Sociolinguistic Survey of Lohorung

DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2014-003

Jessica R. Mitchell and Holly J. Hilty Sociolinguistic Survey of Lohorung

Jessica R. Mitchell and Holly J. Hilty

SIL International® 2014

1 Abstract

This report presents the results of sociolinguistic research conducted among representatives of the Lohorung [ISO 639-3: lbr], Yamphu [ybi], and Southern Yamphu [lrr] language communities of Sankhuwasabha and Dhankuta districts in Nepal. Linguistic and anthropological research, by van Driem (2001), Rutgers (1998), Hansson (1991), and Hardman (2000), provide helpful context for this investigation of sociolinguistic realities between these groups. The goals of this survey include clarifying the relationships between Lohorung and two related languages; investigating dialect variation and attitudes between three Lohorung communities (Pangma, Angala, and Dhupu); assessing Lohorung language vitality in these three communities; and understanding the Lohorung community’s desires for development. This research adds to previous linguistic description of Lohorung and Yamphu to confirm that, despite their close relationship, they speak separate languages. There is little dialect variation between the Lohorung villages we visited. There are positive attitudes towards the speech variety of Pangma. While language vitality varies among these three Lohorung villages, the degree of vitality (EGIDS 6b, Threatened) warrants language-based development. The Lohorung community desires language-based development, most notably multi-lingual education, adult literacy, and a dictionary.

ii Contents

Abstract Preface 1 Purpose and goals 2 Introduction 2.1 Geography 2.2 History 2.3 People 2.4 Languages 2.4.1 Genetic relationships 2.4.2 Language contact and multilingualism 2.4.3 Terms of reference 3 Methodology 3.1 Site selection 3.2 Subject selection 3.3 Research methods 3.3.1 Wordlist comparisons 3.3.2 Recorded Text Test (RTT) 3.3.3 Informal interviews 3.3.4 Dialect Mapping participatory method 3.3.5 Domains of Language use participatory method 3.3.6 Bilingualism participatory method 3.3.7 Appreciative Inquiry participatory method 4 Language variation and attitudes 4.1 Relationship between Lohorung (Pangma) and Yamphu (Hedangna) 4.1.1 Lexical similarity results 4.1.2 Intelligibility testing results 4.1.3 Pre/Post-RTT question results 4.1.4 Summary 4.2 Relationship between Lohorung (Pangma) and Southern Yamphu (Rajarani) 4.2.1 Lexical similarity results 4.2.2 Intelligibility testing results 4.2.3 Pre/Post-RTT question results 4.2.4 Summary 5 Dialect variation and attitudes 5.1 Lexical similarity results 5.2 Intelligibility testing results 5.3 Dialect attitudes 5.4 Summary 6 Language use and vitality 6.1 Domains of language use 6.2 Language use by age, education, and gender 6.2.1 Language use according to age 6.2.2 Language use according to education 6.2.3 Language use according to gender 6.3 Intergenerational transfer 6.4 Language vitality in Lohorung speech communities 6.4.1 Language vitality in Pangma 6.4.2 Language vitality in Angala 6.4.3 Language vitality in Dhupu 6.5 Summary

iii iv

7 Desires for development 8 Summary of Findings and Implications for Language-Based Development 8.1 Language variation and attitudes 8.1.1 Summary of findings 8.1.2 Implications 8.2 Dialect variation and attitudes 8.2.1 Summary of findings 8.2.2 Implications 8.3 Language use and vitality 8.3.1 Summary of findings 8.3.2 Implications 8.4 Desires for development 8.4.1 Summary of findings 8.4.2 Implications Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing (RTT) Appendix C: Informal Interviews Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ) Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Participatory Method Appendix F: Domains of Language Use Participatory Method Appendix G: Bilingualism Participatory Method Appendix H: Appreciative Inquiry Participatory Method Appendix I: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale References

Preface

This sociolinguistic survey of the Lohorung language of eastern Nepal was conducted in partnership with the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal. The data collection portion of this survey was carried out in April and May of 2011 in Sankhuwasabha and Dhankuta districts of Nepal. The purpose of the survey was to gather sociolinguistic information among Lohorung speakers with hopes that these assessments will be useful for giving input into further Lohorung language development. We greatly appreciate the many people who contributed to the completion of this language survey. Our colleagues at Tribhuvan University offered timely encouragement and support along the way for which we are very grateful. The fieldwork would not have gone so smoothly without the leadership of our teammate and mentor, John Eppele. Without Ben Hilty along we would not have had such beautiful photos and videos to share with others. We would also still be trying to construct our recorded text tests without Ben’s adept computer skills. Before heading to eastern Nepal we had the opportunity to meet Bhawani Lohorung Rai of the Lohorung Yakkhaba Society who graciously helped organize people to help us when we reached Pangma. We could not have completed fieldwork without the assistance of Dambar Lohorung Rai, who traveled with us to all three of the Lohorung villages, spent hours helping us translate and communicate what we were doing, was a great help in arranging logistics, and was in general a profound asset to our team. We are so thankful for his encouragement and hard work. We are grateful to all the Lohorung people of Sankhuwasabha district who so warmly welcomed us and offered us their homes, food, and time. There are too many people to mention by name, but each of you who guided us down a trail, helped us translate stories, and answered our questions had a part in this report coming to completion. This report is for you. It is our hope that this report will be a useful tool for Lohorung language development. We trust that this report accurately reflects the data we collected. However, comments and suggestions are welcomed. June 2012 Jessica R. Mitchell Holly J. Hilty Kathmandu, Nepal

1 Purpose and goals

The purpose of this research is to provide sociolinguistic information to Tribhuvan University as part of the Linguistic Survey of Nepal. This information is intended to guide and support language development programmes in Lohorung [lbr]1. This includes investigating the relationships of the current ISO designations of Yamphu [ybi], and Southern Yamphu [lrr] with Lohorung [lbr]. The goals for this research are to: 1. Understand relationships between Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu. 2. Investigate dialect variation and intelligibility among Lohorung speech communities. 3. Investigate language vitality in three Lohorung speech communities. 4. Understand the Lohorung community’s desires for language development.

2 Introduction

The Lohorung community has expressed interest in language-based development programmes in their mother tongue. Given the unclear relationship and attitudes between Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu, a better understanding of the language situation is necessary to support development programmes in an effective manner.

2.1 Geography

The speech varieties in focus are found in Sankhuwasabha district and Dhankuta district, in the Eastern Development Region of Nepal. The primary Lohorung communities lie north of Khandbari, Sankhuwasabha district headquarters, along the eastern side of the Arun River. While Lohorung villages cover a relatively small area in the foothills of Makalu, the world’s fifth tallest mountain, they are scattered over what Hardman describes as a “complex of interlocking hills and narrow valleys.” Our data collection sites were between 1,000 and 1,300 meters in elevation. Hardman also describes weather that changes as dramatically as the landscape. The average rainfall, most of which occurs between June and September, is 2,600 mm (Hardman 2000:1). The other communities of interest are located northeast of the Lohorung area and in southern Dhankuta district.

1 This report follows the language identification set forth by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 639-3. The three letters in each set of brackets are the ISO 639-3 code internationally used to refer to that language variety.

1 2

Figure 1 is a map of the districts of Nepal with the areas of interest in Sankhuwasabha district and Dhankuta district, which lie south of Sankhuwasabha, designated as being Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively.

Figure 1. Map of districts visited for survey2.

2 Base map from district map of Nepal, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/ Sankhuwasabha_district_location.png (Accessed 08 Dec 2010).

Figure 2 shows the Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu language areas of Sankhuwasabha district.

Figure 2. Map of language areas in Sankhuwasabha district. The largest Lohorung community is Pangma, four Lohorung villages located northwest of Khandbari. Other settlements are located in a broad swath of land east of the Arun River, from Khandbari north to Diding. They are: • Angala (east of the Arun where Bhojpur’s border joins and begins following the Arun south), • Higuwa (northeast of Khandbari), • Tallo Dhupu/Dhupa (east of Pangma, between Pangtha Khola and Sobha Khola), • Bardeu and Gairiaula (north of Angala on the east side of the Arun), • Malta (north of Khandbari and northeast of Pangma), and • Sitalpati (west of Pangma, just east of where Irkhuwa Khola joins the Arun).

Hardman and van Driem report that Pangma is the oldest Lohorung settlement. Gairi Pangma is the oldest of the four Pangma settlements (the other three being Tallo Pangma, Loke Pangma, and Dhara Pangma) (van Driem 2001:694). Hansson estimated the “Northern Lohorung” population to be between 7,000 and 10,000 speakers (Hansson 1991:63). In her doctoral dissertation, Charlotte Hardman reported around 4,500 Lohorung speakers in the Arun valley area (Hardman 2000:1). The Ethnologue suggests there may be 3,750 speakers of Lohorung (Lewis 2009:491). The Lohorung Yakkhaba Society website (http://lohorung.org.np/ Accessed 13 June 2012) states that there are 100,000 to 150,000 Lohorung. The 2001 Census of Nepal reports 1,207 Lohorung (Goutam, Sharma, and Vaidya 2002:32). Figure 3 shows the Southern Yamphu language area of Dhankuta district.

Figure 3. Map of language area in Dhankuta district. Prior to this research, this area was designated as Southern Lohorung by ISO, likely based on Hansson 1991.

2.2 History

Kirati generally refers to the inhabitants of the hill area of Eastern Nepal. The cultures of Kirati people have been the subject of a growing number of publications over the last 20 years. Due to this growing field of “Kirantology,” the outside world knows more than ever about the languages, myths, and various aspects of Kirati cultures. The first references to Kirati (or Kirata) appear in old Sanskrit texts, particularly in the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Here, the inhabitants of the eastern hills of Nepal are described as warriors. The Kirata are believed to have ruled the Kathmandu valley for more than 1,000

5 years until they were driven out by the ancestors of the Licchavi (Gaenszle 2000:5). The Lohorung people fall under the label Kirati Rai. The historical narrative of the Rai people coming to be many different groups is told as three brothers who journeyed up the Barahkshetra Gorge from the Terai. One brother followed the Sun Koshi, one brother followed the Dudh Koshi, and the third brother followed the Arun Koshi. The descendents of these three brothers make up the various present-day Rai groups (McDougal 1973:3). The people described in this report are said to be descendents of the brother who traveled up the Arun Koshi.

2.3 People

While there are linguistic differences between Lohorung and Yamphu (discussed in 0), there are also material indicators of distinct identities. For instance, the construction of their kitchen fireplaces is different between the Lohorung and Yamphu. Lohorung cooking fires are round and open with a metal stand on which to place pots over the burning wood. Yamphu people use raised fireplaces in their kitchens (similar to a mud oven). Their fireplaces have a hole in the side for inserting the wood and a hole on top where the pot is placed. Like the Yamphu and Mewahang, their neighbors to the north, the day-to-day lives of Lohorung people are lived in relation to their ancestors. A notable fact about Lohorung villages is that they are structured quite differently from those of other Rai groups around them. Their houses are raised on stilts and built next to each other with their gardens nearby. Raising their homes allows them to take greater advantage of ground space by keeping animals under their houses. The main motivation, however, is a sense of security. As one Lohorung explained to Hardman, “We live close together so as not to fear: to live in the fields alone away from the village is frightening” (Hardman 2000:16). Significant political changes over the last 20 years have created a new space for the expression of ethnic identity. Many cultural organizations have been founded by Rai clans to strengthen their cultures, languages, and ethnicity as Rai. Gaenszle notes the increase in publications on specific Rai communities as evidence of “the great interest and pride of contemporary Rai in their cultural traditions, but also to the concern that something has to be done to preserve them” (Gaenszle 2000:xix). This trend has continued to increase over the past decade. The Lohorung Yakkhaba Society was formed in 1999. Committees of the Lohorung Yakkhaba Society are located in Pangma, Diding, Heluwa, and Bardeo, Sankhuwasabha district. The desire is for this society to be active in cultural, linguistic, and educational activities.

2.4 Languages

Among the Rai, a well-known saying is jati rai uti kura, i.e. ‘There are as many languages as there are Rai.’ The exact number and names of all the groups included under Rai is unclear. Bista’s The People of Nepal lists 18 different Rai “segments” while the Linguistic Survey of Nepal suggests there are more than 50 Rai dialects or languages (Gaenszle 2000:3). ISO 639-2 lists designations for 33 Rai languages (Lewis 2009).

2.4.1 Genetic relationships

Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu are classified as Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman (Bodic), Himalayan, Kiranti languages (Bradley 2002:19). In Lohorung-Nepali-English: A Basic Dictionary, the Lohorung, Yamphu, and Mewahang occupy their own branch under Sino-Tibetan, Tibetan, Bodic, Himalayish, East Himalayish (Yadava 2004).

2.4.2 Language contact and multilingualism

A factor with potential to effect language shift is language contact, when speakers of two different languages meet. Through language contact, multilingualism increases and the use of certain languages

6 increases over the use of others, sometimes leading to language shift or even death. Considering the modes and extent of language contact and multilingualism helps paint a clearer picture of the sociolinguistic condition of a language. A common opportunity for language contact is through access to a population center where people from the targeted community are exposed to and possibly required to use another language (Landweer 2000). In this case, the primary contact language is Nepali. All Lohorung villages in Sankhuwasabha are within a day’s walk of Khandbari, the district headquarters. Gairi Pangma, the largest Lohorung village, is only a two-hour walk away. Many other ethnic groups also take advantage of the markets, hospital, and schools that Khandbari offers, making Nepali language use a necessity. Another significant contributor to language contact and multilingualism is education. Lohorung children attend Nepali-medium schools. Most villages have an ethnically diverse population, which encourages the use of Nepali among children both inside and outside of school. Because of its largely homogeneous population, Pangma is an exception to this rule. There, we observed children speaking Lohorung to each other in the home and while playing. While the two factors of language contact discussed above involve action by members of the targeted community, some factors act upon the target community instead. As infrastructure for the Arun III Hydroelectric Project is being built, Pangma stands to be heavily impacted. The road from Khandbari north to Num cuts through Lohorung land and even at this early stage has been the point of some conflict, as plans call for it to pass through a sacred place. Most of the construction workers are from other castes and speak other languages. Construction of the road will bring increased contact with outsiders, and the road will bring an influx of workers in need of lodging and food on their way north. This project will have significant impact on the entire district, but the most affected Lohorung village will certainly be Pangma. Emigration for work also affects language use in Lohorung villages. Young men often travel to Khandbari, Kathmandu, or beyond for work. Thirty percent of male respondents had spent more than one year working in either India, Malaysia, or Qatar. Patterns of contact between Lohorung and Yamphu communities vary greatly, but the highest contact is between Pangma and Hedangna, the largest villages of each language group. Fifty-six percent of Lohorung respondents had travelled north to Hedangna while 60 percent of Yamphu respondents had travelled south through Pangma.

2.4.3 Terms of reference

Lohorung is also known as Northern Lorung, and Lo(h)(a)rung Khanawa (Hansson 1991:62). Hansson singles out Lohorung as the only large language group among the Rai groups east of the Arun River which do not claim the label Yakkha or Yakkhaba. However, Yakkhaba Khap was mentioned by leaders of the Lohorung communities we visited as another term of reference for their language. There is little evidence of significant dialect variation within Lohorung. Hansson reports that Biksit is considered to be a dialect from a linguistic point of view only while linguistic evidence of two other dialects (Kipa and Loke Lorung) is lacking (Hansson 1991:62–63). A variety of names have been used to refer to Southern Yamphu, including Southern Lohorung, Yamphe, Dewan, Deon, Deon Lorung, Yakkhaba, Yakkha, Yakkhaba Lorung, Yamphu, Dangbami Lorung, Dangbami Khapung, and Jimi (Hansson 1991:62–65). The appearance of Yakkhaba in reference to both Yamphu and Southern Yamphu is noteworthy. The group called “Southern Lorung” by Hansson identifies themselves as Yamphu. For this reason, we applied to ISO to change the identifier for [lrr] from “Southern Lorung” to “Southern Yamphu” (this request was approved in February 2012). Hansson estimated that there are 3,000 to 5,000 speakers (1991). The Ethnologue (forthcoming) now estimates there are between 2,500 and 5,500 speakers.

3 Methodology

3.1 Site selection

Figure 4 shows the data collection sites for Lohorung (Pangma, Dhupu, and Angala), Yamphu (Hedangna), and Southern Yamphu (Devitar).

Figure 4. Map of data collection sites in Sankhuwasabha district.

Figure 5 shows the data collection site for Southern Yamphu (Rajarani) in Dhankuta district.

Figure 5. Map of data collection sites in Dhankuta district.

3.2 Subject selection

The quota sampling plan used in this survey was based on the four variables of gender, age, education, and geographic location, as these factors are known to influence language use and attitudes. Also, the people in these demographic groups often have varying levels of exposure to other languages.

Within these demographic groups, we required subjects to meet four screening criteria for wordlists and the RTT: 1. The subject is “from the village,” defined as having grown up in the village, living in the village at present, and, if they have lived elsewhere, it was not for a significant amount of recent time. 3 2. Subject has at least one parent from target variety. 3. Subject has at least one parent who is a mother-tongue speaker of the variety, is from the village under study, and that parent spoke the variety with him/her when he/she was a child. 4. Subject speaks the variety first and best. Only criteria one and two were required for a subject to be eligible to respond to the informal interview schedule. Note that the fourth criterion was relaxed in Dhupu. Since Lohorung language vitality is so low there, it was difficult to find speakers who could fit this criterion.

3.3 Research methods

Background research was conducted in Kathmandu prior to fieldwork. Lohorung speakers from Pangma village and Yamphu speakers from Hedangna and Num villages were interviewed and assisted with preparing various tools. The participatory methods used in this survey were facilitated by Santa Man Lawoti and Dal Bahadur Limbu in Sankhuwasabha and Dhankuta districts in September 2009. During fieldwork, wordlists, recorded text tests (RTT), and informal interviews were administered in Gairi Pangma, Dhupu4, Angala, and Hedangna, Sankhuwasabha district, and Rajarani, Dhankuta district.

3.3.1 Wordlist comparisons

Description and Purpose: A comparison of wordlists to estimate the degree of lexical similarity between the speech varieties the word lists represent.

Procedure: Wordlists were elicited in Nepali from mother-tongue Lohorung and Yamphu speakers and were transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). In order to ensure that the wordlists represent the speech variety in each location, a group of at least three speakers was involved in the wordlist elicitation. A lexical similarity analysis was carried out on each pair of wordlists. A complete description of wordlist comparison and the data collected can be found in Appendix A.

Advantages: Data collection is relatively efficient. Wordlists can provide some broad insights into possible dialect groupings.

Disadvantages: Above certain levels of lexical similarity, wordlists cannot give conclusive evidence of intelligibility between speech varieties compared.

3.3.2 Recorded Text Test (RTT)

Description and Purpose: Subjects listen to recorded stories, with comprehension questions asked within the stories. After the subject has listened to the stories, questions regarding language attitudes are

3 This criterion was extended in a few cases to include subjects who had grown up in nearby villages, where the speech variety is still the same as the village where the interview took place. It is difficult to define a specific time period (e.g. more than the last five years) for "a significant amount of recent time." Thus, this criterion is intentionally subjective as it depends on how long the subject lived elsewhere and how long they have been back in the village relative to their age. 4 The RTT was not administered in Dhupu due to low Lohorung language use in that village.

asked. This helps in the assessment of subjects’ understanding of and attitudes toward actual samples of the language from various areas.

Procedure: We recorded a narrative story from a Lohorung speaker and a Yamphu speaker. It was then played for people, in other Lohorung and Yamphu communities, who were not told the story’s place of origin. As subjects listened to each story, they answered comprehension questions (recorded in their own dialect) about the story. After listening to each story, subjects answered questions about their understanding of and opinions toward the speech variety used by the storyteller. The tests were administered first in the community the speaker was from to ensure we had a representative recorded text from that variety. This is referred to as the home town test (HTT). The stories used and responses for the RTT can be found in Appendix B.

Advantages: By using actual samples of selected speech varieties, an initial assessment of intelligibility and attitudes can be made.

Disadvantages: This test can be time consuming to develop. The type of RTT used in this survey only evaluates basic understanding of narrative texts. In addition it does not measure reading and writing ability in the second dialect.

3.3.3 Informal interviews

Description and Purpose: A prepared interview schedule (based on the “Sociolinguistic Questionnaire A,” used by the Linguistic Survey of Nepal) guided interaction in order to gather information regarding specific sociolinguistic issues, while allowing freedom to inquire or discuss issues further if it might provide additional information relevant to the research questions of the survey. An additional interview schedule (dubbed the “Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire”) was used to investigate issues relevant to each village context, which are more factual in nature than individual patterns of language choice or attitudes.

Procedure: The interview schedule was written in English and Nepali, and interviews were conducted in Nepali. An example of this procedure would be asking “What language do you usually speak with your children?” as on the planned interview schedule. If the interviewee happened to respond with two or more languages, we followed up with questions such as “Do you speak one of these languages more often than the other?” This allowed the interviews to focus more on patterns of language use (and their impact on language vitality and shift) than on other topics, such as generalized trends of multilingualism. The interview schedule, biographical data of respondents, and responses can be found in Appendix C. The Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire and responses are in Appendix D.

Advantages: Depending on the length of the interview schedule, the time in administration can be minimal, allowing for relatively large numbers of people to be interviewed. The informal nature of the interviews helps subjects feel comfortable and share openly, while allowing greater depth and context for their responses.

Disadvantages: Informal interviews are limited in that subjects may only report what they want the researcher to hear, or what they believe the researcher would like to hear.

3.3.4 Dialect Mapping participatory method

Description and Purpose: This method initiates discussion of existing dialects, their geographic location, and perceived levels of comprehension between varieties.

Procedure: Participants were invited to describe where their language is spoken and the different varieties spoken. They then identified how different other varieties of their language are from their own and how well they understand other varieties. They then identified which variety they use in conversation with people from each area, and identified which variety they believe has the greatest

11 potential to be a written standard. The complete steps and data collected through Dialect Mapping can be found in Appendix E.

Advantages: Provides a visual representation of which communities participants interact with, how well participants feel they understand other varieties, how their language may or may not be altered in these circumstances, and their attitudes towards each variety.

Disadvantages: May seem complicated or redundant to participants. Although they are a useful indicator, emic perspectives do not always match linguistic reality.

3.3.5 Domains of Language use participatory method

Description and Purpose: This method aids the investigation of language vitality. Its purpose is to help participants from the language community describe the varying situations in which they use L1, the LWC, or other languages and then identify the domains and languages that are used more frequently.

Procedure: Groups of Lohorung people were asked to identify which languages they speak on a regular basis and then list a variety of domains in which each of those languages is used. The participants then categorized the domains by their frequency. A full description of the Domains of Language Use tool and data gathered for this survey can be found in Appendix F.

Advantages: This method does not assume domains or frequency of language use, rather, the community suggests and discusses domains and frequency of language use from their own perspective.

Disadvantages: Categorizing domains may be confusing or difficult. Some people may not be comfortable making comparisons.

3.3.6 Bilingualism participatory method

Description and Purpose: This method helps language community members describe the demographics and patterns of multilingualism within their community.

Procedure: Participants listed the languages spoken most frequently in their community. They then described categories of people who speak each language well, the relative size of each category of speakers, and which categories may be increasing most quickly. A complete description of the tool as well as results for this survey can be found in Appendix G.

Advantages: This tool does not assume languages spoken in the community, but allows the community to name and discuss relevant languages themselves.

Disadvantages: This method is not very accommodating to multilingual situations exceeding the complexity of bilingualism. Does not help document or illustrate community attitudes towards their bilingual context.

3.3.7 Appreciative Inquiry participatory method

Description and Purpose: This method helps community members discuss what they are proud of, what desires they have for their language, and begin planning for how to achieve those dreams. It shows what the community regards as priorities for their own language-based development.

Procedure: Participants discuss things in their L1 or culture that have made them happy or proud. They then consider how to build upon the good things they identified, or list their own dreams for their language. Next, they discuss which dreams might be accomplished sooner and which ones will take longer. Then, they identify which dreams are most important to them. Finally, participants choose a dream they would like to create a plan for, including first steps, who will be involved, and when the plan

will be put into action. A full description of the Appreciative Inquiry method and results can be found in Appendix H.

Advantages: This method is very adaptable. Its emphasis is on what the community can do now to work towards their dreams for language development. Appreciative Inquiry helps build a concrete context by which to understand actual priorities that a community has for its own development.

Disadvantages: If not carried out appropriately, this method may raise false hopes of outside assistance in reaching their goals.

4 Language variation and attitudes

One of the primary questions this sociolinguistic research seeks to answer is: What are the relationships between Lohorung [lbr], Yamphu [ybi], and Southern Yamphu [lrr]? Based on lexical similarity percentages, recorded text testing, attitudinal questions, and observations, we have concluded that Yamphu spoken in Hedangna and Southern Yamphu spoken in Rajarani are separate but related languages to Lohorung spoken in Pangma. This section is divided into sections that address the relationships between varieties according to the results of our research. This includes levels of lexical similarity and the degree of comprehension between the varieties, as well as attitudes expressed on questions before and after the recorded text test.

4.1 Relationship between Lohorung (Pangma) and Yamphu (Hedangna)

4.1.1 Lexical similarity results

Lexical similarity is measured by comparing the phonetic similarity of vocabularies among speech varieties. In this study, we used the procedures outlined in Blair (1990:31–32), described further in Appendix A. This method involved collecting and comparing a standardised wordlist. The researchers transcribed the wordlists using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), shown in Appendix A. These wordlists were checked with other mother-tongue speakers from the same area in order to ensure accuracy. Lexical similarity calculations were made using the WordSurv computer program and expressed as percentages. A total of five wordlists were compared in this study. Three Lohorung, one Yamphu, and one Southern Yamphu variety were collected and will be discussed in this section and in 5 Dialect variation and attitudes (section 5). For comparison between language varieties, the sites were chosen using information regarding the locations of Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu population centers. To measure lexical similarity between Lohorung and Yamphu, wordlists were elicited in Pangma (Lohorung) and Hedangna (Yamphu). The lexical similarity between these wordlists is 65 percent. Blair (1990:23) states that if a lexical similarity is below 60 percent, no intelligibility testing is required. Sixty- five percent shows a low level of lexical similarity, but still warrants intelligibility testing. To investigate further, we administered Recorded Text Tests.

4.1.2 Intelligibility testing results

Recorded Text Testing (RTT) was used to evaluate comprehension between Lohorung and Yamphu. An RTT was developed in each location, using a Lohorung story from Pangma and a Yamphu story from Hedangna. Further description of the testing procedure can be found in Appendix B. Table 1 displays the results of the intelligibility tests. The gray sections display the results of the hometown test (HTT), whereas the others are RTT results.

Table 1. RTT results for Lohorung (Pangma) and Yamphu (Hedangna) speakers

Test Location Story Hedangna Pangma Avg % 65 89 Lohorung SD 23.5 11.0 (Pangma) n= 10 10 Avg % 91 44 Yamphu SD 9.6 17.8 (Hedangna) n= 10 10

In order to interpret RTT results properly, three pieces of information are necessary. The first is average percentage (shown as Avg % in Table 1), which is the mean or average of all subjects’ individual scores on a particular story at a particular test site. Another important piece of information is a measure of how much individual scores vary from the community average, which is known as standard deviation (SD in Table 1). The third important component of the data is the size of the sample of people tested on each story (n= in Table 1). Blair (1990:25) has written about the relationship between test scores and their standard deviation, as seen in Figure 6.

Standard Deviation High Low Situation 1 Situation 2 Many people understand the Most people understand the High story well, but some have story. Average difficulty. Score Situation 3 Situation 4 Many people cannot understand Few people are able to Low the story, but a few are able to understand the story. answer correctly.

Figure 6. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation.

In general, average RTT scores of around 80 percent or higher with accompanying low standard deviations (usually ten and below; high standard deviations are about 15 and above) are taken to indicate that the subjects from the test point display adequate comprehension of the variety represented by the recording. However, RTT average scores lower than 60 percent are interpreted to indicate inadequate comprehension. The results of each HTT were not ideal. Average HTT scores of 95 percent or higher, with a low standard deviation (less than 10 to 12 points) are preferred. Average HTT scores of 89 percent (Lohorung) and 91 percent (Yamphu) show that the tests could have been stronger. Despite that, the differences in scores and standard deviations between each HTT and RTT reveal valuable information. The average score of Yamphu speakers in Hedangna on the Lohorung RTT was 65 percent. With a high standard deviation of 23.5, these results show that many people cannot understand the story, but a few are able to answer correctly. There is no apparent correlation between RTT scores and factors of gender, age, education, or initial contact. The average score on the Yamphu RTT for Lohorung speakers who took the test in Pangma was 44 percent. This is a low average score. The standard deviation among the scores was 17.8. This shows that most people do not understand the story, though some scored higher than others.

With such a high standard deviation, language contact may play a role. The data shows that the three Lohorung participants with the lowest scores have never been to Hedangna. Men scored higher than most women and all said they had been to Hedangna. Their higher scores could be due to more extensive travel and contact with Yamphu. Respondents from Hedangna had both a higher average score and higher standard deviation than those from Pangma. It is possible that people in Hedangna understood the Lohorung story better than people in Pangma understood the Yamphu story because Yamphu people are more exposed to Lohorung than Lohorung people are to Yamphu. Hedangna is more remote than Pangma. People from Hedangna travel through Pangma to reach the district headquarters, but people from Pangma have fewer reasons to travel to Hedangna.

4.1.3 Pre/Post-RTT question results

After Yamphu speakers in Hedangna listened to the Lohorung story, we asked them a series of questions related to the language they heard in the story. When asked where they think the storyteller is from, most respondents recognized that the storyteller is Lohorung. Two believed he was from a different Yamphu area (Num or Devitar) and two others believed he was from another country (India or Germany). Respondents were also asked if they liked the speech of the storyteller. Half of the respondents thought the Lohorung speech was “OK” while the other five respondents had a variety of opinions about it. The responses were quite varied, with little correlation to contact with Lohorung or their RTT score. There is a high degree of contact with speakers of Lohorung in Pangma (at least eight of ten have been to Pangma), which may explain why there is a higher degree of comprehension of Lohorung among Yamphu respondents than there is of Yamphu among Lohorung speakers. Participants were also asked how much they felt they understood the story and to identify how different the storyteller’s speech was from their own. Only one respondent felt they understood all of the story and they said the speech was very different from their own. All but one said the language is different from theirs. While Lohorung and Yamphu are separate languages, their identity as “brothers” and shared vocabulary create an affinity that allowed several respondents who said they only understood half of the story to also say the storyteller’s speech was only a little different from their own. Post-RTT questions in Pangma show different patterns. After listening to the Yamphu (Hedangna) story, every respondent identified the storyteller as being from Hedangna. While some respondents clearly recognized the speech as Yamphu, others called it their own variety (Lohorung). Despite the fact that many people scored quite low on the RTT, they still said the speech was “good,” “OK,” or even that it was their own language. There is a slight correlation between the scores of those who have travelled to Hedangna and those who have not. We only know that five respondents have been to Hedangna and the average score among them is 52 percent with a standard deviation of 11.5. This implies that few if any of the people who have been to Hedangna understand the story. The average score of those who have not been to Hedangna is lower with a higher standard deviation.

4.1.4 Summary

There is a distinct difference between the Lohorung spoken in Pangma and the Yamphu spoken in Hedangna. Many of the post-RTT comments reflect the strong ethnic identity of the Lohorung and Yamphu being brothers historically. This identity appears to supersede comprehension when it comes to attitudes between the two groups.

4.2 Relationship between Lohorung (Pangma) and Southern Yamphu (Rajarani)

4.2.1 Lexical similarity results

The lexical similarity between the Lohorung in Pangma and the Southern Yamphu in Rajarani is 66 percent. While this is a rather low percentage of lexical similarity, intelligibility testing was necessary to confirm that they are separate languages.

4.2.2 Intelligibility testing results

The results of the Lohorung (Pangma) RTT administered to people in Rajarani are displayed in Table 2.

Table 2. RTT results for Southern Yamphu speakers (Rajarani)

Rajarani scores Lohorung Avg % 61 (Pangma) story SD 19.3 n= 10

The average score for people who took the RTT in Rajarani was low at 61 percent, with a high standard deviation of 19.3. Usually, contact is a primary factor in high standard deviation. However, none of the RTT participants reported having ever been to Pangma, and have not even been to Sankhuwasabha district. There is also no predictable demographic influence on scores.

4.2.3 Pre/Post-RTT question results

After listening to the Lohorung (Pangma) story, participants were asked, “What village do you think the storyteller is from?” No one could identify the location of the storyteller’s speech variety. Even though RTT scores were low and most participants said they did not understand all of the story, most (seven of ten) reported that the speech is only a little different from their own. Because none of the participants identified where the storyteller was from, these responses were based on the speech sample itself, not on the linguistic identity of the speaker.

4.2.4 Summary

Low lexical similarity and RTT scores confirm that Lohorung and Southern Yamphu (Rajarani) are different languages. Speakers of Southern Yamphu identify themselves ethnically and linguistically as Yamphu. However, the majority of respondents in Rajarani felt that Lohorung speech is only a little different from their own language.

5 Dialect variation and attitudes

Descriptions of dialect boundaries are informed by gathering lexical similarity information and testing intelligibility between language areas. In order to investigate potential dialects within Lohorung, we administered the Lohorung (Pangma) Recorded Text Test (RTT) in Angala, elicited wordlists in Pangma, Angala, and Dhupu, and conducted informal interviews in each location. This section will discuss the findings of these tools by comparing Angala and Dhupu with Pangma.

5.1 Lexical similarity results

In each Lohorung village we collected and analyzed a wordlist based on the guidelines in Appendix A. Sites were selected based on information regarding Lohorung population and geographic location. Pangma was chosen based on its status as the largest and oldest Lohorung community. Angala has a high Lohorung population and is in the western part of the Lohorung area. Dhupu was chosen as a data collection site because it is one of the easternmost Lohorung villages. Upon arrival, we found that, while there is a strong ethnic identity among Lohorung, there are very few people in Dhupu who speak the Lohorung language. The Lohorung wordlist participants from Dhupu did not fully meet our screening criteria, due to Lohorung not being the language they spoke best. However, given the low vitality of Lohorung in Dhupu, a wordlist was elicited to document the variety that was spoken in Dhupu. Lexical similarity percentages among the three wordlists compared are shown inTable 3.

Table 3. Lexical similarity percentages matrix

Gairi Pangma 90 Dhupu 88 88 Angala

Analysis of Dhupu’s wordlist shows 90 percent lexical similarity with Pangma, which points towards likely high intelligibility between the Dhupu and Pangma varieties of Lohorung. Wordlist comparison between Gairi Pangma and Angala reveals a lexical similarity of 88 percent. This is suggests that there may be intelligibility between any two of these two varieties, but testing is needed to confirm that hypothesis.

5.2 Intelligibility testing results

To investigate the intelligibility implied from the wordlist comparison, we administered the Lohorung (Pangma) RTT in Angala. Intelligibility testing was not done in Dhupu due to low Lohorung language vitality. Table 4 shows the results of the RTT test administered in Angala.

Table 4. RTT results for Lohorung speakers in Angala Test Location Angala Pangma Lohorung (Pangma) Avg % 85 89 story SD 9.3 11.0 n= 11 10

The high average score and low standard deviation implies that most participants in Angala understand the Pangma story. In fact, the average score of participants in Angala was only slightly lower than for the HTT in Pangma. Intelligibility of the Pangma speech variety in Angala is high.

5.3 Dialect attitudes

In order to provide supplemental information to corroborate people’s scores on the RTT, we asked several questions before and after the RTT. Before participants listened to the RTT, we asked them, “Where is the purest Lohorung spoken?” Of thirteen respondents, all said Pangma while half also said Angala. Even though the RTT was not administered in Dhupu, answers to pre-RTT questions reveal attitudes about the Lohorung that is spoken elsewhere. When Dhupu participants were asked where it is most purely spoken, most said Pangma (eight of ten).

When Angala participants were asked “Where is the least pure Lohorung spoken?,” no clear negative attitudes surfaced. Diding was most frequently mentioned (four of thirteen). Half of Dhupu’s respondents said Dhupu. Angala respondents strongly identified with the Pangma story and held positive attitudes about it. After listening to the Lohorung (Pangma) story, ten of the eleven participants identified the speaker as being from Pangma. All respondents felt the storyteller’s speech was good, seven of whom said they liked it “because it’s our language.” Eight out of eleven participants reported understanding “all” of the story, two said they understood “most,” and one said they understood “half.” When asked how different they felt the storyteller’s speech was from their own, ten thought it was the same while only one said it was “a little different.” Even though people in Angala recognized the speech in the story as coming from Pangma, they also thought the speech was good, and even identified it as their own. In addition, the majority of people understood all of the story.

5.4 Summary

Angala’s high RTT scores and lexical similarity percentage with the Lohorung spoken in Pangma point toward high intelligibility of the variety spoken there. While the majority of respondents felt that the RTT storyteller’s speech was the same as their own speech, their ability to identify the speaker as being from Pangma shows that there are some identifiable differences between the two varieties. These differences, however, do not seem to impair intelligibility or contribute to negative attitudes. Overall, respondents in Angala and Dhupu have a positive attitude toward the Lohorung spoken in Pangma. Among the Lohorung villages where we gathered data, we can conclude that they may all be able to use the same written materials.

6 Language use and vitality

In this section, we will investigate the vitality of the Lohorung language by discussing the language’s function and intergenerational transfer in three Lohorung communities, as well as the impact of their context on language vitality. One current measurement for this is the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Transmission Scale (EGIDS) (Lewis and Simons 2010). Built upon Fishman’s Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (1991), EGIDS measures vitality on a scale from zero to ten, with zero being the strongest vitality and ten the weakest. We will start with responses to generalized questions about language use. We asked participants how often they speak Lohorung. Table 5 displays responses according to village.

Table 5. How often do you use Lohorung?

n= Daily Sometimes Never Pangma 16 100% – – Angala 12 75% 25% – Dhupu 13 – 69% 31%

Table 5 shows strong use of Lohorung in Pangma and Angala. Every respondent in Pangma said they use Lohorung daily. There is a stark contrast between the responses from Pangma and Dhupu. No respondents from Dhupu use the Lohorung language daily. Lohorung participants were also asked how often they use Nepali. Table 6 shows the data stratified by village for a clearer picture of Nepali language use.

Table 6. How often do you use Nepali?

n= Daily Sometimes Never Pangma 16 44% 56% – Angala 12 75% 25% – Dhupu 13 100% – –

All of the respondents said they use Nepali to some extent. Yet less than half of the respondents in Pangma reported using Nepali on a daily basis. In order to investigate people’s opinions on language change, we asked participants, “Do you think that the language spoken by you is different from your grandparents?” Forty-two percent of respondents stated that their language is different than their grandparents. Most said that the difference is due to language mixing. Respondents mentioned their grandparents speak Lohorung more often and Nepali use in school as factors in the difference in language between generations.

6.1 Domains of language use

One way of investigating language use is to look at the community’s language choices in specific domains. Domains are certain institutional contexts in which one language is considered more appropriate to use than another. There are three factors involved in any given domain: location, topic, and participants (Fasold 1984:183). In this section we will look at responses to questions about language use in specific domains. Participants were asked what language they most frequently use with family members when discussing social events and family matters. Table 7 shows responses to this question.

Table 7. Language most frequently used in home when discussing social events and family matters

n= Loh Nep Other Grandfather 30 70% 27% 3% Grandmother 31 68% 29% 3% Father 37 65% 32% 3% Mother 38 63% 34% 3% Spouse 29 62% 45% 3% Children 27 44% 48% 7%

Table 7 shows that when discussing social events and family matters in their home with people of similar or older age, a majority of respondents reported they primarily use Lohorung (62–70%). However, when discussing the same topics with children only 44 percent of respondents reported using Lohorung while 48% said they primarily use Nepali. When we stratify this language choice with children specifically by village, the data shows definite trends. Table 8 displays this data.

Table 8. Language most frequently used in home when discussing social events and family matters with children, by village

n= Loh Both Nep Pangma 12 58% 8% 33% Angala 6 83% – 17% Dhupu 9 11% – 89%

The majority of respondents from Pangma and Angala report speaking Lohorung in the home with their children when discussing social and family topics. Only in Dhupu did respondents report a higher use of Nepali in this domain. We then asked the same question about a different domain: discussing educational matters in the home. Education is in Nepali and therefore it is more likely that people associate Nepali with education more than Lohorung. Table 9 displays the responses to this question.

Table 9. Language most frequently used in the home when discussing education matters

n= Lohorung Nepali Other Grandfather 30 67% 27% 6% Grandmother 30 67% 23% 10% Father 37 62% 33% 5% Mother 38 61% 37% 2% Spouse 29 59% 38% 3% Children 27 37% 52% 11%

As the responses show, Lohorung use in the home is still high, even when discussing education. Only when speaking to their children did more respondents say they usually spoke Nepali than Lohorung. Table 10 displays what language respondents in each village said they usually speak with their children in this domain.

Table 10. Language most frequently used in the home when discussing education matters with children, by village

n= Loh Both Nep Pangma 12 42% 25% 33% Angala 6 83% – 17% Dhupu 9 – – 100%

Like when discussing social and family matters, the majority of respondents from Pangma and Angala report using Lohorung with their children. No respondents from Dhupu said they spoke Lohorung in this domain. Respondents reported using Nepali much more frequently than Lohorung in letter writing. This data is not surprising given the lack of language-based development in Lohorung. Using an informal interview schedule, we investigated language use in 13 additional domains. Table 11 displays the percentage of respondents who primarily use Lohorung, Nepali, or say they use both Lohorung and Nepali roughly as often as the other.

Table 11. Overall language use

What language do you usually speak... n=a Loh Both Nep while doing puja? 41 73% 7% 17% while in family gatherings? 41 56% 7% 37% while scolding? 41 34% 12% 54% while in village meetings? 41 24% 15% 61% while quarrelling? 39 24% 15% 54% while telling stories to children? 41 20% 12% 68% while debating? 41 20% 17% 61% while joking? 41 20% 24% 54% while storytelling? 41 12% 12% 76% while counting? 41 12% 5% 81% while singing at home? 38 5% 7% 81% while shopping? 41 5% 15% 78% while singing? 41 5% 5% 88% a One respondent answered that he usually uses Nepali, Lohorung, and English equally often in the domains of counting, singing, debate, puja, quarrelling, and telling stories to children. He also reported usually using both Nepali and English equally often when shopping and storytelling.

This data suggests that Lohorung is only spoken more frequently than Nepali during puja (‘worship’, 73%) and family gatherings (56%). Nepali is used much more often in every other domain we asked about. Not all of these domains specifically included topic, location, and participants. But the data clearly shows that Nepali is used to some extent in many areas of life. Table 12 displays responses of who said they usually speak Lohorung in these domains by village.

Table 12. Overall use of Lohorung by village

Sites I primarily speak Lohorung... Pangma Angala Dhupu while doing puja. 75% 75% 69% while in family gatherings. 88% 75% – while scolding. 50% 50% – while in village meetings. 38% 33% – while quarrelling. 50% 10% 8% while telling stories to children. 44% 8% – while debating. 38% 17% – while joking. 44% 8% – while storytelling. 25% 8% – while counting. 31% – – while singing at home. 13% – – while shopping. 13% – – while singing. 13% – –

It is clear that respondents in Pangma use Lohorung most frequently while respondents from Dhupu use it rarely.

6.2 Language use by age, education, and gender

6.2.1 Language use according to age

Does language use in these domains vary between younger5 and older people? Do younger people speak more Nepali than Lohorung? Table 13 shows the responses to the questions above, only stratified by age.

Table 13. Language use according to age

Question Young Old What language do you usually speak... n=a Loh Both Nep n= Loh Both Nep while doing puja? 20 65% 5% 25% 21 80% 10% 10% while in family gatherings? 20 50% 10% 40% 21 62% 5% 33% while scolding? 20 30% 15% 55% 21 38% 10% 52% while in village meetings? 20 35% 10% 55% 21 14% 19% 67% while quarreling? 19 26% 11% 58% 19 26% 21% 53% while telling stories to children? 20 20% 5% 75% 21 19% 19% 62% while debating? 20 20% 10% 65% 21 19% 24% 57% while joking? 20 15% 25% 55% 21 24% 24% 52% while storytelling? 20 10% 15% 75% 21 14% 10% 76% while counting? 20 20% 5% 70% 21 5% 5% 90% while singing at home? 20 10% – 90% 18 – 17% 83% while shopping? 20 10% 10% 75% 21 – 19% 81% while singing? 20 10% 5% 80% 21 – 5% 95% a One young respondent answered that he usually uses Nepali, Lohorung, and English equally often in the domains of counting, singing, debate, puja, quarrelling, and telling stories to children. He also reported usually using both Nepali and English equally often when shopping and storytelling.

The responses in Table 13 show that both young and old respondents said that they speak Nepali more frequently than Lohorung in most of these domains. The two domains where Lohorung is reportedly used more often than Nepali are puja and family gatherings. The responses of both young and older people reflect this.

6.2.2 Language use according to education

Does language use differ according to education? Do people who have been educated in Nepali speak Nepali more frequently than Lohorung? Table 14 displays language use responses by education.

5 Throughout this paper "Young" refers to those ages 15–34 while "Old" refers to those ages 35 and above.

Table 14. Language use according to education

Question Uneducateda Educated What language do you usually speak n= Loh Both Nep n=b Loh Both Nep when... while doing puja? 17 88% 6% 6% 23 65% 4% 26% while in family gatherings? 17 65% 6% 29% 23 48% 9% 43% while scolding? 17 47% 12% 41% 23 26% 9% 65% while in village meetings? 17 29% 24% 47% 23 22% 9% 69% while quarreling? 15 33% 27% 40% 23 22% 4% 70% while telling stories to children? 17 24% 12% 65% 23 17% 9% 74% while debating? 17 29% 24% 47% 23 13% 9% 74% while joking? 17 18% 35% 47% 23 22% 13% 60% while storytelling? 17 6% 12% 82% 23 17% 9% 74% while counting? 17 18% 6% 76% 23 9% 4% 82% while singing at home? 14 7% 14% 79% 23 4% – 96% while shopping? 17 – 18% 82% 23 9% 9% 78% while singing? 17 6% 6% 88% 23 4% 4% 87% a Throughout this report, “Uneducated” refers to individuals who have received fewer than five grades of formal education. “Educated” refers to individuals who have been educated through at least grade 5. b One educated respondent answered that he usually uses Nepali, Lohorung, and English equally often in the domains of counting, singing, debate, puja, quarrelling, and telling stories to children. He also reported usually using both Nepali and English equally often when shopping and storytelling.

Both educated and uneducated respondents reported speaking Nepali more frequently than Lohorung in most domains. Both groups reported higher Lohorung use in puja and family gatherings. More uneducated respondents reported that they usually speak Lohorung than Nepali in one other domain: scolding.

6.2.3 Language use according to gender

We also investigated if gender played a role in language choice in these domains. Table 15 shows responses according to gender.

Table 15. Language use according to gender

Question Male Female What language do you usually speak n=a Loh Both Nep n= Loh Both Nep when... while doing puja? 21 76% – 19% 20 70% 15% 15% while in family gatherings? 21 57% – 43% 20 55% 15% 30% while scolding? 21 24% 10% 66% 20 45% 15% 40% while in village meetings? 21 14% 10% 76% 20 35% 20% 45% while quarreling? 21 14% 14% 67% 18 39% 17% 44% while telling stories to children? 21 14% 20% 76% 20 25% 15% 60% while debating? 21 10% 14% 71% 20 30% 20% 50% while joking? 21 19% 19% 57% 20 20% 30% 50%

Question Male Female What language do you usually speak n=a Loh Both Nep n= Loh Both Nep when... while storytelling? 21 14% 10% 76% 20 10% 15% 75% while counting? 21 – – 95% 20 25% 10% 65% while singing at home? 21 5% 5% 90% 17 6% 12% 82% while shopping? 21 5% 10% 80% 20 5% 20% 75% while singing? 21 – – 95% 20 10% 10% 80% a One male respondent answered that he usually uses Nepali, Lohorung, and English equally often in the domains of counting, singing, debate, puja, quarrelling, and telling stories to children. He also reported usually using both Nepali and English equally often when shopping and story-telling.

Table 15 shows that while female respondents reported using Lohorung more often than men, both groups generally use Nepali more often than Lohorung. Again, during puja and family gatherings both male and female respondents report using Lohorung more than Nepali. Female responses also reflect that they use both Lohorung and Nepali equally more often than male respondents.

6.3 Intergenerational transfer

To investigate intergenerational transfer, we began with questions concerning general Lohorung language use by children and between parents and children. We asked all participants, “Do young people in your village speak Lohorung well, the way it ought to be spoken?” A little over half of the respondents in Pangma and Angala said they thought Lohorung is spoken as well as it should be by young people, while in Dhupu, 85% of respondents believe it is not spoken as well as it should be. Participants were asked, “What language do most parents in this village usually speak with their children?” Figure 7 shows responses to this question.

Lohorung and Nepali n= 40 equally 5% Series2, Lohorung, 23, 57% Series2, Nepali, 15, 38%

Figure 7. What language do most parents in this village usually speak with their children?

Figure 7 shows that 57 percent of respondents say parents in their village usually speak Lohorung to their children. These responses stratified by village are displayed in Table 16 to provide a clearer picture of reported language use of parents with children.

Table 16. Reported Lohorung use by parents to children by village

n= Loh Both Nep Pangma 16 81% 13% 6% Angala 12 75% – 25% Dhupu 12 8% – 92%

The patterns of responses shown in Table 16 between Pangma and Dhupu are nearly opposite. This pattern will be reflected as we continue to investigate intergenerational transfer in this section. Then, we asked questions to parents specifically about their children’s language use. When asked “What languages do your children speak?” all of the parents interviewed in Pangma and Angala reported their children speak both Lohorung and Nepali. All of the children of respondents in Dhupu speak Nepali, but less than half speak Lohorung—nearly the same number as are said to speak English there. We asked parents if all their children spoke Lohorung and 74 percent replied “yes.” Figure 8 shows the “yes” responses according to village.

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% No 50% Yes 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Pangma n=12 Angala n=6 Dhupu n=9

Figure 8. All your children speak Lohorung.

The responses of parents interviewed in Pangma and Angala show that many of them are passing Lohorung on to their children. Each respondent from Dhupu who answered “yes” also qualified their answer with a comment like “only a little.” Participants with children were asked what language their children most often speak in several domains. Table 17 shows the percentages each language is reportedly used by subjects’ children, according to domain.

Table 17. What language do your children speak while:

n= Loh Both Nep Talking with neighbours 28 32% 11% 57% Playing with other children 28 18% 18% 64% At school 26 – 8% 92%

Parents reported that their children usually speak Nepali in all three specified domains. Table 18 and Table 19 show how the parents in each speech community responded two of the above questions.

Table 18. What language do your children usually speak while talking with neighbors? (by village)

n= Loh Both Nep Pangma 12 42% 8% 50% Angala 7 57% 14% 29% Dhupu 9 – 11% 89%

The data in Table 18 shows that roughly half of the children in Pangma and Angala are reported to usually speak Lohorung when talking with neighbors. Table 19 will show how the ethnic diversity of the village might affect what language children speak while playing with other children.

Table 19. What language do your children speak while playing with other children? (by village)

n= Loh Both Nep Pangma 12 33% 17% 50% Angala 8 13% 25% 50% Dhupu 9 – 11% 89%

Comparing between the two questions in Table 18 and Table 19, Pangma respondents answered in generally the same way for both questions. Dhupu respondents also answered in the same way for both questions. The responses from Angala participants, however, is where the difference lies. While Angala has a relatively mixed population, the groups live in concentrated areas, so when their children play with other children, they are more likely to speak Nepali, but because more of their neighbors are Lohorung than not, they reported their children use Lohorung more often than Nepali when speaking in that domain. Pangma is almost entirely Lohorung, so children reportedly speak mostly Lohorung when playing with other children and when talking with neighbors. The situation is the opposite in Dhupu where the population is largely mixed with few Lohorung speakers, so children reportedly speak Nepali more than Lohorung in both domains. As might be expected, Nepali is solely used as the language of classrooms for most children of respondents (92%), while both Nepali and Lohorung are used 8 percent of the time.

6.4 Language vitality in Lohorung speech communities

In this section, we will look at the context in which these speech communities are living and making these language choices. What things affect their language choices? This section will discuss the various factors that can impact a community’s language choices and contributes to the overall picture of language vitality.

6.4.1 Language vitality in Pangma

Observations of language use and other contextual factors point to high language vitality in Pangma. We observed all ages speaking Lohorung amongst themselves. The high degree of Lohorung being spoken by children was corroborated by conversations with several young teachers who spoke of the need for teaching materials in Lohorung to help their students learn more efficiently. Another factor that affects ethnolinguistic vitality is the speech community’s access to a population center. A population center can be a bazaar, market, larger town, city, or anywhere people will be in contact with speakers of other languages and will likely be required to speak the language of wider communication. Located near the main north-south road, Pangma is a mere 20-minute walk from Mane Bhanjyang, a market town with many different ethnicities, and only a two-hour walk away from Khandbari, the bustling district headquarters. This provides frequent situations where Lohorung people speak Nepali because they are interacting with people outside the Lohorung community.

Economic factors also play an important role in language vitality. Pangma’s economy is self- sufficient. Their own crops are able to produce nearly all the food that they need throughout the year. Even though their crops provide for daily needs, many young men leave the area for a few years to work in Kathmandu or internationally. This means that many men have had greater contact with and may also speak other languages of wider communication (e.g. Nepali, English, Malaysian, Arabic). Pangma is the most prestigious among Lohorung communities. Not only is it the most concentrated population of Lohorung people, but it also has many important sacred ritual sites. There are material indicators that identify the community as Lohorung such as architecture and village layout. Houses are built up on stilts allowing them greater use of the land and unlike other Rai groups, houses are built close together.

6.4.2 Language vitality in Angala

In Angala, we observed that that Lohorung is being passed on to the next generation to varying degrees. It is a more mixed village than Pangma, with Gurung living in the upper part and Lohorung in the lower part of the village. Intercaste marriage is not common in Angala and the Lohorung community is tight- knit. Angala has relatively easy access to significant population centers. It is a one- to two-hour walk northwest of Pangma which puts it roughly a two-hour walk from Mane Bhanjyang and a four-hour walk from Khandbari.

6.4.3 Language vitality in Dhupu

Dhupu has the lowest Lohorung language vitality of the three villages. We met old and young people who knew very little Lohorung. Four out of 13 respondents said Lohorung was the first language they learned, and two reported learning both Nepali and Lohorung at the same time. However, eight reported Nepali as the first language they learned. The people who reported learning Lohorung first are almost all 33 years of age or older. When asked what language they speak best, all but two reported they speak Nepali best (11 of 13). One 68-year-old male reported speaking Lohorung best and a 57-year-old female reported that she speaks Nepali and Lohorung equally well. In Pangma, we met a young lady who grew up in Dhupu and moved to Pangma after getting married. She is now learning Lohorung because it is expected she will speak it there. Even though it is not spoken much in Dhupu, there is a strong Lohorung ethnic identity there and people were very interested to hear about our research for their language. We observed strong microfinance enterprise and community work but it was supportive of the entire Dhupu community, and not necessarily of the Lohorung language itself. All members of the community participated in these together, which means they used the language of wider communication, Nepali. Lying four hours east of Mane Bhanjyang, Dhupu’s closest bazaar is Bharabise, only a two-hour walk east. Khandbari is in the opposite direction but nearly as close as Bharabise. People travel to Bharabise often, so there is high contact with Nepali speakers there. Dhupu also lies along a main north-south road increasing their contact with non-Lohorung speakers. While Lohorung identity is strong in Dhupu, Lohorung language has low prestige relative to Nepali and Limbu.

6.5 Summary

Respondents said that Lohorung is the language most frequently used in the home with their peers and elders. When speaking with children in the home, respondents reported speaking Nepali more frequently than Lohorung. They reported higher Lohorung use than Nepali in only two other domains: puja and family gatherings. This correlates with the data on intergenerational transfer. While the majority of respondents reported that their children speak Lohorung, they also said that their children tend to use Nepali more than Lohorung when playing with other children or talking with neighbors. Even though it varies between speech communities, Lohorung is still used orally within all generations, but because it is not being passed on to all children, we conclude Lohorung language community is at an EGIDS level of 6b, Threatened.

Each individual Lohorung speech community seems to have a different level of language vitality, which can be described by EGIDS. Lohorung in Pangma would be described as EGIDS level 6a, Vigorous, as the language is used orally by all generations and is normally learned by children as their first language. Young and old people were proud of their language and excited about the prospect of language-based development work. The Lohorung speech community in Angala could be described by EGIDS level 6b, Threatened. The language is still used orally within all generations, but there is a significant threat to sustainability, particularly a break in transmission to the next generation by a portion of the child-bearing generation. Even though respondents from Dhupu have a strong ethnic identity as Lohorung, they reported that they only rarely use the Lohorung language. The Lohorung speech community in Dhupu could be described by EGIDS level 7, Shifting. Some of the child-bearing generation can use the language among themselves, but they do not normally transmit it to their children. In spite of varying degrees of language use and vitality among these villages, we consistently were met with gratitude and enthusiasm about our language-related research. These positive attitudes and desires for development will be explored in detail in Section 7.

7 Desires for development

To understand the Lohorung community’s desires for language-based development, this section focuses on answers to specific questions from informal interviews, as well as what they expressed during Appreciative Inquiry facilitations. Their responses show a strong desire for further language-based development. Most informal interview respondents (38 of 41) said that knowing how to read and write in Lohorung is important to them and that they would like to attend a class to learn to read and write in Lohorung (36 of 41). When those 36 respondents were asked why they would be interested in attending such a class, a variety of answers were given. Responses have been grouped into categories, as shown in Figure 9.

45% 39% 40% n= 36 35% 30% 25% 25% 22% 20% 14% 15% 10% 5% 0% To learn or study Because it's my To preserve my Other my language own language language

Figure 9. “Why would you want to attend class to read and write Lohorung?”

Most of the answers given (86% of all responses) included a reference to “my/our own language.” This illustrates the strong sense of Lohorung identity that we discussed in Section 6. Nearly all (95%, or 38 of 40) respondents said they would like such a class to be available for children. Both people who responded negatively live in Dhupu. One person from Dhupu commented that

a Lohorung literacy class would not be a good idea for children there because they do not understand Lohorung. Even though there are few pieces of literature available in Lohorung, those who participated in Appreciative Inquiry expressed desire for more products in their language. They would like to have a dictionary, texts, and various forms of media to be available in Lohorung. They made a plan to begin working on a dictionary. They also mentioned they were proud of Charlotte Hardman’s book Other Worlds, the most extensive study available on Lohorung culture. Among teachers, there is a desire for development in the area of education. In both Pangma and Angala, we met young Lohorung teachers who expressed interest in teaching in Lohorung, but are unable to do so because there is no curriculum available. Teachers in both communities expressed a desire for Multi-Lingual Education (MLE). Responses indicate a strong desire for further development of materials in the Lohorung language. This was true of people from each village, gender, age, and education level.

8 Summary of Findings and Implications for Language-Based Development

The results of this research show that the Lohorung language community desires language-based development. Even though the language vitality of each speech community is different, language-based development could be a beneficial part of preserving and perpetuating Lohorung language and culture. Every effort should be made towards encouraging and equipping Lohorung people to that end. This section will specify how the findings of this research can inform and guide the reader to appropriate action.

8.1 Language variation and attitudes

8.1.1 Summary of findings

Low lexical similarity and low RTT scores add to previous grammatical studies to establish Lohorung [lbr] as a separate, but related, language to Yamphu [ybi] and Southern Yamphu [lrr]. Attitudes are generally positive between speakers of the Lohorung and Yamphu languages.

8.1.2 Implications

Yamphu materials would be difficult for Lohorung speakers to use. However, because of their linguistic and ethnic closeness, working together on language-based development could prove to be mutually beneficial.

8.2 Dialect variation and attitudes

8.2.1 Summary of findings

There is high lexical similarity among Lohorung wordlists elicited in Pangma, Angala, and Dhupu. High RTT scores in Angala suggest that comprehension of the Pangma variety is high. Overall, respondents held very positive attitudes about Lohorung spoken in Pangma, regardless of how well they spoke Lohorung themselves.

8.2.2 Implications

Lohorung materials from any village could be useful in any other Lohorung area, and those from Pangma would most clearly be accepted and useful.

8.3 Language use and vitality

8.3.1 Summary of findings

Language use of Lohorung among most generations in the home is high, both when speaking about topics of family and education. Nepali is also used in many domains. Language, language use, the amount language passed on to the next generation, and EGIDS levels vary by location. These factors show vitality in Pangma as Vigorous, in Angala as Threatened, and in Dhupu as Shifting. This suggests a multilingual situation in which both Lohorung and Nepali are used, but the vitality of Lohorung is stronger in some villages than others.

8.3.2 Implications

Each community may require different development activities in order to reach their desired sustainable level of use. For Pangma and Angala these activities could be orality and literacy-based, such as cultural dramas or technical support and computer training for on-site desktop publishing. Teachers in both communities expressed a desire for Multi-Lingual Education (MLE). Activities in Dhupu could be more identitybased. Identity-based activities encourage and strengthen their cultural identity as Lohorung by linking culture with language. Because their ethnic identity is strong, events that would include and expose participants to Lohorung language use could be beneficial. Appropriate activities may include providing an audience for cultural dramas, radio programmes in Lohorung, creating bilingual homes, and language immersion summer camp.

8.4 Desires for development

8.4.1 Summary of findings

The Lohorung communities we visited expressed their desires for further development of materials in the Lohorung language. This was true of people from each village, gender, age, and education level. Most respondents expressed a desire to read and write in Lohorung because it is their own language. In Pangma, teachers expressed a desire for Lohorung curriculum. Since the beginning of this research, the Lohorung community has been involved in a dictionary project and orthography development.

8.4.2 Implications

Language-based development is desired within the Lohorung language community. Specifically, there is a desire for a dictionary (currently in progress), texts, and various media in Lohorung.

Appendices

30 Appendix A: Wordlists

A.1 International Phonetic Alphabet Chart

Consonants

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal

Plosive p b t d ˇ Í c Ô k g q G /

Nasal m M n ˜ ¯ N ≤

Trill ı r {

Tap or Flap R }

Fricative ∏ B f v TD s z S Z ß Ω C ∆ x ƒ X “  ÷ h ˙

Lateral fricative ¬ L

Approximant V ® ” j Â

Lateral approximate l Ò ¥ ;

Ejective stop p' t' ˇ' c' k' q'

Implosive π ∫ X Î Ç X ˚ © œ ˝

Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

31 32

Vowels

A.2 Lexical similarity comparison procedures

Wordlists were elicited from a group or, if elicited from an individual, checked by a group in the village it was from. This provided a measure of checking for accuracy, as well as a process that was more participatory in nature for each village visited during the survey. During the process of wordlist elicitation, the researcher transcribes the words phonetically by using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). It would be best if only one person did the transcriptions, because each field worker eliciting words may hear and transcribe the sounds slightly differently. Keeping this in mind, there might be some minor differences in transcription of the wordlists because they were elicited and transcribed by different researchers. Furthermore, the transcriptions should be done as accurately as possible. A phonetic chart with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols used is shown at the beginning of this appendix. Some of the wordlist data was normalized. After the actual wordlist collection, all the variations that were thought to represent obviously the same sound but marked in different ways were unified in notation. This was done in order to make the data entry and calculations less complicated. Normally, a single term is recorded for each item of the wordlist. However, more than one term is recorded for a single item when synonymous terms are apparently in general use or when more than one specific term occupies the semantic area of a more generic item on the wordlist. For a lexical similarity count, the wordlists are compared, in order to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1) and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two are rather similar. The criteria applied are: Category 1  Consonants (consonant-like) segments which match exactly  Vowels (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature  Phonetically similar consonant segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones, such as difference in only one articulatory feature) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words Category 2  All other phonetically similar pairs of segments which are not, however, supported by at least three pairs of words Category 3  Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar  A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item

After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar, according to the criteria stated above, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. The procedure was repeated for each pair of language varieties. Figure 1 summarizes lower threshold limits for considering words as phonetically similar with a specified length (number of segments or phones):

Word Category Category Category Length One Two Three 2 2 0 0 3 2 1 0 4 2 1 1 5 3 1 1 6 3 2 1 7 4 2 1 8 4 2 2 9 5 2 2 10 5 3 2 11 6 3 2 12 6 3 3

Figure 1: Word Length and Linguistic Similarity Blaire (1990: 32) writes, "In contextualizing these rules to specific surveys in South Asia, the following differences between two items are ignored: (a) interconsonantal [ə], (b) word initial, word final, or intervocalic [h, ɦ], (c) any deletion which is shown to be the result of a regularly occurring process in a specific environment." Additional modifications to lexical similarity procedures used in this survey are:  Accounting for slight variation between elicitors, consonants counted as category 1 include: [t, tʰ, ʈ], [k, kʰ], [k̚, ʔ, #], [p, pʰ], [h, kʰ, x], and [d, dʰ, ɖ, ɾ].  Figure 1 specifies that when comparing words of two segments, both segments must be category 1 in order to be counted as similar. Since the rationale for the distribution is at least half of the segments compared should be category 1, this principle was applied to two segment words so that a distribution of 1-1-0 was considered similar.  Aspirated and unaspirated sounds are considered as category one.  Nasalised and unnasalised vowels are considered as category one.  Based on three or more attestations, word-initial [b, p, #], mid-word [b,p], [m,p], [b,ʔ], and word-final [k, k̚, ʔ] are counted as category one.  Lengthened and non-lengthened consonants are considered as category one. While the goal is to compare word roots between varieties, some morphology may be included in our comparisons. The lexical similarity percentages should be considered as a conservative counting of lexical similarity between varities. Although a total of 276 items were elicited in each location, the final number of words compared for the lexicostatistic comparisons varies between locations, from 196 to 251 words. Some of the wordlist items needed to be disqualified, that is, not taken into consideration in the lexicostatistic count. All of the items where we could not get the words for at least three varieties were disqualified. Exclusive pronouns were included in the wordlist, but disqualified from the final lexical counts, because we were not able to elicit them consistently in each variety. Fifteen items were disqualified because we had doubts whether people had really given a word with the same meaning. Those entries were disqualified in order to eliminate potential skewing of the results. Due to language shift to Nepali, there were fewer lexical items that could be compared from Dhupu (196 items) than other locations. Wordlists elicited in Gairi Pangma (251 items), Angala (240 items), Hedangna (242 items), and Rajarani (236) had comparably complete entries.

Lexicostatistic counts based on the total entries compared need to be interpreted keeping that in mind. After the words for each wordlist item had been determined to be phonetically similar or dissimilar, the lexical similarity percentages were calculated using the WordSurv computer program. It should be noted that the wordlist data are field transcriptions and have not undergone thorough phonological and grammatical analysis.

A.3 Wordlist biodata

Each language helper gave oral informed consent before wordlist elicitation.

Gairi Pangma

Hasta Bahadur Lohorung Birthplace - Gairi Pangma

Angala

Dik Bahadur Lohorung, age 69, and Maha Prasad Lohorung Birthplace - Angala

Dhupu

Nilam Kumar Rai Birthplace - Dhupu

Hedangna

Hom Bahadur Birthplace - Hedangna

Rajarani

Man Kumar Yamphu Birthplace - Tilling, Rajarani VDC

A.4 Wordlist with English and Nepali prompts

CONCRETE NOUNS

BODY PARTS (external)

1. body (1) (H) जीउ

2. head (2) (H) टाउको

3. hair (3) (H) कपाल

4. face (4) (H) मुख 5. eye (5) (H) आँखा

6. ear (6) (H) कान

7. nose (7) (H) नाक

8. mouth (8) (H) मुख

9. lips ओठ

10. tooth (9) (H) दाँत

11. tongue (10) (H) िजब्रो

12. chest (11) छाती

13. belly/stomach (12) (H) पेट

14. waist क मर

15. whole arm (13) (H) हात

16. elbow (14) कु िहनो / कु िहना 17. finger (16) (H) औंला

18. fingernail (17) नङ

19. leg (18) (& foot) (H) खुट्टा 20. knee (H) घुँडा 21. skin (19) छाला

BODY PARTS (internal)

22. bone (20) (H) हाड

23. heart (21) (H) मुटु 24. blood (22) रगत

25. urine (23) (H) िपसाब

26. feces (24) (H) िदसा

HABITATION

27. village (25) गाउँ

28. house (26) (H) घर

29. door (28) ढोका

DAILY USEFUL OBJECTS

30. firewood (29) दाउरा

31. broom (30) कु चो 32. stick (walking stick) लट्ठी

33. pestle (for spices mortar) (32) लोहोरो / लोहरो

34. spices mortar (flat) (31) िसलौटो

35. large Nepali knife (34) खुकु री 36. sickle (to cut wood for firewood) हँिसया

37. axe (35) बच रो

38. rope (36) डोरी

39. carrying basket डोको

40. headstrap नामलो

41. thread (37) धागो

42. needle (for sewing) (38) िसयो

43. cloth (39) कपडा

44. hat (H) टोपी

45. ring (40) औंठी

46. gold (60) सुन

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

47. sun (41) सुज 48. moon (42) जून 49. sky (43) (H) आकाश

50. star (44) तारा

51. rain (45) पानी (पछर्)

52. water (46) पानी

53. small river (47), stream खोला

54. cloud (48) बादल

55. bolt of lightning (49) च याङ

56. rainbow (50) इ द्रेणी

57. small stone (52) ढु ङ्गा / ढुँगा 58. unirrigated field बारी

59. irrigated field खेत

60. path (53), road (H) बाटो

61. fire (55) आगो

62. smoke (56) धुवाँ 63. ash (57) खरानी

64. soil, clay(58) माटो

65. dust (59) धुलो

PLANTS

66. tree (61) ख

67. leaf (62) पात

68. root (63) जरा

69. seed बीउ

70. bark बोक्रो

71. thorn (64) काँडो / काँडा

72. flower (65) फु ल 73. bamboo tree बाँस

74. bamboo shoot तामा

FOOD

75. fruit (66) फल फू ल 76. banana (68) के रा

77. wheat (69) गहूँ 78. uncooked (husked) rice (71) चामल

79. unhusked rice धान

80. cooked rice भात

81. vegetable तकार्री

82. potato (72) आलु 83. ginger अदवाु 84. tomato (80) गोलभडा

85. cucumber काँक्रो

86. nettle िस नु 87. oil (82) तेल

88. salt (83) (H) नून 89. meat (84) मासु 90. fat part of flesh (85) बोसो

ANIMALS & PARTS OF ANIMALS

91. fish (86) माछा

92. chicken (87) (gen.) कु खुरा 93. egg (88) फु ल 94. cow (89) गाइर ्

95. buffalo (90) (gen., fem.) भस ी

96. milk (91) दधू 97. horn (92) िसङ

98. tail (93) पु छर 99. goat (94) (gen) बाख्रा

100. pig सुंगुर 101. dog (95) कु कु र 102. cat िबरालो

103. snake (96) सप र् / साँप

104. monkey (97) बाँदर

105. bird चरा

106. wings पखेटा

107. feather वाँख

108. rat / mouse मुसा 109. mosquito (98) लामखुट्टे 110. fly िझगां

111. honey bee माहुरी / माउरी 112. ant (99) किमला

113. spider (100) माकु रा / माकु रो 114. louse जुम्रा 115. bed bug उडुस 116. flea उिपयाँ

117. leech पानी जुका

HUMAN RELATIONSHIP & KINSHIP NOUNS

118. person मािनस / मा छे

119. man (102) लोग् नेमा छे

120. woman /female (103) आइमाइ

121. child (104) (0 – 10 yrs) ब चा

122. boy (115) (Boy child below 10 years old) के टा

123. girl (116) (Girl child below 10 years old) के टी

124. father (105) (H) बा / बुबा 125. mother (106) (H) आमा

126. older brother (107) दाजु / दाई 127. younger brother (108) भाई

128. older sister (109) िददी

129. younger sister (110) बिहनी

130. son (111) (H) छोरा / छोरो

131. daughter (112) (H) छोरी

132. husband (113) लोग् ने / ीमान

133. wife (114) वा नी / ीमती

134. grandfather हजुर बा 135. grandmother हजुर आमा 136. grandson नाती

137. granddaughter नाितनी

138. father’s older brother ठू लो बाब ु 139. father’s younger brother साना बाबु 140. father’s older sister फु पू 141. father’s younger sister फु पू 142. mother’s older brother मामा

143. mother’s younger brother मामा

144. mother’s older sister ठू लो आमा 145. mother’s younger sister साना आमा

146. friend साथी

ABSTRACT NOUNS

PERSONAL DETAILS

147. name (101) नाम / नाउँ

148. language भाषा

TIME

149. day (117) िदन

150. night (118) रात

151. morning (until 10am) (119) िबहान

152. afternoon (from noon till 3 pm) (120) िदउँ सो

153. Evening (before evening) (121) बेलुका 154. today (123) आज

155. yesterday (122) िहजो

156. tomorrow (124) भोिल

157. year (127) बष र्

BASIC ADJECTIVES

ATTRIBUTES & SIZE

158. big (142) ठू लो 159. small (143) सानो

160. heavy (144) गुङ्गो / गं गो 161. light (145) हलुका / हलुङ्गो 162. old (thing) (128) पुरानो 163. new (thing) (129) नयाँ

164. good (person) (130) राम्रो

165. bad (person) (131) खराब / नराम्रो

166. wet (132) िभजेको

167. dry (133) सुक्ख 168. long (thing) (134) लामो

169. short (thing) (135) छोटो

170. thin (person) दु लो 171. hot (136) (weather) गमीर्

172. cold (137) (weather) जाडो

173. cracked, burst फु टेको / फु यो 174. broken, damaged िबिग्रएको

175. broken भाँचेको

QUANTITIES

176. empty खािल

177. full भरीभराउ

178. few (179), a little थोरै

179. many (180) धेरै

180. all (181) सबै

COMPARISONS

181. equal (same amount) (175) बराबार

182. similar / same उ तै

183. different (176) फ़रक

184. various िबिभ न

NUMBERS

185. one (151) एक

186. two (152) दईु 187. three (153) तीन

188. four (154) चार

189. five (155) पाँच

COLOURS

190. white (148) सेतो

191. black (149) कालो

192. red (150) रातो

LOCATIONS

193. near (140) निजक / िनर

194. far (141) टाढा

195. here यहाँ

196. there यहाँ

197. at (refers to person in a location) -मा

198. beside (by the side of /next to) छेउमा

199. inside िभत्र

200. outside बािहर

201. above (146) On /on top of मािथ

202. below (147), Under तल / मिु न 203. around (the circumference of) (show motion) विरपिर

WORD ORDER

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

204. who? (165) को

205. whose? कसको

206. what? (166) के

207. why? िकन

208. where? (167) कहाँ

209. when? (168) किहले

210. which? कु न 211. how many? (169) कित

212. how (what is it like)? (170) क तो

213. how? (to do something?) कसरी

DEOMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

214. this (171) big fat pig यो

215. that (172) big fat pig यो

216. these (3 or more) (173) big fat pigs यी

217. those (3 or more) (174) big fat pigs ती

VERBS

DIRECTIONAL / COMPLEX VERBS

218. go down (~197) तल गयो

219. come (197) (H) (on level ground) आयो

220. come down झय

221. climb up च यो

222. climb down ओ रय् ो

223. bring down (to) (from above) तल यायो

224. take down (away) (from above) तल लग् यो

225. take out िझक् यो

226. put in राख् यो

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

227. die (192) (H) मर् यो

228. sleep (187) (go to bed) (H) सु यो 229. lie down (on his back) (188) प यो

230. sit down, stay (189) (H) ब यो

231. get up उ यो

232. stand उिभयो

233. walk (195) िहयो

234. fly (194) उयो

235. run (196), rush दगुर् यो 236. laugh (loudly) हाँ यो

237. cry रोयो

238. vomit बा ता गर् यो

239. spit थुक् यो

TRANSITIVE VERB

240. eat (182) (H) खायो

241. bite (183) टोक् यो

242. drink (185) (H) िपयो

243. give (190) (H) िदयो

244. bury गायो

245. kill (193) मार् यो

246. cut (kill an animal for meat) का यो

247. throw फा यो

248. talk, chat (199) चलफल गर् यो

249. say/tell (H) भ यो

250. hear (200), listen (H) सु यो 251. watch/ see (201) (H) देख् यो

252. look (H) हेय

253. wash धोयो

PRONOUNS

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

254. my bag मेरो झोला

255. our (dual/inclusive) bag हाम्रो झोला

256. our (dual/exclusive) bag

257. our (plural/inclusive) bag

258. our (plural/exclusive) bag

259. your (singular/honorific) bag तपाईंको झोला

260. your (dual/honorific) bag

261. your (plural/honorific) bag तपाईंहको झोला

262. his (nearby/honorific) bag उहाँको झोला

263. their (dual/nearby/honorific) bag

264. their (plural/nearby/honorific) bag उहाँहको झोला

PERSONAL PRONOUNS WITH INTRANSITIVE VERB

265. I (202) म

266. you (sg honorific) (204) तपाईं

267. he / She (honorific here) उहाँ

268. he / she (honorific there) उहाँ

269. we (dual, incl) हामी

270. we (dual, excl) हामी

271. we (pl, incl) (207) हामीह

272. we (pl, excl) (208) हामीह

273. you (two) (dual, honorific) तपाईंह

274. you (all) (pl, honorific) तपाईंह

275. they (honorific here) उहाँह

276. they (honorific there) उहाँह

A.5 Wordlist data and similarity grouping

Wordlist key

Code Variety Location LA Lohorung Angala LD Lohorung Dhupu GP Lohorung Gairi Pangma YD Southern Yamphu Devitar YH Yamphu Hedangna YK Yamphu Khoktak YN Yamphu Num YR Southern Yamphu Rajarani YS Yamphu Seduwa

afternoon ash bad (person) banana LA lenta 1 LA tʰʌʔbi 1 LA kʌʔise 1 LA tsaŋmaʔ 1 LD lɪnʈa 1 LD - LD kʌⁱse 1 LD tsɑŋmɑʔ 1 GP lɪnta 1 GP tʰabʰi 1 GP kaise 1 GP tsaŋmaʔ 1 YD lɪnda 1 YD YD maŋɛʔma 2 YD tsaŋak̚ 1 YH lɪnda 1 YH kʰʌɹani YH mɛŋɛːma 2 YH tsɛmaʔla 3 YK lɪnda 1 YK - YK mæŋɛʔma 2 YK tsaŋak̚ 1 YN aⁱlɪnɖa 1 YN kʰʌɹani YN mɛŋɛʔma 2 YN tsʌŋak̚ 1 YR lɛnda 1 YR tʰʌʔmi 1 YR ɡʌmiʔɛ 3 YR tsaŋak̚ 1 YS lɪnda 1 YS - YS maⁱjɛpa 4 YS tsʌŋʌk 1

all at Bamboo shoot bark LA tsopno 1 LA bi 1 LA bamiʔ 1 LA - LD tsʌp̚nɔ 1 LD bi 1 LD bamiʔ 1 LD - GP tsopnɔ 1 GP bi 1 GP bamiʔ 1 GP sagɔʔ 1 YD tsopno 1 YD biʔ 1 YD pʰami 1 YD sahuk̚ 1 YH taktuk̚ 2 YH bɛʔ 2 YH ami 1 YH saukɾɛʔwa 1 YK - - YK biʔ 1 YK ami 1 YK sipɾẽʔwa 3 YN dʒʌma/ʈʌŋga YN biʔ 1 YN tama YN bokɹo YR waɾɛk 3 YR bi 1 YR kʰama 1 YR sʌɡok̚ 1 YS wʌɾɛʔ 3 YS bɛʔ 2 YS ami 1 YS sagok̚ 1

ant axe bamboo tree bed bug LA jʌŋkɾepa 1 LA bɛntʰi 1 LA bapʰu 1 LA sik̚lip̚ 1 LD - - LD - LD bapʰu 1 LD - GP jaŋkɹepa 1 GP bɛntʰi 1 GP bapʰu 1 GP siklip̚ 1 YD - - YD pʰɛndi 1 YD pʰabu 1 YD ʃiʔlik 1 YH riŋmiʔwa 2 YH ændi 1 YH aːbʰu 1 YH siʔlik 1 YK suaɾima 3 YK ɛndʰi 1 YK abʰu 1 YK siʔlik̚ 1 YN kʌmila YN ɛn̪dʰi 1 YN abu 1 YN siʔlik̚ 1 YR - YR pʰɛndi 1 YR pʰabu 1 YR siʔlik̚ 1 YS suaɾiʔma 3 YS ɛndi 1 YS abu 1 YS siʔlik̚ 1

belly/stomach big black bone LA boːk̚ 1 LA dʲapa 1 LA maⁱʔe 1, 5 LA sekoʔwa 1 LD bʌʔ 1 LD dʲapa 1 LD moⁱʔe 1 LD - GP bɔːʔ 1 GP dʲaːpa 1 GP maiʔma 1, 5 GP sɛkoʔwa 1 YD kʰʌŋma 4 YD bɛʔɛma 2 YD makʰuwiʔma 2 YD sɛkuʔwa 1 YH ruŋma 2 YH bɪʔɛ 2 YH maik 5 YH sɛkuʔwa 1 YK ɾuŋma 2 YK bɛʔɛma 2 YK makʰaiʔma 3 YK sɛkoʔwa 1 YN ɹuŋma 2 YN bɪʔe 2 YN kalo YN sɛkuʔua 1 YR kʰaŋma 4 YR bɛʔɛma 2 YR makaɛkma 3 YR sekuʔwa 1 YS hɛmnuŋma 2 YS ɛʔpa 3 YS makʷiʔma 2 YS sɛkuʔwa 1

below bird blood bring down to from above (3sg past) LA mimu 2 LA sowã 1 LA hʌɾi 1 LA laɾʌpe 1 LD kʰuʔma 3 LD sãwã 1 LD hʌɾi 1 LD lahɛtɛ 1 GP kʰuʔma 3 GP sõwã 1 GP hʌri 1 GP lajuɳg 1 YD mimu 2 YD soŋa 1 YD hari 1 YD jʌŋjuktu 2 YH mɪʔmu 2 YH soŋa 1 YH haɹi 1 YH laʔuk 1 YK mimu 2 YK soŋa 1 YK hæɾi 1 YK jura lauktu 1 YN mɪʔmu 2 YN soŋa 1 YN hʌɹi 1 YN - YR mimu 2 YR sõwã 1 YR hʌɖi 1 YR juŋjuk̚tu 2 YS miʔmu 2 YS soŋwa 1 YS haɾi 1 YS lautu 1

beside bite (3sg past) bolt of lightning broken LA kɛkpi 1 LA hɛːru 1 LA nʌmtɾuŋma 2 LA joplaɾa 1 LD kɛkpi 1 LD hɛ:ɾu 1 LD - LD tɛʔlaɾa 3 GP nɪntʌŋ 2 GP hɛːɾ 1 GP namtɾewa 2 GP joplaɾa 1 YD gʲæk̚pi 1 YD hædu 1 YD nandɾewa 2 YD ekʰɛpaʔa 2 YH kʲæʔpɛʔ 1 YH hæɖ 1 YH nʌndɾɛʔwa 2 YH ɛkɛʔpɾa 2 YK kʲæʔpiʔ 1 YK kʰoksixaɖe 1 YK nandɾɛʔwa 2 YK ekʰɛp̚ɾa 2 YN kɜk̚pi 1 YN hæɖ 1 YN tʃʌʈjæŋ YN ekʰɛʔpaʔa 2 YR gɛkpi 1 YR hæɖu 1 YR nʌmdɾuŋma 2 YR ekʰɛpaʔa 2 YS kʲækpe 1 YS hædu 1 YS namdɹeʔwa 2 YS ekʰɛʔwa 2

broken, damaged bury (3sg past) chicken cloth LA nasilimpa 1 LA humu 1 LA waː 1 LA tse 1 LD nasilisa 1 LD - LD wa: 1 LD tse 1 GP nasilisa 1 GP hum 1 GP waː 1 GP tseː 1 YD nasiɾibaʔa 1 YD hupsu 1 YD wa 1 YD tse 1 YH nadʒilihɛʔpɾa 1 YH up 1 YH waː 1 YH tsi 1 YK nasiɾibɾa 1 YK humɛtame 1 YK - YK tseʔ 1 YN naʃiɹibʌʔa 1 YN hup 1 YN waː 1 YN tʃeʔ 1 YR nasiɾiʔwa 1 YR hupsu 1 YR wa 1 YR tsikʰeʔ 1 YS nasiɾeʔwa 1 YS humʔɛndu 1 YS wa 1 YS tseʔ 1

broom carrying basket climb down (3sg past) cloud LA bæktʌm 1 LA - LA juse 1 LA kʰuiɾo 3 LD - LD - LD uŋkʰʌɖa 2 LD - GP bæktʌm 1 GP jʌŋtsepa 1 GP judʰaɾ 1 GP tsumkuma 1 YD piʔtʌm 1 YD tsɛnda 2 YD uksa 3 YD kʰimeʔma 2 YH kutso 4 YH tsɛnda 2 YH uk 3 YH kʰimiʔma 2 YK pʰiʔtʃiɾa 3 YK tsɛnɖa 2 YK uksʌ 3 YK kʰimnɛʔma 2 YN kutso YN tsjɛnɖa 2 YN ʔuks 3 YN badʌl YR kutso YR tʃɛnʈʌʔ 2 YR uksa 3 YR kʰimiʔma 2 YS teŋdʌm 2 YS tsɛnda 2 YS uksa 3 YS kʰimiʔwa 2

buffalo chest climb up (3sg past) cold (weather) LA sãwã 1 LA - LA tʰʌŋʌ 1 LA tsuŋ lusa 1 LD sãwã 1 YD - LD tʰʌŋkʰaɖa 1 LD tsuŋ 1 GP sãwã 1 YS - GP tʰʌŋ 1 GP tsuŋ 1 YD sãwã 1 LD hʌŋtʌŋ 1 YD sʌksa 2 YD tsuŋ 1 YH saŋa 1 GP hʌŋtʌŋ 1 YH sʌk 2 YH tsuŋ 1 YK sãwã 1 YH haktʌŋ 1 YK sʌkʃʌ 2 YK tsuŋruʔe 1 YN sãwã 1 YK hɛpsɔk̚ 2 YN sʌks 2 YN tʃuŋ 1 YR sãwã 1 YN hɛpsok̚ 2 YR saksa 2 YR tsuŋ 1 YS sãwã 1 YR tʃatʰi YS tʰʌksa 1 YS tsuŋ 1

come down (3sg past) cow cucumber dog LA uksa 1 LA pik̚ma 1 LA pʷĩʔ 1 LA huʔwa 2 LD uŋkʰaɖa 2 LD piʔ 1 LD pʷĩʔ 1 LD huʔwa 2 GP uŋ 2 GP pɪk̚ 1 GP puiʔ 1 GP huʔwa 2 YD uksa 1 YD bik̚ 1 YD boĩk̚ 2 YD huʔwa 2 YH ukʰ 1 YH pik 1 YH poik 2 YH huʔwa 2 YK heʔuk̚sa 1 YK pik̚ 1 YK pohik̚ 2 YK huː?wa 2 YN - YN piʔ 1 YN poiʔ 2 YN huʔwa 2 YR uksa 1 YR bik̚ 1 YR bogik̚ 2 YR huʔwa 2 YS hɛʔjosa 3 YS pik̚ 1 YS poik̚ 2 YS huʔwa 2

come on level ground cracked, burst cut (3sg past) door LA daba 1 LA pɔlaɾa 1 LA tseɡu 1 LA lampaɾaŋ 1 LD dʌba 1 LD pɔʔlara 1 LD bɔge 2 LD - GP dʌbʰ 1 GP pɔʔlaɾa 1 GP tsen 1 GP lampɾeŋma 1 YD lɛnda 2 YD bokʰepaʔa 1 YD tsenu 1 YD ramdɛma 2 YH - YH pokʰepɾa 1 YH tse 1 YH dailo YK tate 3 YK pokʰep̚ɾa 1 YK tsɛname 1 YK lambaɖɛma 2 YN ab 4 YN pokʰɛʔpaʔa 1 YN tsen 1 YN ɖʰoka YR tʰaba 3 YR bokʰɛpːa 1 YR tʃenu 1 YR daⁱlo YS taⁱja 3 YS pokʰeʔwa 1 YS tsenu 1 YS rʌm 3

cooked rice cry (3sg past) die (3sg past) drink (3sg past) LA tsam 1 LA haːba 1 LA sixʌɾʌ 1 LA duŋu 1 LD tsɑm 1 LD ha:bokʰa 1 LD sikʌɾa 1 LD duŋa 1 GP tsam 1 GP haːb 1 GP sihʌɾ 1 GP duŋ 1 YD tsama 1 YD ha:ba 1 YD sigʰada 1 YD tʰuksu 2 YH tsama 1 YH haːb 1 YH sikʰaɖ 1 YH uk 2 YK tsama 1 YK haːbe 1 YK sixʌɖa 1 YK uŋbɛtʌ 1 YN tsama 1 YN haːb 1 YN sigaɖ 1 YN ʔuk̚ 2 YR tsama 1 YR haːba 1 YR sigʰaɾʌ 1 YR tʰuksu 2 YS tsama 1 YS ha:ba 1 YS sixada 1 YS uksu 2

dry egg equal face LA hɛŋkʰɛʔpa 2 LA wɛʔdin 1 LA tɔŋtɔŋsu 1 LA ŋatsik̚ 1 LD - LD wæɖin 1 LD hamalɛʔ 2 LD ŋɑtsik̚ 1 GP hɛŋkʰɛda 2 GP waʔdɪn 1 GP tɔŋlo 1 GP ŋatsiʔ 1 YD hegɛpa 2 YD wadiŋ 1 YD doŋlɛʔ 1 YD ŋadʒik 1 YH hegʌɖa/hegʰaʔta 2 YH waʔiŋ 1 YH bʌɹabaɾ YH nadʒikʰ 1 YK hæɡɛʔpa 2 YK - YK - YK nadʒik 1 YN hebaʔa 2 YN wʌʔiŋ 1 YN iʔkonoʔ 3 YN ŋadʒik̚ 1 YR heɡɛʔpaʔa 2 YR wadin 1 YR - YR natsik̚ 1 YS hægɛʔwa 2 YS waʔiŋ 1 YS tɔŋlɛʔ 1 YS nadʒik 1

ear elbow evening far LA nabaʔ 1 LA - LA juta 1 LA meʔoŋ 3 LD nɑbɑʔ 1 LD - LD sɪnta 2 LD miu 1 GP nabaʔ 1 GP kɛŋkɛŋma 1 GP juta 1 GP miu 1 YD nabɛk̚ 1 YD kɛnsuɾuʔma 2 YD juda 1 YD o: 2 YH næʔæk 1 YH kæŋzɾuʔma 2 YH juda 1 YH oː 2 YK næʔæʔ 1 YK keŋzruʔma 2 YK juda 1 YK kiːʔu miːʔu 1 YN nɛʔɛk̚ 1 YN kuina YN juɖʌ 1 YN ʈaɖʰa YR nabɛk 1 YR kuino YR juda 1 YR oː 2 YS nɛʔɛk 1 YS kɛŋzɹuʔma 2 YS juda 1 YS mɪʔjʌŋ 3

eat (3sg past) empty eye fat part of flesh LA tsaʔa 1 LA mʌŋsumʌʔa 1 LA miʔ 1 LA sʌsip̚ 1 LD tsaʔe 1 LD - LD mik̚ 1 LD - GP tsoʔ 1 GP maŋsuma 1 GP miʔ 1 GP saʃip̚ 1 YD tsosu 1 YD hopɾɛk 2 YD mik̚ 1 YD sasik 1 YH tsoː 1 YH hopɾæ 2 YH mik 1 YH sasik 1 YK tsabɛte 1 YK maʔe 4 YK miʔ 1 YK sasiʔ 1 YN tsa 1 YN hopɹɛʔuwa 2 YN mik 1 YN boso YR tso 1 YR hoprɛk 2 YR mik̚ 1 YR sasik̚ 1 YS tsʌju 1 YS hopɾɛʔwa 2 YS mik 1 YS sasɛk̚ 1

father father's younger brother feces fingernail LA aʔpa 1 LA baʔbaŋ 1 LA hiː 1 LA sɪnduma 1 LD apa 1 LD babʌŋ 1 LD hi: 1 LD - GP ʌpa 1 GP bʌʔbʌŋ 1 GP hiː 1 GP sɪnduma 1 YD aba 1 YD babaŋ 1 YD hi: 1 YD senduma 1 YH paba 1 YH aŋa 2 YH hiː 1 YH sɛnduma 1 YK paba 1 YK aŋa 2 YK hiː 1 YK sɪnduma 1 YN paba 1 YN aŋa 2 YN hiː 1 YN sɛnduma 1 YR baba 1 YR pʰaŋ 3 YR hiː 1 YR sɛnduma 1 YS paba 1 YS pabaŋ 1 YS hi 1 YS sɛnduma 1 father's older brother father's younger sister few, a little fire LA deʔpːa 1 LA nana 3 LA miʔmo 1 LA miː 1 LD dɪpa 1 LD phupu nana 3 LD miʔmɔ 1 LD mi: 1 GP dɛpːa 1 GP nana 3 GP miʔmɔ 1 GP miː 1 YD tʰeba 1 YD ŋiŋi 1 YD miʔa 1 YD mi: 1 YH ebʰa 1 YH sʲæŋma 2 YH ædɛʔwa 3 YH mi 1 YK eba 1 YK ŋiŋi 1 YK tsuʔlok̚ 4 YK miː 1 YN eba 1 YN pʰupu / nini 1 YN ʌdɛʔwa 3 YN miː 1 YR tʰeba 1 YR nĩŋi 1 YR miʔwa 1 YR mi 1 YS eba 1 YS ŋiŋi 1 YS ædɛʔwa 3 YS mi: 1 father's older sister feather finger firewood LA tʰema 1 LA baⁱsasiŋ 2 LA huʔkʰɛwasi 1 LA siŋ 1 LD pʰupu dima 6 LD labɹeŋ 3 LD - LD siŋ 1 GP nana 5 GP lʌpɾɛŋ 3 GP huʔkʰɛwasi 1 GP siŋ 1 YD tʰema 1 YD butla 1 YD hukeʔwasi 1 YD ʃiŋ 1 YH sʲæŋma 4 YH lapɾʌŋ 3 YH hukʲeʔasi 1 YH siŋ 1 YK ŋiŋi 3 YK - YK hukadʒɛʔwa 2 YK siŋ 1 YN ema 1 YN butla 1 YN ʌ̃ᵘla YN siŋ 1 YR tʰema 1 YR rʌpkʰewa 4 YR huʔkʰewasi 1 YR siŋ 1 YS ema 1 YS - YS hukeʔasi 1 YS siŋ 1

fish flower four ginger LA ŋaː 1 LA buŋ 1 LA ritʃi 1 LA besuʔ 1 LD ŋa: 1 LD buŋ 1 LD tukdʒi 2 LD besuʔ 1 GP ŋaː 1 GP buŋ 1 GP ritsi 1 GP besuʔ 1 YD ŋa 1 YD sembuŋ 1 YD ritsi 1 YD sampʰi 2 YH ŋa 1 YH ʔuŋ 1 YH riʔum 1 YH esuk 1 YK ŋa 1 YK sɛŋʔuŋ 2 YK ridʒi 1 YK sambiː 2 YN ŋaː 1 YN uŋ 1 YN ɹidʒi 1 YN ʌduwa 3 YR ŋa 1 YR sʲɛmpʰuŋ 1 YR ɾitʃi 1 YR sampʰi 2 YS ŋa 1 YS ɛʔwa 3 YS rɪdʒi 1 YS sambi 2

five fly friend give (3sg past) LA ŋatsi 1 LA bomsuma 1 LA lʌŋkʌm 1 LA pitʰu 1 LD ŋʲatsi 1 LD bʌmsuma 1 LD lʌŋkʌm 1 LD pitʰa 1 GP ŋatsi 1 GP bomsuma 1 GP laŋkʌm 1 GP pɪt 1 YD ŋatsi 1 YD mɛntsuwa 2 YD laŋgʌm 1 YD bisu 1 YH naʔʌm 1 YH mindʒuwa 2 YH laŋgam 1 YH piː 1 YK ŋadʒi 1 YK mindʒuwa 2 YK lʌŋɡʌm 1 YK pisami 1 YN ŋadʒi 1 YN dʒĩga YN lʌŋgʌm 1 YN piː 1 YR nɛksi 1 YR mɛntsuʔa 2 YR ɡam 2 YR bisu 1 YS naʔʌm 1 YS midʒuwa 2 YS lʌŋgʌm 1 YS pisu 1

flea fly (3sg past) get up (3sg past) go down (3sg past) LA mʌnkip̚ 1 LA pesa 1 LA jipoga 1 LA xʌɖa 1 LD nʌmki 1 LD pekʰaɖa 1 LD pɔga 1 LD xʌɖa 1 GP mʌmkiʔ 1 GP pes 1 GP pog 1 GP xaɾ 1 YD maŋgip 1 YD besa 1 YD bukaɾa 2 YD kʰaɖa 1 YH mʌŋgik 1 YH peː 1 YH dʒepug 1 YH kʰaɖ 1 YK mʌŋɡip̚ 1 YK pexaɖe 1 YK jepuge 1 YK - YN mʌŋgiʔ 1 YN pe 1 YN pug 1 YN kʰaɖ 1 YR maŋɡip̚ 1 YR beːsa 1 YR jepuɡa 1 YR - YS mʌŋgiʔ 1 YS pesa 1 YS poga 1 YS kʰaɖa 1

goat grandfather hair he/she (there/H) LA metʰuba 1 LA pʌʔpa 1 LA tanak̚ 1 LA kʰo 1 LD mɛtʰuba 1 LD pʌʔpa 1 LD tʌŋɑʔ 1 LD kʰo 1 GP mɛtʰuba 1 GP pʌʔpʌ 1 GP tʌŋaʔ 1 GP kʰo 1 YD jaspa 2 YD baʔpa 1 YD ɖaŋ 2 YD kʰo 1 YH jæsba 2 YH tuba 2 YH taŋ 2 YH kʰo 1 YK jasuba 2 YK paʔpa 1 YK taŋ 2 YK - YN jʌsuba 2 YN pʌpa 1 YN taŋ 2 YN kʰo 1 YR jaspa 2 YR baʔpːa 1 YR daŋ 2 YR kʰo 1 YS jæsuba 2 YS paʔpa 1 YS taŋ 2 YS kʰo 1

gold grandmother hat head LA pʰiʔe 1 LA mʌʔma 1 LA bomʌɾʌ 1 LA niŋtʌ 1 LD pʰija 1 LD mʌʔma 1 LD - LD niŋtʌʔwa 1 GP pʰiʔa 1 GP mʌʔma 1 GP hʌmtʰʌm 2 GP nɪŋtãwã 1 YD - YD maʔma 1 YD pʰʌmdʒuɾa 1 YD nindãwã 1 YH suna 4 YH tuma 2 YH ʈopi YH nindaŋa 1 YK haɾdzoʔwa 2 YK maʔma 1 YK kʰʌmdʒiɾa 3 YK nindãwã 1 YN suna 4 YN mʌʔma 1 YN ʈopi YN nĩndawã 1 YR samjaŋ 3 YR maʔma 1 YR pʰʌʔmaɾʌ 1 YR ɖukɾeʔ 2 YS suna 4 YS maʔma 1 YS topʌɾi 4 YS nindãwã 1

good (person) grandson he/she (here/H) headstrap LA kʌmnuʔẽ 1 LA jaŋmin 1 LA kʰo 1 LA wanʌm 1 LD kʌmnuʔe 1 LD jæŋmin 1 LD - LD - GP kʌmnue 1 GP jaŋmɪn 1 GP kʰo 1 GP wanʌm 1 YD nuba 2 YD jaŋmɛn 1 YD kʰo 1 YD wanʌm 1 YH nuba 2 YH jʌŋman 1 YH kʰo 1 YH wanʌm 1 YK nuba 2 YK jæŋmɪn 1 YK kʰodʒi 1 YK wanʌm 1 YN nuba 2 YN jaŋmɪn 1 YN kʰo 1 YN wanʌm 1 YR ɡʌmnuʔe 1 YR jaŋmɛn 1 YR kʰo 1 YR wanʌm 1 YS nuba 2 YS jæŋmin 1 YS kʰo 1 YS wanʌm 1

53 hear, listen (3sg past) here thorn how many? LA xemu 2 LA gobi 1 LA taŋ 1 LA eʔwaɾo 1 LD xemu 2 LD gobi 1 LD - LD ʔɛʔwa 2 GP xɛm 2 GP gubiʔ 1 GP taŋ 1 GP ɛʔwaha 2 YD kʰɛpsu 2 YD igobiʔ 1 YD tsatsaŋ 2 YD hamdok̚ 3 YH kɪp 2 YH igobɛʔ 1 YH sadʒaŋ 2 YH ɪndoʔ 4 YK kʰɛpsũ 2 YK igobiʔnoʔ 1 YK sadʒaŋ 2 YK ɪnɖoʔ 4 YN kɛp 2 YN igobiʔ 1 YN sʌdʒʌŋ 2 YN inɖok̚ 4 YR kʰɛpsu 2 YR iɡobiʔno 1 YR tsatsaŋ 2 YR hamoʔ 3 YS kʰɛpsu 2 YS igobɛ 1 YS sʌdʌŋ 2 YS ɪndoʔ 4

heart his (nearby/H) hot (weather) how? (to do something) LA luŋma 1 LA kʰomi 1 LA hoptuʔwa lusʌ 1 LA mʌntoʔeɾʌ 1 LD - LD kʰomi 1 LD hoptʲʌʔwa 1 LD mʌntʌʔeɾo 1 GP luŋma 1 GP kʰomi 1 GP hoʔteʔwalu 1 GP manʈɔʔ 1 YD ruŋma 1 YD kʰomi 1 YD saɾoguʔ 3 YD hamdok̚ 2 YH muʈu YH kʰoːmi 1 YH ʌɾuʔwa 2 YH ɪndoʔtɛ 2 YK tsuinʌm 2 YK kʰoiʔko 2 YK hoptiʔwa 1 YK ɪndoʔ 2 YN muʈu YN kʰomi 1 YN gʌɹmi YN inɖokʈe 2 YR ɾuŋma 1 YR kʰomi 1 YR huɾuʔwa 2 YR hamrok̚ 2 YS ɹuŋma 1 YS kʰomi 1 YS huɾuʔwa 2 YS indoʔ 2

heavy honey bee house how? (what is it like) LA lise 1 LA wɛʔma 1 LA xim 1 LA mʌntoʔe 1 LD lisa 1 LD wɛʔma 1 LD kʰim 1 LD - GP lise 1 GP wɛʔma 1 GP xim 1 GP mʌŋpaɾa 2 YD riʔɛ 2 YD suwama 1 YD kʰim 1 YD hamdoʔma 3 YH ɹijɛ 2 YH suama 1 YH kʰim 1 YH ɪndoʔmɔɖʌ 4 YK ri?ɛ 2 YK ʃuwama 1 YK kʰɪm 1 YK ɪndoʔma 4 YN ɹijɛ 2 YN mahuɹi 1 YN kʰim 1 YN inɖok̚ 4 YR riʔɛ 2 YR suwama 1 YR kʰɪm 1 YR hamok̚ma 3 YS rina 2 YS suwama 1 YS kʰim 1 YS indoʔma 4

husband irrigated field knee leaf LA tʰʌʔpʌ 1 LA ropa 1 LA tuŋɾowasi 2 LA siŋbaʔ 1 LD tʰʌpa 1 LD rupa 1 LD/YD LD bʌʔwa 1 GP tʰʌpa 1 GP ɾopa 1 GP pumbuɾuʔ 3 GP siŋbaʔ 1 YD tʰapa 1 YD ropa 1 YH tumɾuk 1 YD paʔwa 1 YH tʰaʔpa 1 YH ropa 1 YK tumɾuk̚ 1 YH siŋak 1 YK tʰaʔpa 1 YK ɾopa 1 YN tumɹuk̚ 1 YK siŋakɾɛʔwa 1 YN tʰʌpa 1 YN kʰet YR ɡʰũɖa YN siŋak̚ 1 YR tʰapa 1 YR kʰeʈ YS tumɹuk̚ 1 YR pʰaʔwa 1 YS tʰapa 1 YS ropa 1 YS aʔwa 1

I khukuri language leech LA kaŋa 1 LA dabe 1 LA xap 1 LA lɔʔbe 1 LD ka 1 LD dabe 1 LD kʰʌp 1 LD liʔna 2 GP ka 1 GP dabe 1 GP hap 1 GP lɔʔbɛk̚ 1 YD ga 1 YD dabe 1 YD kʰanawa 2 YD riʔna 2 YH ka 1 YH tabʰija 1 YH kʰʌp:a 1 YH riʔna 2 YK ka 1 YK tabija 1 YK kʰa 1 YK riʔna 2 YN ka 1 YN tabe 1 YN kʰʌp 1 YN loʔɛ 1 YR ɡa 1 YR dabe 1 YR kʰap 1 YR ɾiʔna 2 YS ka 1 YS tabija 1 YS kʰap:a 1 YS ɾiʔna 2

inside kill (3sg past) laugh (3sg past) leg (and foot) LA hɔŋsi 1 LA seɾu 1 LA jiːtsaʔa 1 LA laŋ 1 LD hɔŋsi 1 LD seɾu 1 LD - LD lʌŋ 1 GP hɔŋsi 1 GP ʃɛɾu 1 GP hiːtsaʔ 1 GP lʌŋ 1 YD hʌŋbiʔ 1 YD sedu 1 YD jidʒaja 1 YD saraŋ 2 YH hoŋsiʔju 2 YH seɖʰ 1 YH dʒits 1 YH saɾʌŋ 2 YK hoŋsiʔju 2 YK sedunu 1 YK jidʒaja 1 YK sʌɾaŋ 2 YN hoŋsiʔju 2 YN sʲeɖu / sʲeʔnesu 1 YN jitsa 1 YN sʌɹʌŋ 2 YR hoŋbiʔ 1 YR sedu 1 YR jidʒaja 1 YR saɾaŋ 2 YS hoŋsiʔju 2 YS Sedu 1 YS jɛsa 1 YS saɾaŋ 2

55 lie down (3sg past) long (thing) many monkey LA ɡaŋpokʰʌ 1 LA toʔbɛʔe 1 LA eʔnimsu 1 LA bubʌŋ 1 LD gʌŋdʌɾʌ 1 LD - LD - LD pubʌŋ 1 GP tebok 2 GP toʔbɛ 1 GP dɾiʔ 2 GP pubʌŋ 1 YD gʌksa 1 YD giʔgɛpʰaʔa 2 YD bɛʔlo 1 YD bubaŋ 1 YH te 2 YH kʰiʔɛ 2 YH pɪʔlo 1 YH pubʌŋ 1 YK kʌŋjusa 1 YK kiɛma 2 YK peʔlo 1 YK pubʌŋ 1 YN kaŋju 1 YN kʰijɛ / kʰiʔɛma 2 YN bɪʔlo 1 YN pubʌŋ 1 YR ɡʌŋɡʌɾʌ 1 YR ɡepʰɛma 2 YR bɛʔlo 1 YR bubaŋ 1 YS kʌŋdʒaijʌ 1 YS kiɛʔma 2 YS e:wa 3 YS pubʌŋ 1

light louse meat moon LA sopːe 1 LA sik̚ 1 LA sa 1 LA pʌpʌla 1 LD sop:e 1 LD sik̚ 1 LD sa: 1 LD pʌpʌla 1 GP sɔp:e 1 GP sik̚ 1 GP saː 1 GP papɑla 1 YD sop̚jue 2 YD ʃik 1 YD sa 1 YD la 2 YH soʔmijɛ 3 YH sik 1 YH sʌ 1 YH laː 2 YK sop̚iɛ 2 YK sik̚ 1 YK saː 1 YK laː 2 YN hʌluka / hʌlka YN sik̚ 1 YN sa 1 YN laː 2 YR sop̚juʔe 2 YR sik̚ 1 YR sa 1 YR ɾa 2 YS sop̚na 1 YS sik̚ 1 YS sa 1 YS la 2

lips man milk morning LA jap̚sima 1 LA watʰʌŋpa 1 LA duɾu 1 LA namsɔŋ 1 LD jɑbsimɑ 1 LD watʰʌŋpa 1 LD dɾu 1 LD namsɔŋ 1 GP japsima 1 GP watʰʌŋpa 1 GP duɾu 1 GP namsɔŋ 1 YD jabuʔɾewa 2 YD waɾaŋbusa 1 YD duɾu 1 YD maʔmiʔ 2 YH jabɾewa 2 YH wadʌŋbusa 1 YH tuɾu /tudu ? 1 YH maʔmiʔ 2 YK jabʌɾeʔwa 2 YK waɖʌŋbusa 1 YK tudu 1 YK maʔmi 2 YN oʈʰ YN wʌɖʌŋ bʌsʌ 1 YN dudʰ YN maʔmiʔ 2 YR oʈʰ YR waɖaŋbusa 1 YR dudu 1 YR maʔmiʔ 2 YS jabrɛʔwa 2 YS wadaŋba 1 YS tudu 1 YS maʔmi 2

mosquito mother's older sister mouth near LA LA dema 1 LA jaː 1 LA mobinʌ tsuʔa 1 LD LD dema 1 LD jɑ: 1 LD nɪntʌŋ 2 GP lamkʰuʈːe GP dema 1 GP jaː 1 GP nɪntʌŋ 2 YD YD tʰema 1 YD jabuk 2 YD nɪndʌŋ 2 YH lamkʰuʈe YH ʔema 1 YH jabuk 2 YH kʲæk̚pɛ 3 YK sʌktuʔkɾʌŋ 1 YK ema 1 YK jabuk̚ 2 YK kæk̚pi 3 YN lamkʰuʈe YN ema 1 YN jabuk̚ 2 YN kɜk̚pi 3 YR YR tʰema 1 YR jaː 1 YR nɪndʌŋ 2 YS sæk̚ʈɔk 1 YS ema 1 YS jabuk 2 YS kʲækpe 3

mother mother's younger brother my needle (̈for sewing) LA ama 1 LA kʷeŋ 1 LA kaŋami 1 LA samik̚ 1 LD ama 1 LD kʷeŋ 1 LD kam LD - GP ama 1 GP kʷɛŋ 1 GP kaŋamɛ 1 GP samik̚ 1 YD gʌŋma 2 YD gʷɛŋ 1 YD gaŋmi 1 YD samik 1 YH mama 1 YH kuweŋ 1 YH kʰɛʔɛ 2 YH samik 1 YK mama 1 YK kʷɛŋ 1 YK kaŋmi 1 YK samiʔ 1 YN maːma 1 YN kujɛŋ 1 YN kʲɛʔɛ 2 YN samiʔ 1 YR mama 1 YR ɠʷɛŋ 1 YR ɡaŋmi 1 YR samik̚ 1 YS mama 1 YS kʷɛŋ 1 YS kʌŋmiŋ 1 YS samik 1 mother's older brother mother's younger sister name nettle LA kweŋ depːa 1 LA sɛŋma 1 LA niŋ 1 LA tsoheʔma 1 LD dɪpa 1 LD seŋma 1 LD niŋ 1 LD - GP dɛpːa kʷɛŋ 1 GP ʃɛŋma 1 GP niŋ 1 GP tsohɛʔma 1 YD gʷɛŋ 2 YD seŋma 1 YD niŋ 1 YD sogima 1 YH kuweŋ 2 YH sʲæŋma 1 YH niŋ 1 YH sokʰuma 1 YK kʷɛŋ 2 YK sɛŋma 1 YK niŋ 1 YK sokʰima 1 YN eba 1 YN sjaŋma 1 YN niŋ 1 YN sokuma 1 YR ɠʷɛŋ 2 YR seŋma 1 YR niŋ 1 YR soɡetma 1 YS kʷɛŋ 2 YS ʃeŋma 1 YS niŋ 1 YS soxima 1

new (thing) oil older sister our (dual/inclusive) LA umtsoŋ 1 LA kewa 1 LA nana 1 LA katsiɡam 1 LD umtsoŋ 1 LD kewa 1 LD nana 1 LD katsigʌm 1 GP umtsoŋ 1 GP kewa 1 GP nana 1 GP katsimi 1 YD tsoŋ 2 YD gewa 1 YD nana 1 YD ganimi 1 YH tsoŋ 2 YH kewa 1 YH nana 1 YH kʰadʒiʔɛ 1 YK tsɔŋ 2 YK kewa 1 YK nana 1 YK kadʒiŋa 1 YN tsoŋ 2 YN tel YN nana 1 YN kʌniŋmi 1 YR tsoŋ 2 YR ɡewa 1 YR nana 1 YR ɡatsiŋmi 1 YS tsoŋ 2 YS gewa 1 YS nana 1 YS kadʒimi 1

night old (thing) one our (pl. exclusive) LA juta 1 LA tʰʌpʰʌpihedːe 1 LA ekːo 1 LA kaŋkam 1 LD juta 1 LD - LD ek:o 1 LD kʌŋkʌm 1 GP sɪn 2 GP jaʔloe 2 GP ekɔ 1 GP kanimi 1, 2 YD sʲɪnda 2 YD heʔwa 3 YD tʰɪko 1 YD ganiŋmi 2 YH sɪnɖa 2 YH jæʔlo 2 YH ikʰo 1 YH kʰaŋɛʔɛ 1, 2 YK sɪnda 2 YK hɛːʔwa 3 YK ikʰo 1 YK kaniŋ 2 YN sɪnɖa 2 YN puɹano YN iʔko 1 YN kʌniŋmi 2 YR senda 2 YR heʔwa 3 YR tʰiko 1 YR ɡaniŋmi 2 YS ʃɪnɖa 2 YS - YS ikʰo 1 YS kanimi 1, 2

nose older brother our (dual/exclusive) our (pl. inclusive) LA nabuʔ 1 LA bubu 1 LA kaŋkami 3 LA kaŋkam 1 LD nɑbuʔ 1 LD bubu 1 LD katsigʌm 1 LD kʌŋkʌm 1 GP nabuʔ 1 GP bubu 1 GP kaniŋmi 2 GP kaniŋmi 2 YD nabu 1 YD pʰubu 1 YD gatsimi 1 YD ganiŋmi 2 YH naʔu 1 YH wawa 2 YH kʰadʒiŋɛʔɛ 1,2 YH kʰanɛʔɛ 1, 3 YK naʔu 1 YK bubu 1 YK kʰadʒiŋnipʌŋ 1,2 YK kaniŋa pɪlomi 2 YN nʌʔu 1 YN waːwa 2 YN kʌdʒiŋmi 1,2 YN kʌdʒiŋmi 2 YR nabu 1 YR bubu 1 YR ɡatsimi 1 YR ɡaniŋmi 2 YS naʔu 1 YS wawa 2 YS kʰadʒigami 1 YS kaniŋgami 2

outside person put in (3sg past) red LA - LA jaʔmi 1 LA jukse 1 LA hʌrapa 1 LD - LD jaʔmi 1 LD juŋe 1 LD hʌrʌpa 1 GP - GP jaʔmi 1 GP juːŋ 1 GP hʌrapa 1 YD pakʰabi 1 YD jaʔmi 1 YD juksu 1 YD haɾaɾama 1 YH pakæʔju 1 YH jaʔmi 1 YH juk 1 YH hara 1 YK pakɛʔju 1 YK jaʔmi 1 YK jukse 1 YK harama 1 YN pakʰabɪʔ 1 YN jʌʔmi 1 YN juk 1 YN hʌɹama 1 YR paxa 1 YR jaʔmi 1 YR juksu 1 YR haɾama 1 YS paxabɛ 1 YS jæʔmi 1 YS juksu 1 YS harama 1

palm of hand pestle (for spices mortar) rain root LA huʔpɛʔma 1 LA - LA wʌɾi tʌʔaʔ 1 LA/LD LD - LD - LD wʌɾi tʌʔa 1 GP sʌm 1 GP huʔpɛʔma 1 GP puɾuŋhuʔma 1 GP wʌɾi taʔaʔ 1 YD sam 1 YD hukpeʔma 1 YD ruŋguʔwa 1 YD waɾi liŋge 1 YH sʌm 1 YH huk̚pæʔma 1 YH peːsa 2 YH waɹileː / waɹiledʒe 1 YK sʌm 1 YK huk̚pɛʔma 1 YK pawaɾuŋɡoʔwa 1 YK waɾitaʔe 1 YN dʒʌɾa 2 YN hʌtkela YN lohoro YN wʌɾi YR sʌm 1 YR hʌtkela YR ruŋɡuʔa 1 YR wʌɾi YS sʌm 1 YS huk̚pɛʔma 1 YS pawa 2 YS waɾi taja 1

path, road pig rat, mouse rope LA lam 1 LA bʌʔ 1 LA siduma 1 LA/LD LD lɑm 1 LD bʌʔ 1 LD sɪduma 1 GP pʌɖãk 1 GP lampʰu 1 GP bʌʔ 1 GP ʃɪduma 1 YD baɾak 1 YD maɾam 1 YD paʔma 1 YD siʔnuma 1 YH pɔɖak 1 YH ram / lam 1 YH ʔaʔma 1 YH siʔnuma 1 YK pʌɖʌk̚ 1 YK ɾʌm 1 YK ʔaʔma 1 YK siʔluma 1 YN ɖori YN ɹam / mʌɹam 1 YN aʔma 1 YN siʔluma 1 YR bʌɾak̚ 1 YR lam 1 YR pʰak̚ 1 YR siʔnuma 1 YS pʌɖʌk̚ 1 YS mʌɾʌm 1 YS aʔma 1 YS ʃiʔnuma 1

run, rush (3sg past) seed similar, same sky LA pina 1 LA/LD LA morɛʔno 2 LA nʌmtɾuŋma 1 LD piŋkʰaɖa 1 GP tsaɾi 1 LD ekono 1 LD - GP pin 1 YD naɾi 1 GP ekono 1 GP nʌmtɾuŋma 1 YD tʰhisa 1 YH tsaɾi 1 YD noʔmanoʔ 2 YD nandɾuŋma 1 YH pi 1 YK tsaɾi 1 YH mʌdʌʔnʌ 2 YH nʌndɾuŋma 1 YK pine 1 YN tsʌɹi 1 YK mʌɖʌk̚mʌnʌ? 2 YK nʌndɾuŋma 1 YN pin 1 YR biu YN iʔkonoʔ 1 YN nʌmdɹuŋma 1 YR tʰisa 1 YS tsaɾi 1 YR noʔmanoʔ 2 YR nʌmluŋ 1 YS piŋitjɛ 1 YS ikonoʔ 1 YS nʌmdɾuŋma 1

salt short (thing) sit down, stay (3sg past) sleep (3sg past) LA jum 1 LA tʌksuʔe 1 LA pena 1 LA imsaʔa 2 LD jum 1 LD - LD pɛne 1 LD imtsaʔa 2 GP jum 1 GP tak̚suʔ 1 GP pɛn 1 GP ɪmtsaʔ 2 YD jum 1 YD daŋgepʰaʔa 3 YD bɪna 1 YD ipsa 1 YH jum 1 YH nɛʔnɛʔ 2 YH pɪ 1 YH ip 1 YK jum 1 YK nɛ ̃ʔnɛ ̃ʔma 2 YK pene 1 YK imdʒʌgʌɖa 2 YN jum 1 YN tʃoʈo / ɛɖɛma YN pen 1 YN ʔip 1 YR jum 1 YR tsukuʔe 1 YR bena 1 YR ipsʌ 1 YS jum 1 YS tʌŋlupa 3 YS pena 1 YS ipsa 1

say, tell (3sg past) sickle skin small LA losu 1 LA kʌtse 1 LA/LD LA mitsuʔwa 1 LD losu 1 LD kʌtsʲa 1 GP sagɔʔ 1 LD mitsuʔma 1 GP los 1 GP katse 1 YD sahuk 1 GP mitsupa 1 YD rusu 1 YD kʰokʰi 2 YH sauk 1 YD miʔɛma 2 YH luː 2 YH katsija 1, 2 YK saguk 1 YH ɛdipːa 3 YK - YK kʰoʔi 2 YN sʌʔuk̚ 1 YK adɛpa 3 YN lu 2 YN kʰoʔi 2 YR sʌhuk̚ 1 YN ɛɖiʔma / aɖɛma 3 YR isu 3 YR kʌtse 1 YS sʌguk 1 YR miʔɛ 2 YS ɾosu 1 YS kʰatsija 1, 2 YS adipa 3

small river, stream snake spit (3sg past) stick (walking stick) LA hoŋma 1 LA puseʔma 1 LA dugu 1 LA tʌŋbaɾa 1 LD hoŋma 1 LD pusɛʔma 1 LD - LD tɔŋbʌɾa 1 GP hoŋma 1 GP puʃɛʔma 1 GP ɖug 1 GP siktʰʌm 2 YD wahaŋma 1 YD buʃɛk 1 YD tsedu 2 YD doŋbiɾa 1 YH hoŋma 1 YH pusɛʔ 1 YH tug 1 YH toŋaɾa 1 YK hoŋwa 1 YK pusɛʔ 1 YK tseʔma tsɛmne 2 YK tɔŋɛɾa 1 YN jiwa 3 YN puʃɛʔ 1 YN tseɖ 2 YN lʌʈʈʰi YR wamːa 5 YR busek̚ 1 YR tseʔɾu 2 YR ɖoŋpʰiɾʌ 1 YS majuwa 3 YS puʃɛʔ 1 YS tseʔma ugu 2 YS toŋɛra 1

small stone soil, clay stand (3sg past) sun LA luŋkoʔwa 1 LA bʌkʰa 1 LA jeba 1 LA nam 1 LD liŋkoʔwa 1 LD bʌkʰa 1 LD pɔʔme 2 LD nɑm 1 GP liŋ 2 GP bʌkʰa 1 GP jeb 1 GP nam 1 YD ruŋgoʔwa 1 YD pʰakʰa 1 YD jeba 1 YD nam 1 YH ruŋguʔwa 1 YH akʰuma 1 YH dʒeb 1 YH nʌm 1 YK ruŋɡuʔwa 1 YK akʰama 1 YK jebe 1 YK nam 1 YN ɹuŋgoʔwa 1 YN kʰam / akʰʌma 1 YN jeb 1 YN nam 1 YR ɾuŋɡuʔa 1 YR pʰʌkʰa 1 YR jebe 1 YR nam 1 YS ɹʌŋgʌʔwa 1 YS akʰama 2 YS jeba 1 YS nʌm 1

smoke son star tail LA mekʰu 1 LA pʌsa 1 LA sʌŋɡe 1 LA miɾiʔ 1 LD mekʰuma 1 LD pʌsa 1 LD - LD - GP mɛkʰu 1 GP pʌsa 1 GP saŋkɛma 1 GP miɾiʔ 1 YD mɛkʰu 1 YD bʌsa 1 YD saŋgema 1 YD miɾa 1 YH mɛkʰu 1 YH pasa 1 YH saŋge 1 YH miɾa 1 YK mɛkʰuwa 1 YK pʌʃa 1 YK saŋgi 1 YK miɾa 1 YN mɛʔkʰu 1 YN paʃa 1 YN saŋgedʒi / saŋge 1 YN miɾa 1 YR mʌkʰu 1 YR basa 1 YR sʌŋɡe 1 YR miɾa 1 YS mʌkʰu 1 YS pʌsa 1 YS - YS miɾa 1

61 take down away from above that there they (there/H) LA lɛtʰu 1 LA ako 2 LA miuʔ 2 LA kotsi 2 LD lahɛtɛ 1 LD ako 2 LD akobi 1 LD kotsi 2 GP lɛt̚ 1 GP ako 2 GP miumɔ 2 GP kotsi 2 YD jaŋgetu 2 YD ako 2 YD gobiʔ 1 YD kʰotsi 2 YH jaŋk 2 YH ako 2 YH akpɛʔ 2 YH kʰodʒi 2 YK laxɛtu 1 YK ako 2 YK akobiʔ 1 YK - YN - YN ako / mɔ 2 YN mɔbiʔ 1 YN kʰodʒi 2 YR jaŋgʰetu 2 YR ako 2 YR akobi 1 YR kʰotʃi 2 YS lʌxɛtu 1 YS ako 2 YS akobɛʔ 1 YS kʰodʒi 2

take out (3sg past) their these (3 or more) thin (person) LA lasu 1 LA xotʃimi 2 LA igʰa 1 LA jʌmiʔse 1 LD laboke 1 LD kʰotsim 2 LD igʰa 1 LD - GP las 1 GP kʰotsimi 2 GP iga 1 GP jamiʔse 1 YD tsaksu 2 YD kʰotsimi 2 YD igʰa 1 YD joŋgɛpʰaʔa 2 YH tsʌŋg 2 YH kʰodʒɪʔɛ 2 YH igʰa 1 YH jok̚pudʒiwa 2 YK tsakse 2 YK kʰodʒiŋi paŋmi YK igʰa 1 YK sigasipɾok̚pa 5 YN ɹig 3 YN kʰodʒimi 2 YN igʰa 1 YN dublo YR ɾiɡu 3 YR kʰotʃimi 2 YR iŋgʰa 1 YR - YS tsʌksu 2 YS kʰodʒimi 2 YS iŋgʰa 1 YS -

talk, chat (3sg past) their they (here/H) this LA moʈoletːa 1 LA kʰotʃimi 1 LA kotsi 2 LA igo 1 LD - LD kʰotsimi 1 LD kotsi 2 LD igo 1 GP jamutsa 2 GP kʰotsimi 1 GP kotsi 2 GP igo 1 YD kʰaisami 3 YD kʰotsimi 1 YD kʰotsi 2 YD igo 1 YH kʰaʔisam 3 YH kʰodʒɪʔa 1 YH akʰadʒi 2 YH igo 1 YK aikʰadʒɪmpuganɪma 3 YK kʰodʒi lʌŋʌmdʒani 1 YK kodʒi soduʔme 2 YK igo 1 YN kʰaʔi 3 YN kʰodʒimi 1 YN kʰodʒi 2 YN igo 1 YR kʰadoŋma 3 YR kʰotʃimi 1 YR kʰotsi 2 YR igo 1 YS kʰaʔisu 3 YS kʰodʒimi 1 YS kʰodʒimi 2 YS igo 1

thorn three tomato tooth LA tsitsiŋ 1 LA sumtsi 1 LA rʌnibʰeɖa 1 LA keŋ 1 LD tsitsiŋ 1 LD sumtsi 1 LD rɑmbʰeɖa 1 LD keŋ 1 GP tsistiŋ 1 GP sumtsi 1 GP ɛtaŋge 2 GP kʲɛŋ 1 YD tsiŋgiba 2 YD sumtsi 1 YD kʰaɹtsinda 5 YD keŋ 1 YH tsitsiŋ 1 YH sumdʒi 1 YH ɛktʌŋgia 2 YH kʲɛŋ 1 YK tsitsiŋɡiba 2 YK sumdʒi 1 YK loɡʲia 3 YK keŋ 1 YN kãɖa YN sumdʒi 1 YN ɛktɛŋgja 2 YN kjaŋ 1 YR sɛn 3 YR sumtsi 1 YR rambʰeɖa 1 YR gʲɛŋ 1 YS tsɪŋgiba 2 YS sumdʒi 1 YS ɹoja 6 YS kʲɛŋ 1

those (3 or more) throw (3sg past) tomorrow tree LA akʰa 1 LA kogu 1 LA wɪndʌ 1 LA siŋ 2 LD akʰa 1 LD kɔhaŋse 1 LD wɪnda 1 LD - GP aka 1 GP kɔʔlaŋ 1 GP wɪndʌʔ 1 GP siŋ 2 YD akʰa 1 YD rapesu 2 YD waĩɖa 1 YD ʃiŋbu 1 YH akʰa 1 YH uweː 3 YH wagia 3 YH siŋbu 1 YK akʰo 1 YK ɾapesame 2 YK wʌgʲa 3 YK siŋbu 1 YN ʌkʰadʒi 1 YN ɹab 2 YN wʌgia 3 YN daŋ 3 YR akʰa 1 YR ɾapesu 2 YR waⁱnda 1 YR siŋbu 1 YS akʰobɛʔna 1 YS wihæksu 3 YS wʌgʌ 3 YS ʃiŋbu 1

thread today tongue two LA xi 1 LA aju 1 LA lɪn 1 LA hitsi 1 LD kʰi 1 LD aju 1 LD lɪm 1 LD hitsi 1 GP xi 1 GP aju 1 GP lɪm 1 GP hitsi 1 YD kʰisak 2 YD ai 1 YD lɪm 1 YD nitsi 1 YH kisak 2 YH aju 1 YH lɪm 1 YH nɪtsi 1 YK kʰisaʔ 2 YK ai 1 YK lɪm 1 YK nitsi 1 YN kʰisak̚ 2 YN ai / aju 1 YN lɪm / ɹɪm 1 YN nitʃi 1 YR kʰisak̚ 2 YR ai 1 YR lɛm 1 YR nitsi 1 YS kʰisak 2 YS aju 1 YS lɪm 1 YS nɪtsi 1

uncooked rice various waist watch, see (3sg past) LA sija 1 LA moɾaⁱmoɾaʔ 1 LA mitsik̚ 1 LA haŋu 1 LD sija 1 LD akrɔʔnu 2 LD - LD hʌŋa 1 GP sija 1 GP hoⁱko 3 GP mɪtsik̚ 1 GP hʌŋ 1 YD sija 1 YD goʔgoʔ 4 YD sumaɾik 2 YD kʰaksu 1 YH sija 1 YH nana olia 5 YH sumɾik 2 YH kʰak 1 YK sija 1 YK/YR - YK sumaɾik̚ 2 YK kʰaksũ 1 YN sijʌ 1 YN bibʰinːʌ YN sumaɹik̚ 2 YN dekʰjo YR sija 1 YS imʌŋimʌŋ 6 YR sumaɾik̚ 2 YR kʰʌksu 1 YS ʃija 1 YS sumarik 2 YS kʰʌksu 1

unhusked rice vegetable walk (3sg past) water LA tsameŋ 1 GP hɛŋ 1 LA lʌmdusa 1 LA jowa 2 LD tsɑm 1 YD kʰɛn 1 LD beŋkʰʌɖa 2 LD jowa 2 GP tsam 1 YH kʰɛŋ 1 GP xaɾ 2 GP jowa 2 YD tsam 1 YK kʰjeŋ 1 YD ɾadupsa 1 YD joma 2 YH tsʌm 1 YN kʰɛŋ 1 YH rʌp 1 YH joŋa 2 YK tsam 1 YR - YK rʌmbuɡe 1 YK joŋwã 2 YN tsam 1 YS kʰɛŋ 1 YN ɹap 1 YN joŋa 2 YR tsam 1 LA - YR ɾadupsʌ 1 YR jomːa 2 YS tsam 1 LD - YS ɾʌupsa 1 YS joŋwa 2

urine vomit (3sg past) wash (3sg past) we (dual/inclusive) LA seɡuma 1 LA peɾa 1 LA soɡʌ 1 LA kʌni 1, 2 LD seguma 1 LD - LD sɔge 1 LD kʌtsiga 1 GP sɛ ̃guma 1 GP peɾ 1 GP sɔg 1 GP katsi 1 YD seguma 1 YD bebuŋ gʰaɾa 1 YD wasogu 1 YD gatsi 1 YH seguma 1 YH peːd 1 YH wasog 1 YH kʰadʒi 1 YK seguma 1 YK pɛʔma besa 1 YK wasoɡin 1 YK kʰadʒiŋ nipʌŋ 3 YN seguma 1 YN tʃatn 2 YN wasog 1 YN kadʒiŋ 3 YR seɡuma 1 YR beːsa 1 YR wasogu 1 YR ɡaniŋ 2, 3 YS seguma 1 YS pʲɛsa 1 YS wasogu 1 YS kʰadʒi 1

we (pl/inclusive) when? white whose? LA kʌŋka 1 LA hanʌmɾo 1 LA biːʔe 1 LA asamɾo 1 LD kʌŋka 1 LD hanʌm 1 LD biʔe 1 LD asʌm 1 GP kani 3 GP hanʌm 1 GP biʔma 2 GP asʌm 1 YD ganiŋ 3 YD tʰinam 1 YD pʰɪtɾiʔma 2 YD asami 1 YH kʰani 3 YH ɪndok̚pɛ 3 YH utɾi 2 YH asɛnɖe 1 YK kaniŋ 3 YK inamtate 4 YK utɾiʔma 2 YK asami 1 YN kaniŋ 3 YN inɖok̚pɛʔ 3 YN pʰiɹima 2 YN aʃami 1 YR ɡaniŋ 3 YR tʰinam 1 YR pʰitɾiʔma 2 YR asami 1 YS kaniŋ 3 YS inam 1 YS ʃæma 3 YS asami 1

wet where? who? why? LA tʰʌpkʰɛʔpa 1 LA hampilo 1 LA asaɾo 1 LA mʌntʰalo 1 LD tʌpkʰʌda 1 LD habi 1 LD asa 1 LD mʌntʰalo 1 GP taplaɾa 1 GP habi 1 GP asa 1 GP mʌnta 1 YD waɾap̚kɛpa 1 YD hambi 1 YD asa 1 YD hamdoʔoŋ 2 YH wʌɖʌpɾʌʔa 1 YH hambɪtʰɛ 2 YH asaɾɛ 1 YH indoŋde 3 YK waɖap̚kɛʔɛta 1 YK hambiʔ 1 YK asa 1 YK imʌŋʔɛʔ 4 YN wʌɖʌʔpʌʔa 1 YN hambiʔ 1 YN aʃaɖe 1 YN iŋɖoŋ / iŋɖoŋɖe 6 YR waɾapːaʔa 1 YR hambiʔ 1 YR asa 1 YR hamoŋ 5 YS wadʒikeʔwa 2 YS hambɛʔ 1 YS asa 1 YS indoŋ 6

what? which? whole arm wife LA mʌŋ 1 LA mʌŋlo 3 LA huːʔ 1 LA tʰaʔma 1 LD mʌŋ 1 LD habie 1, 5 LD hu:ʔ 1 LD tʰaʔma 1 GP mʌŋ 1 GP hape 1, 2 GP hoːʔ 1 GP tʰʌʔma 1 YD hama 1 YD hambe 2 YD huk̚ 1 YD tʰama 1 YH imaŋɖe 2 YH hambɛnde 4 YH huk 1 YH ɾaʔma 1 YK imaŋ 1 YK hambe 2 YK huʔ 1 YK tʰaʔma 1 YN imaŋ 1 YN hambe 2 YN huʔ 1 YN tʰʌʔma 1 YR hamaŋ 1 YR hambe 2 YR huk 1 YR tʰaʔma 1 YS imaŋ 1 YS hambia 2, 5 YS huk 1 YS tʰaʔma 1

wings yesterday you (sg H) your (dual/H) LA lʌpɾeŋ 1 LA asɛn 1 LA ana 1 LA ʌntsinʌm 1 LD - LD asɪn 1 LD ʌna 1 LD ʌnami 3 GP lʌpɾɛŋ 1 GP asɪn 1 GP ana 1 GP antsenami 1 YD lapkeʔwa 2 YD asɪnda 2 YD hɛn 2 YD amtsimi 1 YH lapkɛʔwa 2 YH aʃɛʔŋa 3 YH hɛŋ 2 YH kʰadʒiŋɛʔɛ 2 YK lapkɛʔwa 2 YK asɪʔŋa 3 YK hɛŋ 2 YK kadʒiŋ nipa 2 YN lʌpkʰeʔuwa 2 YN aʃɛʔŋa 3 YN hɛŋ / hɛn 2 YN hɛndʒiŋmi 2 YR rʌpɾaŋ 1 YR asɛn 1 YR hɛn 2 YR amtʃimi 1 YS lapkɛʔwa 2 YS asɪʔa 1, 3 YS hana 2 YS handʒiŋ 2

woman, female you (dual, high) younger brother your (plural/H) LA mɛʔnũŋma 1 LA ʌntsina 1 LA nusa 1 LA anami 1 LD mɛʔnuŋma 1 LD antsinepa 2 LD nusa 1 LD ʌnami 1 GP mɛʔnuŋma 1 GP katsiga 3 GP nusa 1 GP anami 1 YD bɛŋmusa 2 YD hɛntsi 4 YD nusa 1 YD amnimi 1 YH mɛʔnami 1 YH hændʒiŋ 5 YH niʃa 1 YH hæniŋɛʔa 2 YK mɛʔnamiʔ 1 YK kadʒiŋ 5 YK niʃa 1 YK kaniŋ pɪʔlo dʒʌnami YN mɛʔnʌmiʔ 1 YN handʒiŋ 5 YN niʃa 1 YN hɛniŋha 2 YR biŋmusa 2 YR hɛntʃiŋ 4, 5 YR nusa 1 YR amnimi 1 YS mɛʔnʌʔmi 1 YS handʒiŋ 5 YS nisa 1 YS haniŋ 2

year you (pl/H) younger sister your (sg/H) LA nʌmːʌ 1 LA anːa 1 LA nusa 1 LA anam 1 LD - LD an:a 1 LD nusa 1 LD anam 1 GP niŋ 2 GP anna 1 GP nusa 1 GP anam 1 YD tʰiʔniŋ 2 YD hɛniŋ 2 YD nusa 1 YD ami 2 YH niŋ 2 YH hɛniŋ 2 YH niʃa 1 YH hænɛʔɛ 3 YK iʔniŋ 2 YK kaniŋ 2 YK niʃa 1 YK kaŋimileʔnõ YN niŋ 2 YN hɛniŋ 2 YN niʃa 1 YN amːi 2 YR niŋ 2 YR hɛniŋ 2 YR nusa 1 YR ami 2 YS iʔniŋ 2 YS haniŋ 2 YS nisa 1 YS hanɪʔa 3

Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing (RTT)

B.1 Standard procedure for Recorded Text Tests (RTT)

The extent to which speakers of related linguistic varieties understand one another can be studied by means of recorded texts. Such studies investigate whether speakers of one variety understand a narrative text of another variety and are able to answer questions about the content of that text. The accuracy with which subjects answer these questions is taken as an index of their comprehension of that speech form. From the percentage of correct answers, the amount of intelligibility between speech forms is inferred. The recorded text testing used in this survey is based on the procedures described in Casad (1974) and Blair (1990). Short, personal-experience narratives are deemed to be most suitable for recorded text testing in that the content must be relatively unpredictable and the speech form should be natural. Folklore or other material that is widely known is avoided. A three- to five-minute story is recorded from a speaker of the regional vernacular, and then checked with a group of speakers from the same region to ensure that the spoken forms are truly representative of that area. The story is then transcribed and a set of comprehension questions is constructed based on various semantic domains covered in the text. Normally, a set of fifteen or more questions is initially prepared. Some of the questions will prove unsuitable -- perhaps because the answer is not in focus in the text, or because the question is confusing to native speakers of the test variety. Unsuitable questions are then deleted from the preliminary set, leaving a minimum of ten final questions for each RTT. To ensure that measures of comprehension are based on the subjects’ understanding of the text itself and not on a misunderstanding of the test questions, these questions must be recorded in the regional variety of the test subjects. This requires an appropriate dialect version of the questions for each RTT for each test location. In the RTTs, test subjects hear the complete story text once, after which the story is repeated with test questions and the opportunities for responses inters persed with necessary pauses in the recorded text. Appropriate and correct responses are directly extractable from the segment of speech immediately preceding the question, such that memory limitations exert a negligible effect and indirect inferencing based on the content is not required. Thus the RTT aims to be a close reflection of a subject’s comprehension of the language itself, not of his or her memory, intelligence or reasoning. The average or mean of the scores obtained from subjects at one test location is taken as a numerical indicator of the intelligibility between speakers of the dialect represented. In order to ensure that the RTT is a fair test of the intelligibility of the test variety to speakers from the regions tested, the text is first tested with subjects from the region where the text was recorded. This initial testing is referred to as the hometown test (HTT). The hometown test serves to introduce subjects to the testing procedure in a context where intelligibility of the dialect is assumed to be complete since it is the native variety of test subjects. In addition, hometown testing insures that native speakers of the text dialect could accurately answer the comprehension questions used to assess understanding of the text in non-native dialect areas. Once a text has been hometown tested with a minimum of ten subjects who have been able to correctly answer the selected comprehension questions, with an average score of 90% or above, the test is considered validated. It is possible that a subject may be unable to answer the test questions correctly simply because he or she does not understand what is expected. This is especially true with unsophisticated subjects or those unacquainted with test-taking. Therefore, a very short pre-test story with four questions is recorded in the local variety before beginning the actual testing. The purpose of the pre-test is to teach the subject what is expected according to the RTT procedures. If the subject is able to answer the pre-test questions, it is assumed that he or she would serve as a suitable subject. Each subject then participates in the hometown test in his or her native variety before participating in RTTs in non-native varieties. Occasionally, even after the pre-test, a subject fails to perform adequately on an already validated hometown test. Performances of such subjects are eliminated from the final evaluation, the assumption being that uncontrollable factors unrelated to the intelligibility of speech forms are skewing such test results. Normally, subjects performing at levels of less than 80% on their hometown test are eliminated from further testing.

66 67

When speakers of one linguistic variety have had no previous contact with that represented by the recorded text, the test scores of the ten subjects from the test point tend to be more similar -- especially when the scores are in the higher ranges. Such consistent scores are often interpreted to be closer reflections of the inherent intelligibility between speech forms. If the sample of ten subjects accurately represents the speech community being tested in terms of the variables affecting intelligibility, and the RTT scores show such consistency, increasing the number of subjects should not significantly increase the range of variation of the scores. However, when some subjects have had significant previous contact with the speech form recorded on the RTT, while others have not, the scores usually vary considerably, reflecting the degree of learning that has gone on through contact. For this reason, it is important to include a measure of dispersion which reflects the extent to which the range of scores varies from the mean -- the Standard Deviation. On a RTT with 100 possible points (that is 100 percent), standard deviations of more than 12 to 15 are considered high. If the standard deviation is relatively low, say 10 or below, and the mean score for the subjects from the selected test point is high, the implication is that the community as a whole probably understands the test variety rather well. This might occur either because the language being tested has high inherent intelligibility with the speakers’ own language, or because this variety has been acquired rather consistently and uniformly throughout the speech community. If the standard deviation is low and the mean RTT score is also low, the implication is that the community as a whole understands the test variety rather poorly and that regular contact has not facilitated learning of the test variety to any significant extent. If the standard deviation is high, regardless of the mean score, one implication is that some subjects have learned to comprehend the test variety better than others. In this last case, inherent intelligibility between the related varieties may be mixed with acquired proficiency, which results from learning through contact. The relationship between RTT scores and their standard deviation can be seen in the following table.

Standard Deviation High Low Average High Situation 1 Situation 2 Score Many people understand the Most people understand the story on story on the test tape well, but the test tape. some have difficulty Low Situation 3 Situation 4 Many people cannot understand Few people are able to understand the story, but a few are able to the story on the test tape answer correctly. High standard deviations can result from many causes, such as inconsistencies in the circumstances of test administration and scoring or differences in attentiveness or intelligence of subjects. Researchers involved in recorded text testing need to be aware of the potential for skewed results due to such factors, and to control for them as much as possible through careful test development and administration. Questionnaires administered at the time of testing can help researchers discover which factors are significant in promoting contact that facilitates acquired intelligibility. Travel to or extended stays in other dialect regions, intermarriage between dialect groups, or contacts with schoolmates from other dialect regions are examples of the types of contact that can occur. In contrast to experimentally controlled testing in a laboratory or classroom situation, the results of field-administered methods such as the RTT cannot be completely isolated from potential biases. Recorded texts and test questions will vary in terms of the clarity of the recording. Comparisons of RTT results from different texts need to be made cautiously. It is therefore recommended that results from RTTs not be interpreted in terms of fixed numerical thresholds, but rather evaluated in light of other indicators of intelligibility such as lexical similarity, dialect opinions, and reported patterns of contact and communication. In general, however, RTT mean scores of around 80% or higher with accompanying low standard deviations are usually taken to indicate that representatives of the test point dialect display adequate understanding of the variety represented by the recording. Conversely, RTT means below 60% are interpreted to indicate inadequate intelligibility.

Responses to questions asked after the administration of an RTT can reflect attitudes held toward the test dialect. These opinions, then, can also help the researcher interpret the scores obtained on the tests. Initially each story had seventeen or eighteen questions. After the validation process the number of questions was limited to ten, leaving only the best questions to be used in the actual testing. The answers to the comprehension questions were rated as follows: 1 = correct answer ½ = partly correct answer 0 = wrong answer The maximum score of a test is ten. The scores are then turned into percentages, 10 points being 100%, 8.5 points 85%, and so on. The participants were tested on their comprehension of recorded texts with questions in their own dialect inserted at different points in the texts (see B.6 and B.7 for all the stories and questions inserted). Before the actual HTT and RTTs, the participants were given a short practice test (Cow story) for which the scores have been disregarded in the analysis. Each participant was then tested first on the HTT (i.e. on the test text of his/her own variety) and they had to score at least 80% on that story, and only then on the RTT (i.e. on the test text of the target speech variety). All storytellers and participants involved in the Recorded Text Testing gave oral informed consent before assisting with this research.

B.2 Pre-RTT questions

1. Where is the most pure Lohorung/Yamphu spoken? कहाँ सभनदा राम्रो माित्रभाषा बोिलछ? 1a. Why? िकन? 1b. Been there? जानुभएको छ? 2. Where is the least pure Lohorung/Yamphu spoken? काहाँ सभदा कम राम्रो माित्रभाषा भाषा बोिलछ ? 2a. Why? िकन? 2b. Been there? जानुभएको छ? 3. Have you been to ______? ______जानुभएको छ? Pangma Hedangna Seduwa Dhupu Angala Rajarani Devitar Bedetar

B.3 Post-RTT questions

1. Which village do you think the storyteller is from? यो कथा भने माछेको गाउँ कु न हो होला? 2. How did you like their speech? उहाँले बोलेको भाषा कतो लाग्यो? 3. Why? (What is/is not good about it?) िकन होला? (के राम्रो छ? छैन?) 4. How much of the story did you understand? (All, most, half, less than half) यो कथा कित बनु ुभयो? (पुरा, एउटा दईटाु कु रा बनभएनु , आधी, आधीको कम) 5. Is the language in this story the same, a little different, or very different from the language spoken here? यहाँ बोिलएको भाषा कथामा उतै छ िक आिलआिल फरक छ, वा धेरै फरक छ?

6. If different, in what way is it different? (Pronunciation, words, style) के मा फरक छ? (उचरण, शद, बोने तिरका) 7. Did he speak Lohorung/Yamphu purely? उहले शुद लोहोङ/याफु भाषामा बोनेभयो? 8. If no, in what way is his speech not pure? उहाँको लोहोङ/याफु भाषा कसिर शुद छैन?

Key to abbreviated terms

Loh Lohorung Yam Yamphu Nep Nepali Eng English Lg. Language MT Mother tongue Y Yes N No NA Not applicable NR No response

B.4 Cow practice story

Sentence English Nepali Answer 1. When I was a child, my father म सानो हंदाु मरोे बवालु े गाई िकन्न ु भयो । bought a cow.

Q1. What did the father buy? उसका बवालु े के िकन्न ु भयो? cow / गाई

2. He paid Rs. 600 for it. यसलाई छ सय पय्रो ।

Q2. How much did the father pay for गाईलाई कित पयोर्? 600 / छ सय the cow?

3. One day as I was milking the cow एक िदन मलै े गाईको दधु दिु हरहंदा एउटा a bee bit the cow. मौरील े गाईलाई टोक्यो ।

Q3. What bit the cow? गाईलाई के ल े टोक्यो? bee / मौरी 4. The cow got upset and kicked the गाईलाई िरस उठ्यो र दधकु ो बाल्टीलाई milk pail, लात्तील े हान्यो

Q4. What did the cow do? गाईल े के गायोर्? kicked milk pail / दधकु ो बाल्टीलाई लात्तील े हान्यो

5. and all the milk was spilled. र सब ै दधु पोिखयो ।

Q5. What happened to the milk? दधु के भयो? spilled / पोिखयो 6. Because my mother would be आमा िरसाउनहु न्छु भनरे मलाई डर लाग्यो । angry, I was afraid.

Q6. How did the speaker feel? बोल्न े मान्छेलाई कस्तो लाग्यो? afraid / डर लाग्यो

7. I tried to borrow milk from the मलै े िछमकोे बाट पचोैं िलन े कोिशष गरे ं तर neighbors, but they had none to उनीहारुसगं दधु िथएन । spare.

Q7. How much milk did the neighbors िछमकीले े कित दधु पचोैं िदयो? none / कित्त पिन िदएन give?

8. When my mother found out about जब आमाल े दधु पोिखएको कु रा थाहा the spilled milk, she scolded me. पाउनभयोु मलाई गाली गनर्भयोु ।

Q8. What did the mother do? आमाल े के गनर् ु भयो? scold / गाली गनर्भयु ो 9. As a punishment, I had to go सजयको रुपमा मलाई एक हप्तासम्म दधु खान without milk for one week. पाइन।

Q9. How long did the speaker have to बोल्न े मान्छेल े कित समयसम्म दधु one week / एक हप्ता go without milk? खानपाएन?

B.5 Dog story s''s''/ vfPsf] syf

Language name: Lohorung (LHR) Crafter: Mr. Urash Rai Backtranslator: Mr.Urash Rai Sources : Personal event

L - Lohorung N1 - Nepali word for word translation N2 - Nepali free translation E - English

70.01 L - sfd\ nfª\sfd\rL s] xf]Osf] syf ;'' x]Sg] PSsf] s] vfª\ldDkf vgfjfF nf]vfgL . N1 - मेरो साथीह मैले अक कथा पिन होइन एउटा मैले देखेको कु रा भ छु । N2 - मेरो साथीह म तपाईहलाई कथा त होईन तर एउटा मैले देखेको कु रा भ छु । E - My friends I'm not telling you story but I tell you something I saw.

70.02 L - sf k9flno''l;ª\/f] sf r} PSsf] sn]haL k9flno''lS;ª\ . N1 - म प दा खेरी म चिह एउटा कलेजमा प थे । N2 - म एउटा कलेजमा अ यन गन गथ । E - I was studying at one college.

70.03 L - cfSsf] afOan sn]haL laleGg rf]Kgf] b]zfaLcf ofSdLrL 6fldDkf n]tfdL . N1 - यो बाइबल कलेजमा िबिभ न सबै देशका मािनसह आएका िथए । N2 - यो बाइबल लेकजमा िबिभ न देशका सबै मािनसह आएका िथए । E - At that Bible college all the people come different countries.

70.04 L - sfd\ nfª\sfd\rL ;f]ª\sf] r''cfdL . O{G8Log ofSdLrL nfª\sfd\rL r''cfdL . N1 - मेरा सािथह पिन िथए ईि डयन मािनस सािथह िथए । N2 - मेरो पिन ईि डयन सािथह िथए । E - I also had a Indian friends.

70.05 L - ca slgdL g]kfnL ofSdLlrd\ n''DkLuf] x''Sjfuf] cf;];f] rfplrgL . N1 - अब हाम्रो नेपाली मािनसहको िबचमा त कु कु रको मास ु कसैले पिन खादैन । N2 - अब हाम्रो नेपाली मािनसहको िबचमा त कु कु र कसैले पिन खादैन । E - In Nepali culture nobody eats dog.

70.06 L - t/f] cfSs''aL s] dfª\ vfFª''ª\ ef]g], slgd\ g]kfnLdL PSsf] rf8 bz} nf]d] PSsf] 9\of rf8 df] bz} nf]d] PSsf] rf8 6fcf . N1 - तर याहा मैले के देखे भने,हाम्रो नेपालीहको एउटा ठू लो पव र् दशै भ ने चाड आयो N2 - तर मैले याहा के देखे भने,हाम्रो नेपालीहको दशै भ ने एउटा ठू लो चाड आयो। E - But what I saw there, there was coming great festival between Nepalese people.

70.07 L - df]efª\s] cfSsf] bz} nf]d] rf8aL sfd\ nfª\sfd\rL hfpnfv]naL 6fcfdL . N1 - त यसिपछ् त यो् दशै भन ने् चाडमा मेरो सािथह जाउलाखेलमा आए । N2 - यसपिछ यो दशै भ ने चाडमा मेरा सािथह जावलाखेलमा आए । E - After that in a festival named dasai my friends came in Jawalakhel.

70.08 L - cfVvf O{lG8og nfª\sfd\rL xfª\s] cfVvfrLP uf] PSsf] lvDkL lxª\ldDkf x''Sjf nfa''r] /f]5\5 N1 - यो ईि डयन सािथह अिन ितिनह त एउटा घरमा पालेको कु कु र समातेछन ् N2 - यो ईि डयन सािथहले त घरमा पालेको एउटा कु कु र समाएछन ।् E - That my Indian friends caught a one house dog.

Question 1 Answer What kind of dog did his Indian friends catch? "house-living" p;sf] O{lG8og ;fyLx?n] s:tf] vfnsf] s''s''/ ;dfP < घरमा पालेको एउटा कु कु र

70.09 L - xfª\s] sn]h xf]ª\;L cfVvfrLP nf6]6''rL . N1 - अिन कलेज िभत्र ितिनहले याए । N2 - अिन कलेज िभत्र याएछन ।् E - And they brought inside the college.

70.10 L -;/rL ;f]ª\sf] cf;f;f] d]Gr''dL . rf]Kgf] tfª\kfd\ tfª\kfd\ lvDkL vfO{xfª\kf n]tfdL . N1 - गुह पिन कोिह िथएन । सबै आ नो आ नो घरमा गएका िथए । N2 - कलेजमा गुह कोिह पिन िथएन सबै आ नो आ नो घरमा गएका िथए । E - At college there were not any teachers; they went to own houses.

Question 2 Answer Where had all the teachers gone? "own homes" ;a} lzIfsx? sxfF uPsf lyP < आनो आनो घरमा

70.11 L - xf]:6]naL sfª\sft]Sgf] r''O{ª\sf . N1 - हो टेलमा हािम मात्र िथयौ । N2 - हो टेलमा हािम मात्र िथयौ । E - At hostel just only we were there.

70.12 L - xfª\s] nfª\sfDrL s] l;d''ª\rL . N1 - अिन सािथहलाई मैले सोधे । N2 - अिन सािथहलाई मैले सोधे । E - And asked my friends,

70.13 L - x]SgL cfGg] uf] x''Sjf dfG7f nf6]Dkf < sfdfg'ª\ l;d''ª\rL . N1 - होईन ितिमहले यो कु कु र िकन याएको? भनेर सोधे । N2 - होइन ितमीहले यो कु कु र िकन याएको ? E - "Why did you bring this dog?"

Question 3 Answer What did he ask his friends? "Why did you bring this dog?" होइन ितमीहले यो ककर िकन याएको? p;n] p;sf] ;fyLx?nfO{ s] ;f]Wof] < ु ु 70.14 L - cfVvfrLP x]SgL P]uf] bz} x]Sg]< bz} dfgfn]Sdf n]sL, bz} dfgfn]Sdf n]Mxf] sf;fdL. N1 - ितिनहले होईन आज दशै होईन? दशै मा न ु पछर्, दशै मा न ु पछर् भने । N2 - ितनीहरले होइन आज दशै होइन? यसैले दशै मा नु पछर् भने । E - They said, "Today, is it Dasai? So we have to celebrate this."

70.15 L - dfG7f t uf] x''Sjf nf];'ª\rL uf]gf, x]Sg] uf] ;]Sdf xfª\s] rfd] /]df] sf;fdL . N1 - िकन त यो कु कु र भनेको त,होईन यो मानु र् अिन खान ु पछर् भने । N2 - यो कु कु र चिह िकन त भने, होइन यो मानु र् पछर् र खान ु पछर् भने । E - I asked, "Why this dog?" "We need to kill this dog and eat it."

70.16 L - xfª\s] P cfGgf x''Sjf rfsflgxf sfdfg''ª\ nf];''ª\rL . N1 - अिन ए ितिमह कु कु र खा छौ? भनेर भने । N2 - अिन ए ितमीह कु कु र खा छौ भनेर भने । E - And I asked them, "Oh, will you eat dog?"

Question 4 Answer What did he ask them? "Will you eat dog? ए ितमीह कु कु र खाछौ मनेर भने? p;n] ltgLx?nfO{ s] ;f]Wof] <

70.17 L - sfª\sf rflsª\sf sfdfg''ª . N1 - हािम खा छौ भनेर N2 - हािम खा छौ भनेर भने । E - They told me, "Yes, we eat."

Question 5 Answer What did they tell him? "we eat (dog)" हामी खाछौ ltgLx?n] p;nfO{ s] eg] < 70.18 L - clg n ;]/fd\g]d\tf sfdfg''ª s];''ª\ vfª\sfgL sfdfg''ª\ sfl;ª\ sf r} . N1 - अिन ल मारनत भनेर मैले पिन हेछु र् भनेर म चिह । N2 - अिन मैले पिन ल मारनत म चिह हेछु र् भनेर भने । E - And I also said, "Just kill and I will watch."

70.19 L - xfª\s] cfVvfrLP uf] df] x''Sjf uf] ;]?rL . N1 - अिन ितिनहले त यो कु कु र मारे । N2 - अिन ितिनहले त या कु कु रलाई मारे । E - And they killed that dog.

Question 6 Answer What did they do to the dog? "killed it" मारे ltgLx?n] s''s''/nfO{ s] ug{'' kYof] < 70.20 L - df] PSsf] An]8P bfa]P af]S;]–af]S;] ;]?rL. xfª\s] cfSsf] x''Sjf cfVvfrLP rprL. N1 - यो एउटा पातल े, खुकु रीले का दै का दै मारे । अिन यो कु कु रलाई ितनीहले खाए । N2 - यो एउटा पात र खुकु रीले का दै का दै ितिनहले कु कु रलाई मारे अिन ितिनहले यो कु कु र खाए । E - That a one blade and knife they cut-cut and killed the dog and they ate the dog.

Question 7 Answer How did they kill the dog? "cut cut" कादै कादै ltgLx?n] s''s''/nfO{ s;/L df/] < 70.21 L - cfSsf] x''Sjf rfdf/f]Suf] sf uf], jfdL ;f ;'' rfdf d]ldª\ªf . N1 - यो कु कु र खादा खेिर म त कु खुराको मासु पिन खान मन लागेन । N2 - ितिनहले यो कु कु रको मासु खादा, मलाई त कु खुराको मासु पिन खान मन लागेन E - When they were eating dog meat, I did not want to eat even chicken either.

70.22 L - xfª\s] cfSvf df] ofSdLlrP df] pd\ dflns\P r} df] x''Sjf of]s'P of]s'Pgf] /5 . N1 - अिन ित यो मािनसह त उसको मािलक् ले चैिह यो कु कु रलाई खोजेको खोजेको गद रहेछ । N2 - अिन यो कु कु रको मािलक् ले चिह कु कु रलाई खेजेको खोजै गद रहेछ । E - And that master was searching for the dog.

Question 8 Answer What was the master doing? "searching for the dog? कु कु रलाई खेजेको खोजै Dfflns\ rxL s] ul/x]sf lyP < 70.23 L - t/f] cfVvfrLP r} x''Sjf r} ;]?rL xfª\;f] r}v]t''rL . N1 - तर ितिनहले चैिह कु कु र मारेर पिन खाईसके । N2 - तर ितिनहले चिह कु कु रलाई मारेर पिन खाइसके । E - But they already killed and ate the dog.

70.24 L - cfVvf lxKkf ;''Dkf nfª\sfd\rL r''cfdL O{lG8oGrL cfVvfrLP Ps d}gf 9f/L cfSsf] x''Sjfd\ ;f rprL . N1 - ित दईु ितन जना सािथह िथए ईि डयनह ितिनहले एक मिहना स म यो कु कु रको मास ु खाए । N2 - ित दईु ितन जना ईि डयन सािथहले एक मिहना स म यो कु कु रको मासु खाए। E - These two or three Indian friends ate this dog meat for one month.

70.25 L - xf]:6]naL sfd\ nflu cfSsf] r} cgf}7f] gf] ln;f dfG7fef]g], ca x''Sjf rfldDkf s] d]vfª\kf n]t''ª\ . N1 - हो टेलमा मेरो लािग यो चिह अनौठो नै भयो, िकनभने मैले कु कु र खाएको देखेको िथइन । N2 - हो टेलमा मेरो लािग यो चिह अनौठो नै भयो, िकनकी मैले कु कु र खाएको देखेको िथइन । E - At hostel it was surprising for me because I had not seen dog be eaten.

Question 9 Answer What made him feel strange? "dog being eaten" उहांलाई के आनौठो लाग्यो? (मैले) कु कु र खाएको (देखेको िथइन)

70.26 L - t/f] cfvvflrP r}t''rL vfª\e]df/f]Sgf] . N1 - तर ितिनहले खाइहाले हेदार्हेद N2 - तर ितिनहले हेदार्हेद खाइहाले । E - But I was watching just they ate all.

70.27 L - uf] sfd\ nflu PSsf] cgf}7f] ln;f . N1 - यो मेरो लािग एउटा अनौठो भयो । N2 - यो मेरो लािग अनौठो भयो E - It surprised me.

70.28 L - df];]ubf{ v]/L s] dfª\ jfa''ª\ ef]g] ofSdLrLP tfª\kfd\ tfª\kfd\ ;+:sf/f cg'';f/f dfªxfª;f] rfs''r] /5\5 sfdfg''ª\ n];''ª\ N1 - यसले गदार्खेिर मैले के थाहा पाए भने मािनसहले आ नो आ नो चलन अनुसार जे पिन खादा रहेछन भन् ेर जाने । N2 - यसले गदार् मैले के थाहा पाए भने मािनसहले आपनो आ नो चलन अनसारु जे पिन खादा रहेछन ।् E - So what I understood, men eat according to their own culture.

Question 10 Answer What does each man do according to his culture? "eat anything" सबै माछेले आनो चलन अनुसार के गछर्न?् जे पिन खादा रहेछन ्

70.29 L - xf] x''Sjf t]Sgf] x]Sg] . xf]O{wf xf]O{wf ofSdLrLP sfª\s] Prfd] yf]sf, sfª\s] Pg]g\rfd] yf]sf rfs''r] /5 sfdfg''ª\ n];''ª\ . N1 - अब कु कु र मात्र होइन छु टा छु टै मािनसहले हािमले नखाने िचज, हािमले मन नपराउने िचज खाने रहेछ भनेर जाने । N2 - अब कु कु र मात्र होइन छु टा छु टै मािनसहले हािमले नखाने, हािमले मन नपराउने िचजह पिन खाने रहेछन ् E - Not only dog but people can eat many different things even we do not eat, we do not like to eat things.

70.30 L - sf lal6Pr k9flndf/f] vfª\8'ª] PSsf] 36\gf xf] . N1 - म कलेज प दा हेरेका एउटा घ ना हो । N2 - यो म कलेज प दा हेरेको घ ना हो । E - This event I saw my college life.

B.6 Motorcycle story

Language name: Yamphu Storyteller: Hom Bahadur Yamphu 25/Mar/2011

Y - Yamphu N1 - Nepali literal N2 - Nepali free translation E - English

01.01 ़ ़ ़ Y - २०५८ सालिबए खा का हेदाङ्रे टु रा िहले खािडङ् के ए पिरवारिज जहानिज िहलेॽमु पेनामे। N1 - २०५८ सालको कु रा म हेदाङ् नाबाट िहले गए ँ मेरो पिरवारह िहलेमा ब थे। N2 - यो २०५८ साल कु रा म हेदाङ् ना देिख िहले गए ँ मेरो पिरवारह िहलेमा ब थे। E - In 2058, I went from Hedangna to Hile, my family was living there.

01.02 ़ ़ ़ ़ Y - मोबेॽ िहलेॽमु के ये इक् को वावा टुसे लङ् गाम सो् खो िनराजिम खो उ कािमक् बा कािम बा लु डुजे ़ मोबाङ् िमॽमु क् टुङ् के ॽ। N1 - तल िहलेमा मेरो एउटा दाजु हुनुहु यो र साथीज तै उहा ँ िनराजको दाजु कािम बा भ छन ् यसपिछ तल पुग मैले॥ N2 - िहलेमा मेरो एक जना दाजु वा साथी ज तो पिन हुनुहु यो उहाँलाई कािम बा पिन भ छन म यहाँ पुगे। E - My brother Kamimba, who was just like a friend, lived in Hile. I reached there.

01.03 ़ ़ ़ Y - िम टु चािहँ का अलैिचिम यापरिम लािग खेॽप्राआ लेिटङ् टेघेॽनुङ् अिकॽमु मोिबॽ कािजङ् चुबािजङ् । N1 - मािथ चािह म अलैिचको यापरको लािग गएको िथए ँ फक र यहाँ तल हामीदईकोु भेट भयो। N2 - मािथ चािहँ म अलैिच यापारको लािग गएकोँ िथएँ यहाँबाट फक र आएपिछ हाम्रो भेट भयो। E - I had gone to the village for alaichi business and we met after we returned from there.

01.04 Y - कािजङ् ए टे टोक् सिनङे याक् लोए बा कािजङ् िनवा टोक् से। N1 - हामी एकदमै िमि थय पिहलादेिख नै हामीदईकोु मन िम यो। N2 - हामी पिहलै देिख सरै िमल ् य र हाम्रो मन पिन िम यो E - From before we are so close, our minds are also same.

01.05 ़ ़ ़ Y - मोबाङ् वाइजािसॽ खेॽ ि◌चयौ आयु िनसा लुःस लो खेॽ ि◌चना वावा लुसुङ् के ॽ। N1 - यसपिछ घु ना जाउँ है आज भाइ भ नुभयो हु छ जाउँ ना दाज ु भने मैले। N2 - अिन आज हामी घु न जाउँ है दाजुले भ नुभयो । मैले भने हु छ िन दाजु । E - Then brother said, "Let's go for tour today." I said, "OK, brother."

Question 1 Answer What did the brother say to the speaker? let’s go for a tour दाइले बोल्ने मान्छेलाई के भन्नभयोु ? घम्नु जाऔ ं

01.06 ़ Y - मोबाङ् खेॽमािम मो टा इसािजङ् मोबाङ् खाडािजङ् का होङ् िसॽयु चािह का इक् को इडो गाउँ ए टे रा डुङे याॽिम रा डुिसङे। N1 - अिन जाने स लहा गरेउं अिन गय म िभत्र चािहँ म एउटा एसो गाउँ सारै घु ने मा छे िथय। N2 - जाने कु राको स लाहा भयो अिन गय मेरो मनमा चािहँ म एउटा धेरै गाउँ घु ने मा छे भएकोले। E - Then go for decided and we went, in my mind I am a man who goes to many villages

Question 2 Answer What did they decide? to go उहांहरुले के िनणर्य गनर्भयोु ? जाने

01.07 ़ Y - िकयुिमयु बेॽलो याॽिमिजहा गाउँ वाइिडिसङा मोबाङ् इक् को क् यामरा इ मे होला िम ि◌सङ् । N1 - वारापार धेरै मािनसहको गाउँ घुिमिह थे यसैकार ◌ा एउटा क् यामरा िकनु होला सोच। N2 - म मािनसहको घर गाउँ धेरै यताउता घु ने मा छे भएकोले एउटा क् यामरा िक ने िबचार गर। E - Here and there, I visit many villages and people's houses, I was thinking I would buy a camera.

Question 3 Answer Why did the speaker decide to buy a camera? because he travels a lot बोल्ने मान्छेले िकन क्यामेरा िकन्ने िनणर्य गनर्भयोु ? िकनभने उहां धेरै घम्नु हु न्छु / यात्रा गनर्हु न्छु

01.08 Y - नुबा क् यामारा इ मे होला िमॽिसङ् मोबाङ् इ मे होला िनवाॽयु िमॽनुङ् मोबाङ् खाडािजङ् । N1 - राम्रो क् यामरा िक नु होला सोच अिन िक नु होला मनमा सोचेर यहाँबाट गय। N2 - एउटा राम्रो खालको क् यामेरा िक ने िबचार गरेर यहाँबाट िह य। E - Thinking that I would buy a good kind of camera, we went from there.

01.09 ़ ़ Y - खोसेए़ चािहँ बाइक् का टु वे मोटर बाइक याखाबेॽ भटभ या लु डुजे। N1 - उहाँको चािहँ बाइक् िथयो मोटर बाइक् या फु भाषामा भ भटे भ ने गछर्न ।् N2 - उहाँको चािहँ बाईक िथयो या फु भाषामा बाईकलाई भटभटे भ छन ।् E - He had a bike. In Yamphu, bikes are called Bhatbhate.

01.10 ़ ़ Y - मोबाङ् खाडािजङ् धरानबेॽ पेनािजङ् धरानबा मािक् मसे लाम नोॽ् पुके ॽनुङ् बेलवारी खाडािजङ् । N1 - अिन गय धरानमा बिसय धरानबाट िबहानै उठेर बेलवारी गय। N2 - अिन धरानमा बास बसेर भोिल िबहानै बेलवारी गय। E - Staying in Dharan, the next morning we went to Belbari.

01.11 ़ Y - खेॽमे कासािजङ् वाइजािसॽ िमयु कािनिम गाउँ यािजसो टु मे माहािज चुॽमािज काखाडािजङ् वाइजािसॽ खाडािजङ् । N1 - जाउ भनेर घुि फर गन र् पारा हाम्रा गाउलेह पिन छन ् ितिनहलाई भेट भ दै गय घु नालाई गय। N2 - यहाँ हाम्रो गाउँ ले पिन िथए ितनीहलाई भेट र घुमेर पिन आउ भनेर गय। E - Some of our villagers lived there and having met and visited them, we came and went.

01.12 ़ Y - िमयु नाना सोॽलुडेयेबेॽ क् टािजङ् ए नािनरेॽ लेॽिच िनसािज लुसा इ नाना लुसाजुङ् । N1 - पारा िददी सोअ् लुकोमा पुिगउं ए नािनहपो आएछन ् भाइह भ नुभयो हो िददी भ य। N2 - पारा सोअ् लु िददीकोमा हामी पुग् य भाईह पो आईपुगेछ उहाँले भ नुभयो। E - We arrived at Solu didi's, "The brothers have come!" she said.

01.13 ़ Y - मोबाङ् चामा चाखाडाजे आयु लुसा हागो के ॽ चामा िनबेि जमे लुसा। N1 - अिन खाना खाएर जाओ आज भ नुभयो अब म खाना पकाइिद छु भ नुभयो। N2 - अब खाना पकाई िद छु खाना खाएर मात्र जानु भ नुभयो E - "Now I will cook food for you and only having eaten go," she said.

Question 1 Answer What did Solu didi ask them to do before leaving? to eat (before leaving) सोल ु िददीले उहांहरुलाई जानभन्दाु अिघ के गनर् भन्नभयोु ? खाने

01.14 Y - नेॽिन चामा चायाक् हेिजङािन नाना, नानािम िनङ् सुजार् मासो लु डुजे। N1 - होइन खाना खाना यादेन िददी, िददीको नाम सुजार् मा आमा पिन भ छन ।् N2 - हामीले भ य होईन िददी हामी खाना खाना याउदैन उहाँलाई सुजार्को आमा पिन भ ने गछर्न। E - We said, "No, didi, we don't have time to eat." She was also called Surja's mother.

01.15 ़ ़ Y - चायाहेिजङािन कािजङ् िमयुः खेॽपेि जङा यो बोक् टुये िबराटनगर खेएिजङ् होला कासािजङ् । N1 - खाना यादेन हामीदईु पारा गाइहा छ काम छ, िबराटनगर जा छ होला भ य। N2 - हामीले भ य पारा िबराटनगर जानुछ गईहा छ खाना याउदैन। E - "We're going to Biratnagar right now, we don't have time to eat."

01.16 ़ ़ ़ Y - मोबाङ् मे जायौ कािजङ् हागो भुटभु याबेॽ रा डोक् पाआ एडॽे सकसकसो लेटािजङे होला। N1 - अिन खाएन हामी अब भुटभुटेमा िह नापाएकोले अिलक फु क भएका िथय होला। N2 - बाईकमा चा ना पाएकोले होला हामी अिलक खुसी भएका िथय यसैले खाना खाएन। E - Maybe we were so happy to be able to go by bike so we didn't eat food.

01.17 ़ ़ Y - याङ् सो एद्रेॽ िखसािजङा मोबाङ् टेआबािजङ् टेआ माबेॽ इिगॽयुः इगो ग या मदेस लु डुजे ़ ़ के क् पेॽमु। N1 - पैसा पिन अिलक बोके को िथय अिन फिकर् आयौ ़ फिकर् आउँ दा यता यो ग या मदेस भ ने छेउमा। N2 - हामीले पैसा पिन अिलक बोके का िथय अिन फक औं, फक र आउदै गदार् ग याको छेउमा। E - We brought enough money with us we returned, as we returned near Gachhya.

Question 2 Answer What did they carry? Money उहांहरुले के बोक्नभयोु ? पैसा

01.18 ़ ़ Y - ठेॽकै इक् को टुबाठाॽपा राम ् इडोॽ राम ् ए सुवे बेॽ बाइकनुङ् रोगा बाइक् नुङ् रोइटे ले। N1 - िठक् का एउटा बाजेबुडा बाटो यसो बाटो छो िददा बाइक् सँग ठोिक्कयो बाइकसँग ठोिक्कएछ। N2 - िठक बाटोमा एक जना बाजेबुडालाई जोगार जाँदा त यो बाजे बाइकमा ठोिकएछ। E - On the road there was an old grandpa (even though) wanting to save him the bike hit him.

Question 3 Answer Who was on the road? old man (grandpa/baje) बाटोमा को िथयो? बाजे

01.19 ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ Y - मोडोक्पेॽ ठाम इॽिचङ्् ठा माबेॽ लेनोॽमेले िसघेॽपेटािजङ् लेए कािजङ् साॽिफ चेॽिमिचङ् । N1 - यसैबेला लडछे लदाख ेिर थाहै भएन मिरहालेरहेछ हामीदईु धेरै पिछ्रएछ। N2 - यसैले हामी लडछे धेरै पिछ्रएको कार ◌ा मरे ज तै भएछ। E - So we fell very hard and it was like we were dead.

Question 4 Answer When they fell, how did they feel? like dead लड्दा(खेिर) उहांहरुलाई कस्तो लाग्यो? मरे जस्तो लाग्यो

01.20 ़ Y - मो इॽछोहोङ् पकारािजङ्ु पकेु ॽनुङ् का इडो हुकसाराङ् खाक् सुङ् हुक् एॽखेटा होला, िन डावा ़ पोकखेटे होला। N1 - अिन एकिछनमा उ य उठेर म यो हातखु टा हेर हात भिचयो होला, टाउको फु यो होला। N2 - एकिछनमा उठेर मैले हात, खु टा चलाए,ँ मैले सोच हात भाँिचयो होला, टाउको फु यो होला। E - After a minute having gotten up I shook my hands and feet, I was thinking maybe my hand or head was broken.

01.21 Y - इमाङ् चािह, हा बे चािह अंग, िजउ चािह माआ होला िमॽिसङ् इडोॽ सुबुङ् । N1 - के चािहँ, कु न ् चािहँ अंग वा िजउ चािहँ छैन होला सो दै यसरी छोय। N2 - शरीरको कु नै न कु नै अंग छैन होला भन ठानेथ एसो छामे। E - "Maybe I've lost some of my body parts," I thought and checked to see.

01.22 ़ ़ Y - सोिक्सङ् आइसा लेिटङ् खोसो, वावासो पुकाडा बाइक मेॽटोङ् नेयेले। ़ N1 - चलमल गर िठकै िथये उहाँ पिन, दाजु पिन उयो बाइक् अिलमािथ लिडरहेको रहेछ अिन। N2 - म उठ र दाजु पिन उन ुभयो हाम्रो शरीर चलाउँ दा िठक िथयो बाईक अिल मािथ लडीरहेको िथयो। E - I got up and dai got up, seeing our bodies were ok we found the bike had fallen over there.

Question 5 Answer Where was the bike laying down? a little above बाइक कहां लिडरहेको िथयो? अिल मािथ

01.23 ़ ़ Y - मोबा सेउक् टु मोडोक् बेॽ याॽिमिज िप यािम हैखािज हागो फे िर याॽिम मोडोक् रोम य् ुङ् ए बाङ् गो। N1 - तानेर तल यायो यसबेला मा छेह दौडेर आउलान ् अलाइ फे िर मा छे यसरी हानेपिछ त। N2 - यहाँबाट तानेर तल याय तर यसरी मा छेलाई बाइकले हानेपिछ त। E - from there we dragged the bike, but thinking we hit somebody,

Question 6 Answer How was the bike carried down? by dragging बाइकलाई कसरी तल ल्ययो? तानेर

01.24 ़ ़ ़ Y - याॽिमडॽे रो इ मे, याइ मे मोबाङ् चा डो चा डो के ॽ कािनङ् खाॽपाबेॽ खो लुसुङ् । N1 - मा छेहले िप छन ् गालामा प काउछन ् अिन िछटो िछटो मैले मेरो भाषामा उहाँलाई भने। N2 - मा छेहले िप लान, थ पाड लाउलान भनेर मैले मेरो भाषामा उहाँलाई भने। E - I said to him in my own language, "the people will beat and slap us."

Question 7 Answer What was the speaker afraid the people will do? beat and slap बोल्ने मान्छे उनीहरुले (मानछेहरुले) के गछर् भनेर डरायो? िपट्छ र थप्पड लाउं छ भनेर डरायो

01.25 Y - कािनङ् इम य् ुबेमा खेःये मोबाङ् कािजङ् इम य् ुबेसािजङ् । N1 - हामी सुितहाल न् ुपछर् अिन हामीदईु सुितगय। N2 - हामी सुते ज तो गर भनेर सुितहा य। E - "Let's act like we're sleeping," I said and we quickly slept.

01.26 ़ ़ ़ ़ Y - मोबाङ् इम य् ुबेमाबेॽ इगोिज बेॽलोनोिसइॽचेले िमइ मे मोबाङ्गो ना नामेॽ रोि म िम नुङ् इम य् ुबेसािजङ्। N1 - अिन सुितरहेयो भनेत ियनीदईु धेरैनै परेछिक क् याहो भिनसो छ अिन त मायाले िप दैन सोचेर सुितहा य। N2 - सुितरहा यो भने त ियनीदईलाईु गाो परेछ भनठानेर िप दैनन ् सोचेर हामी सु य। E - Thinking that if the two are in a serious condition they won't think to beat them, we slept.

01.27 ़ ़ Y - चैबानोॽ इ छोबेॽ ले बेसािम, राबािम येिरङ् िज लेॽसािम माहा गाउँ बेहा के टाउिल लेॽनुङ् राबािम। N1 - सा चै नै एक् िछन मै् आइहा यो पिक् डहा यो िसपाइह आयो यो गाउँ को के टाह आएर समा यो। N2 - साँ चै यहाँका जवानह र िसपाईह आएर हामीलाई समायो। E - Actually that area's young people and police came and caught us.

01.28 ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ Y - सेॽखेॽटािम मोडोकपेॽ िजउँ टु क् मे िसबेॽिचङे चोटै चो िसॽपेए हुकपेॽ हुवािपखेॽप्राआ लेटा। N1 - तानेर लग् यो यसबेला शरीर दःखु ेर मनलािगसकर् े का िथय चोटै चोट लागेकोले हात घाउ भएको िथयो। N2 - ितनीहले हामीलाई िलएर गयो शरीरमा चोटै चोट भएकोले दःखु ेर मन र् लागेका िथय। E - They took us and we were only scraped up and in pain, feeling like we were going to die.

01.29 ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ Y - हाक् टाङेबेॽ हुवा िपखेॽप्राआ लेटा आ राङ् सो ठोइटाहा मोबाङ् इिगॽयु िसडा लेठाम बे् ॽ। N1 - कु ममा घाउ भएको िथयो र खु टा पिन ठोिकएका िथए अिन यता दबाई गन ठाउमा। N2 - कु ममा घाउ भएको िथयो र खु टा पिन ठोक् ि◌कएको िथयो अिन औषधी पसलितर िलएर गए। E - With shoulder scratched and foot having been hit they took us to the clinic.

Question 8 Answer Where did the police take them? clinic/pharmacy िसपिहले उहांहरुलाई कहां लगे? िक्लिनक/औषधी पसलमा

01.30 ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ Y - सेॽचेडािम िसडा लेठाम बे् ॽ मोबा िस इ मेले येिरङ् डेॽ इमाङेॽटे, इ डोक् मा याॽिमडे। N1 - तानेर याइपुर् याए दबाई गन ठाउँमा यहाँ सो धोरहेछन िसपाईहले केलेहो, क तो मा छे हो। N2 - िसपाहीहले यहाँ लगेर केले हो, क तो खालको मा छे भनेर हामीलाई धेरै सोधपुज गर। E - The police took us and asked what happened, "What kind of men are you?" They asked us many questions.

01.31 ़ ़ ़ Y - याॽिमडॽे लोसुिज मोबेॽ मोिबॽ ठाॽपा टुसे मो िसघेॽपेटे रेछो। N1 - मा छेहले भ यो यो बुडो यहाँ िथयो यो मिरसके छ। N2 - यहाँ भएको यो बडोमाु छे पिन मिर गएछ। E - The old man who was there died.

Question 9 Answer What happened to the old man? Died बाजेलाई के भयो? मयोर्

01.32 ़ ़ Y - मोबाङ् इॽछोॽगो मेि सबाआ लेटा इमा इमा इ मे लुसािम के ए बेॽ(दइु हजार जित) िनबोङ् डोॽ याङ् टु सा। N1 - अिन एकिछन त मरेको िथएन के के िक नु भने मसँग दईु हजार जित पैसा िथयो। N2 - एकिछन स म त मरेको िथएन, अब के के गन भ दै िथयो मसगँ दईु हजार जित पैसा िथयो। E - For a minute, he wasn't dead, while they were discussing what to do, I had 2,000 rupees with me.

01.33 ़ ़ Y - माहासो ज मै इमाङ् इमाङ् इ माबेॽ क् खाडा मोबाङ् खो बाइक चलबा लेये वावा चािहँ येिरङ् ङेॽ ़ सेॽफे टुिज सेिक्टब ेसुिज। N1 - यो पिन सब ै के के िक दा सिकयो अिन उ बाइक चलाउने दाई चािहँ िसपािहले िलएर गएर थुिदहा यो। N2 - यो पैसा के के िक दा सिकयो, िसपाहीहले बाईक चलाउने दाईलाई लगेर काराघरमा थु ि◌दहाले। E - But that money was finished, the police took the bike driving brother and put him in jail.

01.34 ़ Y - का िकयुिमयु ध दा लेखु युक् सािम मोबा इडोः िनका बािलिसङ् । N1 - म यताउता काम गन र् राख् यो अिन एसो बािहरा िनि कएको त। N2 - घटना स बि ध के िह काम गन र् मलाई राखेका िथए एकिदन एसो बािहरा िनि कएँ। E - They kept me to work here and there (maybe for accident - questions about it) and one day I came outside.

01.35 ़ ़ ़ Y - माआहा चाङ् िजरासो ज मै नाखेटाहा साराङबेॽमुसो ज मै नाखेटाहा मोबाङ् माआये। N1 - छैन के िह लगाने लुगा पिन सबै फाटेको खु टाितर पिन सब ै फाटेका छन ् अिन छैन। N2 - मसँग पैसा पिन छैन मेरो िजउको कपडा ठाँउ ठाँउ फाटेको िथयो। E - I didn't have any money with me and my clothes were torn here and there.

Question 10 Answer What was the condition of the speaker’s clothes? Torn बोल्ने मान्छेको लगाकोु हालन कस्तो िथयो? च्याितएको िथयो

01.36 ़ ़ ़ Y - मो लाङ्गाम ,् मोबाङ् वावागो सेॽफे टुिज िमयुः खो िमयुः बेलवारी ठानाडॽे खाङ् इ डुवेले। N1 - यो साथी अिन दाजु तानेर लग् यो पारा उ पारा बेलवारी काराघरले हेदरहेछ। N2 - यो दाजु वा साथीलाई घ नाको छानिबन को् लािग बेलवारी काराघरमा रािखरहेका िथए। E - That brother or friend to clear this event was kept in jail.

01.37 ़ ़ ़ ़ ़ Y - आक् को एिरयाबेॽ खाङ् इ डुवेले खो सेॽफे टु जेले कागो सारोनोॽ िनङ् बेिसङ् का काङ् डाङ् बा इ डोक् ना इ डोक िमॽिसङ् । N1 - यो ठाउँले हेदरहेछ उहाँलाई त िलएर गए म लाई चािहँ धेरै िबराहा लाग् यो म एक् लै क तो न क तो अनुभव गर। N2 - यो झेलले हेदरहेछ उहाँलाई यहाँ लिगहाले म चािहँ एक् लै भएँ यसबेला मलाई अित नै निमठो र नराम्रो अनुभव भयो। E - That area seeing this event they took him and as for me I was alone at that time I felt very bad/sad this experience was very bad.

01.38 ़ ़ Y - मोबाङ् का साङ् याक् के ॽमासो याङ् सो माआये हागो िमॽमु (िचन बाआ् लेप्रािजसो) लेबाआिजसा ़ ़ आसासो माआमे के ॽक् पेॽ। N1 - अिन म मािथ जानु पिन पैसा पिन छैन अब तल िचनेको कोही पिन छैन छेउमा। N2 - अब मािथ घर जानु पिन म सगँ पैसा छैन यहाँ वरापरा िचनेको कोही िथएन। E - I didn't have any money to go up to home and in that area there was no one I knew.

01.39 ़ ़ Y - सारो आङ् जाइडा मोडोक् पेॽ के ॽ किहलेसो का िहङ् मारो िमॽनोिमॽहेसुङ् िन आक् को बाइक् बा ठा ब्राआ। N1 - धेरै निमटो खिपिपयो यसबेला मैले किहलै म बाँचु जे िबिसर्न सिक् दन बाईक बाट लडको।े N2 - बाईक बाट लडकोे र यस िदनको निमठो अनुभव मेरो जीवनभर म किह यै िबसर्न सिक्दन। E - From this bike fall and that day's terrible experience for my whole life I will not be able to forget it.

01.40 ़ ़ ़ Y - इक् को मेॽयोङ् ये माइक् मा इ यान ् िचन बा् लेॽप्राआ लेटा। N1 - अिन बलैले एउटा मिदसे ई यानलाई अिल अिल िचनेको िथएँ। E - In this place there was one Indian from the Terai that I knew a little bit.

01.41 Y - मोबाङ् मोिबॽ खािडङ् िम डु िहलै क् ठाम ् पैसा िपमे लुसुङ् । N1 - अिन यहाँ गएँ मािथ िहले पग्ु ने पैसा देउ भने। N2 - अिन यस कहाँ गएर मैले भने मलाई िहले पुग् ने गाडी भाडा िखनुहोस ।् E - And going to him I said, "Please buy my bus fare to Hile for me."

01.42 Y - तर इगो कोिह कोिह बेला परमे वर टुये लु डुजे मोडोक् नोॽ होला। N1 - तर यो कु नै कु नै बेला परमे वर छ भ छन यसै भएर होला। N2 - परमे वर छ भ ने यस िदन मैले अनुभव गर। E - That day I felt like maybe God is working.

01.43 ़ ़ Y - याक् कै मोसेॽ (हजार पाँया पैसा) इक् पोङ् सय िपहाक् सा॥ मोसेॽ का िह या गुक् टु ङ् ॥ N1 - िठक उसले एक हजार पायाँ पैसा िदपठायो यो पैसाले म िहले पुग। N2 - यो मा छेले मलाई एक हजार पायाँ िदयो अिन यो पैसाले म मेरो घर िहलेमा पग्ु न सक । E - That man gave me 1,000 rupees and I was able to go to my home in Hile.

B.7 Recorded Text Testing in Pangma

Pangma RTT subject biodata

How Lived Int. # Sex Age Education Caste Ethnic group Clan Birthplace Now long elsewhere When LP01 F 23 B.A. Rai Loh Yankurung Dada Pangma Dada Pangma 23 N NA LP07 M 46 10 Rai Loh Dekhim Gairi Pangma Gairi Pangma 46 N NA LP08 F 65 ‐ Rai Loh Pituchawa Tallo Dhupu Gairi Pangma 43 Y, Tallo Dhupu 20+ years ago LP11 M 30 5 Rai Loh Yumpang Gairi Pangma Gairi Pangma 30 N NA LP13 F 20 10 Rai Loh Dekhim Angala Gairi Pangma 3 Y, Angala 3 years ago LP14 F 36 SLC pass Rai Loh Bi'wa Dada Pangma Gairi Pangma 14 N NA LP15 F 21 12 Rai Loh Lamsong Dada Pangma Dada Pangma 21 N NA LP16 M 30 B.A. Rai Loh NR NR Gairi Pangma NR NR NA LP17 M 48 10 Rai Loh NR Malaysia Gairi Pangma 40+ Y, Malaysia When young LP18 M 58 ‐ Rai Loh Lamsong Gairi Pangma Gairi Pangma 58 Y, Nepa, India 20+ years ago Int. # MT Mom's birthplace Mom's MT w/ mom Dad's birthplace Dad's MT w/ dad First lg. Best lg. LP01 Loh Bhojpur Nep Nep Dada Pangma Loh Loh Loh & Nep equally Loh & Nep equally LP07 Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Loh Loh LP08 Loh Saibun Yakkha Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Loh Loh LP11 Loh Diding Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Loh Loh LP13 Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh LP14 Loh Chamling Rai Chamling Nep Dada Pangma Loh Loh Nep Loh LP15 Loh Dada Pangma Loh Loh Dada Pangma Loh Loh Loh Loh LP16 Loh Khandbari Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Loh NR LP17 Loh NR NR NR NR NR NR Loh Loh LP18 Loh Matsya Pokhari Khaling Nep Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Loh Loh

Pangma pre-RTT results

Int. # Most pure Why Been there Least pure Why Been there LP01 Pangma ‐ all 4 The first place it was spoken Y Heluwa/Angala They don't speak it that much N LP07 Pangma (all 4) Not mixed population Y Doesn't want to say NA LP08 Gairi Pangma NR Y Dhupu Mixing Y LP11 Gairi Pangma Because it's our birthplace Y Angala, Heluwa, Dhupu Few people and mixed Y LP13 Gairi Pangma 1st place spoken ‐ other places mix languages Y NR NA NA LP14 Pangma Old and young speak it Y Angala/Dhupu mixed villages NR LP15 Pangma Very many Lohorungs Y Dhupu Lost of mixed marriage N Many Lohorung live here ‐ lots of Lohorung married LP16 Pangma Lohorung Y Dhupu They don't speak/Angala they speak, but second best Y LP17 NR NR NA NR NA NA LP18 Gairi Pangma From a long time ago spoken here. Large village. Y Dhupu Nepali school led to loss; mixed marriage, low use. Y

Pangma pre-RTT Have you been to ______? results

Int. # Pangma Hedangna Seduwa Dhupu Angala Rajarani Devitar Bedetar LP01 Yes No No No No No No No LP07 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes LP08 Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes LP11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes LP13 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No No LP14 Yes No No Yes Yes No No No LP15 Yes No No No No No No No LP16 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes LP17 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR LP18 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Pangma RTT answers - Motorcycle story

Int. # Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Total LP01 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 LP07 10 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 60 LP08 10 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 40 LP11 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 60 LP13 10 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 10 40 LP14 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 10 40 LP15 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 0 20 LP16 0 10 0 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 60 LP17 0 10 0 10 0 10 10 0 0 10 50 LP18 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 60 Average Score: 44 Standard Deviation: 18 Number: 10

Pangma post-RTT - Motorcycle story results

Int. # Village How like speech Why Understand Different? LP01 Hedangna Ok It was fine but she didn't understand Less than half Very different LP07 Hedangna Good Pure, no Nepali mixing Most A little different LP08 Hedangna Good Her own language Half Very different LP11 Hedangna Ok Own language ‐ milcha Half A little different LP13 Hedangna Good Own language Less than half A little different LP14 Hedangna Good Didn't understand a lot Less than half A little different LP15 Hedangna Fine Own language Less than half Very different LP16 Hedangna Yamphu No answer Most A little different LP17 Hedangna Good About half meshes with Lohorung Less than half A little different LP18 Hedangna Bad Strange. Doesn't mesh. Haven't heard it much. He speaks quickly. Half A little different

Int. # Different in what way? Spoke purely In what way not pure LP01 Words, sound No Maybe it's pure, I didn't understand it LP07 Words, speaking style, sound No Mostly ‐ a little Nepali mixing. LP08 Words NR NA LP11 Pronounciation, words Yes NA LP13 Words, speaking style NR NA LP14 Sound Yes ‐ probably, I don't know NA LP15 Sound Yes NA LP16 Words, sound Yes ‐ he thinks so, but his mt isn't Yamphu NA LP17 Speaking style Yes But not pure like many years ago LP18 Speaking style, he spoke fast No They don't understand us. There was a lot of Nepali in the story.

B.8 Recorded Text Testing in Angala

Angala subject biodata

Int. # Sex Age Education Caste Ethnic group Clan Birthplace Now How long Lived elsewhere When LA02 M 15 10 Rai Loh Lamsong Angala Angala 15 N LA05 M 20 8 Rai Loh Khaisong Angala Angala 20 N LA07 M 18 10 Rai Loh Lamsong Angala Angala 18 N LA08 M 40 0 Rai Loh Ketra Angala Angala 40 N LA10 F 26 B.A. Rai Loh Ketra Angala Angala 26 N LA11 F 15 10 Rai Loh Lamsong Angala Angala 15 N LA12 M 42 0 Rai Loh Lamsong Angala Angala 42 N LA14 F 63 0 Rai Loh Ketra Angala Angala 50 N LA15 F 60 0 Rai Loh Lamsong Angala Angala 60 N LA16 M 27 12 Rai Loh Angala Angala LA17 F 50 0 Rai Loh Temra Kartuwa (Sitalpati VDC) Angala Y, Assam, India Int. # MT Mom's birthplace Mom's MT w/ mom Dad's birthplace Dad's MT w/ dad First lg. Best lg. LA02 Loh Malta Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh LA05 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh & Nep LA07 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Lohg LA08 Loh Koktima Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh LA10 Loh Angala Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Nep Loh LA11 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Nep LA12 Loh Simle 7 Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh LA14 Loh Malta Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh LA15 Loh Malta Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh LA16 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh LA17 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Loh Loh

Angala pre-RTT results

Int. # Most pure Why Been there Least pure Why Been there? LA02 Doesn't know NA NA Doesn't know NA NA LA05 Pangma, Angala Large villages Yes Doesn't know NA NA LA07 Dada Gauma Speak from young age Yes Angala We don't know it Yes LA08 Pangma Spoken there for a long time Yes Hiluwa Mixed with Nepali Yes LA10 Pangma, Angala Large community there Yes Dhiding, Hiluwa Mixed community Yes LA11 Pangma, Angala Large Lohorung population Yes Dhiding, Hiluwa Don't speak much No LA12 Pangma, Angala Own language is spoken a lot Yes Simle, Dhiding They don't speak the language Yes LA14 NR NA NA NR NA NA LA15 NR NA NA NR NA NA LA16 Pangma, Angala Less mixed marriage NR Diding Mixed marriage NR LA17 Pangma, Angala Like the way they speak Yes Dhupu Mixed with Nepali No

Angala pre-RTT Have you been to _____ ? results

Int. # Pangma Hedangna Seduwa Dhupu Angala Rajarani Devitar Bedetar LA02 No No No No Yes No No No LA05 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes LA07 Yes Yes No No Yes No No No LA08 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes LA10 Yes Yes No No Yes No No Yes LA11 Yes No No No Yes No No No LA12 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No No LA14 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR LA15 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR LA16 Yes No No No Yes No No Yes LA17 Yes Yes No No Yes No No No

Angala RTT answers - Dog story

Int. # Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Total LA02 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 LA05 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 LA07 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 70 LA08 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 LA10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 80 LA11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 90 LA12 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 LA14 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 LA15 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 80 LA16 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 LA17 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 80 Average Score: 85 Standard Deviation: 9.3 Number: 11

Angala post-RTT - Dog story results

Int. # Village How like speech Why Understand Different? In what way different? Spoke purely LA02 Pangma Good Our language All Same None Yes LA05 Pangma Good Our language All Same None Yes LA07 Pangma Good Our language Half Same None Yes LA08 Pangma Good Our language All Same None Yes LA10 Pangma Good Our language All Same None Yes LA11 Angala, Pangma Good Really pure All Same None Yes LA12 Pangma Good NR Most A little Sounds Yes LA14 Pangma Good Our language All Same None Yes LA15 Pangma Good NR Most Same None Yes LA16 Angala Good NR All Same None Yes LA17 Pangma Good Our language All Same None Yes

B.9 Recorded Text Testing in Hedangna

Hedanga subject biodata

Int. # Sex Age Education Caste Ethnic group Clan Birthplace Now How long Lived elsewhere How long YH01 F 27 8 Rai Yam NR Chekchekma (Mati Hedangna) Hedangna 7 N NA YH03 M 42 8 Rai Yam Tengsa Hedangna Hedangna 42 N NA YH04 F 20 10 Rai Yam NR Hedangna Hedangna 11 Y 7‐10 years YH05 F 21 10 Rai Yam Pirtetengsa Hedangna Hedangna 21 N NA YH07 M 25 B.A. Rai Yam Kekura Hedangna Hedangna 22 Y, Dhankuta 0‐3 years YH10 M 20 2+ Rai Yam Mangbakim Hedangna Hedangna 20 N NA YH12 F 66 NR Rai Yam NR NR NR NR NR NR YH13 M 43 7 Rai Yam Sayangkem Hedangna Hedangna 39 Y, India 4‐6 years YH14 M 47 B.A. Rai Yam NR NR NR NR NR NR YH17 M 52 NR Rai Yam NR NR NR NR N NA YH16 M 45 10 Rai Yam NR Hedangna NR NR NR NR

Int. # MT Mom's birthplace Mom's MT w/ mom Dad's birthplace Dad's MT w/ dad First lg. Best lg. YH01 Yam Hedangna (mati, near school) Yam Yam Checkchek Yam Yam Yam Yam YH03 Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Yam Yam YH04 Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Yam Yam YH05 Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Yam Nep YH07 Yam Gadhi Yam Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Yam Yam YH10 Yam Uwa Yam Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Yam Nep YH12 Yam NR Yam Yam NR Yam Yam Yam Yam YH13 Yam Hedangna (ward 6) Yam Yam Hedangna (ward 7) Yam Yam Yam Yam YH14 Yam NR Yam Yam NR Yam Yam Yam Yam YH17 Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Hedangna Yam Yam Yam NR YH16 Yam Hedangna NR NR NR NR NR Yam NR

Hedangna pre-RTT results

Int. # Most pure Why Been there Least pure Why Been there YH01 Hedangna Own place Y Khandbari Mixed with Nepali Y YH03 Hedangna It's pure Y Devitar/Matsya Phokari Mixed villages Y YH04 Hedangna Speak clearly, historically spoken Y Bakhola Y YH05 Hedangna It's easy to understand everything Y Uwa It's different from ours Y YH07 Hedangna Central area of Yamphu Y Num Few Yamphu there Y YH10 Hedangna Many here Y Morang Many only speak Nepali there N YH12 NR NR NR NR NR NR YH13 Hedangna Many Yamphu here Y Makalu Pressure from others ‐ mixed caste area Y YH14 Hedangna Our village Y Dhankuta Compromised Y YH17 Upper Hedangna Many Yamphu there Y Lower Hedangna Their speech isn't good Y YH16 NR NR NR NR NR NR

Hedangna Have you been to ______? results

Int. # Pangma Hedangna Seduwa Dhupu Angala Rajarani Devitar Bedetar YH01 No Yes Yes No Yes No No No YH03 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes YH04 Yes Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes YH05 No Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes YH07 Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes YH10 Yes Yes Yes No No No No No YH12 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR YH13 Yes Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes YH14 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No YH17 Yes Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes YH16 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR

Hedangna RTT answers - Dog story

Int. # Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Total YH01 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 YH03 10 10 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 95 YH04 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 70 YH05 0 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 10 10 70 YH07 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 10 10 0 40 YH10 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 10 0 30 YH12 0 0 5 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 65 YH13 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 0 40 YH14 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 80 YH17 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 30 YH16 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 10 5 55

Average Score: 65 Standard Deviation: 23.5 Number: 11

Hedangna post-RTT results

Int. # Village How like speech Why Understand YH01 Pangma Difficult Gumera Half YH03 Pangma Ok It wasn't pure, there was Nepali mixed in All YH04 Devitar Bad Speech Not clear Most YH05 Other surprising Mildaina Less than half YH07 Num Ok It was Yamphu but hard to understand Most YH10 Other Ok It's my mother tongue Half YH12 Pangma Didn’t understand NR Most YH13 Other Ok It was very nice Half YH14 Lohorung OK Own language Most YH17 NR NR "Understood story, but Not questions" (Not Yes) Most YH16 Pangma Good Hard to answer questions Most

Int. # Different? Pronunciation Words Speaking style Other Spoke purely Not pure? YH01 A little different Yes Yes Yes YH03 Very different No Yes No No Mixed with Nepali YH04 Very different No No Yes NR No NR YH05 Very different No No No Just couldn't understand NR NR YH07 A little different Yes Yes Yes NR No Sound and words Not pure YH10 A little different Yes Yes Yes NR Yes NR YH12 A little different No Yes No NR NR NR YH13 A little different Yes No No NR Yes NR YH14 Same No No No NR Yes NR YH17 Same No No No NR Yes NR YH20 Very different No Yes No NR Don't know Not my language

B.10 Recorded Text Testing in Rajarani

Rajarani subject biodata

Int. # Sex Age Education Caste Ethnic group Clan Birthplace Now How long Lived elsewhere How long YR05 M 26 2+ Rai Yam Chawa Patigau, Morang Tilingau 21 N NA YR06 M 36 5 Rai Yam Chawa Tilingau Tilingau 31 Y, India/Saudi 6‐10 years ago YR09 F 30 9 Rai Yam Yangkela Tilingau Tilingau 30 N NA YR11 M 19 8 Rai Yam Yangkela Tilingau Tilingau 19 N YR12 F 39 5 Rai Yam Yangkela Tilingau Tilingau 39 N NA YR13 F 22 8 Rai Yam Yangkela Tilingau Tilingau 22 N YR14 F 51 ‐ Rai Yam Yangkela Tilingau Tilingau 51 N NA YR15 M 49 SLC Rai Yam Gesa Manoboduk Manoboduk 49 Y, Malaysia 2 years YR17 F 20 2+ Rai Yam Kitsaba Tilingau Tilingau 20 N NA YR18 M 46 ‐ Rai Yam Yangkela Tilingau Tilingau 46 N NA Int. # MT Mom's birthplace Mom's MT w/ mom Dad's birthplace Dad's MT w/ dad First lg. Best lg. YR05 Yam Patigau, Morang Yam Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Yam Yam YR06 Yam Malingta, Sankhuwasabha Yam Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Yam Yam YR09 Yam MaNobudukh Yam Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Yam Yam & Nep equally YR11 Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Yam Nep YR12 Yam Namje, Bedetar ward7 Yam Yam Rajarani Yam Yam Yam Yam YR13 Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Yam Yam & Nep equally YR14 Yam Morang, Kirabari VDC Yam Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Yam Other YR15 Yam Rajarani ward 6 Yam Yam Manoboduk Yam Yam Yam Yam YR17 Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Tilingau Yam Yam Yam Yam YR18 Yam Morang NA NA Tilingau Yam Yam Yam

Rajarani pre-RTT results

Int. # Most pure Why Been there Least pure Why Been there YR05 Sankhuwasabha Spoke for a long time No Doesn't kNow NA NA YR06 Sankhuwasabha Because it's the original place No Morang Lots of other castes there Yes YR09 Sankhuwasabha The first place No Dhankuta Live with lots of other languages Yes YR11 Tilingau Lots of yamphu here Yes Sankhuwasabha NR No YR12 Rajarani My own village, they don't speak elsewhere Yes Dhankuta NR Yes YR13 NR NR NR NR NR NA YR14 Sankhuwasabha Own language and culture is strong No Rajarani Not spoken much, mixed with Nepali Yes YR15 No answer No answer NR NR NR NA YR17 Sankhuwasabha They speak a lot there, the first place No Doesn't kNow NA NA YR18 Sankhuwasabha Spoken for a long time No Rajarani Everyone thinks their own is pure Yes

Rajarani pre-RTT Have you been to ______? results

Int. # Pangma Hedangna Seduwa Dhupu Angala Rajarani Devitar Bedetar YR05 No No No No No Yes No Yes YR06 No No No No No Yes No Yes YR09 No No No No No Yes No Yes YR11 No No No No No Yes No Yes YR12 No No No No No Yes No Yes YR13 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR YR14 No No No No No Yes No No YR15 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR YR17 No No No No No Yes No No YR18 No No No No No Yes No Yes

Rajarani RTT answers - Dog story (Lohorung)

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Total YR05 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 YR06 10 10 10 10 10 10 5 0 10 0 75 YR09 (Y) 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 80 YR11 (Y) 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 60 YR12 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 60 YR13 (Y) 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 50 YR14 (Y) 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 60 YR15 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 20 YR17 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 5 0 65 YR18 (Y) 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 50 Average Score: 61 Standard Deviation: 19.3 Number: 10

Rajarani post-RTT - Dog story results

Int. # Village How like speech Why Understand Different? In what ways different Spoke purely Not pure? YR05 Sankhuwasbha Difficult but understood NR Half A little different Pronunciation Yes Darjeeling or Very good ‐ better than our They gumera, we speak YR06 Sankhuwasabha Yamphu More pure All A little different straight Yes YR09 (Y) Sankhuwasbha A little different talks like us Most A little different Words Yes (for his place) Didn't understand some words, YR11 (Y) Sankhuwasbha so it felt like it's from up there NR Most A little different Words Yes (for his place) YR12 Doesn't know Good NR Most A little different Speaking style Yes But hard to YR13 (Y) Sankhuwasbha Strange Not clear Half Very different Words Yes understand YR14 (Y) Illam Good Own language Less than half Very different Words Yes YR15 Doesn't know Meshes a little Mixed with Nepali Less than half Very different Mixed Yes YR17 Jawalakhel Fine Didn't understand it all Less than half A little different NR Yes YR18 (Y) Like Yakkha Ok NR Most A little different Speaking style Yes Own language

Rajarani RTT answers - Motorcycle story (Yamphu)

Int. # Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Total YR05 0 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 0 10 40 YR06 10 0 0 10 0 10 10 10 0 0 50 YR09 (Y) 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 50 YR11 (Y) 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 0 10 50 YR12 5 0 0 10 0 10 10 0 0 10 45 YR13 (Y) 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 10 10 60 YR14 (Y) 10 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 10 40 YR15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 20 YR17 10 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 60 YR18 (Y) 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 20 Average Score: 44 Standard Deviation: 14.2 Number: 10

Rajarani post-RTT - Motorcycle story results

Int. # How like speech How like speech Why Understand Different? In what way different Spoke purely Not pure YR05 Sankhuwasabha Different Less than half A little different Pronunciation Yes YR06 Hedangna or Num Ok Just don't understand some All Same None 80% pure Mixed with Nepali YR09 (Y) Illam Good Talks like us ‐ awaj Most A little different None Yes YR11 (Y) Sounds like here Good Listening to own language Most Same None Yes YR12 Doesn't know Good Own language Half A little different None Yes YR13 (Y) Rajarani Good Same as here Half Same Speaking style Yes YR14 (Y) Sankhuwasabha Good Own language Most A little different Words Yes YR15 Hedangna Good It's Yamphu Most A little different Pronunciation Ok Language is one; just a bit different YR17 Kathmandu Good Clear Half Same None No Mixed with Nepali YR18 (Y) Sankhuwasabha Good Speaks like here Less than half Very different Words, speaking style Yes

Appendix C: Informal Interviews

C.1 Informal interview schedule

Note: Shaded items are NOT to be read aloud. My name is ………. I am from Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University. I am here to learn about your language and its situation. We will share the information given by you with others. Are you willing to help us? मेरो नाम/...... हो। (अरूले पिन आ-आफ्नो पिरचय िदने)। हामी ित्रभवनु िवश् विवद्यालय भाषािवज्ञान के न् द्र ीय िवभागबाट यहाहरूकोँ भाषाको अध्ययन अनसन्धानकाु लािग आएका हौ।ं यहाहरूलेँ िदन ु भएको भाषासम्बन्धी जानकारीलाई अरूसगँ राख् ने छौ।ं हािमलाई सहयोगिदन सक्नहु न्छु ? INFORMED CONSENT: Given: □ Not Given: □

A. Meta data (Baseline information)

Question Answer Interview Number Date Day: Month: Year: Ward No: Village/Town: VDC/Municipality: Place of Interview District: Zone: GPS Coordinates: ...……………………………E ....…………………………..N Interviewer Name Language of Elicitation Language of Response Interpreter Name (if needed) 1. Name of language consultant: तपाईंको पराु नाम के हो ? 2. (Ask if needed) Sex: 3. Age group: उमेर ______(i) (15-34) (ii) (35+) 4. Are you literate? तपाईँलाई लेख्न-पढ्न आउँछ ? 5. (If “Yes”) How did you learn to read & write? तपाईँले लेख्न-पढ्न कसरी िसक्न ु भयो? (a) Formally औपचािरक रूपमा (b) Non-formally अनौपचािरक रूपमा 6. What year/level did you complete? कित क्लास (कक्षा) सम्म पढ्नभएकोु ? 7. Marital status: तपाईंको िववाहा भएको छ ? 8. (If married) Mother tongue of your husband/ wife तपाईंको िश्रमान/िश्रमतीको माित्र भाषा के हो ? 9. (If married) Do you have any children? तपाईँका छोराछोरी छन् िक छै नन् ? 10. Caste: जाित कु न हो ? 10a. Ethnic group: (जनजाित समूह) थर कु न हो ? 10b. Which (Yamphu / Lohorung) sub-group? याम्फु /लोहोरुङ को कु न पाछा हो ? 11. What is your (present) occupation? तपाईं के काम गनर्हु न्छु ? 12. What religion do you practice? तपाईं कु न धमर् मान्नहु न्छु ?

100 101

13. What village were you born in? तपाईँ जन्मेको स्थान/गाउँ कहा ँ हो ? (a) Ward No वाडर् नं. (b)Village/Town गाउँ/नगर (c)VDC/municipality गािवस/नगरपािलका (d) District िजल्ला (e) Zone अञ् चल 14. Where do you live now? हाल तपाईँ कहा ँ बस्नहु न्छु ? (a) Ward No वाडर् नं. (b)Village/Town गाउँ/नगर (c) VDC/municipality गािवस/नगरपािलका (d) District िजल्ला (e) Zone अञ् चल 15. How many years have you lived here? तपाईँ यहा ँ बस्न ु भएको कित समय भयो ? 16. Have you lived anywhere else for more than a year? तपाईँ आरु ठाउँमा एक वषर् भन्दा बढी बस्न ु भएको छ ? 17. (If so) Where? When? How long did you live there ? (a) कहा ँ ? (b) किहले ? (c) कित समयसम्म ?

SCREENING CRITERIA #1: YES □ NO □ Grew up here, Live here now, and, If they have lived elsewhere, it is not a significant amount of recent time. 18. What is your mother tongue? तपईको आफ् नो मात ृ भाषा के हो ? 19. Where was your mother born? तपाईंको आमाको खास गाउँ कु न हो ? 20. What is your mother's mother tongue? तपाईंको आमाको माित्र भाषा के हो ? 21. What language did your mother usually speak to you when you were a child? सानो हदाुँ तपाईंको आमाले तपाईँलाई कु न भाषा बोल्नभयोु ? 22. Where was your father born? तपाईंको बवाकोु खास गाउँ कु न हो ? 23. Your father's mother tongue? ताईको बवाकोु मात ृ भाषा के हो ? 24. What language did your father usually speak to you when you were a child? सानो हदाुँ तपाईंको बवालेु तपाईँलाई कु न भाषा बोल्नभयोु ? SCREENING CRITERIA #2: At least one parent from target MT. YES □ NO □

SCREENING CRITERIA #3: YES □ NO □ RTT: At least one Y/L parent from this village AND at that parent spoke Y/L with them.

B. Language resources

25. Are there radio programs available in your language? तपाईँको भाषामा रेिडयो कयर्क्रम छ ? 26. (If “Yes”) How often do you listen to radio program broadcast in your language? तपाईं आफ्नो मातभाषामाृ रेिडयो कायर्क्रम कितको सन्ु नहु न्छु ? (a) Usually सधै ं (b) Sometimes किहले काही ँ (c) Never किहले पिन होइन 27. (only ask literate language consultants) Are there materials written about your language? तपाईँको भाषाको बारेमा के ह ी कु रा लेिखएको छ भन् ने के -के छन् ?

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28. (If “Yes”) What language(s) is it written in? कु न भाषामा लेिखएका छन् ? Material: 29. Yes or No? 30. (If “Yes”) What language(s) is it written in? a. Literacy materials साक्षरता सामग्री b. Newspapers समाचारपत्र c. Magazines पित्रका d. Written literature िलिखत सािहत्य e. Folklore टक्काु f. Health materials स्वास्थ्याको बरेमा g. Other अन्य

31. (If they mentioned written materials) Do you read any of these things written in your language? तपाईँ आफ्नो भाषामा मािथका सामग्री मध्ये कु नै पढ्नहु न्छु ?

C. Mother-tongue proficiency and multilingualism

32. What languages can you speak? तपाईँ कु न कु न भाषा बोल्न सक्नहु न्छु ? 33. What language did you speak first? तपाईँले सबै भन्दा पिहले कु न भाषा बोल्नभयोु ? So you speak… (remind of Q. 32) Which language do you speak…यी भाषाहरूमध्ये ….., कु न भाषा: 34. best? सबै भन्दा राम्रो? 35. second best? दोस्रो राम्रो? 36. third best? तेस्रो राम्रो? 37. fourth best? चौथो राम्रो? RTT: SCREENING CRITERIA #4: Speaks Yamphu/Lohorung either first OR best. YES □ NO □ 38. Among the languages that you speak which one do you love the most? तपाईँले बोल्ने भाषाहरू मध्ये कु न चाही ँसबै भन्दा बढी मन पराउनहु न्छु ? 39. (Only ask if MT was not best language) Please estimate how proficient are you in your mother tongue: तपाईँ आफ्नो मातभाषामाृ कित्तको पोख्त हनु हु न्छु ? (a) Very Well धेरै राम्रो (b) Some िठक िठकै (c) Only a Little अिल अिल 40. (Only ask if literate) Please estimate how well you can read your mother tongue: तपाईँ आफ्नो मातभाषाृ कित्तको राम्रो पढ्न सक्न ु हन्छु ? (a) Very Well धेरै राम्रो (b) Some िठक िठकै (c) Only a Little अिल अिल 41. (Only ask if literate) Please estimate how well you can write in your mother tongue: तपाईँ आफ्नो मातभाषाृ कित्तको राम्रो लेख् न सक्नहु न्छु ? (a) Very Well धेरै राम्रो (b) Some िठक िठकै (c) Only a Little अिल अिल 42. Other languages known to your father तपाईँको बबालेु अन्य कु न कु न भाषा जान् नहु न्छु ? 43. Other languages known to your mother तपाईँको आमाले अन्य कु न कु न भाषा जान् नहु न्छु ? 44. Other languages known to your spouse तपाईँको श्रीमान्/श्रीमतीले अन्य कु न कु न भाषा जान्न ु हन्छु ? 45. What languages are spoken by your sons/daughters? तपाईँका छोराछोरीहरूले कु न कु न भाषा बोल्छन् ?

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46. Where did they learn those languages? ितनीहरूले ती भाषाहरू कहा ँ िसके ? (45). Other languages spoken by children: (46). Where learned: a. b. 47. When a small child first goes to school, can (s)he understand everything his/her Nepali speaking teacher says? भखर्र स्कु ल जान थालेका स-साना नानीले िशक्षक-िशिक्षकाले कक्षामा नेपालीमा भनेका सबै कु रा बझ्छनु ्? (a) Yes सबै बझ्छनु ् (b) A little bit अिल अिल बझ्छनु ् (c) No बझ्दैननु ्

D. Domains of language use

48. Which language do you use most frequently for the following purposes? तपाई प्राय कु न भषा______-को लािग बोल् नहु न्ु छ ? Domain Language A Counting गन्ती गदार् B Singing गीत गाउँदा C Joking ठट्टा गदार् D Bargaining/ Shopping/ Marketing हाटबजार गदार्/मोलतोल गदार् E Story telling कथा भन्दा F Discussing/ Debate छलफल/वादिववाद गदार् G Praying प्राथर्ना गदार् H Quarrelling झगडा गदार् I Abusing (scolding/using taboo words) गाली गदार् J Telling stories to children केटाके टीलाई कथा सनाउु ँदा K Singing at home घरमा गीत गाउँदा L Family gatherings पािरवािरक जमघटमा M Village meetings गाउकोँ बैठकमा

49.a. Language most frequently used in Person Language the home when discussing education i. Grandfather: हजरबु बासु गँ matters. ii. Grandmother: हजरआमासु गँ तपाईंको घरमा िशिक्ष सम्बनधी कु राकानी गदार् iii. Father: बबासु गँ सबै भन्दा बढी बोिलने भाषा कु न हो? (जस्तै: सवद्यालय, भनार्, पढाइ, िक्शशकिशिक्षक iv. Mother: आमासगँ सम्बनधी) v. Spouse: श्रीमान्/श्रीमतीसगँ vi. Children: छोराछोरीसगँ

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49.b. Language most frequently used in Person Language home when discussing social events and i. Grandfather: हजरबु बासु गँ family matters. ii. Grandmother: हजरआमासु गँ तपाईंको घरमा सामािजक िक्रयाकलाप र iii. Father: बबासु गँ पािरवािरक िवषयमा छलफल गदार् (जस्तै: iv. Mother: ँ चाडपवर्, चनावु , उत्सव, िववाह, वचत, खचर् आमासग सम्बन्धी) v. Spouse: श्रीमान्/श्रीमतीसगँ vi. Children: छोराछोरीसगँ

49.c. If able to write Language most Person Language frequently used in home when writing i. Grandfather: हजरबु बासु गँ letters. ii. Grandmother: हजरआमासु गँ तपाईंको घरमा िचठ्ठीपत्र लेख्दा iii. Father: बबासु गँ iv. Mother: आमासगँ v. Spouse: श्रीमान्/श्रीमतीसगँ vi. Children: छोराछोरीसगँ 50. What language do your children usually speak while: तपाईँका छोराछोरीले प्राय जसो … कु न भाषा प्रयोग गछर्न् ? (a) playing with other children? अन्य साथीहरुसगँ खेल्दा ? (b) talking with neighbors? िछमे कीहरूसगँ कु राकानी गदार् ? (c) at school? िवद्यालयमा ? 51. How often do you use your mother tongue? तपाईँ आफ्नो मातभाषाृ कित्तको प्रयोग गनर् ु हन्छु ? (a) Every day िदन िदनै (b) Rarely किहले काही ँ (c) Never किहल्यै गिदर्न 52. What language of wider communication (LWC) is used here and how often do you use it? तपाईँको सम्पकर् भाषा कु न हो र त्यसको कित प्रयोग गनर्हु न्छु ? LWC name भाषाको नाम: (a) Every day िदन िदनै (b) Rarely किहले काही ँ (c) Never किहल्यै गिदर्न 53. Which language do you usually use when speakers of other languages visit you at home? तपाईँको भन्दा बेग्लै भाषा बोल्ने साथीभाइ तपाईँका घरमा आउँदा कु न भाषाको प्रयोग गनर्हु न्छु ? 54. What language do you prefer for your children's medium of instruction at primary level? तपाईँका छोराछोरीलाई प्राथिमक तहमा कु न भाषाको माध्यममा पढाउन चाहनहु न्छु ? (a) Mother tongue मातभाषाृ (b) Nepali नेपाली (c) English अंग्रेजी (d) Other अन्य

E. Language vitality (Intergenerational transfer)

55. Do all your children speak your mother tongue? तपाईँका सबै छोराछोरीले मातभाषाृ बोल्छन् ? 56. What language do most parents in this village usually speak with their children? यस गाउँका धेरै जसो आमा बवाहरुु आफ्ना छोराछोरीसगँ कु राकानी गदार् प्राय: कु न भाषाको प्रयोग गछर्न् ? (a) Mother tongue मातभाषाृ (b) Nepali नेपाली (c) Other अन्य

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57. Do young people in your village/town speak your mother tongue well, the way it ought to be spoken? तपाईँका समदायकाु यवायु वतीलेु यो भाषा जित राम्रो बोल्न ु पनेर् हो त्यित नै राम्ररी बोल्छन् ?

F. Language maintenance

58. Suppose someone started a class for learning how to read and write Lohorung/Yamphu, would you yourself want to attend? यिद कोही आएर लोहोरुङ / याम्फू भाषामा लेखने र पढ्ने क्लास चलायो भने तपाईं लेख्न पढ्न चाहनहु न्छु ? 58a. For what purpose/Why not? िकन ? 58b. If “Yes” for 57 How many hours would you be able to go to such a class each day? (यिद “हो” भने) प्रत्येक िदनमा तपाईं कती समय िदन सक्नहु न्छु ? 58c. Would it be good to have such a class available to children? यसले तपाईंको के ट ा – के ट ी (छोरा – छोरी) हरुलाई फाइदा परयाउछु ? 58d. What subjects would you like to read about in Lohorung / Yamphu? लोहोरुङ / याम्फू भाषामा तपाईं के क ो बारेमा पढ्न चाहनहु न्छु ? 59. Is knowing how to read and write Lohorung / Yamphu important to you? तपाईंकोलागी लोहोरुङमा / याम्फू मा लेख्न र पढ्न के महत्वपनार्ु छ ? 59a. For what reasons/purposes? के कारणले महत्वपनार्ु छ ?

G. Language Attitudes

60. How would you feel if your son or daughter married someone who does not know your language? तपाईँका छोरा वा छोरीले तपाईँको मातभाषाृ बोल्न नजान् ने मान्छेिसत िववाह गरे भने तपाईँलाई कस्तो लाग्छ ? (a) Good राम्रो (b) Indifferent िठकै (c) Bad नराम्रो 61. When the children of your village grow up and have children, do you think those children might speak your language? तपाईंको िवचारमा, तपाईंको गाइकोँ के ट ा के ट ी ह रु हकेर्ु र उनीहरुका बालबच्चा भएपिछ ती बालबच्चाहरुले तपाईंको भाषा बोल्लान ? 61a. How would you feel if they speak it (your language)? बोले भने तपाईँलाई कस्तो लाग्छब? (a) Good राम्रो (b) Indifferent िठकै (c) Bad नराम्रो 61b. How would you feel if they do not speak it (your language)? बोलेनन् भने कस्तो लाग्छ? (a) Good राम्रो (b) Indifferent िठकै (c) Bad नराम्रो 62. What language should your children speak first? तपाईँका छोराछोरीले सबैभन्दा पिहले कु न भाषा बोल्न ु पछर् ? 63. Do you think that the language spoken by you is different from your grandparents? तपाईँले बोल्ने भाषा तपाईँका हजरबु बाु /हजरआमालेु बोल्ने भाषा भन्दा फरक भए जस्तो लाग्छ ?

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64. (If “Yes”) How? के के म ा फरक होला ? (a) Pronunciation उच्चारणमा (b) Vocabulary शब्दभण्डारमा (c) Use of specific type of sentences िवशेष प्रकारका वाक्यहरूको प्रयोगमा (d) Mixing of other languages भाषािमश्रणमा (e) way of speaking बोल्ने तिरकामा (f) Other अन्यमा 65. How do you feel when you hear young people of your own community speaking other languages instead of their first language? तपाईँकै भािषक समदायकाु यवायु वतीलेु आफ्नो भाषा नबोलेर अकैर् भाषा बोलेको सन्दाु कस्तो लाग्छ ? (a) Good राम्रो (b) Indifferent िठकै (c) Bad नराम्रो 66. Comments (anything unusual or noteworthy about this interview)

C.2 Informal interview data

Key to abbreviated terms

Loh Lohorung Nep Nepali Yam Yamphu Eng English Y Yes N No M Male F Female NA Not Applicable NR No Response Lg. Language Sank Sankhuwasabha

Pangma metadata

All informal interviews were conducted April 27–28 and May 18, 2011, in Gairi Pangma, Khandbari 4, Sankhuwasabha District, Koshi, Eastern Region, Nepal. Each participant gave informed consent before the interview began. Interviews were conducted by Jessi Mitchell, Holly Hilty, and John Eppele.

Pangma informal interview responses

Int. # Gender Age Age group Literate Ed level Marital status MT of spouse Children Caste Ethnic group Clan Occupation Religion LP01 F 23 Young Y B.A. N NA N Rai Loh Yankurung Teacher Hindu LP02 M 53 Old Y 5 Y Yakkha Y Rai Loh Lamsong Farmer Kirat LP03 F 52 Old N NA Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lamchang Farmer Kirat LP04 F 49 Old Y 3 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lambachawa Farmer Kirat LP05 M 31 Young Y B.A. Y Yam N Rai Loh Bi'wa Teacher Kirat LP06 F 34 Young Y 4 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Dekhama Farmer Kirat LP07 M 46 Old Y 10 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Dekhim Farmer Kirat LP08 F 65 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Pituchawa Farmer Kirat LP09 M 36 Old Y 10 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lambachawa Farmer Buddhist LP10 F 75 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lamchong NR Kirat LP11 M 30 Young Y 5 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Yumpang Farmer Kirat LP12 M 22 Young Y 2+ N NA N Rai Loh Tikshabha Student Kirat LP19 F 34 Young Y 5 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Dekhim Farmer Kirat LP20 F 24 Young N 4 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Yangkhrum Farmer Kirat LP21 M 63 Old Y ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lamsong Farmer Kirat LP22 M 34 Young Y 3 Y Kulung Y Rai Loh Lumbuwa Farmer Kirat

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Int. # Birthplace VDC/Ward District Zone Home Now VDC/Ward now District now Zone now Years here? Lived elsewhere? When? How long? LP01 Dada Panma Khandbari Sank Koshi Dada Pangma Khandbari Sank Koshi 23 N NA NA LP02 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 53 N NA NA LP03 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 52 N NA NA LP04 Loke Pangma Khandbari Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 30 N NA NA LP05 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 31 N NA NA LP06 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 34 Y, Belbari 16‐20 years ago 0‐3 years LP07 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 46 N NA NA LP08 Tallo Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 43 Y, Tallo Dhupu 20+ years ago 11+ years LP09 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 36 N NA NA LP10 Heluwa Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 58 Y, Heluwa 20+ years ago 11+ years LP11 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 30 N NA NA LP12 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 22 N NA NA LP19 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 34 N NA NA LP20 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 24 N NA NA LP21 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 63 Y, Assam, India 0‐5 years ago 0‐3 years LP22 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi 34 Y, Malaysia 0‐5 years ago 0‐3 years Int. # MT Mother's birthplace Mother's MT Lg. w/ mother Father's birthplace Father's MT Lg. w/ Father Screening 2 Screening 3 Radio? How often? LP01 Loh Bhojpur Nep Nep Dada Pangma Loh Loh Y N N NA LP02 Loh Heluwa Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP03 Loh Khorande Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP04 Loh Dada Pangma Loh Loh Loke Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP05 Loh Heluwa Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP06 Loh Chiplegau Hombu Rai Nep Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP07 Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP08 Loh Saibun Yakkha Loh Dhupu Loh Loh N Y N NA LP09 Loh Heluwa Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP10 Loh Khorande Loh Loh Heluwa Loh Loh N Y N NA LP11 Loh Diding Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP12 Loh Diding Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP19 Loh Dada Pangma Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP20 Loh Diding (Kharsu) Khombu (Khaling) Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP21 Loh Loke Pangma Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA LP22 Loh Pangma, ward 9 Loh Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Y Y N NA

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Written What Lg. of What lg(s) you First lg. Best lg. Second Third Fourth Screening Lg. love most MT how well? How weel How well Int. # materials? kind? materials speak best lg. best lg. best lg. 4 read MT? write MT? LP01 N NA NA Loh, Nep Loh and Nep equally Loh and Nep equally NA NA NA Y Other Some Some Some LP02 N NA NA Loh, Nep, Hindi Loh Loh Nep Hindi NA Y Loh NA Very well Very well LP03 NA NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh and Nep equally NA NA NA Y Loh Some NA NA LP04 N NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA Only a little Some Loh, Nep, Eng Loh Other Nep Eng NA Y Loh, Nep and Some Some Some LP05 N NA NA Eng equally LP06 N NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh and Nep equally NA NA NA Y Loh Very well NA NA LP07 N NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA Some Some LP08 NA NA NA Loh, Nep, Magar Loh Loh Nep Magar NA Loh NA NA NA LP09 N NA NA Loh, Nep, Eng Loh Loh Nep Eng NA Y Loh NA Some Some LP10 NA NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA NA NA Folklore, LP11 Y Loh Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA Very well Only a little other LP12 Y Other Loh, Nep, Eng Loh Loh Loh Eng NA Y Loh Some Some LP19 N NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh and Nep equally NA NA NA Y Loh Very well NA NA LP20 NA NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA NA NA Loh, Nep, Hindi, Loh Loh Nep Hindi Assamese Y Loh NA NA NA LP21 NA NA NA Assamese LP22 NA NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Nep NA NA NA Column "What kind?" compiles the answers to individual questions about Literacy Materials, Newspaper, Magazines, Written Literature, Folklore, Health Materials, and Other Materials availability in Lohorung.

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Where kids Where kids Where kids Do children understand Nep Int. # Father's lg. Mother's lg. Spouse's lg. Children's lg. learned Loh learned Nep learned Eng when they start school? LP01 Loh, Nep Nep N NA NA NA NA A little LP02 Loh, Nep, Hindi Loh, Nep Nep, Yakkha Loh, Nep Home School NA Y LP03 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home School NA A little LP04 Loh, Nep, Lahure Loh, Nep Loh, Nep, Arabic Nep NA Home NA Y LP05 Loh, Nep, Hindi Loh, Nep Loh, Nep, Yam NA NA NA NA Y LP06 Loh, Nep, Hindi Loh, Nep Loh, Nep, Hindi, Eng, Arabic, Chinese Loh, Nep, Eng Home Home School Y LP07 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home School NA Y LP08 Loh Yakkha Loh, Nep, Hindi Nep, Eng NA School Other A little LP09 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home School NA A little LP10 NR NR NR Loh, Nep Home Here NA A little LP11 Loh, Nep, Hindi, Eng, Malaysian Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Nep NA Home NA Y LP12 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep N NA NA NA NA Y LP19 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep N Y LP20 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep, Khaling Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Other Home NA A little LP21 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home School NA A little LP22 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep, Khaling Nep NA School NA Y What language do you speak when... Int. # Telling stories to Family Village Counting Singing Joking Shopping Storytelling Debate Puja/Prayer Quarreling Scolding Singing at home kids gatherings meetings LP01 Loh Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Loh and Nep Nep LP02 Nep Nep Loh Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Nep LP03 Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh Nep LP04 Loh Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Loh and Nep LP05 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Other Other Other Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Loh Loh LP06 Loh Loh Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Loh LP07 Nep Nep Loh Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh and Nep Nep Loh Loh LP08 Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep LP09 Nep Nep Loh Nep Loh Nep Loh Nep Nep Loh Nep Loh Nep LP10 Loh and Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh and Nep NA Loh Loh and Nep LP11 Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep LP12 Nep Other Other Other Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh and Nep LP19 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Loh LP20 Loh Nep Loh Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LP21 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep LP22 Nep Nep Loh and Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh

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Language most frequently used in the home when discussing education matters with... Language most frequently used in the home when discussing social events and family matters with... Int. # Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children LP01 NA NA NA Nep NA NA NA NA NA Nep NA NA LP02 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep LP03 NA NA NA NA Loh Loh NA NA NA NA Loh Nep LP04 NA NA Loh Loh Loh Loh NA NA Loh Loh Loh Loh LP05 Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep NA Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep NA LP06 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh and Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LP07 NA NA Loh Loh Loh Loh and Nep NA NA Loh Loh Loh Loh and Nep LP08 NA NA NA NA Loh Loh NA NA NA NA Loh Loh LP09 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh and Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LP10 NA NA NA NA Loh Loh NA NA NA NA Loh Loh LP11 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LP12 Loh Loh Loh Loh NA NA Loh Loh Loh Loh NA NA LP19 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh NA Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh NA LP20 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LP21 Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep LP22 Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep Int. # Language most frequently used in home when writing letters to... What language do your children usually speak when... How often use MT LWC How often use LWC Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children Playing with children Talking with neighbors At school LP01 NA NA NA Nep NA NA NA NA NA Every day Nep Every day LP02 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LP03 NA NA NA NA NA NA Loh and Nep Nep Nep Every day Nep Every day LP04 NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Every day Nep Every day LP05 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA NA Every day Nep Every day LP06 Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Loh Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LP07 NA NA NA NA Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Loh Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LP08 NA NA NA NA NA NA Loh Loh Nep and Loh Every day Nep Every day LP09 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LP10 NA NA NA NA NA NA Loh Loh and Nep Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LP11 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LP12 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA NA NA Every day Nep Sometimes LP19 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Every day Nep Sometimes LP20 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep Nep Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LP21 NA NA NA NA NA NA Loh Loh Nep Every day Nep Every day LP22 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep Nep Nep Every day Nep Every day

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Int. # What lg. do you prefer for your children's medium of Lg. most parents in village usually speak with their Your children speak MT? Young people speak MT well? instruction at primary level? children? LP01 English NA Loh N ‐ they speak Loh, but don't know all the words LP02 Loh Y Loh Y LP03 Loh Y Loh and Nep N LP04 Loh Y Loh Y LP05 Loh NA Nep N LP06 English Y Loh Y LP07 Loh Y Loh N ‐ kids don't speak quite as well as they should LP08 Other Y Loh Y LP09 Loh Y Loh N ‐ just average LP10 Other Y Loh N ‐ some LP11 Nep Y Loh Y LP12 English NA Loh and Nep N LP19 Loh NA Loh Y LP20 English Y Loh Y LP21 Other Y Loh Y LP22 Nep Y Loh Y If someone started a class for learning to read and write Loh, would you Would it be good to Int. # What subjects would you Is reading/writing in Loh important to you? yourself want to attend? have such a class for like to learn about in Loh? Attend? Why? How many hours? children? Y/N? Why? LP01 Y To not forget Y Social studies, anything Y To not lose our language LP02 Y For myself 1‐2 Y Stories Y Own (bawishyako lagi) So the children could know it. She says Nep for herself because LP03 N NA NA Y Gods Y her eyes are bad. If you know your own language, it's good; good to know about LP04 N NA NA Y NA Y ancestors. No for herself to the class because she can't see LP05 Y Preserve our language 2‐3 Y Culture, social subjects Y To keep in existence LP06 Y So it isn't lost 1‐2 Y Good subjects Y Loh would get ahead LP07 Y Because it's his ‐ he should read and write it 2‐3 Y Culture, origins Y LP08 Y If she could read and write she'd be happy 1‐2 Y History Y They could know about the history of their fathers LP09 Y You should learn your own tongue 1‐2 Y Language, history, culture Y So we don't forget so it's not lost LP10 N NA NA Y NA Y Because its her language from way back LP11 Y To teach 1‐2 Y Stories, history Y We must not lose our language ‐ protect it LP12 Y It's my mother tongue 1‐2 Y Stories Y Origin story is important LP19 Y Our language is easy to speak, but hard to write Y NR Y To preserve our language It's my own language and I want to learn to read LP20 Y Y Anything good Y Because then I could know/understand everything and write it ‐ who wouldn't want that? To learn it (reading and writing in mother Our pujas, culture, To learn to read and write better, and to protect our mother LP21 Y 1‐2 Y Y tongue) language tongue LP22 Y So we don't forget our culture and language 3‐4 Y Culture Y We're losing our culture ‐ I don't want to forget our culture

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How would you feel Is the lg. spoken by you different Will your childrens' children speak Loh? What lg. should How do you feel when young Int. # if your child from grandparents? children speak people of your community speak married a non‐Loh Speak? If so, how would you feel? If not, how would you feel? first? Different? If so, how? other languages besides Loh? speaker? LP01 Indifferent Y Good ‐ they'll speak a little Bad Loh N NA Indifferent LP02 Bad Y Good Bad Loh N NA Bad LP03 Bad N Good Bad Loh Y Haven't learned it Bad LP04 Bad Y Good Bad Loh Y Mixing of lgs Bad LP05 Bad ‐ "strange" N Good Bad Loh Y Vocab Bad Mixing of lgs, parents LP06 Bad Y Good Bad Loh Y Bad haven't taught to kids LP07 Bad Y Good Bad Loh N NA Bad LP08 Good Y Good Indifferent Loh Y Mixing of lgs Good LP09 Bad Y Good Bad Loh Y Grandparents speak more Bad LP10 Good N Good Bad Loh Y Vocab Bad LP11 Indifferent Y Good Bad N Bad LP12 Bad N Good Bad Loh Y Mixed village/school Bad LP19 Indifferent Y Good Bad Loh N NA Bad LP20 Indifferent Y Good ‐ ekdam! Bad ‐ we'd have to teach them! Loh N NA Bad LP21 Bad N Good Bad Loh N NA Bad Good ‐ they'll speak, but not LP22 Indifferent Y Bad Nep N NA Indifferent as good as they do now

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Angala metadata

All informal interviews were conducted on May 21–22, 2011, in Angala, Sitalpati 6, Sakhuwasabha District, Koshi, Eastern Region, Nepal. Each participant gave informed consent before the interview began. Interviews were conducted by Holly Hilty

Angala informal interview responses

Int. # Gender Age Age group Literate Ed level Marital status MT of spouse Children Caste Ethnic group Clan Occupation Religion LA01 M 52 Old N 2 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Khisong Farmer Kirat LA02 M 15 Young Y 10 N NA N Rai Loh Lamsong Student Kirat LA03 F 59 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lamsong Farmer Kirat LA04 F 56 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lamsong Farmer Kirat LA05 M 20 Young Y 8 N NA N Rai Loh Khaisong Student Kirat LA06 F 51 Old Y 5 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Bi'wa Farmer Kirat LA07 M 18 Young Y 10 N NA N Rai Loh Lamsong Student Kirat LA08 M 40 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Ketra Farmer Kirat LA10 F 26 Young Y B.A. N NA N Rai Loh Ketra Teacher Kirat LA11 F 15 Young Y 10 N NA N Rai Loh Lamsong Student Kirat LA12 M 42 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Lamsong Farmer Kirat LA13 F 20 Young Y 10 N NA N Rai Loh Lamsong Student Kirat Int.# Birthplace VDC/Ward District Zone Home Now VDC/Ward now District now Zone now Years here? Lived elsewhere? When? How long? LA01 Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 52 N NA NA LA02 Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 15 N NA NA LA03 Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 42 N NA NA LA04 Malta Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 40 Y, Malta 20+ years ago 11+ years LA05 Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 20 N NA NA LA06 Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 34 N NA NA LA07 Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 18 N NA NA LA08 Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati Sank Koshi 40 N NA NA LA10 Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sank Koshi 26 N NA NA LA11 Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sank Koshi 15 N NA NA LA12 Angala Sitalpati,6 Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sank Koshi 42 N NA NA LA13 Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sank Koshi Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sank Koshi 20 N NA NA

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Int.# MT Mom's birthplace Mom's MT lg w/ mom Dad's birthplace Dad's MT lg w/ dad Screening 2 Screening 3 Radio? How often? LA01 Loh Khartuwa (just below to Angala) Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y N NA LA02 Loh Malta Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y N NA LA03 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Pangma Loh Loh N Y N NA LA04 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Malta Loh Loh N Y N NA LA05 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y N NA LA06 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Pangma Loh Loh N Y N NA LA07 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y N NA LA08 Loh Koktima Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y N NA LA10 Loh Angala Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y N NA LA11 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y Y Sometimes LA12 Loh Simle 7 Loh Loh Angala Loh Loh Y Y N NA LA13 Loh Gairi Pangma Loh Loh Angala Loh Other Y N Y Never

Written Lg. of What lg(s) First lg. Best lg. Second Third best Fourth best Screening 4 Lg. love MT how How well How well Int.# What kind? materials? materials you speak best lg. lg. lg. most well? read MT? write MT? LA01 NA N NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Loh NA NA Y Loh Very well NA NA LA02 Y Other Loh, Nep Loh Loh Loh NA NA Y Loh Only a little Only a little Only a little LA03 NA N NA Loh Nep Loh Eng Nep NA NA Y Loh NA NA NA LA04 NA N NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA NA NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh and NA NA NA Y Nep Some Some Some LA05 Y Newspaper Loh Nep equally LA06 N N NA Lon, Nep Loh Loh Loh NA NA Y Loh Some Some Some LA07 Y Other Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA NA NA LA08 NA N NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Loh NA NA Y Loh Some NA NA LA10 Y Other Loh Loh, Nep Nep Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA Only a little NA Newspaper, Loh, Nep, Loh Nep Eng NA NA Y Nep Very well Some Some LA11 Y Loh Other Eng LA12 NA N NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Other NA NA NA LA13 Y Other Loh Loh, Nep Nep Loh Loh NA NA Y Nep Some Very well Only a little Column "What kind?" compiles the answers to individual questions about Literacy Materials, Newspaper, Magazines, Written Literature, Folklore, Health Materials, and Other Materials availability in Lohorung.

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Int.# Father's lgs. Mother's lgs. Spouse's lgs. Kid's lgs. Where kids learned Loh Where kids learned Nep Do children understand Nep when they start school? LA01 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep NR School Y LA02 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep NA NA NA NA A little LA03 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home School A little LA04 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep NR School A little LA05 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep NA NA NA NA Y LA06 Loh, Nep, Eng Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep NR School Y LA07 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep NA NA NA NA A little LA08 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home Home Y LA10 Loh, Nep, Eng Loh, Nep NA NA NA NA Y LA11 Loh, Nep, Eng Loh, Nep NA NA NA NA Y LA12 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home School Y LA13 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep NA NA NA NA Y

What languag do you speak when... Int.# Telling stories Singing at Family Village Counting Singing Joking Shopping Storytelling Debate Puja/Prayer Quarreling Scolding to kids home gatherings meetings LA01 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh and Nep LA02 Other Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LA03 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh NA Loh Loh and Nep NA Loh Loh LA04 Nep Nep Loh Nep Loh Loh Loh NA Loh Loh NA Loh Loh LA05 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep LA06 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep LA07 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LA08 Nep Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh Loh and Nep Loh Nep Nep Loh Nep LA10 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep Loh Loh LA11 Loh and Nep Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Loh Nep Nep Loh Loh LA12 Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh and Nep Loh Nep Nep Loh Nep LA13 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh and Nep Loh and Nep

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Language most frequently used in the home when discussing education Language most frequently used in the home when discussing social events Int.# matters with... and family matters with... Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children LA01 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LA02 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA LA03 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LA04 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LA05 Loh Loh Loh Loh NA NA Loh Loh Loh Loh NA NA LA06 Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep and Loh Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep LA07 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA LA08 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LA10 NA NA Loh Loh NA NA NA NA Loh Loh NA NA LA11 Other Other Nep Nep NA NA Loh Loh Loh Loh NA NA LA12 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LA13 Other Other Other Other NA NA Other Other Other Other NA NA

Language most frequently used in home when writing letters to... What language do your children usually speak when... How often How often Int.# LWC Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children Playing with children Talking with neighbors At school use MT use LWC LA01 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep and Loh Nep and Loh Nep Every day Nep Every day LA02 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA NA NA Sometimes Nep Every day LA03 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep and Loh Loh Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LA04 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep Loh Nep Every day Nep Sometimes LA05 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA NA NA Every day Nep Every day LA06 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Every day Nep Every day LA07 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Sometimes Nep Every day LA08 NA NA NA NA NA NA Loh Loh Nep Every day Nep Every day LA10 NA NA Nep Nep NA NA NA NA NA Sometimes Nep Every day LA11 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA NA NA Every day Nep Every day LA12 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep Loh Nep and Loh Every day Nep Sometimes LA13 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Every day Nep Every day

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What lg. do you prefer for your children's Int.# Your children speak MT? Lg. most parents in village usually speak with their children Young people speak MT well? medium of instruction at primary level? LA01 Nep Y Loh Y LA02 Other NA Nep N LA03 Loh Y Loh N ‐ have forgotten some, but speak! LA04 Loh Y Loh Y LA05 English NA Loh Y LA06 Loh N Nep N ‐ only older ones speak LA07 Nep NA Nep N LA08 Loh Y Loh Y LA10 Nep NA Loh Y LA11 Nep NA Loh Y LA12 Other Y Loh N LA13 Nep NA Loh Y

If someone started a class for leanring to read and write Loh, would you yourself Would it be Is reading/writing Loh important to you? want to attend? good to have What subjects would you like to learn about Int.# such a class for in Loh? Attend? Why? How many hours? Important? Why? children? LA01 Y Would like to learn 2‐3 Y History, biographies of ancestors Y Great to read/write in own language LA02 Y Own language preservation 2‐3 Y Stories, poems, history Y To preserve the language LA03 Y I'd be happy 2‐3 Y Whatever beginning books were published Y To have an opportunity to study LA04 Y Because I didn't get to study before 2‐3 Y History Y To learn LA05 Y Own language ‐ to learn it according to the class Y Stories Y To know everything LA06 Y To learn own language 2‐3 Y History Y To preserve language LA07 Y Own jat, like to learn. 1‐2 Y Stories N NR LA08 Y To preserve language 1‐2 Y Stories, history Y To preserve language; learn to write LA10 Y own language and culture preservation 2‐3 Y Stories, songs Y To read Loh, to know history LA11 Y Own language, culture preservation 3‐4 Poems Y Own language LA12 Y Because it's our own language 2‐3 Y Science Y For development as much as would be Poems LA13 Y Wants to study own language and culture Y Y Preserve the language needed

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How would you feel if your Will your Is the lg. spoken by How do you feel when young If so, how would you If not, how would What lg. should Int.# child married non‐Loh children's children you different from If so, how? people of your community speak feel? you feel? children speak first? speaker? speak Loh? grandparent's? other languages besides Loh? Indifferent ‐ prefer Loh, but Loh ‐ but need Nep LA01 Y Good Bad Y Mixing of lgs Indifferent would accept others too LA02 Bad N Good Bad Loh N NA Good LA03 Bad Y Good Bad Loh Y Vocab Good LA04 Bad Y Good Bad Loh Y Vocab, Mixing of lgs Bad Good ‐ they speak now, LA05 Bad N Bad Nep N NA NR but maybe not later Don't speak as much LA06 Bad N Good Bad Loh Y Bad now LA07 Good N Good Bad Loh N NA Bad LA08 Bad Y Good Indifferent Loh Y They spoke a lot Bad LA10 Indifferent Y Good Bad Loh N NA Indifferent LA11 Indifferent Y Good Indifferent Nep N NA Indifferent Bad ‐ we would Bad ‐ after going to school kids LA12 Indifferent Y Good Loh and Nep equally Y Mixing of lgs lose our language speak only Nep Bad ‐ they should LA13 Indifferent N Good Nep Y Mixing of lgs Indifferent study

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Dhupu metadata

All informal interviews were conducted May 15–16, 2011, in Dhupu, Dhupu 5, Sankhuwasabha District, Koshi, Eastern Region, Nepal. Each participant gave informed consent before the interview began. Interviews were conducted by Jessi Mitchell, Holly Hilty, and John Eppele.

Dhupu informal interview responses

Int. # Gender Age Age group Literate Ed level Marital status MT of spouse Children Caste Ethnic group Clan Occupation Religion LD01 M 30 Young N ‐‐ Y Limbu Y Rai Yam Biksik Farmer Kirat LD02 F 50 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Kitsama Farmer Hindu LD03 F 18 Young Y 6 N NA N Rai Loh Yunkama Student Kirat LD04 F 38 Old Y 6 Y Limbu Y Rai Loh Yunkama building the society building Kirat LD05 F 21 Young Y 5 N NA N Rai Loh Yumkama Farmer Kirat LD06 M 18 Young Y 9 N NA N Rai Loh Yangkrung Student Kirat LD07 M 33 Young Y 10 Y Loh Y Rai Loh Khechaba Farmer Kirat LD08 M 45 Old Y 2+ Y Bantawa Y Rai Loh Yangkrung Teacher Kirat LD09 M 75 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Yungkhaba Retired Kirat LD10 F 57 Old Y ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Kaisong Farmer Kirat LD11 M 42 Old Y 5 Y Limbu Y Rai Loh Khechaba Farmer Kirat LD12 M 68 Old N ‐‐ Y Loh Y Rai Loh Khechaba Farmer Kirat LD13 F 17 Young Y 10 N NA N Rai Loh Student Hindu Int. # Birthplace VDC/Ward District Zone Home Now VDC/Ward now District now Zone now Years here? Lived elsewhere? When? How long? LD01 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 30 N NA NA LD02 Dhupu Dhupu,5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 50 N NA NA LD03 Dhupu Dhupu,5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 18 Y, Sikkim 0‐5 years ago 0‐3 years LD04 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 38 Y, Dhupu 4 16‐20 years ago 7‐10 years LD05 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 21 N NA NA LD06 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 18 N NA NA LD07 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 30 Y, Qatar 0‐5 years ago 0‐3 years LD08 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 45 N NA NA LD09 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 75 N NA NA LD10 Simling Dhupu, 7 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 28 N NA NA LD11 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 42 Y, Malaysia 0‐5 years ago 0‐3 years LD12 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 68 Y, Assam 20+ years ago 4‐6 years LD13 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sank Koshi 12 Y, Khandbari 4‐6 years

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Int. # MT Mom's birthplace Mom's MT Lg. w/ mom Dad's birthplace Dad's MT Lg. w/ dad Screening 2 Screening 3 Radio? How often? LD01 Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Y N N NA LD02 Loh Loktam Loh Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Y N NR NA LD03 Loh Matsya Pokhari Khaling Nep Dhupu Loh Nep N N NR NA LD04 Loh Malta Loh Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Y Y Y Sometimes LD05 Loh Sachi (far away) Limbu Nep Dhupu Loh Nep N N Y Sometimes LD06 Loh Simle Loh Loh Dhupu Loh Nep N N N NA LD07 Loh Pawa village, Bharabise, ward 6 Loh Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Y Y Y Sometimes LD08 Loh Bharibise Limbu Nep Dhupu Loh Nep N N N NA LD09 Loh Tamkhule VDC Loh Nep Dhupu Loh Nep N N N NA LD10 Loh Pangma Loh Loh Simling Loh Loh N Y N NA LD11 Loh Diding Loh Nep Dhupu Loh Nep N N N NA LD12 Loh Dhupu Khaling Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Y Y N NA LD13 Loh Jangsijung ward 2 Limbu Loh Dhupu Loh Loh Y N N NA Written Language of What lg(s) you Second best Third Fourth Screenin MT how How well How well Int. # What kind? First lg. Best lg. Lg. love most materials? materials speak lg. best lg. best lg. g 4 well? read MT? write MT? LD01 NA N NA Loh, Nep Nep Nep Loh NA NA Y Nep Only a little NA NA LD02 N NA Loh, Nep Loh and Nep equally Loh Loh NA NA Y Loh Some NA NA LD03 Y N NA Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA Y Loh NA NA NA LD04 Y N NA Loh, Nep, Eng Loh Loh Loh Eng NA N Loh Some Some Some LD05 N N NA Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA Y Nep Only a little Only a little Only a little LD06 N N NA Loh, Nep Nep Loh Loh NA NA Y Loh Some Only a little Only a little Literacy Loh, Nep, LD07 Y Loh Loh Loh Loh Hindi Eng Y Loh Very well Only a little Only a little materials Hindi, Eng LD08 N N NA Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA Y Loh Only a little NA NA LD09 NA N NA Loh, Nep Nep Nep Loh NA NA Y Nep Only a little NA NA LD10 N N NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh and Nep equally NA NA NA Y Nep Some Only a little Only a little Nep (Loh, but I LD11 N N NA Nep Nep Other NA NA NA Y don't speak it) LD12 NA N NA Loh, Nep Loh Loh Nep NA NA Y Loh NA NA NA LD13 Y N NA Loh, Nep Nep Loh Loh NA NA Nep Some

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Where kids Where kids Where learned Where Do children understand Nep when they Int. # Father's lgs. Mother's lgs. Spouse's lgs. Children's lgs. learned Loh learned Nep Limbu learned Eng start school? LD01 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Nep Nep NA Home NA NA Y LD02 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Home Home NA NA Y LD03 Loh, Nep Nep, Khaling NA NA NA NA NA NA Y LD04 Loh, Nep, Eng Loh, Nep Nep, Hindi, Limbu, Eng Nep, Limbu, Eng NA Home Home School Y LD05 Loh, Nep Nep, Limbu N NA NA NA NA NA Y LD06 Loh, Nep Nep N NA NA NA NA NA a little LD07 Loh, Nep, Hindi Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep, Eng Other Other NA School Y LD08 Loh, Nep Nep, Limbu Nep Nep NA Home NA NA Y LD09 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Nep, Eng NA Home NA Other a little LD10 Loh, Nep, Eng Loh Loh, Nep Nep NA Home NA NA Y LD11 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep Nep, Limbu Nep NA Home NA NA a little LD12 Loh, Nep Nep Nep Loh, Nep Home Home NA NA Y LD13 Loh, Nep Loh, Nep, Limbu N NA NA NA NA NA Y What language do you speak when... Int. # Counting Singing Joking Shopping Storytelling Debate Puja/Prayer Quarreling Scolding Telling stories to kids Singing at home Family gatherings Village meetings LD01 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD02 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD03 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD04 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD05 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD06 Nep Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD07 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD08 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD09 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD10 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD11 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD12 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Loh and Nep Nep Nep LD13 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Loh Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep

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Language most frequently used in the home when discussing education matters with... Language most frequently used in the home when discussing social events and family matters with... Int. # Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children LD01 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD02 Nep NA Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD03 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA LD04 Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Lim Nep LD05 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA LD06 NA Other Other Loh NA NA NA Nep Nep Nep NA NA LD07 NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep LD08 NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep LD09 NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep LD10 Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Nep LD11 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep LD12 Loh Loh Loh Nep Nep Nep Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh Loh LD13 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA Language most frequently used in the hom when writing letters to... What language do your children usually speak when... How often use Int. # LWC How often use LWC Grandfather Grandmother Father Mother Spouse Children Playing w/ children Talking with neighbors At school MT LD01 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep Nep Nep Sometimes Nep Every day LD02 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep Nep and Loh Nep Sometimes Nep Every day LD03 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Never Nep Every day LD04 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep and English Sometimes Nep Every day LD05 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Never Nep Every day LD06 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Sometimes Nep Every day LD07 NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Sometimes Nep Every day LD08 NA NA Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Never Nep Every day LD09 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep Nep Never Nep Every day LD10 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Sometimes Nep Every day LD11 Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Nep Sometimes Nep Every day LD12 NA NA NA NA NA NA Nep and Loh Nep Nep Sometimes Nep Every day LD13 Nep Nep Nep Nep NA NA NA NA NA Sometimes Nep Every day

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What lg. do you prefer for your children's medium of Lg. most parents in village usually speak with their Int. # Your children speak MT? Young people speak MT well? instruction at primary level? children? LD01 Loh Y Nep N LD02 Loh Y Nep N LD03 English NA Nep N LD04 Other N Y ‐ a little LD05 Nep NA Nep N LD06 Loh NA Nep N LD07 Loh N Nep N LD08 Loh N Nep N LD09 Nep N Nep N LD10 Loh N Nep N LD11 Nep N Nep N LD12 Nep Y Loh N LD13 Nep NA Nep Y ‐ some do If someone started a class for learning to read and write Loh, would you Would it be good to have What subjects would you like Is reading/writing Loh important to you? Int. # yourself want to attend? such a class for children? to learn about in Loh? Attend? Why? How many hours? Important? Why? LD01 Y It's his own language 4+ Y Society Y To preserve it, to develop it LD02 Y It's her own culture/language 1‐2 Y Stories, history, science Y Her own culture to preserve it LD03 Y To study her own language as much as would be needed Y Health Y Good to study her own language LD04 Y Her own language 4+ Y About Loh language Y It's good/our own LD05 Y To learn her own language 2‐3 Y Stories Y To study it LD06 Y It's his own language 2‐3 Y Stories Y His own language and culture ‐ good to learn about it Because it's my own language, comes best to me and I LD07 Y It's my own language According to the class Y Culture, religion Y want to read it LD08 Y To learn our language 1‐2 Y Culture, history Y To learn our language His eyes aren't good. And Nep for the kids because they LD09 N NA NA N NA N don't understand Loh LD10 Y To speak, learn mother tongue 1‐2 Y About Loh language Y For development LD11 Y To learn our language 4+ Y Materials to help learn my lg. Y To learn our language We speak Loh, but don't write it. He has bad eyes so LD12 N NA NA N NA N wouldn't like the class LD13 Y Like to learn 2‐3 Y History Y To learn own language

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Is the lg. spoken How would you feel If not, how What lg. should How do you feel when young people of Will your children's by you different Int. # if your child married If so, how would you feel? would you children speak If so, how? your community speak other children speak Loh? from non‐Loh speaker? feel? first? languages besides Loh? grandparent's? LD01 Good Y Good ‐ they'll only speak it during puja Bad Nep Y Mixing of lgs Indifferent LD02 Bad Y Good ‐ they'll only speak if they teach them Bad Loh N NA Bad LD03 Bad N Good Bad Loh NA NA Good LD04 Bad Y Good ‐ they'll speak a little Bad Loh Y Mixing of lgs Bad LD05 Bad Y Good ‐ they'll only speak if they teach them Bad Nep Y Young people now don't speak Bad Mixing of lgs, way of speaking, LD06 Indifferent N Good Bad Loh Y theirs was pure because they Bad didn't know Nep LD07 Good Y Good Bad Loh N NA Bad LD08 Indifferent N Good Indifferent Loh NA NA Bad LD09 Indifferent N Indifferent Indifferent Nep NA NA Indifferent LD10 Bad Y Good ‐ if we teach them, they'll speak Bad Nep N NA Bad LD11 Bad Y Good Bad Nep NA NA Bad LD12 Good N Good Indifferent Loh Y We speak Loh less than they did Bad Good ‐ could go either way. They may speak, LD13 Bad Bad Nep N NA NR they may not

Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ)

D.1 Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ)

My name is ………. I am from Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University. I am here to learn about your language and its situation. We will share the information given by you with others. Are you willing to help us? मेरो नाम...... हो। हामी ित्रभवनु िवश्विवध्यालय भाषािवग्यान के न् द्र ीय िवभागबाट यहाहरुकोँ भाषाको अध्ययन अनसन्धानकाु लािग आएका हौ। यहाहरुलेँ िदनभएकोु भाषासम्बन्धी जानकारीलाई अरुसगँ राख्ने छौ। हामीलाई सहयोग िदन सक्नहु न्छु ? INFORMED CONSENT: Given: □ Not Given: □ A. Meta data (Baseline information) Question Answer Interview Number Date Day: Month: Year: Ward No: Village/Town: VDC/Municipality: District: Place of Interview Zone: GPS Coordinates……………………………E ……………………………………………..N

Interviewer Name 1. Name of language consultant: तपाईको परु नाम के हो ? 2. (Ask if needed) Sex: (a) Male (b) Female 3. Age: उमेर 4. Caste: जाती कु न हो ? 5. Ethnic group: (जनजाित समहु ) थर कु न हो ? 6. What is your mother tongue? तपाईको मात्री भाषा के हो ? 7. Name given by the nonnative speakers for your language तपाईको भाषा नबोल्नेहरुले तपाईको भाषालाई के भनछन् ? 8. Different names of the language if any? यो भाषाका अरु के के नाम छन् ? 9. Your mother's mother tongue तपाईको आमाको मात्री भाषा के हो ? 10. Your father's mother tongue तपाईको बवाकोु मात्री भाषा के हो ? 11. What village were you born in? तपाई जन् मेको स् थान/गाउँ कहा ँ हो ? (a) Ward No. वाडर् न (b)Village/Town गाउँ/नगर (c)VDC/municipality गािवस/नगरपािलका 12. Where do you live now? हाल तपाई कहा ँ बस् नहु न्ु छ ? 12a. How many years have you lived here? तपाई यहा ँ बस्न भएकोु कित समय भयो ? 13. Other ethnic groups residing in your area: अरु जातका मािनसहरु यहा ँ बस्छ्न ?

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14. Other languages spoken by those groups: िय जातका मिनसहरु कु न कु न भाषाहरु बोल् छन् ? 15. Is there intermarriage in your community? तपाईको समदायमाु अन् तजाितय िववाह हन्ु छ ? 15a. (If “Yes”) Which other language groups have common marital relationship with your language group? ….हरुले धेरै भन् दा धेरै कु न जाितहरुसग िववाह सम् वन् ध राखेको छ ? 16. When you speak your mother tongue in the presence of the speaker of the dominant language what do you feel? (प्रभावकारी dominant)भाषा बोल् ने व्यिक्तहरुको बीचमा तपाईलाई आफ्नो मात्रीभाषा बोल्द कस्तो लग्छ ? (a) Prestigious प्रितष्ठा बढे जस्तो लाग्छ (b) Embarrassed अप्ठयारो लग्छ (c) Neutral त् यस्तो के ह ी लाग्दैन 17. Have you ever had any problem because of being a native speaker of your mother tongue? मात्रीभाषा भएको कारण तपाईले किहल्य ै कु नै समस्या भोग्न ु भएको छ ? 17a. (If “Yes”) what kinds of problems have you had? के कस्तो समस्या भोग्न ु भएको छ ?

B. Language resources

18. What are the major kinds of Oral literature available in your language? तपाईको भाषामा मौिखक सािहत्य के के उपलब्ध छन् ? (a) folk tales, लोक कथा (b) songs, सगीत (c) religious literature, धािम्कर् सािहत्य (d) radio, रेिडयो (e) films, िसनेमा (f) CD/ DVD, सीडी/डीभीडी (g) Other अन्य 19. (If they mentioned radio programs) How often do you listen to radio program broadcast in your language? तपाई आफ्नो मत्रीभाषामा रेिडयो कायर्क्रम कितको सन्ु नहु न्छु ? (a) Usually सधै (b) Sometimes किहले काही (c) Never किहले पिन 20. (only ask literate language consultants) Are there materials written about your language? तपाईको भाषाकको बारेमा िलिखत सामग्री के के छन् ?

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21. (If “Yes”) What language(s) is it written in? कु न भाषामा लेिखएका छन् ? a. Phonemic inventory वणर्माला f. Newspapers समाचारपत्र b. Grammar व्याकरण g. Magazines पित्रका c. Dictionary शब्दकोष h. Written literature िलिखत सािहत्य d. Textbooks पाठ् यपस्तकु i. Folklore लोकवातार् e. Literacy materials साक्षरता सामग्री j. Other अन्य 22. (If they mentioned written materials) Do you read any of these things written in your language? तपाई आफ्नो भाषामा मािथका सामग्री मध्ये कु नै पढ्नहन्छु ? 23. (Only ask literate consultants, if their language has written materials): What script(s) is your language written in? तपाईको भाषा कु न िलिपमा लेिखन्छ ? 24. Are there any organizations that promote the knowledge and/ or use of the language? तपाईको भाषामा भएको ग्यान अथवा उपयोगलाई िवकास वा प्रवध्नर्मा लािगपरेका कु नै सस्था वा िनकायहरु छन् 24a. (If “Yes”) Please name those organizations. ती सस्थाहरुको नाम भिन िदन ु होस्। 24b. What kinds of activities do each organization perform? ती सस्थाले के कस्ता काम गछर्न् ? (a) Cultural सािस्क्रितक (b) Linguistic भािषक (c) Educational शौक्षक (d) Other अन्य 25. What language does your community use for marriage invitations? िवहकोे िनम्तो गनर् ु पदार् तपाईहरु कु न भाषाको प्रयोग गनर्हु न्छु ? 26. What language is usually used to write minutes in community meetings? समदायकाु बैठकमा भएक िनणर्य लेख्न ु पदार् कु न भाषाको प्रयोग गिरन्छ ? 27. Additional information about health services. 28. Additional information about school services.

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D.2 Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ) data

Each respondent for the Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire gave oral informed consent before it was administered. Village Date Village(s) VDC/Ward District Zone Interviewer Name Name of Insider Gender Age Caste Ethnic Group Bikash Yamphu (Chawa); YR 28‐May‐11 Tilinggau Tilinggau, 7 Dhankuta Koshi John Eppele Binod Yamphu (Chawa); Male 26, 26, 28 Rai Yamphu Naresh Yamphu (Yangkhela) Nir Bahadur Lohorung Rai; LP 26‐Apr‐11 Gairi Pangma Khandbari, 4 Sankhuwasabha Koshi John Eppele; Holly Hilty Kesarman Lohorung Rai; Male 79; 76; 85 Rai Lohorung Prem Bahadur Dekhim Krishna Bahadur Rai LD 16‐May‐11 Dhupu Dhupu, 5 Sankhuwasabha Koshi John Eppele Male 68 Rai Lohorung (Pacchha: Jungkabha) LA 21‐May‐11 Angala Sitalpati, 6 Sankhuwasabha Koshi Holly Hilty Dig Bahadur Lohorung Rai Male 57 Rai Lohorung Name for lg. Mother's Where do you live Village MT Other names for lg. Father's MT Village of birth How many years? Other ethnic groups in area Languages spoken by these groups by outsiders MT now? Patigau (Morang, (In ward 7) Limbu (2 houses); Since age 5; Limbu‐Yamphu, a little Limbu, Nepali; Ward 6); Rajarani, ward 7, Yakkha (4 houses); YR Yam Yamphu None Yamphu Yamphu Since birth; Yakkha‐Yamphu, Nepali, NO Yakkha; Rajarani (ward 7); Tilinggau Gurung (4 houses); Since birth Gurung‐Yamphu, Nepali, NO Gurung; Rajarani (ward 7) No Nepali castes Gairi Pangma; LP Loh Rai Lohorung Khap Lohorung Lohorung Gairi Pangma; Gairi Pangma (all) Since birth Chettri; Bahun, Kami, Sarki All speak Nepali Gairi Pangma Magar‐Magar, Nepali; Magar, Tamang, Limbu, Tamang‐Tamang, Nepali; Yakkhaba Khap, LD Loh None Lohorung Lohorung Dhupu (ward 8) Dhupu (ward 5) 42 Bahun/Chettri, Kami/Damai, Limbu‐Limbu, Nepali; Lohorung Newar B/C‐Nepali; K/D‐Nepali; Newar‐Newar, Nepali Kami (ward 6), Nepali; Damai (ward 8), Nepali; Lohorung, Yakkhaba Only in upper village: Kami, LA Loh Lohorung; Rai Lohorung Lohorung Angala (ward 6) Angala (ward 6) Since birth Gurung (ward 8), Nepali; Khap Damai, Gurung, Bahun, Sherpa Bahun (ward 8), Nepali; Sherpa (ward 7) Sherpa

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Have you ever had any problem because of being a Intermarriage with other castes? When you speak your mother tongue in the native speaker of your mother tongue? Major kinds of oral lit. (if radio) how Village presence of the speaker of the dominant available in MT often listen? Y/N With which groups? language what do you feel? Y/N (If yes) what kinds? With Limbu and other Rai; Maybe 12‐13 Folk tales; songs; religious YR Y Prestigious N NA NA intercaste marriages here literature; songs on CD With Yakkha, Yamphu, Limbu, Khumbu, other In government offices and school: they would be LP Y Neutral Y Folk tales NA Rai; not with Nepali‐speakers scolded‐ "Don't speak secret language!" Most common‐Lohorung with Lohorung; LD Y next, other Rai groups and Limbu. None with Prestigious NR NA Religious literature NA Damai/Kami. Fok tales, songs, CD of Kirat LA N NA Embarrassed N NA NA Puja, made on Terai Are there materials written about your language? Do you read these? Are there written materials in your language? Are there any organizations that promote the knowledge Village Y/N (If yes) what language? Y/N What script? and/ or use of the language? Dictionary‐Yamphu, Nepali; Book about Yampnu‐Yamphu; YR Y Yes Y Devanagri; Srijanga (a little) Yamphu Kirat Samaj‐cultural and linguistic Songs‐Yamphu Grammar‐Lohorung leaders wrote‐people haven't seen it; LP Y Yes Y Devanagri Lohorung Yakkha Samaj dictionary‐Tikajhit wrote it; Folklore‐written by Dewan. LD Y None listed NA NR NR Not here, maybe in KTM Newspaper called Mangsuk (the puja place), written in Government org in ward 6 for all civil activities; farming org LA Y Yes NR NR Lohorung in ward 8 for farming rules, gives seed What language does your What language is usually used Additional info. on health Approximate Village community use for marriage to write minutes in Additional info. on school services services number of houses invitations? community meetings? Class 1‐5 in ward 7 (10‐30 minute walk); All classes available in Health Post in Rajarani bazaar (1‐ Over 120 houses in YR Mostly Yamphu, a little Nepali Nepali Rajarani Bazaar (1‐1 1/2 hr. walk) 1 1/2 hr. walk) ward 7 Nepali (unless everyone is None recorded ‐ probably go to LP Lohorung None NR Lohorung‐then Lohorung) Mane Bhanjhyang or Khandbari. One in Ward 3 (ten plus two) 700‐800 students; one in upper Dhupu LD Nepali‐they invite other castes too Nepali Clinic/post in Ward 3 NR to class five, 300‐400 students; Nepali‐medium; government schools In ward 8, up to class 10, 300‐400 students, Government school, 1/2 No health post here. Hiluwa has LA Nepali, by mouth in Lohorung Nepali NR are Lohorung teachers one. Khandbari‐nearest hospital.

Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Participatory Method

E.1 Dialect mapping procedure

Description and Purpose: Using participatory methods, the purpose of this tool is to assist speakers of a specific dialect in discussing information they already know about the dialects and levels of comprehension between dialects. Another purpose is to encourage them to think about which varieties of their language could use a single set of written or oral materials. Procedure: 1. Elicit name(s) of language group and people group. Write these on slips of paper. Which name(s) do they prefer their language and group to be called? 2. Have them name all the districts/villages where L1 is spoken (Write each on a separate piece of paper.) [In some situations, rather than district or village one could ask for the names of all the dialects, clans, rivers, or other feature where L1 is spoken.] 3. Place these papers on the ground to show which dialects/municipalities/districts are next to each other. 4. Describe results of previous steps (“You have just shown the places where the different varieties of L1 are spoken.”). Ask about languages that are just a little different from their language. What other languages are so similar to L1 that when they speak there is at least some understanding? Write these down on pieces of paper and arrange them in the “map” on the ground. 5. Do any groups of villages speak L1 in the same way? If so, place a small loop of string around each such group. 6. Which variety do they understand best? Second best? (Place appropriate number written on cardboard next to each municipality, language or group of municipalities). 7. Now look at how well they understand these varieties – completely, mostly, half, or little. (Place a Key with completely, most, half, a little, where they can reference it. Show them the smiley faces and explain the meaning of each. Have them place the faces for completely first. Repeat for each other category of comprehension). 8. Now ask about how they speak when they meet people who speak these different varieties. (Show the key for “we each speak our own variety,” “we use ours, they use another variety,” “we use another variety, but they use their own,” “we each use another variety.” Use a different color or coin to symbolize each usage pattern). 9. Inquire into extensibility. Explain situation (i.e. “Some people have said they want to start writing books* in L1.) And ask if books were written in L1 who would be able to use those books? (Have them put a string around those varieties). If they do not think that books can or should be written in their language, then you may say they want to start making CDs using L1. 10. Out of all the ones grouped together, which variety do they feel should be used as the one for writing (or recording) so that all the others will understand it well? (Have them place the letter markers on these – A, B, C, etc).

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E.2 Dialect mapping data Notes on Q's Yaphu DandaYaphu Gairipangma Muni/brgy Muni/brgy Mewahang Activity # Kharduwa Khorende Malingtar Malingtar Sittalpati Sittalpati activity activity Yamphu Pangma Pangma Ref no. Yakkha Yakkha Heluwa Dhupu Diding Limbu Limbu Angla Malta Sirle Sirle key key

1.1 Pangma 1 circles a a a a a a a b c d e 2.1 Pangma 2 undrstd order 1111111 2.2 Itahari 2 undrstd order 1 111 123232 undrstd s=some, vw=very well, 3.1 Pangma 3 cat w=well vw vw vw vw vw vw vw w s w s speak to 4.1 Pangma 4 y/n yy yy yy yy yy yy yy yy nn yy nn

5.1 Pangma 5 same mat y/n y y y y y y y 6.1 Pangma 6 standard ABC A A B C

Appendix F: Domains of Language Use Participatory Method

F.1 Domains of language use procedure

Description and Purpose: The purpose of this tool is to help the language community identify the varying situations in which they use L1, the LWC, or other languages and to help them determine the domains and languages that are used more frequently. Procedure: 1. Introduce the topic by explaining that different languages can be/are used in different situations. 2. Ask them which languages the community speaks most. Have them write down the languages. 3. Ask them in which situations or settings they use L1. (This can include places, people, events, etc...) Have them write their ideas and place them in the L1 column. 4. Repeat step 3 for any additional languages they mentioned in step 2. At this point, they may need to make previous ideas more specific. For example, if they listed ‘children’ for L1 but then say children in school use L2 they will need to modify what they wrote. Ask questions to help them explain and encourage them to change the labels as needed. 5. Have them discuss the situations where the community uses both languages (or multiple languages). Have them write their ideas and place them between the columns. 6. Looking at one column at a time, have the community members put daily activities at the top and less than daily activities toward the bottom. Use labels for ‘daily’ and ‘less than daily’ to make it easier for them to see. 7. In the ‘daily’ section of each column, have them organize the papers according to the amount of time spent using that language in that situation. 8. Now have them compare the top row from each column and ask them to choose which one is the most commonly used. Move that one to the top and move the others in that row down and repeat the step for the next row (which is a new row consisting of what used to be in row 1 plus one new idea from row 2). Repeat this step for all the daily papers. 9. Ask them to begin discussing what they see. Ask if there are any situations in which they would like to be using a different language than what is currently being used, and if so, to put a marker on it. 10. Ask someone to summarize the results.

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F.2 Domains of language use data

Language Lohorung LBR District Sankhuwasaba VDC Pangma Village Mani Banjyang Location notes people were from Diding (3), and rest from Pangma Date 16-Sep-09 Investigators Santa Man Lawoti, Dal Bahadur Limbu

Group Description 12 total (6 men, 6 women), mix of ages

Language Use Tool

In which domains do you use each language? L1 Both Nepali 1a. cultural programs 2. with those who don't speak Lohorung 1b. forefathers' ceremonies 3. in schools daily 4. in offices

secret things in market Lohorung students less

Appendix G: Bilingualism Participatory Method

G.1 Bilingualism procedure

Description and Purpose: Facilitates speech communities in identifying people within their group who are bilingual and assessing these member’s relative abilities. Secondly, the tool seeks to compile perceived changes in bilingual aptitude and the speech community’s attitudes toward these changes. Procedure: 1. “What are the two languages that people in this community speak the most?” Lay the first loop of string on the ground. The first loop of string represents the primary language (L1). 2. Lay the second loop of string on the ground. The second loop of string represents the secondary language (L2). 3. “Would someone be willing to label these two circles?” A group participant labels the two circles. 4. Overlap the two circles partway and explain that the overlap represents L1 speakers in their community who understand both L1 and L2. 5. “Would anyone be willing to label the area where the circles overlap?” A group participant labels the overlapping area. 6. “Which types of people in your community speak L2 well?” Participants write or symbolically represent various groups of people on sheets of paper and place them inside the L2 circle. 7. “Which types of people in your community speak L1 well?” Participants write or symbolically represent various categories of people on sheets of paper and place them inside the L1 circle. 8. “Which types of people in your community speak L1 and L2 well?” Participants write or symbolically represent various groups of people on sheets of paper and place them inside the L1 and L2 overlap. 9. “Which labels/symbols represent many people?” Participants place the plastic pieces (or other agreed upon markers) on the labels/symbols that represent many people. 10. “Which category (L1, L2, or L1/L2) has the most number of people?” “How do you feel about that?” Note their responses. 11. “Is one of these three groups increasing more than the others? Why is that? How do you feel about that?” Note their responses. 12. With permission from the group, take a digital photo of the chart.

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G.2 Bilingualism data

Language Lohorung LBR District Sankhuwasaba VDC Pangma Village Mani Banjyang Location notes People were from Diding (3), and rest from Pangma Date 16-Sep-09 Investigators Santa Man Lawoti, Dal Bahadur Limbu

Group Description 12 total (6 men, 6 women), mix of ages

Bilingualism Tool

Who speaks which language well? L1 Both Nepali Old people educated children youth mixed marriage people

Appendix H: Appreciative Inquiry Participatory Method

H.1 Appreciative inquiry participatory procedure

Description and Purpose: The purpose of this tool is to assist speakers of a specific language in identifying dreams they have for their language. Participants then prioritize the dreams and develop a plan for beginning to implement these dreams. Procedure: 1. Describe something you saw, heard or did that made you proud of L1 or your culture or that made you happy to see L1 used in that way. (Write summary labels for each). 2. How can we take these good things and make them even better? Improve them? Build on them? What are your dreams for your language? (Share in 3s, give time – allow any dream – even impossible ones!). 3. Let’s come back to the big group and listen to the dreams of each small group. Who will write the dreams for the group? Write one dream per paper. (Everyone can help to summarize the dream in 3-4 words. Place each dream under the heading Dreams.) 4. As we think about your dreams, some seem easy and others seem difficult. Let’s put this in order from the ‘Easiest’ to the most ‘Difficult’. (Put down these two labels then let the participants sort the dreams along a continuum.) 5. Some of these dreams may be more important than others. Still keeping them in order, slide to this side, the ones that are most important. (Let them slide over the ones that they feel are most important. Take a photo now if possible!) 6. Now you have the chance to begin making plans to make these dreams come true. Which of the dreams do you want to begin making plans for right now? Take the written dream and form a group. (Allow them to form groups. Encourage everyone to join a group.) 7. As you make your plans, think about 1) the steps you need to take, 2) the other people besides who could also be involved and 3) the things you need to begin making this dream happen. (Give them paper and markers to write their plans. Let them write in big letters for the group to see.) 8. We would like each group to share their plans with all the others. Who would like to share first?

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H.2 Appreciative inquiry data

Investigators Santa Man Lawoti, Dal Bahadur Limbu District Sankhuwasaba VDC Pangma Village Mani Banjyang Location notes People were from Diding (3), and rest from Pangma Date 16-Sep-09 Investigators Santa Man Lawoti, Dal Bahadur Limbu

Group Description 12 total (6 men, 6 women), mix of ages

Appreciative Inquiry

Describe things in your language you are proud of: 1. book written by "Charlotte" called "Another World"

Describe hopes in your language What? hard/easy 1. dictionary 2. script 3. texts 4. media

What to do? Who? When? 1. dictionary Lohorung society, scholars and elders, and with donor agencies immediately

Appendix I: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

(Taken from Making EGIDS assessments for the Ethnologue) Gary Simons and Paul Lewis 6 December 2010 Last revised: 10 Feb 2011 In our 2010 article, “Assessing language endangerment: Extending Fishman’s GIDS” (http://www.lingv.ro/resources/scm_images/RRL-02-2010-Lewis.pdf), we introduce the Extended Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale. Response to the scale has been positive, both within SIL and without. We are thus planning to include an assessment of the EGIDS level for every language in the next edition of the Ethnologue. In attempts thus far by a number of users to apply the decision tree in the article to the task of making EGIDS assessments, we have found that the decision tree does not always lead to the right answer. We are thus working on refining the definitions and the decision tree to better incorporate the insights of the Sustainable Use Model. In the meantime, however, we offer this “job aid” to assist in making the assessments. On the next page is a revision of the table of EGIDS levels in which definitions for some of the levels have been refined. These revisions are designed to address the kinds of questions we have been getting about deciding on unclear cases. In addition, the following subsections offer further commentary on each of the levels. If you still have a question about how to classify a given language after consulting the revised chart on the next page, try to resolve the problem by reading the commentary for the levels you are trying to decide between. If you still cannot decide how to classify the language, please let us know about the situation you are trying to classify.

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Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (adapted from Fishman 1991)* LEVEL LABEL DESCRIPTION UNESCO

The language is widely used between nations in trade, 0 International Safe knowledge exchange, and international policy.

The language is used in education, work, mass media, 1 National Safe and government at the nationwide level.

The language is used in education, work, mass media, 2 Regional and government within officially recognized regions of Safe a nation.

The language is used in work and mass media without 3 Trade official status to transcend language differences across Safe a region.

The language is vigorous and literacy in the language 4 Educational is being transmitted sustainably through a system of Safe public education.

The language is vigorous and is effectively used in 5 Written written form in parts of the community though literacy Safe is not yet sustainable.

The language is used orally by all generations and is 6a Vigorous Safe normally learned by children as their first language.

The language is still used orally within all generations but there is a significant threat to sustainability, 6b Threatened particularly a break in transmission to the next Vulnerable generation by a significant portion of the child-bearing generation.

The child-bearing generation can use the language Definitely 7 Shifting among themselves but they do not normally transmit it Endangered to their children.

The only remaining active speakers of the language are Severely 8a Moribund members of the grandparent generation. Endangered

The only remaining speakers of the language are Critically 8b Nearly Extinct elderly and have little opportunity to use the language. Endangered

There are no proficient speakers, but some symbolic 9 Dormant use remains as a reminder of heritage identity for an Extinct ethnic community.

No one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated 10 Extinct Extinct with the language, even for symbolic purposes.

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0. International For this level, we are taking the United Nations as the authority. There are six languages that are recognized as official for this body—Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish—and these are the languages we place in this category. Other languages used across a number of countries (like Portuguese) are classed as a national language in multiple countries. 1. National The primary component of Level 1 status is that the written language is used to conduct the business of national government. This need not take the form of being declared “official” in law. A language that is used nationally for oral communication, but which is not used in writing the record the laws of the land or the decisions of the courts, is classed as Level 3. 2. Regional As with Level 1, the key defining characteristics for this level is use in written form to conduct the business of government. At Level 2 the government in focus is not the national government, but the government of an officially recognized administrative subdivision of the country (for instance, a province or state). 3. Trade A Level 3 language lacks such recognition as a language for conducting the written business of government. It is still “vehicular”, however, and used by native speakers of other languages across a region for purposes of work or mass media. The general pattern in the EGIDS is that each level adds to what is true in the next lower level; this is the one point where an exception is possible. It is not a requirement of Level 3 that it also be used in formal education as in Level 4. The key component here is verhicularity (that is, being used widely by people who speak different first languages). The original logic of the GIDS as defined by Fishman is that successively higher levels are stronger and less susceptible to language shift. Clearly an unwritten trade language with millions of speakers is in a stronger position than a written local language with only thousands of speakers, even if the latter has achieved formal support in public education. 4. Educational A Level 4 language is one that is vigorous and non-vehicular and that has achieved sustainable literacy. The fact of educational use of the written language is not enough to qualify as Level 4 (as was implied in the definition in the published paper). Rather, all five of the FAMED conditions as spelled out in the Sustainable Use Model should be in evidence:  Adequate vernacular literature exists in the domains for which vernacular writing is desired.  Vernacular literacy is being taught by trained teachers under the auspices of a sustainable institution.  Members of the language community perceive the economic, social, religious, and identificational benefits of reading and writing in the local language.  Official government policy calls for the cultivation of this language and cultural identity and the government has put this policy into practice by sanctioning an official orthography and using its educational institutions to transmit local language literacy.  Members of the language community have a set of shared norms as to when to use the local language in writing versus when to use a more dominant language.

If there is a significant lack of any of these conditions such that removing the government support for education in the language would likely lead to the immediate disuse of literacy, then literacy should still be viewed as incipient and the language should be classified as Level 5. 5. Written A Level 5 language is a vigorous language in which literacy is incipient. The mere fact that somebody has devised a writing system or even produced a piece of printed literature is not enough to lift a language from Level 6a to Level 5. Rather, the definition requires that some segment of the language community is effectively using literacy in the language. If this is true, but oral language use is significantly threatened, then the language should be classified as Level 6b.

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That is, if by ignoring the factor of literacy, it is clear that the language would be classified as Level 6b rather than 6a, then the overall assessment should be 6b since the language cannot be considered vigorous. 6a. Vigorous A Level 6a language is an oral language that is maintaining sustainable oral use among all generations in the home domain. The most salient indicator of this level is the fact that the language is being transmitted to all children in the home. By “all” children we do not mean literally 100%, but that it is the societal norm and it is typically followed. A few exceptional cases are not seen as a threat to sustainability, but when a significant number of exceptions emerge such that the community becomes aware that the norm is eroding, then there is a threat to sustainability and the language should be classified as Level 6b. While unbroken intergenerational transmission is the primary indicator of Level 6a, it is not sufficient by itself. Rather, all five of the FAMED conditions of the Sustainable Use Model should be in evidence:  Adequate oral use exists in every domain for which oral use is desired.  There is full oral transmission of the vernacular language to all children in the home.  Members of the language community perceive the economic, social, religious, and identificational benefits of using their language orally.  Official government policy affirms the oral use of the language.  Members of the language community have a set of shared norms as to when to use the local language orally versus when to use a more dominant language.

If there is a significant lack of any of these five conditions, then sustained oral use is under threat and the language should be classified as Level 6b. For instance, if the community perceives so little value to using their local language that they would immediately begin transmitting the more dominant language if only they could learn it, then on-going language use is not sustainable and the language should be classified as Level 6b. Or, if the official government policy is hostile toward ethnolinguistic diversity and calls for the elimination or suppression of this language, then on-going language use is not sustainable and the language should be classified as Level 6b. 6b. Threatened A Level 6b language is one that has started tipping away from sustainability. If an effort can be made to address any of the above conditions that are undermining the local language, then it may be possible to pull the language back toward sustainability; however, in the absence of such efforts, the community will be likely to continue shifting toward greater use of the more dominant language. 7. Shifting A Level 7 language is teetering on the tipping point of sustainability. It is no longer the norm for parents to transmit the language to their children, but the parents still know the language, so it would be possible for intergenerational transmission to resume if the community could be convinced of the value of their language. Level 7 does not mean that transmission to children has completely stopped, but that it is now exceptional. Full transmission happens so infrequently that children who are learning the language will have difficulty finding peers to speak the language with (including a spouse) when they are adults. 8a. Moribund A Level 8a language is still in everyday use in some homes, but only among those who are beyond child-bearing age. Thus, the normal cycle of intergenerational transmission has been broken. There may be younger adults who know the language at least somewhat, but they do not regularly speak it with their peers and are not fully proficient. 8b. Nearly extinct A Level 8b language is no longer used in any home. Those who can still speak the language no longer have a spouse who can speak the language and find little opportunity to use it since there are so few other speakers.

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9. Dormant A Level 9 language is no longer the first language of any living individual. However, it is still the recognized heritage language of an ethnic community and it still serves as a marker of ethnic identity. Some vestiges of the language remain and are passed on within the community to strengthen the heritage identity. This could include names of cultural object, local place names, traditional greetings, formulaic use of the language in traditional rituals, or even the continuing use of ancient scriptures within in a faith community. 10. Extinct At this level the language is known only through the historical records. There is no living community that still looks to the language as a marker of its heritage identity.

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Figure2: Extended GIDS Diagnostic Decision Tree

References

Blair, F. (1990). Survey on a Shoestring. Dallas, TX: SIL International. Bista. Dor Bahadur. (1972). People of Nepal. Kathmandu: Putna Pustak Bhandar. Bradley, D. (2002). The subgrouping of Tibeto-Burman. Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages, 73-112. Fasold, R. W. (1984). The Sociolinguistics of society. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell Ltd. Fishman, J. (1964). Language maintenance and language shift as fields of inquiry. Linguistics, 32-70. Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. Gaenszle, M. (2000). Origins and migrations: kinship, mythology and ethnic identity among the Mewahang Rai of East Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point. Goutam, R. P., Sharma, H. B., & Vaidya, S. (2002). District Demographic Profile of Nepal (A Demographic Data base For Nepal Based on Censuses 1981, 1991, 2001). Kathmandu, Nepal: Informal Sector Research & Study Center. Hansson, G. (1988). Kirati languages of Eastern Nepal. Hansson, G. (1991). The Rai of Eastern Nepal: ethnic and linguistic grouping. Kathmandu: Linguistic Survey of Nepal and Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies. Hardman, C. (2000). Other worlds: notions of self and emotion among the Lohorung Rai. Oxford: Berg. Landweer, M. L. (2000). Indicators of Ethnolinguistic Vitality. Notes on Sociolinguistics 5.1, 5-22 . Lewis, M. P. (2009). Ethnologue. Dallas, TX: SIL International. Lewis, M. P., & Simons, G. F. (2010). Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS. Revue Romaine de Linguistique, 103-120. Lewis, M. P., & Simons, G. F. (2010). Making EGIDS assessment for the Ethnologue. HYPERLINK “http://www.icc.org.kh/download/Making_EGIDS_Assessments_English.pdf” http://www.icc.org.kh/download/Making_EGIDS_Assessments_English.pdf. Accessed 02 August 2012. McDougal, C. (1973). Structure and division in Kulunge Rai society. Kailash – Journal of Himalayan Studies , 205-224. Rutgers, R. (1998). Yamphu: grammar, texts & lexicon. Leiden: Research School CNWS. van Driem, G. (2001). Languages of the Himalayas: an ethnolinguistic handbook of the greater Himalayan region. Leiden: Brill. Yadava, Y. P. (2004). Lohorung-Nepali-English: a basic dictionary. Kathmandu: The National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities.

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