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Sociolinguistic Survey of Lohorung

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Sociolinguistic Survey of Lohorung DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2014-003 ® Sociolinguistic Survey of Lohorung Jessica R. Mitchell and Holly J. Hilty Sociolinguistic Survey of Lohorung Jessica R. Mitchell and Holly J. Hilty SIL International® 2014 SIL Electronic Survey Report 2014-003, March 2014 © 2014 SIL International® All rights reserved 1 Abstract This report presents the results of sociolinguistic research conducted among representatives of the Lohorung [ISO 639-3: lbr], Yamphu [ybi], and Southern Yamphu [lrr] language communities of Sankhuwasabha and Dhankuta districts in Nepal. Linguistic and anthropological research, by van Driem (2001), Rutgers (1998), Hansson (1991), and Hardman (2000), provide helpful context for this investigation of sociolinguistic realities between these groups. The goals of this survey include clarifying the relationships between Lohorung and two related languages; investigating dialect variation and attitudes between three Lohorung communities (Pangma, Angala, and Dhupu); assessing Lohorung language vitality in these three communities; and understanding the Lohorung community’s desires for development. This research adds to previous linguistic description of Lohorung and Yamphu to confirm that, despite their close relationship, they speak separate languages. There is little dialect variation between the Lohorung villages we visited. There are positive attitudes towards the speech variety of Pangma. While language vitality varies among these three Lohorung villages, the degree of vitality (EGIDS 6b, Threatened) warrants language-based development. The Lohorung community desires language-based development, most notably multi-lingual education, adult literacy, and a dictionary. ii Contents Abstract Preface 1 Purpose and goals 2 Introduction 2.1 Geography 2.2 History 2.3 People 2.4 Languages 2.4.1 Genetic relationships 2.4.2 Language contact and multilingualism 2.4.3 Terms of reference 3 Methodology 3.1 Site selection 3.2 Subject selection 3.3 Research methods 3.3.1 Wordlist comparisons 3.3.2 Recorded Text Test (RTT) 3.3.3 Informal interviews 3.3.4 Dialect Mapping participatory method 3.3.5 Domains of Language use participatory method 3.3.6 Bilingualism participatory method 3.3.7 Appreciative Inquiry participatory method 4 Language variation and attitudes 4.1 Relationship between Lohorung (Pangma) and Yamphu (Hedangna) 4.1.1 Lexical similarity results 4.1.2 Intelligibility testing results 4.1.3 Pre/Post-RTT question results 4.1.4 Summary 4.2 Relationship between Lohorung (Pangma) and Southern Yamphu (Rajarani) 4.2.1 Lexical similarity results 4.2.2 Intelligibility testing results 4.2.3 Pre/Post-RTT question results 4.2.4 Summary 5 Dialect variation and attitudes 5.1 Lexical similarity results 5.2 Intelligibility testing results 5.3 Dialect attitudes 5.4 Summary 6 Language use and vitality 6.1 Domains of language use 6.2 Language use by age, education, and gender 6.2.1 Language use according to age 6.2.2 Language use according to education 6.2.3 Language use according to gender 6.3 Intergenerational transfer 6.4 Language vitality in Lohorung speech communities 6.4.1 Language vitality in Pangma 6.4.2 Language vitality in Angala 6.4.3 Language vitality in Dhupu 6.5 Summary iii iv 7 Desires for development 8 Summary of Findings and Implications for Language-Based Development 8.1 Language variation and attitudes 8.1.1 Summary of findings 8.1.2 Implications 8.2 Dialect variation and attitudes 8.2.1 Summary of findings 8.2.2 Implications 8.3 Language use and vitality 8.3.1 Summary of findings 8.3.2 Implications 8.4 Desires for development 8.4.1 Summary of findings 8.4.2 Implications Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing (RTT) Appendix C: Informal Interviews Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ) Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Participatory Method Appendix F: Domains of Language Use Participatory Method Appendix G: Bilingualism Participatory Method Appendix H: Appreciative Inquiry Participatory Method Appendix I: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale References Preface This sociolinguistic survey of the Lohorung language of eastern Nepal was conducted in partnership with the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal. The data collection portion of this survey was carried out in April and May of 2011 in Sankhuwasabha and Dhankuta districts of Nepal. The purpose of the survey was to gather sociolinguistic information among Lohorung speakers with hopes that these assessments will be useful for giving input into further Lohorung language development. We greatly appreciate the many people who contributed to the completion of this language survey. Our colleagues at Tribhuvan University offered timely encouragement and support along the way for which we are very grateful. The fieldwork would not have gone so smoothly without the leadership of our teammate and mentor, John Eppele. Without Ben Hilty along we would not have had such beautiful photos and videos to share with others. We would also still be trying to construct our recorded text tests without Ben’s adept computer skills. Before heading to eastern Nepal we had the opportunity to meet Bhawani Lohorung Rai of the Lohorung Yakkhaba Society who graciously helped organize people to help us when we reached Pangma. We could not have completed fieldwork without the assistance of Dambar Lohorung Rai, who traveled with us to all three of the Lohorung villages, spent hours helping us translate and communicate what we were doing, was a great help in arranging logistics, and was in general a profound asset to our team. We are so thankful for his encouragement and hard work. We are grateful to all the Lohorung people of Sankhuwasabha district who so warmly welcomed us and offered us their homes, food, and time. There are too many people to mention by name, but each of you who guided us down a trail, helped us translate stories, and answered our questions had a part in this report coming to completion. This report is for you. It is our hope that this report will be a useful tool for Lohorung language development. We trust that this report accurately reflects the data we collected. However, comments and suggestions are welcomed. June 2012 Jessica R. Mitchell Holly J. Hilty Kathmandu, Nepal v 1 Purpose and goals The purpose of this research is to provide sociolinguistic information to Tribhuvan University as part of the Linguistic Survey of Nepal. This information is intended to guide and support language development programmes in Lohorung [lbr]1. This includes investigating the relationships of the current ISO designations of Yamphu [ybi], and Southern Yamphu [lrr] with Lohorung [lbr]. The goals for this research are to: 1. Understand relationships between Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu. 2. Investigate dialect variation and intelligibility among Lohorung speech communities. 3. Investigate language vitality in three Lohorung speech communities. 4. Understand the Lohorung community’s desires for language development. 2 Introduction The Lohorung community has expressed interest in language-based development programmes in their mother tongue. Given the unclear relationship and attitudes between Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu, a better understanding of the language situation is necessary to support development programmes in an effective manner. 2.1 Geography The speech varieties in focus are found in Sankhuwasabha district and Dhankuta district, in the Eastern Development Region of Nepal. The primary Lohorung communities lie north of Khandbari, Sankhuwasabha district headquarters, along the eastern side of the Arun River. While Lohorung villages cover a relatively small area in the foothills of Makalu, the world’s fifth tallest mountain, they are scattered over what Hardman describes as a “complex of interlocking hills and narrow valleys.” Our data collection sites were between 1,000 and 1,300 meters in elevation. Hardman also describes weather that changes as dramatically as the landscape. The average rainfall, most of which occurs between June and September, is 2,600 mm (Hardman 2000:1). The other communities of interest are located northeast of the Lohorung area and in southern Dhankuta district. 1 This report follows the language identification set forth by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 639-3. The three letters in each set of brackets are the ISO 639-3 code internationally used to refer to that language variety. 1 2 Figure 1 is a map of the districts of Nepal with the areas of interest in Sankhuwasabha district and Dhankuta district, which lie south of Sankhuwasabha, designated as being Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively. Figure 1. Map of districts visited for survey2. 2 Base map from district map of Nepal, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/ Sankhuwasabha_district_location.png (Accessed 08 Dec 2010). 3 Figure 2 shows the Lohorung, Yamphu, and Southern Yamphu language areas of Sankhuwasabha district. Figure 2. Map of language areas in Sankhuwasabha district. The largest Lohorung community is Pangma, four Lohorung villages located northwest of Khandbari. Other settlements are located in a broad swath of land east of the Arun River, from Khandbari north to Diding. They are: • Angala (east of the Arun where Bhojpur’s border joins and begins following the Arun south), • Higuwa (northeast of Khandbari), • Tallo Dhupu/Dhupa (east of Pangma, between Pangtha Khola and Sobha Khola), • Bardeu and Gairiaula (north of Angala on the east side of the Arun), • Malta (north of Khandbari and northeast of Pangma), and • Sitalpati (west of Pangma, just east of where Irkhuwa Khola joins the Arun). 4 Hardman and van Driem report that Pangma is the oldest Lohorung settlement. Gairi Pangma is the oldest of the four Pangma settlements (the other three being Tallo Pangma, Loke Pangma, and Dhara Pangma) (van Driem 2001:694). Hansson estimated the “Northern Lohorung” population to be between 7,000 and 10,000 speakers (Hansson 1991:63). In her doctoral dissertation, Charlotte Hardman reported around 4,500 Lohorung speakers in the Arun valley area (Hardman 2000:1).
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