare habitats but are found and restore blanket bog habitats, with significant positive progress Grouse, Capercaillie, Scottish Crossbill, in relative abundance here. in the Flows of Caithness and Parrot Crossbill, wood ants, other Scotland has 60% of the UK’s Sutherland, the Western Isles and invertebrates and fungi. Some of internationally important elsewhere11. Integrating land use the Scots Pines provide the second peatlands, which have a key for multiple benefits and managing longest native pine chronology in Scotland, stretching back to 1477. role in carbon capture and conflicts in the uplands remains one sequestration2,3. of Scotland’s biggest challenges. Moorlands cover the majority of the estate and provide essential habitat Land use for farming, forestry, MAR LODGE ESTATE NATIONAL for Hen Harriers and Red Grouse. sporting estates and recreation NATURE RESERVE Burning is no longer used to manage continues to influence land the moorland, acknowledging the risk management and condition of In 2017 the Mar Lodge Estate, owned this poses to the woodland, people upland habitats. by the National Trust for Scotland, and the carbon which is locked up in became the UK’s largest National the peat soils. • Agriculture has a significant Nature Reserve, at 29,000ha12. influence, through grazing, drainage Mar Lodge has a rich cultural as and application of nutrients. The landscape is internationally well as natural history, including its In the north and west, crofting significant for its sense of wildness, development as a sporting estate exerts a significant influence on scale and diversity. The montane in the 19th century. Deerstalking, the landscape; in the last decade plateau is among the most significant walked-up grouse shooting and there has been a decline in areas of wild land in the British Salmon fishing still happens on livestock grazing in some areas Isles, and part of the Cairngorm the estate but nature conservation and undergrazing is a pressure. In Mountains National Scenic Area and and public access is its primary many other areas, overgrazing from Cairngorms Wild Land Area. The purpose now. high deer and livestock densities estate encompasses four of the five is a principal pressure on habitats, altering vegetation and preventing Photo: Tim Hunt tree regeneration4.
• In the 20th century, large areas of upland were planted with non-native plantation forestry; more recently some expansion of native woodland, following major historic losses, has occurred5.
• Grouse moor management exerts a powerful influence over land in upland areas6. Inappropriate muirburn, including on deep peat, can damage vegetation and soil, leading to nitrogen deposition
Round-leaved Sundew 16 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine
MARINE CLIMATE The way different plankton species BLUE CARBON respond to warming surface waters Oceans play an important role in CHANGE AND OCEAN has led to major shifts in marine food regulating Earth’s atmosphere, chains, with declines in top predators including through carbon ACIDIFICATION as prey fish become less common sequestration; “blue carbon” is stored and less accessible. There are also in living (animal and plant) and non- Scotland’s seas, which make concerns about changes to nutritional 10 living (e.g. shells and skeletal) material. up around 61% of the UK’s value of prey fish . Declines in Scotland’s Kittiwakes and other Marine ecosystems have a higher total marine area, are highly seabirds are a key example of impacts capacity for storing carbon than dynamic, supporting a diverse evident throughout the food chain11,12. terrestrial systems. For example, range of habitats and species Scotland’s peatlands store an Ocean acidification results from and an increasingly varied estimated 1,620 million tonnes (Mt)18, changes in ocean chemistry primarily whereas the top 10cm of Scotland’s array of marine industries. as a result of the increased uptake of 1 marine sediments store an estimated Scotland’s Marine Atlas and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 1,756Mt19. Scotland’s marine the Marine Climate Change There are concerns that this can sediments alone capture 28.2Mt CO2e 2 cause calcareous shells of sea snails Impacts Partnership identify (carbon dioxide equivalent) per year19, to dissolve13. Acidification is also of climate change and commercial the equivalent of 64% of Scotland’s particular concern as it could further fishing activity as the two 2017 carbon emissions20. reduce the rate at which CO2 is biggest threats to the health of absorbed from the atmosphere, thus Scotland’s seas host a range of blue Scotland’s seas, findings that aggravating climate change14. carbon habitats; from seagrass have been echoed globally3. meadows and kelp forests that store Pressures are predicted to increase carbon in living, organic material The marine environment absorbs from renewable energy developments; to maerl beds and biogenic reefs vast quantities of the heat caused by in line with international targets to that convert carbon into calcium increased greenhouse gases in the reduce climate change, there has been carbonate, locking it up for millennia. atmosphere, resulting in rising ocean a substantial increase in installations Protecting and enhancing blue carbon temperatures4. Changes in sea surface in Scottish waters, with further large- habitats will ensure these stores of temperature can also alter carbon scale projects proposed15. In the light carbon are protected, while at the sequestration rates5, water currents6, of this there is increasing research into same time enhancing their health. nutrient mixing7, species’ distribution the cumulative impact and long-term (e.g. moving to higher latitudes)8 and effects of windfarm developments Some of Scotland’s blue carbon the spread of INNS9. – for example, with concerns about habitats are provided legal protection collision risk for seabirds16,17. within nature conservation Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and SACs. It is estimated that Scotland’s inshore MPAs and SACs store 1.6% of the organic carbon and 2.7% of the inorganic carbon across Scotland’s seas21. These sites store the equivalent of 210.8Mt of CO2e, which equates to approximately five years of Scotland’s annual greenhouse gas emissions21.
Kittiwakes Photo: Ernie Janes (rspb-images.com) State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 17
Agriculture Climate change Hydrological change Urbanisation Woodland Pollution INNS Upland Marine
MARINE – FISHERIES European Parliament and Council5. Bottom-towed fishing gear are “one At a smaller scale, an Isle of Man of the most widespread sources study found that the density of King of physical disturbance to the The recent Intergovernmental Scallops was 30 times greater within continental shelf seas throughout the Science-Policy Platform on a permanent closed area than when world” shifting benthic communities 6 Biodiversity and Ecosystem first protected . MPAs are important into a new but less complex stable spatial measures that contribute state, degrading “topographic Services Global Assessment to the protection and recovery of complexity”9, with the “most severe states that “in marine systems, marine biodiversity, requiring fisheries impact…in biogenic habitats in fishing has had the most impact management measures to meet response to scallop-dredging…[and on biodiversity (target species, their objectives, but have not been with]…soft-sediment habitats, in non-target species and habitats) established in Scotland to contribute particular muddy sands,…surprisingly 10 in the past 50 years alongside to wider fisheries management vulnerable” . Damage to flame shell objectives per se. beds from scallop dredging in outer other significant drivers”1. Loch Carron in 2017 starkly illustrated Ecosystem-based fisheries WIDER ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS the vulnerability of biogenic features11. management is therefore In 2011, Scotland’s Marine Atlas stated The greatest benefit to benthic and fundamental to securing the that, along with climate change, demersal nature derives from areas urgent and necessary recovery fishing is the most widespread of seabed afforded the highest levels of marine nature. pressure on our seas and that the of protection. This can be through a status of most seabed habitats is of range of measures, including marine FISHERIES MANAGEMENT “some” or “many” concerns. The UK reserves, providing direct protection MEASURES administrations’ latest assessment for the widest range of species and 12 Delivering ecosystem-based fisheries of progress towards GES under habitats in a given area . Conclusions 7 management that protects and the Marine Strategy Regulations from a study in Scotland’s pioneering recovers nature at sea requires a confirmed GES will not be met by Community Marine Conservation Area suite of management measures. 2020 for fish, commercial fish and in north Lamlash Bay, a No-Take Zone 13 Quota is essential to limit removals of shellfish, and benthic habitats. Yet centred on damaged maerl beds , target commercial species, although ensuring Seafloor Integrity (General were “consistent with the hypothesis scientific advice is not always applied Descriptor 6) “is at a level that ensures that marine reserves can encourage the in practice as intended, not all species that the structure and functions of recovery of seafloor habitats...”. the ecosystems are safeguarded and have catch levels set and in the North The growing weight of evidence benthic ecosystems, in particular, are East Atlantic, 40% of assessed fish suggests that anthropogenic use of not adversely affected” is crucial to stocks were subject to overfishing in the sea in Scottish waters, including 2 recovering the nature of the seabed. 2017 . Seasonal measures and real- the seafloor itself, means our seas time closures can offer temporary To date, Scotland’s emerging MPA are not meeting GES. Additional protection for large aggregations of network has been the principal spatial measures, whether established juveniles or spawning adults, such tool for contributing to achieving for fisheries management, for as for the Cod recovery plan, though seafloor integrity, including 31 new conservation, or for both, are likely progress has recently reversed, with MPAs among a total of 217 sites to have benefits for both nature’s declining stock levels and 70% cuts in comprising 22% of Scottish waters. recovery and wider society that should Total Allowable Catch recommended Management measures introduced be further explored. Future fisheries by the International Council for the to protect over 2,200km2 of the most management in Scotland must have 3 Exploration of the Sea . Permanent vulnerable inshore sites from bottom- an ecosystem-based approach which spatial measures can protect critical towed fishing gear in 2016 probably includes the recovery of marine fish and shellfish habitat, and where constitute the most significant nature at its core. used these have demonstrated the contribution to this aim. There is a capacity to protect commercially presumption of “sustainable use” fished species. For example, a study in Scotland’s MPAs, when for many in the Windsock fisheries closed widespread, sedimentary habitats area, overlapping the West Shetland and their associated species, we have Shelf MPA, showed an average 78% a limited understanding of what is greater catch weight of Cod and other or is not sustainable8. The remaining species, particularly of larger size inshore sites and most offshore sites classes, inside compared to outside4. await management measures, and However, the Windsock was partially they were not designed to establish opened to mobile gear in August 2019 or deliver fisheries management under voluntary restrictions after outcomes, though such secondary the revision of EU fisheries technical benefits may arise. regulations implemented by the 18 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
HISTORICAL CHANGE IN BIODIVERSITY
TRENDS AND • Woodland cover peaks c5,000 • Early 19th century: diverse • Forest cover begins to MILESTONES years ago across most of multispecies fisheries sustained increase – but much of it is Scotland. Unique native in coastal waters. non-native monocultures. pinewood and broadleaved • Corncrakes and other farmland ecological communities develop. wildlife common and widespread • Peatlands develop post-glaciation across Scottish landscapes. to cover c20% of Scotland.
PEOPLE • Cultural significance of • Origins of environmental • Modern Scottish conservation AND Scottish wildlife evident movement accelerated by the movement emerges NATURE in art and literature from extinction of the Great Auk. post-WWII, with growing Neolithic through to Scottish government commitment and • 1822 – Dalmarnock Bridge Enlightenment. voluntary sector, underpinned protests win access to by science base. countryside for Glasgow people. • Oil in Navigable Waters Act 1922 reduces chronic marine oil pollution. PRE- 1900 TO 1800 1950 1800 TO 1900 PRESSURES • Woodland clearance from • River and air pollution in the • Urbanisation seen as the c5,000 years ago. Felling Central Belt intensify with key issue for biodiversity, accelerates for timber, industrial revolution. rather than broader land tanning and charcoal in the • 1880s – steam trawlers meant a and sea-use patterns. 17th/18th centuries; most rapid increase in fishing effort. • To ensure national timber woodland is lost. • Draining of wetlands and self-sufficiency, Forestry peatlands intensifies. Commission establishes post-WWI – Scotland is • Loss of mixed farming as large- the principal location for scale sheep operations develop. commercial planting.
TRENDS AND • The Wolf becomes extinct in • The Great Auk goes extinct – • Last Scottish White-tailed MILESTONES Scotland, probably in the late last Scottish breeding in 1813, Sea Eagle killed in 1914. 17th century. globally extinct by 1844. • Between 1903 and 1928 at least • Intensification and 6,028 Fin Whales were hunted industrialisation of marine in Scottish waters. fisheries lead to major landing • Svalbard-breeding Solway declines in second half of Barnacle Geese hit a low 19th century, into 20th. post-WWII of less than 300 individuals through hunting and disturbance.
State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 19
This report focuses on changes in biodiversity and the drivers of these changes, taking 1970 as baseline year. We must remember, however, that people have been shaping landscape and wildlife for millennia. This historic context is important in framing more recent changes that we can accurately measure. This is a selection of indicative milestones, trends, pressures and changes, from various sources – some broad and major, others quite specific. The list is not comprehensive. It is, rather, a brief illustration of the multiple historical perspectives on people and nature in Scotland.
• Loss of native woodland slows as • Corncrake population begins to recover • Populations of wintering geese increase conservation designations and from 1991. significantly (except of the declining woodland grants are established. • Red Kite and White-tailed Sea Eagle Greenland White-fronted Goose). • Ospreys return as Scottish breeders reintroductions succeed in re-establishing • 2016 – Scottish Government announce in 1954. them as breeders in Scotland. that Beavers, released in 2009, are to • Northern Gannet populations grow, with • Peatland restoration work expands. remain in Scotland – the first time that the world’s largest colonies in Scotland. a mammal has been reintroduced in the UK.
• National wildlife protection • Fiscal incentives for forestry on blanket • CBD’s 2020 targets set in 2010. In legislation emerges. bogs ended, late 1980s. 2017 Scotland meets seven out of 20, • First National Nature Reserve in 1951 • Sandeel fishery closures, with industry compared with a global average of four, at Beinn Eighe. cooperation, in response to wildlife trends, is making progress on 12 and submitted the world’s first Aichi assessment. • National Parks designated in England Shetland and Forth. and Wales from 1951 – but not Scotland. • SNH formed in 1992 – one of the most • MPAs and Natura sites designated in Scottish waters. • Scottish Wildlife Trust formed 1964. enduring public wildlife agencies. • Loch Lomond and The Trossachs, and the Cairngorms, designated as National Parks in 2002 and 2003 respectively.
1900 TO 1980 TO 1950 2000 1950 TO POST- 1980 2000 • Following WWII food shortages, and • Overgrazing and non-native • Water surface temperatures following joining of the EU Common Rhododendron impacts drive key Atlantic increase in rivers, lochs and seas – Agricultural Policy in 1973, farming woodland sites into unfavourable status. projected to increase further. methods intensify with wildlife losses. • Invasive species – new non-natives • Use of DDT and other organo-chlorines continue to establish. Species becomes widespread from 1950, affecting established in the south spread wildlife, especially songbirds and predators. north. Climate change increases • Commercial forestry expands onto establishment probability. important wildlife habitats – native woodlands and peatlands.
• Overfishing led North Sea Herring • Breeding failures and prey fish availability • The Loch Lomond Capercaillie stocks to decline by over 99% between issues become evident for Northern population goes extinct, meaning the 1960s and mid-70s. Isles seabirds. significant range contraction. • Post-war farmland wildlife • Black Grouse declines, especially in • Curlew numbers have fallen by declines proceed across much of south of Scottish range. 48% since 1995. western Europe. • Farmland wildlife declines continue, • The endemic Scottish Manx shearwater including Great Yellow Bumblebee and fleaCeratophyllus fionnus was last Corn Bunting. recorded in the 1970s. 20 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
KEY FINDINGS Our species’ status metrics make • Occupancy data from large-scale use of two broad types of data: datasets, which we can now use to generate trends for 6,654 species FOR THE UK • Abundance data from a number of across a wide range of taxonomic well-established monitoring schemes groups (including vascular plants, Here we present the key findings in the UK encompassing c700 species lichens, bryophytes and a number (birds, mammals, butterflies and from the UK-level State of Nature of invertebrate groups). These moths). Many of these species are 2019 report, to add context to trends measure the change in the popular to record and are relatively the Scotland-specific results proportion of occupied sites, so our easy to identify and to observe, making metrics effectively report the average we have presented in this it possible to count individuals to get change in range for these species. report. The statistics shown a measure of relative abundance. Our here demonstrate that the abundance metrics report the average We show trends for species for our abundance and distribution of change in relative abundance across long-term period, from 1970 to 2016 for abundance data and from 1970 to the UK’s species has, on average, these species. 2015 for occupancy data. Our short- declined since 1970 and many term period covers the final 10‑year measures suggest this decline period of these time series. has continued in the most recent decade. There has been no let-up Photo: Kevin Sawford (rspb-images.com) in the loss of nature in the UK. These pages are just the headline statistics; further breakdowns, a wider range of metrics, and information on what is driving change in the UK’s nature for both better and worse can be found in State of Nature 2019 at www.nbn.org.uk/ stateofnature2019. Pine Marten
CHANGE IN SPECIES’ ABUNDANCE
u a e ator (697 species) o ter S ort ter between individual species’ trends. 19 0 201 200 201 All (697) All (687) To examine this, we have allocated 1 0 100 species into trend categories based on 1 0 0 the magnitude of population change. 120 • Over the long term, 41% of species 100 0
19 0 100 had strong or moderate decreases 0 0 and 26% had strong or moderate 0 e e Percentage of species Percentage increases; 33% showed little change. 0 20 20 • Over the short term, 44% of species 0 0 had strong or moderate decreases 19 0 19 0 1990 2000 2010 201 Strong increase Moderate increase and 36% had strong or moderate Indicator Smoothed trend 95% confidence intervals Little change Moderate decrease increases; 21% showed little change. Strong decrease The abundance indicator for 697 and the short term. The white line • Over the long term, 33% of terrestrial and freshwater species with shading shows the smoothed species showed a strong change shows a statistically significant decline trend and associated 95% CIs, the in abundance (either increase or in average abundance of 13% (95% blue line shows the underlying decrease). Over the short term this confidence intervals (CI) -22% to unsmoothed indicator. rose to 53% of species. -5%) between 1970 and 2016. Over The bar chart shows the percentage of Using a different, binary categorisation: this long-term period the smoothed species within the indicator that have indicator fell by 0.31% per year. Over • Over the long term, 58% of species increased, decreased (moderately our short-term period, the decline showed negative trends and 42% or strongly) or shown little change was a statistically non-significant 6%, showed positive trends; over the in abundance. a rate of 0.65% per year. There was, short term, 53% of species showed however, no significant difference in Within multispecies indicators like negative trends and 47% showed the rate of change between the long these there is substantial variation positive trends. State of Nature Report Scotland 2019 21
CHANGE IN SPECIES’ DISTRIBUTION IN THE UK
u a ator 5 species o ter S ort ter 1 70 2015 2005 2015 • Over the short term, 37% of species 5 5 showed strong or moderate 120 100% decreases and 30% showed strong 100 0% or moderate increases; 33% showed
0 little change. 0%
1 70 100 0 • Over the long term, 17% of Graph to come 0% species showed a strong change e e 0 of species Percentage in distribution (either increase or 20% 20 decrease). Over the short term this
0 0% rose to 39% of species. 1 70 1 0 1 0 2000 2010 2015 Strong increase Moderate increase n icator 0% cre i e inter a s Little change Using a different, binary Moderate decrease Strong decrease categorisation:
The occupancy indicator for 6,654 To examine the variation in species’ • Over the long term, 58% of species terrestrial and freshwater species distribution trends, we allocated showed negative trends and 42% shows that on average species’ species’ trends into categories showed positive trends; over the distributions have declined by 5% based on the magnitude of short term, 56% of species showed between 1970 and 2015. In 2015 the distribution change. negative trends and 44% showed indicator was 1% lower than in 2005. positive trends. • Over the long term, 27% of species Because species tend to decline in showed strong or moderate abundance before they disappear decreases and 21% showed strong from a site, even this apparently small or moderate increases; 52% showed change of 5% could reflect more little change. serious problems.
NATIONAL RED LIST ASSESSMENT MARINE • Demersal fish indicators show Key increases in average abundance in Endangered Near Threatened Least Concern Extinct or Regionally Critically Endangered Vulnerable Data Deficient the Celtic and North Seas of 133% and 58% respectively between the early 1980s and 2017. 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% Percentage of species • The UK Breeding Seabird Indicator shows a 22% decline in average abundance for 13 species over the long term. • Trends in the abundance of marine mammals, for which we have data, vary by group; cetacean species 0% 10% 20%25%30% 40% 50% 75% show100% stable populations since the Percentage of species early 1990s, and Grey Seal numbers continue to increase while Harbour Seal numbers are decreasing in a number of areas. • Changes in plankton communities Of 8,431 terrestrial and freshwater gone extinct from Great Britain since are evident across the northern species that have been assessed 1500, and a further four species are North Sea and the English Channel; against the IUCN Regional Red List extinct in the wild. the indicator for large copepods criteria, 1,188 (15%) of the extant The bars show the percentage of shows a 5% increase in the northern species, for which sufficient data assessed species falling into each of North Sea over the short term, are available, are formally classified the IUCN Red List categories. Species compared to a 41% decrease in the as threatened and therefore at risk classified as Critically Endangered, English Channel. of extinction from Great Britain. In Endangered or Vulnerable are addition, 2% of species are known formally considered to be at risk (133) or considered likely (29) to have of extinction. 22 Key findings Drivers of change Historical change UK key findings
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Unless otherwise stated, all photos are from RSPB Images (rspb-images.com). This report should be cited as: Walton P, Eaton M, Stanbury A, Hayhow D, Brand A, Brooks S, Collin S, Duncan C, Dundas C, Foster S, Hawley J, Kinninmonth A, Leatham S, Nagy-Vizitiu A, Whyte A, Williams S and Wormald K (2019). The State of Nature Scotland 2019. The State of Nature partnership.