ational May 2002 Issue 19 N ooperative oil C urvey SS Newsletter

In This Issue— Soil Classification: Past interest in studying soil characteristics in order to relate tax assessment to soil and Present productivity. In Russia this effort Soil Classification: Past and helped to establish the discipline of Present...... 1 By Robert J. Ahrens, USDA, NRCS; Thomas J. Rice, Jr., Calif. Poly. State Univ., SLO; and pedology. In 1882, the Russian Soil Taxonomy International Hari Eswaran, USDA, NRCS. Government hired V.V. Dokuchaiev to Committees ...... 5 guide a program to map and classify soils as a basis for tax assessment Personnel Changes ...... 5 Background and History (Simonson, 1962). Risks Associated With Permafrost- Although not recognized as a Dokuchaiev and his students Affected Soils...... 6 discipline until the nineteenth century, launched a new era in pedology that pedology and soil science in general promoted the description and Notes on C.E. Kellogg by a Junior have their rudimentary beginnings in characterization of soils as natural Staff Member ...... 7 attempts to group or classify soils on bodies with a degree of natural A Well, a Book, and a Prairie Dog the basis of productivity. Early agrarian organization rather than as simply Town ...... 10 civilizations must have had some way mantles of weathered rock. This to communicate differences and important notion fostered the concept similarities among soils. The earliest of the pedon from which data could be documented attempt at a formal collected and compared. Even after the classification of soils seems to have concept of the pedon took hold among Editor’s Note occurred in China about 40 centuries pedologists, soil science still lacked ago (Lee, 1921). The Chinese system standards for classifying soils and Issues of this newsletter are included nine classes based on describing the morphology and available on the World Wide Web productivity. Yellow, soft soils (soils properties of soil profiles. This lack of (www.statlab.iastate.edu/soils/soildiv). derived from loess) were considered the standards hampered pedology and Click on NCSS and then on the desired best, followed by rich, red soils. resulted in classification schemes issue number of the NCSS Newsletter. Evidence suggests that the Chinese soil shrouded with cloudy concepts that had You are invited to submit stories for classification system was used to levy no operational definitions. future issues of this newsletter to taxes on the basis of soil productivity As an example, the U.S. 1938 Stanley Anderson, National Soil Survey (Simonson, 1962). classification system (USDA, 1938) Center, Lincoln, Nebraska. Phone— Cato (234-149 B.C.), a Roman followed the concepts of zonal and 402-437-5357; FAX—402-437-5336; scientist, contrived a soil classification azonal soils, lacked operational email— system based on farming utility. His definitions, and consequently failed to [email protected]. system employed nine classes and meet all the needs of the soil science twenty-one subclasses and guided community. In the 1938 system, one of decisions about use and care of the land the zonal soils, Reddish Prairie Soils, is for production of food and fiber described as dark-brown or reddish- (Stremski, 1975). The decline of the brown soil grading through reddish- Roman Empire coincided with a brown heavier subsoil, medium acid. general stagnation in the field of soil This description is very vague. Without science, as indicated by the low number the knowledge that these soils occur in of major contributions in the discipline the southern Great Plains of the U.S., until the nineteenth century. the soil scientist might find these soils The nineteenth century saw renewed in several parts of the world. Aside

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from the indistinct categories within the Table 2 is a card dated November (CPCS, 1967). The U.S. system saw its 1938 scheme, the system did not offer a 25, 1951, that attempts to provide facts debut in 1960 as the 7th means to differentiate soils both among about Craig soils. Again, the Approximation, which was the first taxa and within the same taxa. For information is scant and is of little operational version of soil taxonomy. example, table 1 illustrates the families value to a soil scientist unfamiliar with Other groups developed concepts and from a card dated November 26, 1951, these soils or the area in general. terminology for specific uses. An used presumably by correlators and outstanding contribution was the Soil field soil scientists to differentiate Modern Soil Classification Map of the World Project, for which a among the Reddish Prairie Soils. legend was developed by the Food and Obvious deficiencies include no After World War II agriculture felt Agricultural Organization of the United definitions for column headings, such the effects of economic reconstruction Nations (FAO, 1971-1981). Another as “Stage,” and no operational and the expansion of global markets, group published the Soil Map of Africa definitions to differentiate any of the and there was a renewed interest in soil (D’Hoore, 1964). Later, the first effort classes within the columns. This means conservation and alternative land uses, towards a Soil Map of Europe was that the differentiae, such as the degree which helped to invigorate soil survey initiated (Dudal et al., 1970). Although of weathering, are based on judgment activities. Soil scientists began legends were developed for these small- and experience. The terms may have identifying many new soils, and scale maps, the process also helped to valid meaning to the local soil classification systems needed to track develop units at the higher levels of scientists. However, soil scientists from all the newly recognized soils. The U.S. classification. The maps then became a different parts of the world converging Soil Conservation Service (now the technique to validate the higher levels. on the southern Great Plains could Natural Resources Conservation FAO organized several working engage in interesting discussions but Service), under the leadership of Guy meetings to develop the legend for the would not likely reach agreement on Smith, accepted the challenge and made world map. Field trips during such whether a given soil exhibits medium or giant strides in improving soil meetings were critical in testing strong weathering. Furthermore, the classification. Work to develop a new concepts and developing criteria. differentiae are not defined in the Soil U.S. soil classification system Conferences and symposia of Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, commenced in 1951. Commission V of the International 1951) or anywhere else. The During the same period intensive Society of Soil Science (ISSS) played information in table 1 is useful only to activities developed national systems in an important role in this process. Each those who are already familiar with Europe. A notable contribution was that national, regional, and international these soils. The differentiae are of little of the French pedologists, who had group reported on its progress and value in distinguishing the soils even commenced developing their system in obtained critical evaluation of its for the most experienced soil scientist. the early fifties and published it in 1967 efforts. The universities and research

Table 1.—Families of Reddish Prairie Soils in the Southern Great Plains Correlation Area

Family Stage Texture Class Drainage Degree of Size of Solum Weathering

Craig Maximal Medium Good Strong Medium Dennis Medial Medium to moderately fine Good to moderately good Strong Medium Hockley Maximal Moderately coarse Good to moderately good Strong Medium Kirkland Medial Moderately fine Good to moderately good Medium Medium La Bette Medial Loamy Good Medium Medium Pratt Minimal Coarse Good Weak Medium Teller Minimal Loamy Good Weak Medium Tishomingo Medial Moderately coarse Good Strong Thin Wilson Maximal Loamy Moderately good Strong Medium

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Table 2.—Description of Craig Soil When definitions based on well fine, mixed, active, thermic Aquic defined differentiating criteria are Argiudoll (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). Great Soil Reddish Prairie applied consistently, soil scientists with The Dennis series has more bases and Group (maximal) different backgrounds and experiences less rock fragments than the Craig should arrive at the same conclusions, series. The Craig series is better drained Family Craig regardless of any contrary views on the than the Dennis series. The differences Series included Craig genetic aspects of the soil. Soil genesis between the two series can be Drainage Class Good is important to classification because it quantified. The Dennis series has a Texture Class Loamy (medium) permits us to place similar soils in the mollic epipedon 25 cm or more thick Horizons Degree of Devel. same or similar taxa. Also, it plays a and has less than 35 percent rock A1 Strong major role in soil mapping because it fragments. The Craig series has an A3 & B1 Medium helps us to develop our predictive umbric epipedon and has more than 35 B2 Strong model of soil-landscape segments that percent rock fragments in the upper 50 C can be delineated on usable soil maps cm of the argillic horizon. Degree of with viable interpretations. In summary, Soil classification systems have weathering Strong (moderately the diagnostic horizons represent the come a long way from their humble strong) genetic aspects of soils, but genesis beginnings as a means of levying taxes Size of profile Medium does not appear in the definitions. Well based on production and have Kind of phases Depth, slope, erosion defined diagnostic horizons and progressed through various stages, Parent material Residuum from features allow soil scientists with including a descriptive stage illustrated interbedded cherty different views and experiences to above, to a rather sophisticated limestone and shale describe the same horizons and quantitative stage. Most modern soil Climate Moderately humid, features, even though all the genetic classification systems are developed to temperate processes that produced the horizons complement and support soil survey and features are not fully understood. activities. They provide pedologists a communities developed methods of soil The diagnostic horizons and features means of communicating their findings characterization and methods of testing form the building blocks of the various about important soil properties and of the theoretical concepts. Thus, the taxa of a soil classification system and differentiating among soils in a sixties and seventies were a period of provide a powerful tool for consistent manner. intensive activity in the development of communicating information about soils Cline (1949) indicated that soil classification systems; the activities and differentiating among soils. The classifications are not truths that are were spurred by national needs and by Craig series listed in table 1 is in the discovered but are contrivances made gentle competition. family of clayey-skeletal, mixed, active, by humans to suit their purposes. Many Perhaps the greatest modern thermic Mollic Paleudalfs. For those countries have developed sophisticated breakthrough in soil classification is the who are familiar with Soil Taxonomy soil classification systems that meet recognition that the soil-forming (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), this family their needs. Although Soil Taxonomy processes frequently leave markers in name indicates that the soil has a thick and the World Resource Base each have the form of diagnostic horizons and argillic horizon with at least 35 clay and been adopted by several nations, one of features. The diagnostic horizons and 35 percent rock fragments and adequate the lingering criticisms is that there is features can be defined in terms of bases; that it occurs on stable no universal soil taxonomic system, as observable and measurable properties. landscapes in a warm, humid or there is for plants and animals. The One of the most difficult considerations semihumid climate; and that its surface Australian (Isbell, 1996), New Zealand in establishing concise definitions is the layer is dark, most likely because of the (Hewitt, 1998), and Canadian fact that soils are not discontinuous accumulation of organic matter. Thus, (Agriculture Canada Expert Committee natural units. Gradual transitions of soil the classification of the soil provides on Soil Survey, 1987) soil classification properties and soil bodies occur on any significant information about the systems, to name a few, are directed landscape. The choice of differentiating properties of the soil. towards national efforts. Many criteria is of paramount importance in The classification also provides a countries that have developed national applying the definitions of diagnostic way to compare the soils quantitatively. classification systems share common horizons or features in the field. The Dennis series listed in table 1 is a features. Most national systems have

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shifted toward the more quantitative The World Resource Base (WRB, Many countries have developed their definitions and criteria for diagnostic 1998) and other classification systems own classification systems, depending horizons and features that permit the have made bold attempts to capture the on the needs and soils of the country. formation of mutually exclusive taxa. human influences. The Anthrosol order Although there is no one soil Concepts and models of soil genesis in WRB groups all the agricultural soils classification system that is used by all have guided the selection of diagnostic that are significantly impacted by countries, most pedologists are familiar horizons and features, and it is no humans. This order is required to have with diagnostic horizons and features surprise that many national soil diagnostic horizons that are influenced and have used them as an international classification systems share common or by human activities. For example, the means of communication. roughly equivalent diagnostic horizons terric horizon is one of the diagnostic Even with all the advances in soil and features that provide a means of horizons used to key to the Anthrosol classification, there are still difficulties communication among soil scientists order. According to WRB (1998), “The between the soils that we classify and from various countries. terric horizon develops through the soils that we map. Soils influenced additions of earthy manure, compost or and forever modified by humans Improvements Needed mud over a long period of time. It has a present one of the greatest classification non-uniform textural differentiation challenges. Although some The diagnostic horizons and features with depth. Its color is related to the classification systems have developed represent a major innovation in soil source material or the underlying taxa for these soils, there are still classification that has been embraced substrate. Base saturation is more than questions about their utility. by most pedologists, but there remain 50 percent.” The requirement of base issues that have not been resolved to saturation is quantitative. The criterion References everyone’s satisfaction. Unlike discrete of non-uniform textures requires some plants or animals, soils form a judgment on the part of the pedologist Agriculture Canada Expert Committee continuum over the earth’s surface. Soil and may not be applied uniformly by on Soil Survey. 1987. The Canadian delineations are represented by one or all. “Additions of earthy manure, system of soil classification. 2nd more soils as a map unit, but in reality compost, or mud” refers to the mode of edition. Agric. Can. Pub. 1646. the map units contain many soils, not deposition and may be difficult to Cline, M.G. 1949. Basic principles of just the few designated in the map unit differentiate from non-human eolian soil classification. Soil Sci. 67, p. 81. name. The confusion lies in classifying and alluvial deposition. Does the mode CPCS. 1967. Commission de Pédologie the pedon and then using the of deposition affect use or management et de cartographie des sols. classification to represent the map unit. of the soil? Should soils like this have Classification des sols. Lab. Geol. The concept of the pedon has been separate taxa because of the Pedol., Ecole Nat. Supr. Agron. scrutinized (Holmgren, 1988), but not anthropogenic influences? These (Grignon, France). resolved. The map unit and pedon at questions will be debated and depend D’Hoore, J.L. 1964. Soil map of Africa, first seem simple and straightforward, largely on the purposes of the scale 1:5,000,000. Joint Project No. but they are sources of confusion or classification system. The soil science 11. Commission for Technical discomfort for many pedologists. community is discussing these issues, Cooperation in Africa Publ. Anthropogenic soils pose another but it will not likely reach agreement. Ceuterick, Louvain, Belgium. challenge. Humans have influenced and Dudal, R., R. Tavernier, and D. drastically changed the soil for Summary Osmond. 1970. Soil map of Europe, centuries. At what point does the human 1:2,500,000; explanatory text. FAO, influence change the classification of a Soil classification systems have Rome, Italy. soil? In areas that have been altered by evolved into sophisticated FAO. 1971-1981. FAO/UNESCO Soil plowing and additions of fertilizer, communication tools. The diagnostic map of the world, 1:5 million. Vols. when is the soil sufficiently changed to horizons and features and their 1-10. FAO/UNESCO, Rome, Italy. warrant different taxa? Are there associated quantitative definitions are Hewitt, A.E. 1998. New Zealand soil markers in the soil that capture the probably the greatest contributions in classification. Manaaki Whenua Press. impact of humans on the soil resource? the last 50 years. They allow Holmgren, G.G.S. 1988. The point Or must we rely on outside sources, pedologists with different experiences representation of soil. Soil Sci. Soc. such as history of the area? to classify soils in a consistent manner. Am. J. 52: 712-716.

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Isbell, R.F. 1996. The Australian soil University, has assumed the chair of of anthropogenic processes and classification. CSIRO Publishing. ICOMMOTR (International Committee resulting soil profiles. These can Lee, M. Ping-Hua. 1921. Columbia on Moisture and Temperature be used to propose new horizon University studies in history, Regimes), and Dr. John Galbraith, nomenclature, terms for describing economics, and public law, 99. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, has anthropogenic properties, and Simonson, R.W. 1962. Soil assumed the chair of ICOMANTH landscape features for these soils. classification in the United States. (International Committee on 2. Based on existing soil Sci. 137: 1027-1034. Anthropogenic Soils). descriptions, propose new Soil Survey Staff. 1951. Soil survey Charges for ICOMMOTR: diagnostic horizons and features manual. U.S. Dep. Agric. Hanb. 18. and revisions to the current 1. Develop a statement describing Soil Survey Staff. 1999. Soil taxonomy: anthropogenic diagnostic horizons why soil climate is an appropriate A basic system of soil classification and features. Follow-up on soil property to be included in Soil for making and interpreting soil suggestions from previous circular Taxonomy. This conceptual surveys. 2nd edition. U.S. Dep. letters to revise the definition of statement will serve as the guide to Agric. Hanb. 436. buried soils and to propose new evaluate ICOMMOTR proposals Stremski, M. 1975. Ideas underlying particle-size substitute classes to for Soil Taxonomy. soil systematics. Polish Edition. handle such materials as coal-ash 2. Define standard procedures for TT73-54013, Foreign Scientific and iron ore slag. measuring soil moisture and Publ. Dep. National Center for 3. Propose new taxa for Soil temperature. In addition to sensors, Scientific, Technical and Economic Taxonomy. depths, etc., site conditions are Information, Warsaw. 4. Plan a correlation tour in important. Consider defining a USDA. 1938. Soils and men. Yearbook conjunction with the 2006 standard condition and provide of Agriculture. International Union of Soil guidance on correlation of other World Reference Base for Soil Scientists meetings. conditions to the standard. Also, Resources. 1998. FAO. Rome. consider methods for measuring To be successful, the committee moisture in Vertisols. Chairs need your input in the form of 3. Use existing data to test the use of ideas, sharing of data, and review of Soil Taxonomy measurements at fixed points at proposals. To be included in their International Committees standard depths to replace the mailings, send a message with your concept of the moisture control contact information to either Dr. Wayne By Craig Ditzler, National Leader for Soil section. Hudnall, Chair of ICOMMOTR Classification and Standards, National Soil 4. Define moisture and temperature ([email protected]), or Dr. John Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska. regimes separately from one Galbraith, Chair of ICOMANTH ome of the most significant another, including seasonal ([email protected]). S improvements in Soil concepts (moist/dry and warm/cool Taxonomy have been due to the work seasons). Utilize combinations of of international committees organized the regimes to define appropriate Personnel Changes around a specific topic. For example, taxa. Explore the use of near- ICOMAQ (International Committee on surface measures of moisture and he following people were Aquic Moisture Regimes) introduced temperature for further defining T selected as State Soil Scientists/ aquic conditions and redoximorphic some taxa, such as very cold soils MO Leaders: Charles Love in Auburn, features (among other things), and and very dry soils. AL; Cleveland Watts in Salina, KS; and ICOMAND and ICOMPAS 5. Plan a correlation tour, to be Dave Smith in Davis, CA. (International Committees on Andisols conducted in 3 to 5 years, that will Neil Peterson was selected as the and Permafrost-Affected Soils, address the most pressing State Soil Scientist in Spokane, WA. respectively) introduced Andisols and problems. Linda Bouc selected as the Gelisols as the 11th and 12th soil orders. Administrative Assistant to the Director Charges for ICOMANTH: Recently, two committees have been of the NSSC. reactivated under new leadership. Dr. 1. Develop a collection of soil Steve Peaslee selected as the GIS Wayne Hudnall, Louisiana State descriptions representing an array Specialist at the NSSC.

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Risks Associated With it is desirable to design management can be successfully thawed and allowed 1 practices that will maintain insulation of to naturally drain, resulting in land Permafrost-Affected Soils the soil and will allow it to remain suitable for agriculture. It is critical that By Joe Moore, State Soil Scientist/MLRA frozen and stable. Other soils, however, those soils containing massive ice be Office Leader, NRCS, Palmer, Alaska.

ermafrost takes many different P forms in soils. Thin ice lenses are disseminated throughout some soils. Other soils, especially old soils that have fine grained textures and are on high terraces and footslopes, have large blocks and wedges, or massive ice (fig. 1). The permafrost in many areas of Alaska is relatively warm, just below 32 degrees F. These soils are insulated by the surface cover of vegetation. If the vegetative cover is disturbed by wildfire or cultural practices, the insulation is lost and the permafrost will begin to melt. If a soil contains large amounts of sand and gravel, there will be no change in the strength or stability of the soil as the permafrost thaws. The stability of the soil is nearly the same, Figure 1.—Massive ice in the form of a wedge buried in a permafrost-affected soil. This wedge- whether the soil is frozen or thawed. A shaped feature is relatively pure ice. The surface is dirty because of the fine materials melting out of the overlying soil. (Photo by Joe Moore, USDA, NRCS.) soil that has finer textures (silt and clay) and disseminated ice can become supersaturated and liquefy as the permafrost thaws. Such a soil will lose all strength and stability unless the meltwater eventually drains off. If the soil contains large blocks and wedges of ice, large voids and pits will appear in the soil as the blocks of ice melt. The resulting pitted landscape is known as thermokarst (fig. 2) and is very disruptive to almost all land uses. Permafrost-affected soils can be managed for many uses. It is critical, however, to understand the properties of each soil type (fig. 3). In some cases,

1 In 2003, the Soil Survey Division will focus its marketing campaign on using soil surveys to identify areas with risks and hazards for particular soils or land uses. The campaign will heighten the public’s awareness of these risks and hazards. Presentations, displays, and Figure 2.—A large pit called “thermokarst” in an agricultural field. The thermokarst results brochures will help to send the message from the melting of massive ice several feet below the soil surface. After the soil surface is “Consider the soil first.” disturbed, it may take many years for the buried blocks of ice to melt.

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identified before any land use decision practices which keep the soils insulated is made. Conventional development on will allow for successful development. such soils is likely to end in failure as Onsite drilling is often necessary to the ice blocks eventually melt (figs. 4 identify the location of individual ice and 5). Well designed engineering blocks.

Figure 5.—The result of building a conventional foundation on permafrost- affected soils containing massive ice. Heat transfer from the house resulted in melting of the ice and displacement of the foundation.

Notes on C.E. Kellogg by a Junior Staff Member

By R.B. Grossman, Research Soil Scientist, NRCS, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska. Prepared for presentation at an upcoming meeting of the Soil Science Society of Figure 3.—Permafrost-affected soils with loamy textures become saturated and unstable if America. allowed to thaw. In areas that include these soils, the trans-Alaska oil pipeline is elevated above the ground. t is fitting that we have this I commemoration in the Soil Science Society because the political support of Agricultural Experiment Stations was vital in the early 1950s to establishment of the current soil survey program. I joined the Federal soil survey in 1958 directly from graduate school. I was one of several new Ph.D.’s hired in the investigations group in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The intent was to provide people for future leadership positions. One of those hired was Klaus Flach, who did rise to a major management position. The objective of hiring through the investigations group was to increase Kellogg’s control of the people from whom leadership would be drawn in the future. The hiring practices somewhat short-circuited the Figure 4.—Collapse of a section of the Alaska Highway in 1982 resulting from melting of personnel program in the Soil massive ice under the roadbed. (Photo by Joe Moore, USDA, NRCS.) Conservation Service.

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The period from the 1950s to the (Gardner, 1957). As a result, Kellogg was extremely hard working. For a early 1960s was an active period. It had more money and personnel than number of years he spearheaded the included the following activities: when he was head of the Bureau of effort on nonagricultural interpretations. Soils. The Soil Conservation Service of G.D. Smith was in charge of • 1951—publication of the Soil Survey the late 1950s was only 20 to 25 years investigations. He hired R.V. Ruhe, Manual from its inception in the 1930s as a established a soil-geomorphology • 1960—publication of the Soil Survey well-funded agency (for the time) with program, and led the taxonomy effort. of Louden County, Virginia (Porter and the mission of combating the L.T. Alexander ran the laboratories others, 1960), which includes Depression. The funding in the early under G.D. Smith. nonagricultural interpretations 1950s was enough to mount a much The country was divided into five • 1956—400 surveys in progress using larger effort in soil survey than would regions, each of which had a Principal standards of the Bureau of Soils have been possible by the Bureau of Correlator. Kellogg’s control of the (Gardner, 1957) Soils. Soil Conservation Service senior technical program staff, • late 1950s—initiation of soil- surveys were called utilitarian as they including the Principal Correlators and geomorphology studies and an increase used interpretive property sets to the Washington staff, was exerted in the number of soil survey separate soils, whereas the criteria for through biannual meetings. The reports laboratories from one to three soil separation of the Bureau of Soils of these meetings show the progression • 1960—publication of the 7th were naturalistic with the taxonomic of issues in the national soil survey Approximation, Soil Taxonomy principles having originated in Europe, program. Kellogg chaired these These activities must be viewed particularly Russia. Through Kellogg’s meetings, and Hockensmith acted as the against the short time since the leadership, this naturalistic approach facilitator. At the end of this paper, I conclusion of WWII in 1945. The was installed throughout soil survey and have included a portion of one of senior staff of the soil survey program the prior utilitarian systematics were Kellogg’s statements concluding a prior to WWII served in various replaced. technical meeting. It shows the quality capacities during the war. Most were in In the early to mid 1950s, Kellogg of his writing. the military, but some conducted established the organizational and Dr. Kellogg had a strong work ethic. trafficability studies as civilians. Most senior staff structure that remained in I think he drove his senior staff by returned to the soil survey program place for much of the time until his example. The meetings we attended after the war. retirement. R.W. Hockensmith, who had lasted for a full week and commonly The soil survey program was fueled been in charge of the SCS utilitarian included evening sessions. There were by the money that became available soil survey, was Kellogg’s chief of staff. none of the sexist and racial jokes then through the 1952 reorganization of the People said that Hockensmith was the current in the Soil Conservation USDA by Secretary of Agriculture representative of the SCS survey Service. We gave formal reports, and he Brannan.1 Brannan transferred all program in Kellogg’s organization and personally provided criticism. These personnel and funds of the Bureau of was not sympathetic to the technical reports had strong technical substance. Soil Survey (the organization headed by directions of the soil survey program. In During several meetings, I presented Kellogg) to the Soil Conservation my contacts with him during meetings, many ideas for changes in the 1951 Soil Service (which had a competing soil Hockensmith seemed to be moderating, Survey Manual which were survey program) and made Kellogg consensual, and gentle. R.W. Simonson incorporated in the 1993 manual. Dr. responsible for all soil survey activities was in charge of correlation or perhaps Kellogg was fair. Once, a Principal more accurately national systematics. Correlator gave a report showing Simonson was a student of Kellogg in incomplete command of the material. 1 Secretary Brannan was the author of the Brannan Plan of the Truman Administration, by North Dakota. He is a brilliant man Dr. Kellogg publicly criticized the which farmers would produce to the maximum with strong verbal and writing skills. person. Later, Kellogg apologized and sell cheaply. People would have cheap food, A.A. Klingebiel managed the before the meeting. and the Government would make up the interpretations effort. He came from the The whole senior staff had great difference by paying the farmers. The plan was prior Soil Conservation Service soil respect for science which I think came extremely controversial and was not adopted. It is interesting to speculate on what the health of survey, in which he had been a state soil from Kellogg’s influence. We young our Nation might have been if the plan had been scientist and worked on documentation Ph.D.’s were treated with warmth, and adopted. of physical soil properties. Klingebiel our ideas were received at least

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tactfully and often accepted. Senior suburbanization, and there was a strong a number of interpretations. Perhaps the staff differed intellectually, but they all need for nonagricultural interpretations. method appealed so much to Kellogg respected scholarship. They wanted to I think, however, that soil survey lost a because of its inherent engineering advance the technical program of soil lot by not having a stronger agronomic nature. survey. Responsibility was given with program. Another matter is the distance Sometime in the 1960s, Dr. Kellogg little attention to age or experience. between the skimpy information on soil asked us for suggested changes in the Here there was a similarity to the water in the 1951 Soil Survey Manual 1951 Soil Survey Manual. I was quite German General Staff of WWII, in and the SCS soil water program. At the full of myself and wrote a page or so, which lower ranked officers with time of the reorganization, SCS was the single space. I got back a one-line special expertise were given major world leader in hydrology. The Curve memo from Dr. Kellogg saying that responsibility. Some of the senior field Number method (Haan et al., 1994) for they did not plan to make major staff could be rather authoritarian with runoff estimation was developed by revisions. In the 1970s and 1980s, I field people, but they were not with the SCS hydrologists. In 1952, as part of spent much time on major revisions of young Ph.D.’s. the reorganization by Secretary the 1951 manual in the areas of The most important example of Brannan, the SCS hydrology program consistence and water, areas that I had acceptance of innovation was the rapid was transferred to what is now ARS. In written Dr. Kellogg about a decade or adoption by the senior field staff of the the late 1940s and early 1950s, SCS ran so earlier. new soil taxonomy developed largely thousands of permeability I will conclude with a couple of by G.D. Smith. The senior staff was measurements and developed a system rather subjective comments and a open to having the young Ph.D.’s of prediction based on soil morphology personal story. involved. An example is the basis for (O’Neal, 1952). The sophistication of Dr. Kellogg was supportive of the recognition of clay skins, a feature of a permeability estimates then current in New Deal. I think that this support went key diagnostic subsoil horizon in the SCS is absent from the 1951 manual. deeper than his success in a new taxonomy. Examination of thin The matter is larger. Measurement bureaucracy that had been created as sections became the accepted basis for generally was of much less importance part of the New Deal. I think that he clay skin recognition. As a result, the to the people central to the soil survey intellectually supported the Left in the new Ph.D.’s brought into the than it was to the people involved in U.S. Some of the senior field staff were laboratories became the arbiters of a taxonomy and other aspects of conservative, and there were comments key property. An alternative would have systematics. Major parts of the soil that Dr. Kellogg was of the Left. I been to make recognition of clay skins description protocols were simplistic as suspect that Dr. Kellogg knew he was a field determination. The decision was pertains not only to water, as mentioned thought to be of the Left and modified to make clay skins a laboratory earlier, but also to other properties. his statements accordingly. I thought measurement and hence reduce the Suppose 50 years ago we had initiated that Dr. Kellogg’s rolling speech had authority of the field staff and enhance penetration resistance measurements some similarities to FDR, and I that of the new Ph.D.’s, who could and water state classes. Today, we remember once musing during a talk he make the thin section examination. would have a large database for gave that he seemed to have modeled I have certain reservations about Dr. quantification of consistence. himself to an extent on FDR. Kellogg’s technical emphasis. These On the other hand, Kellogg was very Ed H. Templin was a senior reservations do not, however, pertain to supportive of our work on linear correlator. We both lived in Lincoln. Ed the core of soil survey activities—soil extensibility (LE), which is the change kept pigeons, and I would occasionally mapping. One question is the lack of of moist to dry fabric length divided by visit his home in the evening and watch agronomic concerns in interpretations. the dry length. LE is ascertained by a the pigeons. While so engaged, he once Kellogg told us that he did not want to simple calculation from our natural clod told me that he aspired in the 1930s for be in competition with the Extension bulk density method. In 1959, Lindo Dr. Kellogg’s job as Chief of the Service. He had the interpretations Bartelli told Kellogg of our early Bureau of Soils. (He called Dr. Kellogg program emphasize engineering and the fumbling attempts. Within a very few “Charlie.”) Despite the competition, Ed related nonagricultural questions, which months, the criterion was throughout never had a negative personal word to kept us at a distance from the the soil survey. In passing, linear say about Dr. Kellogg. He, of course, agronomic programs of the Extension extensibility measurements are the basis had disagreements on technical issues. I Service. It was a time of rapid for the Vertic taxa of soil taxonomy and think here is a window into the respect

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that people had for Dr. Kellogg. A man inter-disciplinary conferences, Evaluating Soil Permeability by with desires in the past for Dr. with economists and natural Means of Certain Field Clues. Soil Kellogg’s job said nothing negative scientists together, and groups Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 16: 312-315. about him. of natural scientists from Porter, H.C., and others. 1960. Soil Management in the early 1960s different disciplines. Yet we Survey Louden County, Virginia. wanted me to become head of the Soil must never fail to appreciate USDA, Soil Conservation Service, Survey Laboratory in Lincoln, that every scientist also needs Washington, D.C. Nebraska. I declined. I was brought to close communication with his Washington to talk to Dr. Kellogg. We peers. Unhappily, I once had had tea (he made it personally) and to get quite well acquainted spent several hours talking mostly with the Mayo Clinic. The A Well, a Book, and a about literature, in particular the novels leaders explained that they Prairie Dog Town of C.P. Snow, which I had recently been never set up a new department reading. We did not really talk about of medicine or new By Stanley P. Anderson, Editor, NRCS, the position until the end of the specialization unless they had National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska. meeting, about the time I left. He asked the finances to hire at least two n an article in Nebraska History me if I was willing to be acting head for top people in that field. They entitled “Catherton Post Office” a time. I said “Yes” and was the head of never had just one alone. Their I (winter issue of 1973, pages 625-632), the laboratory for the next 13 years. I experience had shown that the Charles Wesley Cowley notes that the think that Dr. Kellogg decided to get lone expert begins to become home of Isaac Cowley (his father) me to agree by indirection. I was overconfident or to lose served as a post office from 1876 to staying in Washington with L.T. confidence if he has no one to 1887. The post office was located in Alexander, the Chief of our three talk to at his level of 1 Batin Township (SW /4 sec. 6, T. 3 N., laboratories. The next day at breakfast, competence. I realize that R. 11 W.) rather than in Harmony Dr. Alexander told me that Dr. Kellogg many of our soil scientists do Township, which was renamed had called in the evening. I had made a have rather lonesome Catherton Township (T. 3 N., R. 12 very positive impression, and he was positions. It is important that W.). After submitting new names and particularly complimentary of my all of us have opportunities to having them rejected by Washington a language skills—a bit of a poet he said. talk with our peers—with number of times, George P. Cather, Such skills as I may have had people of nearly equal Willa Cather’s uncle, decided to name subsequently never mattered in my competence and equal the township after himself. George dealings with senior administrators. responsibility. Cather homesteaded a couple of miles Following is an excerpt from the to the west (sec. 2, T. 3 N., R. 12 W.), summary of the 1963 soil survey Literature Cited and Willa spent some of her childhood conference (Kellogg, 1963). The ideas 1 years on her grandparents’ farm (NE /4 are, of course, excellent and more Gardner, D.R. 1957. The National sec. 22, T. 3 N., R. 12 W.) before her intellectual than those of the next 40 Cooperative Soil Survey of the parents moved to Red Cloud, about 9 years of my experience in the Federal United States. Ph.D. Thesis. miles south and 5 miles east of the soil survey. There is also the sentence Harvard University, Cambridge, grandparents’ farm and 2 miles north of pacing—a mixture of short and long MA. the Republican River. The homestead sentences. The short sentences act as a Haan, C.T., B.J. Barfield, and J.C. locations specified in this paragraph are kind of beat and spacing between the Hayes. 1994. Design Hydrology shown in figure 1. denser, longer sentences: and Sedimentology for Small We have had a good Catchments. Academic Press, San Well conference here. These Diego, CA. conferences always lift my Kellogg, C.E. 1963. National Technical In his reminiscence, Charles Wesley morale. Some of us were Work Planning Conference of the Cowley, noting the scarcity of water in talking about the reasons this Cooperative Soil Survey. Summary the area, describes (on page 627) how morning. We hear a lot of the Conference. his father hired a man to dig a well on a nowadays of the importance of O’Neal, A.M. 1952. The Key for hilltop on their farm, which was on the

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divide between the Little Blue and Republican Rivers: . . . there was a lot of fellas wandering around looking for jobs, so it was easy to hire help. But they was out there like babes in the woods. T. 4 N. Nobody had any idea how far it was to water up there on the top of the hill, so father made this kind of a bargain with the guy: He was to pay him 20 cents a foot for each foot that he dug, but if he tried to quit before he got water, he wasn’t to have anything; if father stopped him, father was to pay for all the man had dug. The man that was digging, he got T. 3 N. down about thirty-forty feet. He begin to want to squeal out. I guess father reminded him of their bargain; anyway he kept on. He got down eighty feet before they struck sand. Of course they had a couple of R. 12 W. R. 11 W. men to work on it because they had to curb the well the rest of Figure 1.—The northwest corner of the general soil map in the Soil Survey of Webster County, the way down. . . . Finally, Nebraska (1974). when they had about eighty feet of curbing in, they struck water—160 feet to water from the top.

Figure 2 indicates that the Hastings soils in association 1 are underlain by Pleistocene sand and gravel. The site for the well is probably in an area of Hastings silt loam, 0 to 1 percent slopes, map symbol Hs (fig. 3). According to the Soil Survey of Webster County, Nebraska (1974), a significant acreage of this soil is irrigated by water drawn from deep wells (page 17). Also, the supply of water for pump irrigation in the region north of the Republican River is “uncertain” (page 68), some areas having “no water-saturated sands Figure 2.—Diagram of association 1 (the Hastings-Hord-Holdrege association) in the Soil Survey and gravel” and other areas having sand of Webster County, Nebraska. and gravel at a depth of 50 feet or

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upslope from a draw, in an area far Coda away from any creek or pond. It is about 10 acres in size. Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Otto Fuchs, who works as a hired Mammals indicates that the purely hand for Jim’s grandfather, says that he vegetarian diet of prairie dogs is has seen well-populated prairie dog dominated by grasses (vol. 3, page 56). towns in desert areas 50 miles from any Their food provides the water that they surface water and claims that some of need. Meriwether Lewis was among the the holes in the towns “hereabouts” first to observe that prairie dogs can extend almost 200 feet to water. survive without water. In The Journals Antonia says that she does not believe of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, him. volume 4 of the Moulton edition (pages Figure 3.—Part of map sheet 13 in the survey In chapter 7, Jim and Antonia decide 183-184), Lewis describes “a large of Webster County. The Catherton post to dig into one of the holes in the town. assemblage” of prairie dogs that he office was in the SW1/4 of section 6 in Batin Township. The map symbol Hs is Jim notes that there are “little patches observed on May 23, 1805, in north- for Hastings silt loam, 0 to 1 percent of sand and gravel” that the prairie dogs central Montana, noting that, in this and slopes. “scratched up, we supposed, from a other areas along the Missouri, they: long way below the surface.” In places . . . never visit the brooks or more. Depth to “the static water level” there are “larger gravel patches, several river for water; I am is as much as 200 feet. yards away from any hole.” Jim has to astonished how this anamal According to the official series use his spade to kill a rattlesnake exists as it dose without water, description, the Hastings series consists (called “the biggest snake I had ever particularly in a country like of very deep, well drained soils that seen” and “a circus monstrosity”) this where there is scarcely formed in silty loess on uplands. lurking on “one of those dry gravel 3 any rain during /4 of the year Typically, the surface layer is slightly beds.” Antonia is impressed with Jim’s and more rarely any due hard, friable silt loam 6 inches thick. courage on this occasion. [dew]; yet we have sometimes The next 8 inches is slightly hard, If, as is likely, the prairie dog town found their villages at the friable silty clay loam. The upper part is based on a real town from Cather’s distance of five or six miles of the subsoil is hard, firm silty clay own childhood, it would have to be from any water, and they are loam 23 inches thick, and the lower part located in an area where the deposit of never found out of the limits of is slightly hard, friable silty clay loam loess is much thinner than the loess in the ground which their 11 inches thick. Below this to a depth which the Hastings soils formed and the burrows occupy. of 80 inches is soft, friable silt loam. sand and gravel are much closer to the surface. According to Grzimek’s Lewis could have provided Antonia Encyclopedia of Mammals (1990), a basis for disbelieving Otto’s claim Book and Prairie Dog Town prairie dogs dig to a maximum depth of that prairie dogs dig as much as 200 about 16 feet (vol. 3, page 54). feet for water. The book is Willa Cather’s My Antonia (1918), and the prairie dog town is described in the novel (book 1, The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all chapters 4 and 7). In chapter 4, Jim its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, Burden describes trips in which he (a religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family boy about 10 years old) and Antonia (3 status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities or 4 years older than Jim) ride his horse who require alternative means for communication of program information Dude north of his grandparents’ farm to (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at a prairie dog town, where they observe (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). not only the prairie dogs but also earth- To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil owls, which nest underground with the Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, prairie dogs, and where Jim and Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA Antonia have to watch out for is an equal opportunity provider and employer. rattlesnakes. The prairie dog town is

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