Impact of Wind Direction on Erodibility of a Hortic Anthrosol in Southeastern Spain

agriculture

Article Impact of Wind Direction on Erodibility of a Hortic Anthrosol in Southeastern Spain

Rocío Guerrero 1, Juan L. Valenzuela 2 , Alejandro I. Monterroso 3 and Carlos Asensio 1,*

1 Department of Agronomy, Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), CIAIMBITAL, University of Almeria, 04120 Almeria, Spain; [email protected] 2 Department of Biology and Geology, Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), CIAIMBITAL, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain; [email protected] 3 Department of Soils, Chapingo Autonomous University, 56230 Texcoco, Mexico; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: We tested an efficient, easily and economically manufactured wind-transported particle collector of our own design, called a multidirectional trap (MDt), on fine-tilled Anthrosols. Results from the logs of nine vaned masts, each with four MDt collectors at different heights, showed a clear predominance of northeast and south winds. After analyzing sediment transport rates and their balance, we found that sediments from the south were being deposited rather than lost. A large amount of phyllosilicates, which are highly adhesive sediments, and therefore, increase aggregation, decreasing erodibility, were captured in the upper traps. Moreover, they are rich in calcium carbonate, mainly calcite, which is a powerful aggregate, and therefore, also decreases their wind erodibility. Sediments from the northeast, however, with almost double the total mass transport, contained the largest amount of captured quartz, promoting abrasion and increasing soil erodibility. Nevertheless, large amounts of organic matter found in sediments from the NE led to some aggregation, which Citation: Guerrero, R.; Valenzuela, J.L.; Monterroso, A.I.; Asensio, C. balances material lost. Impact of Wind Direction on Erodibility of a Hortic Anthrosol in Keywords: wind erosion; aeolian sediments; soil loss; sediment traps Southeastern Spain. Agriculture 2021, 11, 589. https://doi.org/10.3390/ agriculture11070589 1. Introduction Academic Editor: Peter Strauss In arid and semi-arid areas, where winds are often strong and rainfall is scarce, wind erosion of soil causes agronomic, environmental, social and economic problems, impacting Received: 3 June 2021 adversely on the population [1–4]. More studies in this area are therefore needed to aid in Accepted: 23 June 2021 policy and decision-making [5]. Published: 24 June 2021 In the absence of tillage, there is more natural vegetation and soil aggregation, which reduce soil loss from wind by slowing down wind speed, further increasing the capacity Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral for capturing lost material [6,7]. Climate and the spatial and temporal variability in with regard to jurisdictional claims in threshold wind velocity strongly influence the prediction of the amount and type of wind- published maps and institutional affil- blown particles [8,9]. In marginal areas where conservationist strategies are not applied, iations. overgrazing, abandonment of tillage lands, deforestation, and so forth intensify wind erosion and generate considerable soil losses [10]. Cropping results in the loss of organic matter and breakdown of aggregates, which reduces the stability of dry aggregates in medium-textured soils and increases the wind-erodible fraction of the soil [11–13]. On the Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. other hand, windy conditions promote soil nutrient loss and drying [14], both influenced Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. by soil surface compaction. This article is an open access article Many dust-trap models have been developed for analyzing wind-blown material [15], distributed under the terms and but the Big Spring Number Eight (BSNE) [16] and the Modified Wilson and Cook (MWAC) [17] conditions of the Creative Commons are the most widely used devices [18]. Collector entrapment efficiency depends on average Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ wind-blown particle size. Previous field studies have shown that the efficiency of the BSNE 4.0/). increased with wind speed and smaller particle size [19]. Vertical sediment flow may be

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efficiency of the BSNE increased with wind speed and smaller particle size [19]. Vertical sediment flow may be analyzed by using traps located at different heights [20]. In this analyzedstudy, we by used using our traps own located new pa attented different collector, heights called [20]. the In thisMultidirectional study, we used trap our (MDt), own newwhich patented incorporates collector, several called advantages the Multidirectional and improvements. trap (MDt), It whichis easily incorporates and economically several advantagesmanufactured and and improvements. not only capt Itures is easilymaterial and transported economically by the manufactured wind from the and surface not only of capturesthe soil but material also transporteddifferentiates by it the by wind direction from theof origin. surface By of theusing soil a butgroup also of differentiates masts with itthese by direction new collectors of origin. at different By using heights, a group overal of mastsl particle with theseloss or new deposit collectors in the at study different area heights,can be determined, overall particle as well loss as or their deposit composition in the study depending area can on be origin. determined, Thus, particles as well asof theirknown composition origin captured depending by the on MDt origin. may Thus, then particlesbe analyzed of known by X-ray origin diffraction, captured enabling by the MDtfast, reliable may then identification be analyzed and by quantification X-ray diffraction, of the enabling crystalline fast, phases reliable present identification in a sample. and quantificationThis provides ofadded the crystalline value as wind-eroded phases present mi inneral a sample. type and This amount provides strongly added influence value as wind-erodedthe soil cation mineral exchange type capacity and amount and hence strongly soil influence fertility. the soil cation exchange capacity and henceThe objectives soil fertility. of this study were to study the amount of material deposited or lost by theThe wind objectives from different of this study directions, were tounder study the the same amount conditions, of material in agricultural deposited orsoil lost in by the wind from different directions, under the same conditions, in agricultural soil in Southeast Spain and to compare the qualitative and semi-quantitative differences between Southeast Spain and to compare the qualitative and semi-quantitative differences between the soil minerals transported from different places and their effects on the soil studied. the soil minerals transported from different places and their effects on the soil studied.

2.2. MaterialsMaterials andand MethodsMethods TheThe studystudy areaarea isis locatedlocated inin AlmeriaAlmeria provinceprovince inin southeasternsoutheastern SpainSpain (36(36°58◦58026′2600′′ N,N, 0202°03◦030′292900′′ W),W), elevationelevation 190 190 m m ASL ASL (Figure (Figure1). 1). The The climate climate is semi-arid is semi-arid thermo-Mediterranean thermo-Mediterra-, withnean, a with mean a annualmean annual temperature temperature of 17.8 of◦ C17.8 and °C mean and mean annual annual precipitation precipitation of 249 of mm, 249 accordingmm, according to records to records for the for last the 20 yearslast 20 from years the from automatic the automatic meteorological meteorological station network station ofnetwork the Andalusian of the Andalusian regional government.regional government Lithological. Lithological material material is mainly is a mainly metamorphic a meta- basementmorphic basement separated separated by Pliocene by andPliocene Quaternary and Quaternary sedimentation sedimentation basins [21 basins]. Natural [21]. plant Nat- communitiesural plant communities are made up are of isolatedmade up native of isolat shrubsed native surrounded shrubs by surrounded bare soil with by coloniza-bare soil tionwith by colonization annual plant by species. annual Soils plant are species. deeply croppedSoils are hortic deeply Anthrosols cropped (ATh),hortic withAnthrosols sandy texture,(ATh), with a weak sandy medium texture, subangular a weak medium blocky structure subangular and blocky few gravel structure fragments and few (sampled gravel 20fragments January 2020(sampled on intensive 20 January commercial 2020 onfarming intensive over commercial 100 ha). We farming also analyzed over 100 (Figure ha). We2) thealso surrounding analyzed (Figure eutrophic 2) the Leptosols surrounding (LPe) andeutrophic haplic Leptosols Calcisiols (LPe) (CLh). and By usinghaplic a Calcisiols PCE-423 hot(CLh). wire By anemometer using a PCE-423 connected hot wire in parallelanemometer to a computerconnected for in parallel 24 continuous to a computer hours, wefor established24 continuous that hours, the average we established wind speed that the was average 4.0 m swind−1 with speed gusts was of 4.0 over m s 20−1 with m s− gusts1 for noof over more 20 than m s 3−1min for no from more NE than and gusts3 min offrom over NE 14 and m s −gusts1 for of no over more 14 than m s− 41 minfor no from more S; temperaturethan 4 min from and S; relative temperature humidity and were relative 8.2 humidity◦C and 75.7%, were respectively. 8.2 °C and 75.7%, respectively.

FigureFigure 1.1. LocationLocation ofof studystudy area.area.

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Figure 2. (aFigure) Lithological 2. (a) Lithological location [21 location]; (b) soils [21]; map; (b) soils (c) south map; view(c) south (from view Anthrosols), (from Anthrosols), with a wind with tunnel a wind of a former study; (d) northeasttunnel of view. a former study; (d) northeast view.

Four replicate Foursamples replicate were samplestaken from were th takene top from5 cm the of topsoils 5 and cm of analyzed, soils and taking analyzed, taking into into account thataccount windthat erosion wind processes erosion processes will fundamentally will fundamentally affect the affect most the superficial most superficial part of part of the soils.the Texture soils. Texture data were data found were by found the Robinson by the Robinson pipet method. pipet method. Organic Organic matter matter content content was obtainedwas obtained by applying by applying the Van the Bemmelen Van Bemmelen factor factor to organic to organic carbon carbon content content analyzed analyzed with withthe Walkley–Black the Walkley–Black wet digestion wet digestion method. method. Gas Gasvolumetry volumetry was wasused used to de- to determine the termine the equivalentequivalent carbonate carbonate content. content. The collectors usedThe collectors were our usedown werepatented our Multidirectional own patented Multidirectional traps (MDt) [22] traps fabri- (MDt) [22] fabri- cated with an catedindustrial with 3D an printer industrial from 3D a printer glycol-modified from a glycol-modified ethylene polyterephthalate ethylene polyterephthalate (PETg) thermoplastic(PETg) filament. thermoplastic PETg filament. is a tough, PETg hard, is resistant a tough, hard,and flexible resistant material, and flexible good material, good characteristics characteristicsfor generating fordevices generating subjected devices to mechanical subjected stress. to mechanical Each of these stress. collec- Each of these collectors is attachedtors to a is vaned attached mast to (Figure a vaned 3). mast The (Figure air with3). the The transported air with the material transported enters material enters the collectors throughthe collectors a rectangular through 2 a × rectangular 5 cm window 2 × where5 cm window a grill inside where slows a grill down inside its slows down its movement, causingmovement, the transported causing the material transported to sediment material in a to removable sediment structure in a removable with a structure with fixed ring-shapeda fixed base. ring-shaped Eight north-facing base. Eight compartments north-facing in compartmentsthe ring differentiate in the the ring di- differentiate the rection of origindirection of the captured of origin materials. of the captured Figure materials. 3 shows a Figure diagram3 shows of this a diagram new collector of this new collector design. Accordingdesign. to Asensio According et al. to [7], Asensio the efficiency et al. [7], of the the efficiency MDt collector of the (74%) MDt collector is higher (74%) is higher for fine grain sizes.for fine Experime grain sizes.nts with Experiments these collectors with these were collectors performed were for performed24 consecutive for 24 consecutive hours. A networkhours. of nine A network vaned masts of nine was vaned mounted masts with was mountedthe MDt traps with theplaced MDt at traps0.35, placed at 0.35, 070, 1.05 and 1.40070, m 1.05 heights, and 1.40 so their m heights, inlets faced so their the inlets main facedwind thedirection main wind at all directiontimes. The at all times. The masts were locatedmasts 50 were m apart located to avoid 50 m apartinterfering to avoid with interfering each other. with Figure each 3 other.shows Figure field 3 shows field distribution of distributionthe masts. Experi of thements masts. were Experiments carried out were for carried24 h. out for 24 h.

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Figure 3. MDt collector schemes. Photo: mast and vane with collectors at different heights.

As the lowest collectors on the mast were placed at 0.35 m, thethe raterate ofof soilsoil lostlost fromfrom the groundground hadhad toto bebe calculatedcalculated empiricallyempirically byby usingusing aa mathematicalmathematical modelmodel predictingpredicting −2 sediment on on the the soil soil surface. surface. Sediment Sediment flux flux (qz (, qkgz, kgm−2 m) at each) at eachtrap height trap height (z, m) (z,was m) found was foundby dividing by dividing the sediment the sediment weight weight (kg) caught (kg) caughtby each by collector each collector at a given at a height given heightby collec- by 2 −2 collectortor inlet area inlet (0.001 area (0.001m2). Then, m ). total Then, sediment total sediment flux was flux calculated was calculated (qz.exp, kg ( qmz.exp−2) ,by kg an m ex-) byponential an exponential equation, equation, and after and integrating after integrating the total sediment the total sedimentflux, the sediment flux, the sedimenttransport −1 transportrate (Qr, kg rate m− (1Qr) was, kg calculated m ) was calculatedusing Equation using (1): Equation (1): Z h −αz 𝑄Qr = 𝑞q0·e·𝑒 dz 𝑑𝑧 (1)(1) 0 where:where: h—maximum particle transportation heightheight (m)(m) recorded.recorded. −2 2 qo—amount of sediment modeled at z = 0 0 (kg m ) ) α– slopeslope factorfactor ofof exponentialexponential regressionregression equationequation (m).(m). Total massmass transporttransport ((QtQt,, kg)kg) waswas calculatedcalculated byby EquationEquation (2):(2):

Qr Q𝑄= = 𝐿L (2)(2) t η

where:where: η—trap efﬁciencyefficiency L—plot width. The amount of of material material deposi depositedted or or lost lost was was calculated calculated as the as thedifference difference in the in sed- the sedimentiment transport transport rate ratebetween between data data from from masts masts located located windward windward and leeward and leeward in the in main the mainwind direction. wind direction. Thus, negative Thus, negative differences differences indicated indicated loss and losspositive, and gains positive, of material. gains of material.Although X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a semi-quantitative technique that can produce absoluteAlthough errors, X-ray with diffractionstandardized (XRD) experiment is a semi-quantitativeal conditions techniqueand interpretation, that can produce relative absolutevariations errors, are reproducible. with standardized For powder experimental samples, conditionswe used a and“Davinci interpretation, D8 Advance” relative dif- variationsfractometer are (Bruker reproducible. Corporation, For Madison, powder samples,WI, USA) we with used copper a “Davinci radiation D8 tube Advance” (CuKα, diffractometerλ = 1.54 Å). The (Bruker results Corporation, were analyzed Madison, with the WI, XPrep USA) program with copper and radiation data were tube evaluated (CuKα, λwith= 1.54 the Å).EVA The program, results wereboth analyzedin the Diffract with Evaluation the XPrep program 2.1 software and package. data were evaluated withA the non-parametric EVA program, Wilcoxon both in the signed-rank Diffract Evaluation test was completed 2.1 software to package.determine differences in the amounts of sediments from different masts at the same height. We compared the total amount and the amount collected by the windward-oriented compartments.

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A non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test was completed to determine differences in the amounts of sediments from different masts at the same height. We compared the total amount and the amount collected by the windward-oriented compartments.

3. Results The means of the characteristics recorded for Anthrosols in the study area are shown in Table1 as the average of four replicate samples. There is little surface stoniness, and gravel averages around 6%. Finely tilled Anthrosols have low silt and clay content. Sampling took place 5 days after tilling. Table1 also recorded characteristics of surrounding windward soils (Leptosols and Calcisols), not always completely consolidated on the surface. Sediment ﬂux per MDt collector compartment recorded by trap height and direction of origin are shown in Figure4. Winds from the northeast and south are clearly predominant. Differences between material trapped in windward compartments and the total amount of material trapped by the MDt collectors at each height were not statistically signiﬁcant (p-value > 0.05).

Table 1. Characteristics of soils and sediments in MDt compartments. Agriculture 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10 Coarse Medium Fine Very Coarse Very Fine Sand Sand Sand Coarse Silt Fine Silt Clay Sample Sand (2000– Sand O.M. CO = (1000– (500– (250– (50–20 µm) (20–2 µm) (<2 µm) 3 1000 µm) (100–50 µm) 500 µm) 250 µm) 100 µm) 3. Results −1 The means of the characteristics(g·kg ) recorded for Anthrosols in the study area are shown(%) LPe 15.1 13.8in Table 1 21.9 as the average 23.7 of four 6.2 replicate sa 5.3mples. There 3.8 is little 10.2surface stoniness, 43.4 18 and ATh 5.6 11.4gravel averages 23.2 around 29.2 6%. Finely 20.3 tilled Anthrosols 0.7 have 2.4 low silt and 7.2 clay content. 29.0 24Sam-

CLh 6.6 6.2pling took 9.3 place 5 days 18.8 after tilling. 22.1 Table 1 7.1also recorded 12.3 characteristics 17.6 of 16.8surrounding 41 NE-35 0.1 0.7windward 5.8 soils (Leptosols 11.9 and 30.3Calcisols), not 18.3 always completely 11 consolidated 21.9 42.4 on the 16 sur- NE-70 0 0.2face. Sediment 1.2 flux per 6.3 MDt collector 36.1 compartm 20.5ent recorded 13.5 by trap 22.2 height and 43.4 direction 15 NE-105 0 0 0 0.5 37.2 21.3 15.4 25.6 39.1 13 NE-140 0 0of origin are 0 shown in 0 Figure 4. 18.3 Winds from 23.8 the northeast 26.6 and south 31.3 are clearly 34.7 predom- 11 inant. Differences between material trapped in windward compartments and the total S-35 0 0.1 1.8 3.1 17.9 21.8 27 28.3 19.3 41 S-70 0 0amount of 0.4 material trapped 2.7 by 19.9 the MDt collect 23.6ors at each 27.5 height 25.9 were not 16.9 statistically 39 S-105 0 0significant 0(p-value > 00.05). 14.3 27.6 30.2 27.9 15.5 39 S-140 0 0Table 01 shows the 0 main characteristics 7.6 29.8 for the most 32.4 outstanding 30.2 sediments 14.7 in 37MDt Note: MDt compartmentcompartments sediment by direction labels include of directionorigin and of origin catchment and catchment height, height over in cm.Anthrosols.

FigureFigure 4.4. Sediment ﬂuxflux (q(qzz) per MDt collector compartment by traptrap height and direction ofof origin.origin.

Table 1.Table Characteristics1 shows the of soils main and characteristics sediments in MDt for thecompartments. most outstanding sediments in MDt compartments by direction of origin and catchment height, over Anthrosols. Coarse Very Coarse AsMedium described above,Fine Sand the Very MDt Fine collectors (FigureFine3) areSilt able to differentiate the direction Sand Coarse Silt Clay (<2 Sample Sand (2000– the trappedSand (500– particles(250–100 come Sand from (100– by their internal(20–2 ring compartments.O.M. An exampleCO3= of (1000–500 (50–20 µm) µm) 1000 µm) estimated250 sediment µm) ﬂuxµm) is shown50 µm) graphically in Figureµm)5 . This is useful for predicting soil µm)particles transported by creep, in this example, 3.2463 kg m−2, because the lowest trap −1 height was 0.35 m. Sediment ﬂux(g·kg data) were determined from the amount recorded (%) in the LPe 15.1 13.8windward 21.9 compartments 23.7 and the6.2 total amount5.3 corresponding3.8 10.2 to the whole43.4 collector 18 (sum ATh 5.6 11.4of all compartments).23.2 29.2 Sediment 20.3 transport 0.7 rates were2.4 found by7.2 integration.29.0 Even24 being CLh 6.6 6.2 9.3 18.8 22.1 7.1 12.3 17.6 16.8 41 NE-35 0.1 0.7 5.8 11.9 30.3 18.3 11 21.9 42.4 16 NE-70 0 0.2 1.2 6.3 36.1 20.5 13.5 22.2 43.4 15 NE-105 0 0 0 0.5 37.2 21.3 15.4 25.6 39.1 13 NE-140 0 0 0 0 18.3 23.8 26.6 31.3 34.7 11 S-35 0 0.1 1.8 3.1 17.9 21.8 27 28.3 19.3 41 S-70 0 0 0.4 2.7 19.9 23.6 27.5 25.9 16.9 39 S-105 0 0 0 0 14.3 27.6 30.2 27.9 15.5 39 S-140 0 0 0 0 7.6 29.8 32.4 30.2 14.7 37 Note: MDt compartment sediment labels include direction of origin and catchment height in cm.

As described above, the MDt collectors (Figure 3) are able to differentiate the direction the trapped particles come from by their internal ring compartments. An example of estimated sediment flux is shown graphically in Figure 5. This is useful for predicting soil particles transported by creep, in this example, 3.2463 kg m−2, because the lowest trap height was 0.35 m. Sediment flux data were determined from the amount recorded in the windward compartments and the total amount corresponding to the whole collector (sum of all compartments). Sediment transport rates were found by integration. Even being aware of the limitations of the vertically integrated sediment flow estimation, we opted for this method because it will allow us to compare results with those obtained by other authors with the same method and similar climatic and edaphic conditions such as [20],

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Agriculture 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10 aware of the limitations of the vertically integrated sediment ﬂow estimation, we opted for this method because it will allow us to compare results with those obtained by other authors with the same method and similar climatic and edaphic conditions such as [20], in Agriculture 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEWin future works. Nevertheless, we assume that the sedimentary material transported6 of 10 into future works. Nevertheless, we assume that the sedimentary material transported into the thelower lower layer layer is composed is composed of very of very large large grains grains of soil of that soil cannot that cannot be transported be transported very far very and farthat and a good that a estimate good estimate of the exported of the exported material material can be assessedcan be assessed by considering by considering only material only materialtransportedin future transported works. above Nevertheless, 0.35 above cm. 0.35 Thus, we cm.assume we Thus, use that Equationwe the use sedimentary Equation 1 to integrate material 1 to integrate the transported ﬂow the of sedimentflow into of sed- not imentbetweenthe lower not 0 betweenlayer and is 1.4 composed m,0 and but 1.4 between of m,very but large the between lowestgrains ofthe and soil lowest the that highest cannot and the measurementsbe highesttransported measurements very completed, completed,i.e.,far and 0.35 that and i.e., a 1.4good 0.35 m, estimate and which 1.4 showof m, the which exported much show less material uncertainty.much can less be uncertainty. assessed by considering only material transported above 0.35 cm. Thus, we use Equation 1 to integrate the flow of sediment not between 0 and 1.4 m, but between the lowest and the highest measurements completed, i.e., 0.35 and 1.4 m, which show much less uncertainty.

Figure 5. Example of estimated sediment ﬂuxes. Figure 5. Example of estimated sediment fluxes. FigureAs 5. thereExample were of estimated two main sediment wind fluxes. directions (Figures4 and6), northeast and south, we As there were two main wind directions (Figures 4 and 6), northeast and south, we compiled a dataset of the differences between data from the masts located upwind and As there were two main wind directions (Figures 4 and 6), northeast and south, we compiledleeward ina dataset the main of windthe differences directions. between The following data from differences the masts in located sediment upwind transport and compiled a dataset of the differences between data from the masts located upwind and leewardrate were in foundthe main for wind NE and directions. S-oriented The internal following MDt differences collector in compartments sediment transport on the rate nine wereleeward found in thefor mainNE and wind S-oriented directions. internal The following MDt collector differences compartments in sediment transport on the ninerate masts. masts.were found By mast for NE distribution and S-oriented (Figure internal7), for MDt sediments collector fromcompartments the NE, theon the averaged nine masts. differences By mast distribution (Figure 7), for sediments from the NE, the averaged differences were wereBy mast Mast distribution 1 less Mast (Figure 2; Mast 7), for 2 sediment less Masts from 4; Mast the NE, 3 less the Mast averaged 5; Mast differences 5 less Mastwere 7; Mast Mast 1 less Mast 2; Mast 2 less Mast 4; Mast 3 less Mast 5; Mast 5 less Mast 7; Mast 6 less 6Mast less 1 Mast less Mast 8; Mast 2; Mast 8 less 2 less Mast Mast 9. 4; For Mast sediments 3 less Mast from 5; Mast the 5 S,less Mast Mast 9 7; less Mast Mast 6 less 7; Mast 7 MastlessMast Mast8; 8; Mast Mast 4; Mast8 less 8MastMast less 9. Mast9. For For sediments 5; sediments Mast 5 from less from Mastthe theS, Mast 2; S, Mast Mast 9 less 6 9 less Mast less Mast Mast7; Mast 3; 7; Mast7 Mast less 3Mast 7 less less Mast Mast 1. 4;Table4; Mast Mast2 8 shows8 lessless Mast the resulting 5;5; Mast Mast 5 sediment5less less Mast Mast 2; transport Ma2; Mast 6st less rate 6 lessMast balance, Mast 3; Mast 3; which Mast3 less clearly 3Mast less 1. indicatesMast Table 1. 2 Table particle 2 showsdepositionshows the the resultingresulting when coming sedimentsediment from transport transport the S (positiverate rate balance, balance, balance) which which andclearly particleclearly indicates indicates loss particle when particle fromdep- the dep- NE osition(negativeosition when when balance). coming When fromfrom the we the S take S(positive (positive into account balance) balance) notand only andparticle recordedparticle loss when loss values whenfrom in the thefrom NE windward the NE (negativecompartments(negative balance). balance). but WhenWhen the TOTAL we we take take amount into into accoun accoun correspondingt nott notonly only recorded to recorded the values whole values in collector the windwardin the and windward related to compartmentsthecompartments main wind but direction thethe TOTAL TOTAL (NE), amount amount the resulting corresponding corresponding balance to the denotes to whole the whole the collector general collector and loss related and of material. related to the main wind direction (NE), the resulting balance denotes the general loss of material. toFinally, the main Table wind3 shows direction the results(NE), the for resulting the total balance mass transport. denotes the general loss of material. Finally, Table 3 shows the results for the total mass transport. Finally, Table 3 shows the results for the total mass transport.

FigureFigure 6. LocationsLocations of of soil soil types types and and main main wind wind directions. directions.

Table 2. Sediment transport rate (Qr) balance. Figure 6. Locations of soil types and main wind directions.

Table 2. Sediment transport rate (Qr) balance.

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Sample Qr Balance From NE −0.0103 From S 0.0079 TOTAL −0.0154

Table 3. Total mass transport (Qt).

Qt Sample (kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Average From NE 5.2630 5.6465 5.2825 6.1257 6.4422 5.7794 7.0211 6.5873 7.2174 6.1517 From S 3.0560 3.3691 3.1766 3.5059 3.8438 3.4755 4.0768 3.7701 4.1908 3.6072 TOTAL 16.9775 18.8218 17.8462 19.2632 21.4739 19.5251 22.6488 20.7148 23.2820 20.0615

The soils surrounding the Anthrosols are quite different. Therefore, we tested the

Agriculture 2021, 11, 589 mineralogy of the Anthrosols in front of the mast receiving sediments from the NE and7 of S. 10 Due to the small amount of sediment trapped for analysis, we mixed sediments from the nine masts at the same height and direction of origin in order to have enough material.

FigureFigure 7. 7. FieldField mast mast distribution distribution and and main main wind wind directions. directions.

TableAlong 2. Sediment with organic transport matter, rate (Q rvarious) balance. colloidal minerals condition cation-exchange capacity in soils. Thus, loss of these components from wind erosion leads to a lower soil cation-exchange capacity,Sample which requires them to be added as Q rfertilizerBalance to avoid loss of soil productivity [23,24].From NE It is therefore important to know what− 0.0103and how much of each soil mineral type is lost.From When S XRD was applied to our samples, a 0.0079 strong difference in the nature of constituentsTOTAL was observed, as shown in both the diffractograms−0.0154 (Figure 8) and in Table 4. Obtained values with the EVA program from the Diffract Evaluation 2.1 software package, Tablealthough 3. Total semi-quantitative, mass transport (Q allowt). obtaining a general idea. Mineralogical relationships between Anthrosols and sediments coming through may have been influ- Q enced by deposits generated by continuoust wind, mainly from the northeast (Figures 5 Sample (kg) and 7). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Average From NE 5.2630 5.6465 5.2825 6.1257 6.4422 5.7794 7.0211 6.5873 7.2174 6.1517 From S 3.0560 3.3691 3.1766 3.5059 3.8438 3.4755 4.0768 3.7701 4.1908 3.6072 TOTAL 16.9775 18.8218 17.8462 19.2632 21.4739 19.5251 22.6488 20.7148 23.2820 20.0615

The soils surrounding the Anthrosols are quite different. Therefore, we tested the mineralogy of the Anthrosols in front of the mast receiving sediments from the NE and S. Due to the small amount of sediment trapped for analysis, we mixed sediments from the nine masts at the same height and direction of origin in order to have enough material. Along with organic matter, various colloidal minerals condition cation-exchange capacity in soils. Thus, loss of these components from wind erosion leads to a lower soil cation-exchange capacity, which requires them to be added as fertilizer to avoid loss of soil productivity [23,24]. It is therefore important to know what and how much of each soil mineral type is lost. When XRD was applied to our samples, a strong difference in the nature of constituents was observed, as shown in both the diffractograms (Figure8) and in Table4. Obtained values with the EVA program from the Diffract Evaluation 2.1 software package, although semi-quantitative, allow obtaining a general idea. Mineralogical relationships between Anthrosols and sediments coming through may have been inﬂuenced by deposits generated by continuous wind, mainly from the northeast (Figures5 and7). Agriculture 2021, 11, 589 8 of 10 Agriculture 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10

FigureFigure 8. 8. ComparativeComparative X-ray X-ray diffractograms diffractograms of of Anthro Anthrosolssols and sediments in MDt compartments.

Table 4. MineralogicalTable 4. Mineralogical components components for Anthrosols for Anthrosols and sediments andin sediments MDt compartments. in MDt compartments.

Smectite/ Smectite/ Illite Kaolinite IlliteCalcite KaoliniteDolomite Calcite DolomiteQuartz QuartzFeldspar FeldsparOthers Others Sample Vermiculite Sample Vermiculite (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)(%) (%)(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)(%) (%) (%) ATh 13 18ATh 13 12 18 1612 316 3 27 27 66 5 5 NE-35 11NE-35 13 11 15 13 515 2 5 2 47 47 5 5 2 2 NE-70 12NE-70 12 12 18 12 318 1 3 1 45 45 7 7 2 2 NE-105 16NE-105 14 16 17 14 2 17 1 2 1 39 39 10 10 1 1 NE-140 16 18 19 1 0 34 12 0 NE-140 16 18 19 1 0 34 12 0 S-35 21 14 7 26 5 17 6 4 S-35 21 14 7 26 5 17 6 4 S-70 24 19 7 23 3 15 5 4 S-105 27 27S-70 24 9 19 147 223 3 16 15 45 1 4 S-140 30S-105 28 27 10 27 119 1 14 2 15 16 4 4 1 1 Note: SedimentS-140 trap data30 labels include28 direction of10 origin and11 catchment height1 in cm. 15 4 1 Note: Sediment trap data labels include direction of origin and catchment height in cm. 4. Discussion 4. DiscussionFreshly plowed Anthrosols produce high emission ﬂux due to partial breakdown of crustFreshly and clods, plowed generating Anthrosols a high produce proportion high ofemission non-cohesive flux due substrate, to partial which breakdown increases of crustthe amount and clods, of wind-blown generating erodiblea high proportion material. Asof thenon-cohesive organic matter substrate, content which in these increases ﬁnely thetilled amount soils is of very wind-blown low, mechanical erodible reduction material. of As aggregate the organic sizes matter decreases content aggregate in these stability, finely tilledparticularly soils is undervery low, the drymechanical soil conditions reduction [25 ],of increasingaggregate wind-erodiblesizes decreases material aggregate on sta- the bility,soil surface, particularly including under nutrients the dry [ 26soil]. Thisconditions situation [25], is aggravatedincreasing wind-erodible due to the usually material long

Agriculture 2021, 11, 589 9 of 10

droughts in the area. On the other hand, a physical crust develops within 9–11 days after tillage, decreasing loose soil wind-erodible materials [7]. Analysis of transport rates and balance of sediments from the south indicated that material was being deposited rather than lost. The lower total mass transport of sediments from the south is inﬂuenced by their constituents. A large amount of phyllosilicates was captured in the upper traps, which involves stronger sediment adhesiveness, and therefore, increases aggregation while decreasing their erodibility. Moreover, sediments coming from the south are rich in calcium carbonate, mainly calcite, which is a powerful aggregate, also decreasing their wind erodibility. The opposite is the case of sediments coming from the northeast, with almost double the total mass transport. The higher amount in captured quartz, much more in lower traps, subserves abrasion processes that increase soil erodibility. Nevertheless, higher values of organic matter found in sediments from the NE bring on some aggregation which balances the material loss process. The balance of loss and gain in organic matter and clay inﬂuences soil productivity, mainly responsible for cation-exchange capacity. In the end, the Anthrosols studied were affected by different inputs, depending on the dominant wind direction, either enriched with calcium carbonate by strong south winds or undergoing quartz movement by strong northeast winds. Due to the total mass transport values found, further studies must be completed to evaluate, for example, the use of windbreaks to reduce soil wind erosion. Asensio et al. [27] used removable windbreaks following tillage, which reduced erosion until surface crusts formed, and also retained sediments transported by wind. They installed mesh with a 13 × 30/cm−2 thread count and 39% porosity, arranged perpendicular to the main natural wind direction, in alternating bands spaced 40 m apart, which reduced erosion by an average up to 72% at a height of 0.4 m in recently tilled olive groves. Due to their easy installation and dismantling, such plastic meshes can be widely employed in windy areas where they are not required permanently. However, that will be the object of further research.

5. Conclusions The MDt collector is a wind-transported particle collector of our own design, is very efﬁcient, and easily and economically manufactured. Inner compartments allow the main wind direction and its intensity to be found from their windward deposits. The results showed that wind-borne materials differed widely, depending on the main wind direction and height of blown material. In the case of the study of these Anthrosols from southeastern Spain, both calcium carbonate from Calcisols located to the south and quartz from Leptosols located to the northeast were transported close to the ground, while clay minerals were transported higher, so they moved further away. X-ray diffractograms of the sediments captured from the two main wind directions show a great disparity of components. The ﬁnal balance on Anthrosols characteristics will depend on the intensity of loss or deposit of materials from windward surrounding Calcisols and Leptosols that act as a source of sediments due to the wind effect. The movement of material was qualitative and quantitative, requiring preventive measures to minimize soil degradation.

Author Contributions: Conceptualized, conceived and designed the experiments: R.G. and C.A.; Performed the experiments and formal analysis: R.G., A.I.M. and C.A.; Writing, original draft preparation: R.G., C.A. and J.L.V.; Writing, review and editing: C.A.; Supervision, grant management and funding acquisition, C.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This study was funded by the Andalusia Regional Government (P18-RT-5130 grant) and European Union ERDF funds. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Agriculture 2021, 11, 589 10 of 10

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

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